Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science

Folia Philosophica 34 special issuc Forms of Criticisrn in Philosophy and Sr:ir.n('(, Edited bv Dariusz Kulrok Table of Contents Editor of thc Series: Filozofia Daritrsz Ktrł lok Editor-in-Chie{ Preface Dariusz Krrbok Editorial Board (ontology), Andrzej J. Noras (history of philosophy), Tomasz Kubalica (epistemology), Piotr Łaciak (aesthetics), Danuta Ślęczek-Czakon (ethics), Maria Popczyk PiotrMachura(axiology),KrzysztofSzymanek(logic) Program Council Heinrich Badura (Wiederi), Gerhard Banse (Karlsruhe)' J zef Bailka (Katowice), Lubomir Be1 s (Preś ov)' (Katowice), Stanisł aw Borzym (Warszawa), Czesł aw Gł ombik (Bie1sko-Biał a)' Jan Hartman (Krak w), Adam Jonkisz (Biał ys-t-ok)' Andrzej Kiepas (Katowice), Jerzy Kopania (Warszawa)' Nicanor lJrsua Lezaun(San Sebastian), I wona Lorenc (Warszawa)' Leon Miodoriski (Wrocł aw), Robert Pił at Jan Śt p n (olomouc), Stefan Symotiuk (Lublin), Jan Zotinar (Brno) Board of Referees I wona Alechnowicz- Skrzypek, Bolesł aw Andrzejewski' Andrzej M. Kaniowski, Agnieszka Kijewska, Jan Krokos' Radosł aw Kuliniak, Anna Latawiec, Vladimir Leś ko' Andrzej Lotettz' Marek Maciejczak, Artur Mordka, Andrzej Papuzi ski, Z)'atica Plaś ienkov , Tadeusz Szubka' Wł odzimierz Tyburski, Ryszard Wiś niewski, Kazirnierz Wolsza Once out-of-print, this issue will be available online: Online Library Central and Eastern "EuroPean Dariusz Kubok: Comments of Greek Philosophical on the Sources Criticism ........9 Sebastian Śpiewak: The Homeric Source A o rc ć of the Category of cl from a Cognitive -Presumptive Perspective: A Presumption on the Present 5 { a. .........................38 Andrzej J. Noras: "Being Critical," Meaning What? Tomasz Kubalica: Critical Metaphysics in the Views of Otto Liebmann and Johannes Volkelt ..............61 .......77 Piotr Łaciak: Dogmatism and Criticism in the Conception of'Phenomenological Reduction ......".... 101 Krzysztof Wieczorek: Why Should We Think Critically? Comments on the Critical Rationalism of Hans Albert.................-......125 Tomasz Pawelec: The Freudian "Hermeneutics of Suspicion" and Historical Source Critique ..................... 1b1 Bogdan Dembiriski: Elements of Greek Scepticism in Richard Feynman's Views on Science.. .....1gb Łukasz Suł kowski, Michał Zaulad'zki: Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science Piotr Machura: Luck, I gnorance, and Moral Attitude ........1gg ........28I Piotr Świercz: Contextua] ism vs. Non-Contextualism in Political Philosophy. A Contribution to the Debate on Criticism in the Political Sciences ............. Zb1 The Silesian Digital LibrarY www.sbc.org'pl I nstitute of Philosophv, University of Silesia in Katowice .,"-." f.'li.,r '-lriI ncnnhino rts pdrr,nl Radosł aw Mał ek: I ndividualism and the Social Contract as Expressions of the Critical Genesis of the State in Light of the Views of N. Machiavelli and Th. Hobbes ........................267 Bogdan Dembi ski 198 Folia philosophica 34 BibliograPhY I SSN 2BbB-9445 (online) I SSN 1281_0913 (print) MI T Press' of Physical Lou' Cambridge: Feynman R. P. 1965' The Character New York: Pantheon and' Science of Richard' Feynrnon' Gieick J. 1992. Genius: The Life Books. grecki Krokiewicz A. 1964' Sceptycyztn Lut WvdawniczY (od Pirrona d'o Łukasz Suł kowski, Michał Zawadzki Karneadeso)' Warszawa: I nsty- PAX' WR'M' Lamb' Cambridge' Volumes' Vol' 9' Translated by Plato. 1925. Plato in'l'welue Heinemann' Ltd' Harvard university Press and william MA, and London: 1935' Loeb Classical Against Logicians' Trans' R' G' Bury' Sextus Empiricus' University Press' Library 291. Cambridge' MA: Harvard of Puffhonism' Way: Sextus Empiricus's Outlines Sextus Empiricus' 1996' The Skeptic Press' Oxford University Trans. Benson Mates' Oxford: A Stud.y in Epistemology. Berkeley and Los Angescepticism. Greeh stough ch. I . 1969. Press' les: University of California i i l I Bogdan Dembiiiski nl nauki Argumenty sceptyckisw koncepcji R,' Feynmana ' aspekt w stanowi pt bę rozvł aż enianickt rych Streszczenie: Prezentowana praca tezy, proponuje Feynm^ an nauki ni"ł r.'a^ r-"} "* I ".. w .* ":e] k:n:encji I filozo{ ii nauki fiI ozofii sceplvkciw' nawiazuja clo tradycji sLaroż ytncj ktrirych podslawowe ,uirł "r:^ ś wiadomy' zapewne był nie Teynman grunoryginalnynr * ro"" "'Jffi| * -ir' '"* iuzku kontvnuatorem' Praca powstał a na ier] nak stał się;": -yn't] 'vil* .poł ";"."vof Physical Lau' Character The p.""v cie anatizy wykł adow il# il;;;';;;;i"v"ł , - I l l Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science Abstract: The articre prcsents characteristic features of the criticar approach in management-Critica] Management ś t"ai..-* rrich keeps gaining popu'arity in the g'obal management studies discourse. Tlre authors poirrt Jrrt the major pał at digmatic assumptions of this. line orinqoi.y, li" intellectual sources and its critical tools, emphasizing in particular the role of ejł rc.rio.' u. the key t" emancipation' The article closes with zr-criticis* cnł ś *' ł .ich fa] ] s into iine"ri""li'" with the demand "r that the practice research.r'u.,ia nu n""ompanied "r* "i""tin" $'ł ;'::lff:l# proach Keywords: critical approach in management, critical paradigm in CMS, education, emancipation, autocriticism in scientific .""ea."h scepty_ Richard Feynman' krytycyzm' sceptycyzm' Sł owa klrrczowel flI ozofianauki' fi] ozofi cznei ;y"- ;h.;yt"y, il L i ll ll ,i.i l it: rl i l iiil I ntroduction epistemologi a' ciągł oś ćtradycji critical reflection concerning organizational and managerial processes has accompanied managerial science since its beginnings. The works of Mary parker Fotet, Erton Mayo, Abraham Maslow contain elements of critique of instrumentar and technocratic ways of managing humans.l I n the classicar period of the development of management science posturates about humanizin g organizabional methods appeared' The foundations for the deveropment of the radical cur_ r M' P Forlett, Freedom and. co-ordination: Lectures Management Publications Trust Lim] teJ, | sls'ir8;li.' e. with added interuieus bv Deborah sr"pnnr"-oii"ci, previously published as: Zupsyc hia,n Man,a'geme"r,| i in business organization(New york; Maslow, Mź stow on Management -H. (New york: nnit wiley, 1998). Note: j* ,ł r"t(Homewood, I L: I rwin-Dorsey, 1965). Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science Łukasz Suł kowski, Michał Zawadzki 200 201 tion of many conferences, pubrications, and journals that is refrected in the live discussions conducted within the boundaries of the critical chapter of the American Acad.emy of Ma,agernent. rnpoland, criticar Management studies is not yet a well-known disciprine, and few authors conducting research and publishing texts in the field of management studies make use of this cognitive perspective.. The goar of this article is to acquaint readers with the characteristic features of this critical current: an indication of its philosophical sources, paradigmatic position' a description of its main areas of interest, as welr as an analysis of its weak points. conlaid down by alternative approaches rent of critical thought were nectedwiththepostmodern'radicalstructurafinterpretative-symbolic' has resulted in the fact that in manageand narrative currents'2 This thought has been developing for some ment science, radical critical foundations which were hitherto time, questioning its epistemological automodern sources of inspiration for unshaken.3 The most important (M' J' Hatch' go back to postmodernism critical thinking in managiement (N' Harding' B' Czarniawska' N' Monin)' S. Fuller) and' textualism (S' Deetz' and the Frankfurt School neo-Marxism (M'Hardt, A' Negri) and the strong program feminism (M' Alston' A' Oakley) N. Chomsky), (B' Barnes' D' Bloor)'a in the sociology of knowledge of Critical Management StudHowever, it was birth and development of the radical view quesies (CMS) that led to the institutionalization value of management in the modern tioning the cognitive and pragmatic is the birth of CMS' which was instituworid. The turning point here The I ntellectual Sources of CMS critical Management studies is a relatively new perspective, which did not crystallize until the early 1990s. The year 19g2 is considered to have marked the beginning of cMS's institutional deveropment, when M' Alvesson and H. willmott's work criticar Management studles was published.T pioneering works undertaking the demystifica- tionalizedaftertheappearanceofMatsAlvessonandHughWillmott's Studies'| During the last publication entitled Critical Managemerut current in management has developed twenty years' the radical critical in the field of organizaundertaking reflection not only very quickly' of management as: markettional theory, but also in such subdisciplines even human resource management' and ing, strategic management and of the crystallization of this accounting and finance' An expression among others' in the creaapproach is its institutionalization-visible' --;-n"* "'J'rarker. eds., Pos1m odernism and or* qnisoł jons (London: Sage, 1993)' D'M ' Boje' R.PGephartJr.t'.J fn^ '"f'* t"ry'PostmodernU""in-n"'""dOrgan'uationTlrcorv(Thousand i, so"ioiś "icn"" Re"noi"h (Thousand oaks- London - oaks: Sage' t996). B. "^ * ,"* "i"] iv'-''iir"" NewDelhi:Sage,2004)'M'K;;";"Postmodernizm-w-'oiii* 'i"(W"rszawa:PWE'1996)'S'Magala' Palglave.Macmillan 2009)' ';;';; ;;;",,;;t of Meanił g lNewYork: iMoreonthissubject.:i'soł ko* "kł ,-apistemoLogiawnaukachozarządzaniu(Warszawa: PwE,2012). Harvard University Press' 2001)' a M. Harclt, A.Negri, Empire (Cambrige' London: in'' Moan! PrcEram soąjologii socjoiogiu * i"a"y." -n"l'iy* "i'il. * cjonalizm-a "Monogement B. Barnes' D. Bloor. Theor.v- A Critical Ń] Mo"i" . uied'zy.S.Butrym, "o. ,'i'j* )'i.,ii;ś nAŃ. Lgsrl. v".r.,ł .o'tl"je". z004). S. Fuller- Social Epistemology and Rellectiuc Readingil-."J"":N"* j""l"J* ir, p."* .2002). N C;;;sky,Proftt ouerPeopLc' Neoliberolism (Bloominglon: I ndiana in Knowing Press''1999i' A' oakl'y' Experinents ant] Globalo,an' (rq"o; Yo'L'_ijł ""i"" 2000)' Gend,er and' Method''" (t't"* y* k: The New Press' ś ''ij"tś ź in'"n" 'L' M. Alvesson, rł . wirj-"ti, "a s', Critica.I Management Sź udjes (London: Sage' 1992)' tion of the ideological functions of management based on the structure in the 1g'0s,8 however, in the last two decades, critical Management studies took the form of institutionalized discourse due to the appearance of numerous publications, studies, conferences, specialty periodicals, and associations (such as the cMS chapter of the American Academy of Management).e The philosophicar sources that critical Management studies refer to adopt a radical vision of organizational development interpreted as a tool of domination and oppression.l' The inteilectuar of dominance alrearly appeared base of.this cog- krytyczny w naukach o zarządzał iw," Wsp ł czesne ' Zarządzanie,2006, nr 1, pp. '* """-* ,,l*Zawad,zki, rt 5_13; M' Nurt krytyuny * ,or"ąd"oniu hultura, ed.uhacja, teoria (Warszawa: Sedno, 2014); Ł' Suł kowski, lvt. zuwuaLui, Kryty"rry nurt zarząd.zanla (Warszawa: "d.r'', Diffin,2014). ? M. Alvesson, H. Willmott, eds., Critical Management Stud.ies. 8 H' Braverman' Labor and' Monopoll c"pn"i rie Degradation of work Centyr1 (New York: Monthly Review p.""", rsź ł ). sM. Alvesson, H. Willmott, eds., Critical Management Stuclies. l0 Ł. Suł kowski, "Nurt krytyczny w naukach oiarządzanin...,, i.n the l,wentieth Łukasz Suł kowski, Michał Zauł adzki Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science nitive perspective is equally rich, as it is controversial. Above all, this in the sociology of knowledge,ls cultural studies,le and the qualitative methodology of engaged studies.2o Thus, CMS,s intellectual base in phi_ 202 base is rooted in the various schools of neo-Marxism, beginning with Karl 203 Marx's concept of class struggle and ending with the Frankfurt School's critique of consumer society and mass media, especially that of J. Haber- losophy' social science, and the humanities is extensive and heterogeneous, which led to its rapid development. mas.l1 The second, later (though no less significant) sources of CMS were I t is worth adding that in Poland, most likely due to historical circumstances, neo-Marxism has herd a marginal place in social scientific discourse' Postmodernism, though it has gained much attention in the human- post-structuralism and, postmodernism.l2 Michel Foucault, considered a precursor of postmodernism, undertook the problems of power and dom- ination as the main motor of social action (e.g. the concept of knowledge- power) and universal invigilation and surveillance as methods of coerc- ing organizations and societies into obedience.ls Among other authors accepting the standpoint of cognitive and cultural relativism who influenced the development of cMS, we can indicate Frederic Jameson, Rich- ities, has met with a weak reception in economics and management science'21 The same is the case with radical feminism, which is a rather marginal social movement in poland, and lacks a wider academic base. I n the United States, Great Britain, Scandinavia, and France, CMS has many representatives who undertake probrems from various perspectives. ard Rorty, Jean Baudrillard, Jacques Derrida, and Zygmunt Bauman. The third source, which is not only a cognitive perspective, but also a social movement, is radical feminism, whose goai is to destroy the order built upon patriarchal rule.la Other inspirations reflected in the critical current are: E. Goffman's conception of total institutions,ls the antipsychiatry movement,l6 and radical pedagogy,l? the strong program rr S. Benhabib, Critique, Norm, and utopia: A Study of the Fourudations of Critical Theory (New York: Columbia university Press, 1986), A. G. Scberer, "Critical Theory and I ts Contribution to Critical Management Stuclies,'' in: The Oł ford Handbook of Critical Managernent Studies, M. Alvesson, T. Bridgman, H. Willmott" eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009)' pp. 29-51' J' Habermas, Teoria i praktyka: wyb r pism, trans. M' Łukasiewicz, Z. Krasnodębskj (Warszawa: PI W 1983). - niedokorlczony project," in: Postmod'ernism - antologia przekł ad' u, R. Nycz, ed' (Krak w: Wydawnictwo Baran i Suszczy ski' 1998)' pp.2 _46. 13 M. Foucault,1ł sloire de la sexualit , uolume 1: La uolontć de sauojr (Paris: Gallimard, 1976). 12 J. Habermas, "Modernizm CMS's paradigrnatic position I t is worth indicating CMS's paradigmatic position in management science' To do this, it is worth looking at Gibson Bu* ell and areth Morgan's classification of sociorogical paradigms.22 The authors concluded that the conceptions, theories, and works within the bounds of the theories of organizationand management (as well as in the social sciences in general) can be classified into the categories of four main paradigms, depending on their assumptions regarding cognition (objectivity-subjectivity) and social orientation (dimension of regulation_ radical change). 'a E. Willis, "Rać lica] Feminism and Feminist Radicalism,'' in'. No More Nice Girls: Countercultural.Essoys (Minneapolis: Wesleyan University Press, 1992 [ 1984] ). 15 K' L. Ashcraft, "Gender and DiversĘ: other Ways to 'Make a Difference,''' in: The oxford Hand.book of Critical ManageftLent Studies, M. Alvesson, T. Bridgman, H. Willmott, eds. (Oxford: Oxlbrd University Press, 2009), pp. 304-327; R. Pringle, "Sexuality at Work," in: Critical Management Studies. A Reader, C. Grey, H. Willmott, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 284-303. E. Goffman, "Charakterystyka instytucji totalnych,"'1L'. Elementy teorii socjologicznych (Warszawa: PWN, 1,975), pp 151-152. 16 D. Cooper, Psychiatry and, Anti-Psychiatrt (London: Paladin, 1967). 1? A. Contu, "Critical Management Education," in: The Oxford' Handbook of Critical Management Studies, M. Alvesson, T. Bridgman, H. Willmott, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 536-550 scientific Knoutedge: A sociotosicat Anutysis (chicaso: rr","i""t* "} i;;.1;?i:::,i# nrv, le J' Martin' 'iMeta-theoreticar controversies in studying organizational culture,,, in: The oxford, Handbooh of organization ri'".ry* , u"t"ł heoretical Perspectiues,(J. Knudsen, N"-lo"k, T' Haridimos' eds (oxford' a"i""a Methojs' 2l M' '.'"lJ;* :;3'ł u;,."o"'"'o"'caL Kostera' Postmod'.ernizm ii"ii"# iv p"""", 200s), pp. Bsz-422. i'ś '"i"ł a'.n(i'lb;;.:,i;;;Jli,."', o,a,"" w zarzQdzaniu (Wamzawa: PWE, 1996); "Postmodernistyczneinspiracje rurrąarun;u;;'i* piiJrn'"n"Zor.ądronie,nr3'2004.Ł' Suł kowski, " c Burret' G Morsan..soc iorogiror of tha Sociology of Corporaic rrrraigr"'nra organizationor Anoryis: Life ł Lonion:H.i".J'"L", Lszsl. Erements Table Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science Łukasz Suł kowski, Michał Zavł adzki 204 1. according to G Burrell ancl G' Morgan Paracligms in Management Science (Warszawa: Polskie Wydawnictwo w naukach o zarząrlzaniu Sowce: Ł. Suł kowski, 'Epis teno'Logia p' u"T* l-9- y:::::'^ :::::"r:::::::::trtT;, 1979)' :t 9; ",'i"""i";*oft"the Sociology "} :";;':i:;rr:::ii"Ż ;',r"i;,;;;;rs Ekonomiczne, 2005), of Co,rporateLife (London:Heinemann, Therefore, it is worth noting that a critical position uis_d_uis the strong version of ontological and epistemologicar realism brings cMS closer to the assumptions that characterize the interpretive paradigm' The most basic of these assumptions states that social reality is the intersubjectively-communicable creation of its participants who interpret and negotiate meanings; thus, it is not of a specific chan:acter, it does not exist Objectively. I n other words, as Monika Kostera observes in characterizing the interpretive paradigm, paradigmatic classification' we I n attempting to place CMS in this mustfirstnoticethatthecommonfeatureofstudiesconductedwithin concerning science's radical the framework of CMS is the assumption This ailows us to place CMS change of reality by virtue of critique' and radical structuralism due in the paradigm of radical humanism totheircommonassumptionregardingthesocialorientationofstudcommon feature of both paradigms ies, which is radical change' The of science' which also characteris the emancipatory vision of the role izesCMS:theroleofscienceistoconsistintheemancipationofpeople to them' from conditions that are unfavorable ThecharacteristicfeatureofCMsisacriticalpositionllis-il,-uis epistemological realism' which the strong version of ontological and paradigm' According to advocates cltaracterizes the functionalist basis of investigation' to cognize Truth of CMS, it is impossible, on the Objective reality' The cognizing independent ofthe cognizing subject' subjectisalwaysentangledinasocio.culturalcontextandininvestigatit due to the normative premises ing reality, he simultaneously changes from values' and science and coghe accepts. Facts cannot be separated" character' I n connection with this' nition are endeaYors of a normative cognitiveandresearchprocessesaretoconsistinconductinginter- of meanings with the intent subjectively-communicable negotiations ofachievingatemporaryand..critique-able''consensus,notindiscovering universal Truth' 205 the world of social rife does not exist "outside of,,our minds, waiting for its raws to be uncovered' but are constan'y created by us, and thus also by researchers. .fh.e participants ofthis worrd see it as evident, but the researcher,s task is to demonstrate how it was created (the interpretation).Ź3 I nterpretivists emphasize the key rore of ranguage in the construction of reality: in their opinion, it is with the help of ranguage that we endow reality with sense and interpret it, thus creating it. The constructivist position regarding the construction of reality by way of language also characterizes cMS, though, while interpretiv_ ists see in language above a' a toor for explaining reality, representatives of cMS consider ranguage both the basic toor for changin g rearlty (not only for its explanation), and the basic object of critique (a critique of discourse). Therefore, we must note that cMS is closest in its assumptions to the paradigm of radical humanism, according to which the researcher's role is not only to explain reality (which does not exist objectively, but is construed when endowed with sense in the process of meaning-negotiation), but above ail to unmask the false traps of collective and individual consciousness, which may be formed pursuant to the institutionalization and legitimization of oppressive discourse. social phenomena, including language and discourse, are examined in terms of symbolic poweĄ ideologica' dominance, and the legitimization of processes of indoctrination-not, as the functionalist paradigm 'ra""r"* / , stmodernizm w za.rząd,zaniu(Warszawa; PwE, 1996), p- 34. 206 sysfunction in striving towards the states, in terms of its potential that both researchers in the field tem's equilibrium' I t is recognized often organizational activĘ are state ph""o-"na' as they consider the existing unaware of pathologi"ul conditions)' (management discourse' organizational of affairs natural of an emanmust be awakened by virtue which is why their awareness people engaged in of management and i L] tl cipatorY Project' structuralism-jn terms An analysis of the last paradigm-radical in CMS presents many difficulties' of the assumptions accepted with the intention of CMS conThis paradigm, though i" ug"u"* "nt tiL i tl cerningtheradical"tt"u"* "ofreality'isbasedontheassumptionscharthus incompatible with the relativist acteristic of Objectivism' and paradigm of cMS. Despite this, this and constructivist epistemology rli l llL fitsintoCMS,sp'o5u"tandisconnectedwithstudiesinthefielrlofcriticalrealism'zaWithintheframeworkofthelatter,studiesareconducted analysis of the structural conditions that are directed toward's the to change those the existence of subjects intending lll ltlr l li which d.etermine only makes accepts that independent reality conditions. This orientation posand communication of the research the achievement, formulation' posed right' universal answers to sible-it does not indicate absolutely Thus' we can acknowledge questions (as is the case in functionalism)' the assumptions of radical structuralismthat cMs is also based on assumption characteristic of this though in regards to the Objective of critimoderate variant in the form paradigm, it proposes a relativeĘ t ilil l l ll il cal realism' ;itl 1l I Ii ll that the most adequate paradigms Thus, it seems justified to say humanism assumptions of CMS are rad'ical that would merge the main an orientasince they are dtatactertzed by and radical structuralism' tiontowardstheemancipationofindividualsfromunfavorableorganiza. aspiration CMS's main goal' I n rejecting the tional conditions, and this is I rti t i Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science Łukasz Suł kowski, Michał Zawadzki oxford' ,.criticat Realism-in critical Management-pfu{ r3s," in: The a * ed, eds' (oxford: r' Bridgman' rvrlł ii""""'; wirl-.i ; rr. HanrJbooh of Critical ruir"i.i"^ "r)ś i"al"", ijii* i u"i""ttitv Press' 2009)' pp' 52-75' -;* "r* , 207 to regulate reality, characteristic of functionalism and interpretivism, CMS does take from interpretivism the assumption about the linguis_ tic nature of reality; in contrary to interpretivism, though, it indicates that language should be looked at as a potential toor for creating repressive discourse' on the other hand, within the range of studies drawing upon the critical current's realism, cMS adopts a moderate version ofthe ontological realism whose strong version characterizes the paradigms of radical structuralism and functionalism. CMS's paradigms, similarĘ to postmodernism and interpretivism, beiong to the group of alternative managerial paradigms that build their identities on antinomy in regards to the d.ominant functionalist paradigm (or rather, the neopositivist-functionalist-systemic paradigm-NFS'Ż 5). That is why the common assumptions of alternative paradigms, which distinguish them from NFS, are connected with, e.g., cultural relativism, the interpretive and processual view of organization, the key role of communicative processes and the distribution of power in management, and a preference for using qualitative methods. on the other hand, however, the differences are clear, and can be seen reflected in the matrix of paradigms proposed by Burrell and Morgan. The I S paradigm is subjectivist and is orientated towards the status quo, which means that it is concentrated on the descriptive and local aspect of conducting cognitive discourse. cMs, on the other hand, aspires to a quasi-objectivist description of unfair relationships of dominance in organizations and strives to change them. The relationship between cMS and postmodernism is even more complex, because the similarities are deeper. The problem of power, oppressive social structures, critique of modernity, and use of textualist themes is common to both paradigms. on the other hand, however, postmodernism is subjectivistic, and so rejects the correspondence theory oftruth and aspirations to objectivism, while cMS aspires to discover and change the true, objective, and at least intersubjective (quasi-objective) relations of dominance '" "* '--* * i ', istemologia i metod,ologia zarząd,zania(Warszawa: PWE' 2012). ł ,ukasz Suł kowski, 208 definition' and conis anti-methodologicai by that exist. Postmodernism while CMS creates and individual studies' centrates solely on glossa As J' Duberley and engaged methodologies' and incorporates qualitative irrational postmodernism is too individuaiistic' and Ph. Johnson note' in proposing relativism' and ineffective in its extreme epistemological the critical parareality'26 I n this sense' correct and change to tools the development of scipostmodernism' assumes digm, in contrast to it perceives their entangle* u"tg"ment science' though ence, includl.,g ment in social t'";;":^ ms or critical important assumptions of the A reconstruction of the most that of several common assumptions current allows fbr the distinction paradigm of Critic al Manageconstitute the internally-differentiated of management i"tlrrd"' above all' the treatment merut Stud'ies' These from the premises of capitalstemming science as persuasive d'iscourse status quo based on domination striving to uphold the existent ism and' "unmaskcurrent in management has and exploitation' The critical ing,,ambitionsthatleadtothequestioningoftheapparently..objec. ..denaturalizative"and"natural"status:organizationalorder'managerialpower' identity and practices.z? This managerial institutions, of actions leads to the descriptions tional" discourse oi * u"t* u'ism to indion dominance: oppressive' lften larmful and institutions based often hide under such actions and institutions viduals and the society' This postuof management science' rationality the of the appearance in power' also ofthe various social groups late to discover the interests throughthecontrolofscientificd.iscourse,istolead,inconsequence' unjust to the change of the existing' to the critique tta, u"""toallym' critical current' of the development of the social order' As a result lntroduction Maruagenent Research: An (l,ondon: Sagc' 2003l' Science 209 unfavored social groups' i.e. those, that are ruled oveł Such aS ethnic and social minorities, and women, would. be able to build their awareness and gain the possibility ofexpressing and realizing their interests.Ż 8 Their emancipation would be accompanied by the discovery of the mechanisms of the functioning of symbolic poweł a demystification of the ide_ ology of managerism, and a break from irresponsible and instrumen- tal managerial practices. The tools worked out by the critical current encompass: the deconstruction and 'denaturalization' of managerial discourse, the critical and reflectjve analysis of the language of power, and methods of strengthening the autonomy and self-control of unfavored group s cMs's cr* ique Johnson, undn,rstand'ing ;;;"* .-t, "h. ,, uo":"ril.ł \ :,rJ:i:li:ł 'im:;l'"11] :3;,1} i;^ " ManagcmenL Critieol!'v Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management __ M* Ę'ł !a'gd'Ę (e. g. e mp ow errrLent, p aritie s). 2e Representatives of the critical current are characterized by a high level of critical reflectiveness towards all of science, especially towards the field of management science. They point to the fact that management, as a science, functions within certain institutional boundaries, which also means certain hierarchies of power and authority. For the past few decades, academic institutions engaged in research in this field have been advocating models of a flexible organization that would be open to change and non-hierarchical. However, these research centers often remain in rigid and centralized structures themselves. on the level of academic institutions, symbolic power is exercised, i.e. norms of "scientificity," research and teaching programs are created. I n accordance with the assumptions of the critical current, this power should be very closely scrutinized. we should strive to create the conditions for a valuable, uncensored, and non-monopolized science.so Theory is influenced by the economic and political authorities. I n the modern world, it has lost its "innocence." ft has ceased to be a "dis- interested aspiration to the truth," becoming a tool in the hands of polit28 C. Grey, H. Willmott, Cri.ticaL MarLagement Studies: A Reader (Oxlbrd: Oxford University Press, 2005). 2e M. Parker, Against Management: Organisation in the Age of Maruagerictli.sz (Oxford: Blackweil Publishers, 2002). 30 Cf. P. Bourdieu, 'Animaadversiones in Mertonem," in: Robert K. Merton: Consensus and Controuersy, J. Clark, C. Modgil, S. Modgii, eds. (London-New York: The Falmer press, 1990), p. 300. l ical and economic dissidents. This also refers to management, which from the beginning was to create the conditions for: a rise in the effectiveness of organizations. These organizations were most frequently companies, but non-commercial otganizations could also be found, including such oppressive organizations as the army and police. I n the critical current of management studies, management is perceived as a social science which serves to manipulate the members of organizations, and which accepts ideological functions ofresearch and teaching that have been externally-imposed as objective truth and therefore also as the foundation ofthe theoretical discourse underlying the discipline.sl The theory of scientific management rationalized the instrumental and. alienating treatment of workers in industrial organizations.3z For example, the so-called "modern" methods of man- l l job sharing have agement, such as: reengineering,lean management, ot ll become euphemisms behind which job cuts hide. Methods of manage- ment, such as TQM or reengineeritlg, can serve to rationalize organizational power and managerial discourse by reproducing ideology and propagating false awareness among the workers.ss Modern theorists of organizatron and management sanction usefulness and the inevitabili ity of the processes of globalization, avoiding answers to uncomfortable questions, such as whose interest it is in, and how those who make use it support the creation of its theory.3a Management is a normative science that should create the rules ofeffective organization, take on an auxiliary function in regard to economic practices, and have a practical application. I ndeed, this occurs of il sometimes; however, rejecting hypocrisy, we must admit that the application of these theories of effective management is not a standard. Busi- i 31 l N. Chomsky, Language and. Thought (Wakefreld, Rhode I sland and London: Moyer Be1l, tg93), p. 40. id bf S. Clegg, "Organisation and Control," Administratilp Science Quarterh',No,26' 1981' pp' 545_562' P. Golł man, D. van Houten, "Managerial Strategies and the Worker,'' The Sociological Quarterly, No. 18, 1977, pp. 108-125. " * and T.B. Lawrence, Ń- pr'lup", "CommentarY: Separating Play and Critique: Postmodern on TQM/ BPR," Jo LUn.aL of Managemen,t I nquiry, No. 7 (2), pp. 154-160. Thomas, The Multi-NationaL Cont.pan,i.t:s (llovc: Wrrylund Publishers, 1979). critical Perspectives Bn S. rl Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science Łukasz Suł kowski, Michał Zawadzki 214 ztl nessmenż entrepreneurs, and supervisors' are rarely educated in man- ł" * x'# agement scientist ":1il:r ;:ffi :i:Hx:::;L* '* * oritstheori".,* n,";:T;TiT-# # ,J_j;1tr";:,:rtTffi l; ::T with practical reality. consulting operations have formed between academic centers and the economic .""to., which speciarize in advising entrepreneurs and those engaged in management. This lobby exists by virtue of the application of theoreticar concepts of management, which is why, putting on a guise of scientificity and making use of the mar_ keting of ideas, it strengthens the influence and popularity of management science (which does not arways transfer into cognitive authority). on the other hand, consulting is one of the most important methods of transferring the results of studies to managerial practice. I t creates the linkage between theory and practice so vital to the practical sci_ ences' The description of organizationar reality, as we' as the postulates directed at manageriar practice created by researchers and specialists, can also draw from ideological motivation or aspirations to fbrce the interests ofa group ofreference.3s I n the twentieth century, management science became an infruentiar discipline, closery rinked with business circles and authority. I n the insti_ tutional sphere of management science, various interest groups formed which push through their own influence, in effect shaping management science itself' Among the most important interest groups are: schorars specializing in management, consultants and business advisors, businessmen' entrepreneurs, and business owners. The* stakes in the social game," whose arena is also constituted by management science, encom_ passes: money' social prestige, and power. other social divisions could also be indicated, e.g. managers in the private sector and managers in the public sector, or employee divisions based on nationarity, as we' as other types of motivational factors, such as the feeling of security. 3 A. Fox, BeyonrJ Contract: Work, power and. Trust Relations(London: Faber and Faber. 1974). Łukasz Suł kowski, Michał 212 comsocial groups criss-cross' creating a The interests of the mentioned enduring coalitions that cooperate plex constellation or more or less the interests of social groups in a more or less conscious way. often, entangledinthesocialgamehidbehindtheveilofobjectivism;agame' of management science' which also occurs in the field textualists' or social conMany authors considered postmodernists' dependence of the contents of manstructivists indicate the complete which suggests that this science is not agement on the social context' reality' I t is not ofa descriptive character' able to tell us anything about The perception of the social world but is meant to create sociar rearity. is only organization' supervision' or projects from the perspective of which allows for action (neopragmaa type of narration and metaphor' tism36). paradigm, set of ideas, Management does not form a homogeneous andmethodology,butisamixtureofvariousconceptions'The"lifecycle" Many of them become a fading trend of the conceptions is ever shorter' firms' or academic centpromoted by "management gurus"'consulting generally not based on studies' but on one ers. These conceptions are reduction of organizational reality' impressive idea that leads to the Researchontrendsinmanagement-indicatesboththerapidspread quick rejection by organizations and theoretiof conceptions, and their ciansofmanagement'37Trendy..theories''causemanagementscience are simultaneousb less trustworthy'38 They to become more popular, but aclearexampleofsocialconstructivism,withinthebound.ariesofwhich ot gantzational reality'3e conceptions mutually influence the most influential social groups' Nowadays, managers are one of resources' material goods' and serThey control the flow of financial (Warszawa: Aietheia' 1997)' --;; a zuierciad'ł o natury and Fashions: the Diffusion and Rejection F"d: 37 E. ".r,r, "h'ofia Abraham".",i.ffi;;;;;;;i 16/ 3' l99l' pp' 586 -612' of lnnovations.' A'ad'eny :z* 'i'i""'s"-""Reuipu',No' ł iiZ"ii"wiedzą jako przykł ad mody w zarząd'zanil," ()rganlzac1a 38 Cf. K. Klincewicz, i kierowanie,No. 1. (115), 2004, pp. 15-32. ssP.J.DiMag* t,WWlilo-Jt';fit"I ronC-ageRevisited:I nstitutionallsomorphism Reuiew,No' 48' 1983' and Collective pp. 147-160' R* t."tta,i" O.r"# .Jtio.oi lri"f a"," cr{ r""t Dtr"""t"" t" Zavł ĘĘ i.merican Sociological c y Management science ztB vices on a global scale' They exercise power in larger social structures over small and large groups of people, often ousting political dissidents. According to many representatives of cMS, managerism connected with the modern capitalist formation has even gained contror over the public sector'ao As a dominant group, managers fbrm their own ideology which allows them to preserve their power and rationalize their own position' The ideology of managerism contributes to the creation ofgroup identity and solidarity. I t is reflected in the concepts ofobject and managerial methods worked out within the framework of the dominant current.al Management science is founded on the position of instrumentar rationalism- Managerial processes are charact erized by the aspiration to effective work organizationbased on "scientiflc,,-objective and universal-principles. Management science has cognitive goals, which translate into the pragmatics of managerial activity. The roles of'super- visor, manager, and administrator are, thus, the primary object of interest of management science. An idearized image of their activity is cre_ ated' Descriptions ofthe decisionar processes in organization are based on the individuaristic premise s of homo oeconomicus, ignoring the key influence ofthe social group. The motif of management as an ideology rationarizing the exercise ofpower is present throughout the critical current. According the these conceptions, the social serf of the manager is created, which empha- sizes rational action, pragmatism and utilitarianism, the aspiration to power and success, loyalty in regards to the organization, and faith in the managerial ethos. The critical current strives to demystify these elements of a manager's identity, indicating that they constitute a justification for the aspiration to dominate over others.a2 a0 v' Fourier, ch. Grev, 'At the critical Moment: conditions and prospects ibr critical Management Studies." rł mo n Ralalions.No. 53 t ll. o. 'l0. { 1 M' Alvesson, H' Wi] lmott H., Mohing s""rtr ł i M"roeement- A Critical I ntroc] uction (London: Sage, 1996). a2 M. Parker, Ago inst Management.. . I : Critical Discourse in C:nlĘrnł 91ely Management Science Łukasz Suł kowski, Michał Zaw adzkt 2t4 a self-reproThe power exercised by managers and the owners creates the appliductive social order. upholding it for a longer time requires must cation of symbolic power.43 The people subject to domination insomewaycollectivelyaccepttheinstitutionsofproperty,themarthis purpose ket, and managerism. According to CMS representatives' isservedbyasystemofrationalizingsocialdominancecalledmanageand social pracment, which has taken the institutional form of science Harding notes that the creators, continuators' and ad'vocates tice. N. of management built a huge system of social legitimization of powel' whichencompasses:businessschools,thebusinesspublishingmarket, academiccommunity,andapoliticallobbycenteredonmanagement' Withthehelpofthismachineofsymbolicpower,seeminglyirrefutaand iegitimization ble premises and content upholding the reproduction of power are - written into the social discourse: Without management the world would fall into chaos' -Managementisasciencethatgivestheobjectivetruthaboutexternalreality. -Managementisanartpermittingtheexerciseofpoweroverotherhumanbeings.aa Critical Management Education fieid The educational plane is the most important emancipatory of critfor representatives of cMS, because it makes the transmission possi_ ical postulates to the world of management and organizaŁion we can ble. I n developing the problem of management's ideologicality, an eduby develop the Marxist theme of false consciousness created managecational system that reprod.uces the ideological knowledge of critical Mqnment.a5 According to representatives of the current of CMS' business managers and employees Łly granting agement Ed'ucation, which is a component of broader schoo] s "enslave the minds'' of A cri,ti.cal lntroduction (London: Pluto Press, 2000). J. F. Lane, . N.H..ai.s, ThesocialConstruclionofMano.getnent(London:Routledge,2003),p 2002)' p' 337' '15 M- J. Hatch, Teoria orgctnizo.cTi (Warszawa: PWN, a3 Pj erre Bourd.ieu. them sources of identity'a. I dentifying with the seemingly scientifl., objective, effective, just, and, u".o.or.r* to advocates of managers, only possible system of exercising power in the modern world, leads to fą| 5ę consciousness' False consciousness, in accordance with the conceptions of the critical current, is created by the system for the dominant social group. I t is a tool of control and ,,symbolic power.,, Huge masses of peo_ ple dedicate their time to an absu.d chase after new things and services' propelling the development of transnationał corporations and top level owners and managers, i.e. those at the top of the pyramid.ar False consciousness, therefore, does not concern only managers, giving them the unjustified feeling of being on a mission and of justice in exercis_ ing power in the interests of the organization; it also concerns employees and consumers' who are subject to this power through a process of symbolic pov/ er that s. Deetzhas ca'ed ,,the coronization of da'y rife by concerns'"48 An important aspect of the reproduction of power is man_ agerial education, which is of an ideorogical and indoctrinating charac_ ter'ae I t is based on the sociarization ofa sociar group, which rationalizes the process of exercising power.s0 cMS's critique of the educational sphere is horistic and encompasses not only the prane of managerial education, but also criticar refrection on the universitv' As Mats Alvesson notes, the market model of university reform currently dominant in the west is entangred in the trap of educational fundamentalism,5r in accordance with which it is acknowl_ edged that higher education alrows for the education ofsociety and thus contributes to the development of the economy and economic growth. * ;:^ ,* "-;'ł ;:'",Y::?E1[ :;| ł .ilHT , .''i'n: Manogeł ąanl Learnittg: lntegra,inp :ys"ł r."* "ł ł l,soli"""",i"t* oi'fo..nu"y1'".ł ,.tt,lT'iil_* :* :!:r"_''\ yyiLw161-176). JJJ?::.:;ł ;; ::,::'ś '{ ::i:'"t;:;{ ru?:; tł ł l::.iy:l:ii:ł :;;:;'"1:'H;l.'l'JJ'lil;{ Buslnoss: Building Responsiuc '"o I "":.:',ł !:-W:;ł r:t';;;; (Cresskill; llapton redacocy Press. ,{ :{ ł .'',' dnd Politics of I { ope: Theory, Culture, and Sch.ooling (Boutder, Co: 0 c' Jilł '* * 'li,i.I ;, "Rei'venting Business Grev' uu":ltil: 14 215 oi;:"l ? { ^ !T:u" schoors: The contribution of critr,cal Management Eitcot on, 20 04, 8(2),178_186. * e-nt Learn ing and. r o,'.",| )| "',Lj,',3ł iJ^ :3:;::;Kł ":{ 'I T:'::;r'trr,";ł ł i:ł ł :;i;';;;;;:;:," ancl Worlł Łttkasz Suł kowski, Michał 216 a higher education increases According to this ideology, receiving and of an increase in social satthe probability both of finding work' market model of the university lurks isfaction. I n addition, within the which is connected with the neothe trap of market f'undamentalism' provides the proper model for reforming liberal belief that the market place the proper regulator ofchanges taking tii l the university, constituting lrl in the sector of higher education's2 generates the erroneous belief that eduEducational fundamentalism of an education' I n this forcation naturally allows for the attainment and diploma is to guarantee that mulation, receiving a higher education faisity of such reasoning is espeits owner is an educated person' The educational processes in the modern cially visible when diagnosing the in the absorption of knowledge through university, which of'ten consist the conveyance and acquisition memorization, instead of through tt i il I ll l| r I ilr of knowledge.53 I I 11llrl.1 irl i] ,, ilr l of 'I earning' and receiving an ed'uThe disappe arance of the cuiture along with the simultaneous increase cation in market-guided colleges' degrees confirm the results of the studin the number of people holding and Josip Roksa' in which the authors ies conducted by Richard Arum students in terms of critical thinking studied 2,200 Lmerican college problem-solving skills, and narraabilities, analytical reasoning skils, tiveskillsconnectedwiththeirwritingabilities.5aApproximateĘ45pera lack of development of mentioned cent of the stud'ents demonstrated percent after four years of college' skills after two years of study-37 i tt t"-a* * k' D' J' Greenwootl"'Wake-Up^ or Perish: Neo-Liberalism' the Social Sciences' pp' 1-11' p'or* ',j.i'"""ił ;: ,"rrr* rr'tu,d'iis-Critical Method'ologies,2013' Wakeo.tl." p.io. to p.i't at < https:/ / www.academia'edu/ 554914l/ The article has b""o pouti""ł r-"J Salvaging_the_Public University> Up-or-Perish-N.o-l'it"..ii"* -th"-bo"l't_ś "i"n"e"-'.,l rł '" " and Salvaging (06'01'2014)' I I l Lli ili sler? Edukacja w dobie presji'simulacrum' L. Witkowski, "Koniec kult ury uczenla io ka hultura? Jaki dvshurs? Sfera z Zygmuntem Bao* t""-)'";t' iJko (dyskotju nie konsumpcji ed' (Szczecin: br nubliczna d spory o edunaiję' ped'agogihę i 'a'ząd'za'ni;e' 21 3-242 ,,Pcdagogiu m". 2008), PP' 5a R- Arum' l.a.o"l,-L"i"i'caltv Universitv of Chicago Press, 2011)' Critical Discourse in Contemporarv Management Science Z"* :!4 M' Jaworska-Witkowska' (Chicago: Adrift: Limited' Learning on College Campuscs 217 Another erroneous assumption resurting from educational f'undamentalism is the belief that a co'ege diproma increases the probability of efficient functioning in the job market. Meanwh'e, a significant number ofjobs in the United states and in Europe require basic, practical occupational skills that do not require colrege degrees. For example, in Great Britain approximately 6.5 million jobs do not require quarifications connected with a university degree (26 percent of'all jobs in the country), while only 2.6 million people in the British job market do not possess such quarifications.E5 This situation reads to frustration both on the part ofgraduates and employers due to the inadequacy of the expectation s uis-d._uis the true abilities and skills. The next dangerous assumption connected with the educational fundamentalism characteristic of the'market university,is that the main role of the university is preparing students to function in the job market. Thus, universities are confused with technical schools without noticing that the market always works short-term, whereas the role of a university is to function long-term and deverop cultural competence in the students that will alrow for civil action regardress of market or social changes and needs-56 The mission of the university is to democratize societal life by preparing students for participation in symbolic culture, which makes possibre the development of critical thinking, societal imagination, and humanistic sensitivity that will enable them to care for other human beings_not solely to prepare people to take on occupational roles. seducing students with the vision of the uni_ versity as a technical school is another source of disillusionment for them, as they point to the lack of practical application of their studies. on the part of the administration this generates the desire to lead the university further in the direction oftechnicar school in order to satisfy its clients. The problem is that this ,,occupationalizaton,'in the mar_ 55 A. chevarier and J. Lindley, "overeducation and the skiils ofUK Graduates,,, Journar of the Royal stdtistic Socic'ty 17ź (Part 2), pp. :oił z, after: M. Alvesson, The Triumph '{ ,'.:ł ł ł :;; Consumption, Higher Educati,oi ż ra wor'n orgrnizatioru(oxford; o* r* j uoi'"."ity 56 S. Kozyr-Kowalski, (Jniuerslttet a r.yneh lpozna : Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, 2005). Łukasz Suł kowski, Michał Zawadzkt 218 ket model does not go hand Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science in hand with the possibility of receiving an education, only a diPloma. Market fundamentalism' on the other hand, is connected with the false assumption that the market, economy, and organizational reality do not require reform and should designate the direction of change of the university. The deceitfulness of this belief can be seen in the Polish organizational reality, dominated by the imperative in striving for financial profit at the cost of human life commands us to see in this a phenomenon natural to capitalism.5? This leads to a crisis of cultural illiteracy among employees, as well of economism, which as to the illegitimate claims of employers, who iook at the university as a factory for the production qualified workers, which-ł n their opin- ion-is having more and more trouble fulfilling this role. This stands in opposition to the university's cultural mission, which ties in with critical intervention in the social surroundings-including the marketin order to democratize and humanize these spheres'58 Another dangerous ilł usion resulting from market fundamentalism is the indication (in the market model of the university) that it is nec- essary to adapt the principles of management, which has its roots in the private sphere, to universities. This belief assumes a primitive form of management that derives from the functionalist paradigm and is connected with the dominance of the imperative of economism (Taylorism, Fordism), acknowledging ad hoc that functionalism and economism are alternative-less imperatives, natural to modern private orga- nizations. Meanwhile, management is a complex social process, which does not have to assume the aspiration to an economic end at any cost (including in the management of private organizations).5e Advocates of the 51 5s market mode] of the university do not take into account the fact M' Zawadzki, Nur't krytyczlw w zarządzaniu: kultura, edukacja, teoria (Warszawa: Sedno, 2014). K- Leja, Zarząd'zanie uczelnią. Kon,cepcje i wsp ł czesne wyzuania (Krak w: Wolters Kluwer,2013). 59 M. Kostera, "Man ifest humanistyczny wsp ł czesnego zarządzania," in: organtzac.jc i drchetypy (Warszawa: Wolters Kluwcr, 2010), pp. 13 20. that the universitv 219 w'l lose its identity through primitive management that draws on over-economized business solutions..o Towards a Critique of CMS one of the basic assumptions of the criticar current in management is auto-reflexiveness, which is connected with the necessity of a con_ stant critical analysis of the premises accepted in cMS, Let us indicate a few elements of the criticar current that seem doubtful, though they do not take away from the efforts put forth in this cognitiveĘ fascinating paradigm' The critical current in management science is very controversial and should be evaluated by someone other than an advocate. we would like to propose a critical anarysis of the cMS current on two levers' The first is a general critique of the entire cMS current, encom_ passing epistemorogy, methodology, and praxeology. The second level of analysis is more specific and refers to the application of the critical subdisciplines and in regards to various manase- fr:fi:# # rious Starting from a general critique of CMS, we can indicate several key problems of a general nature: __ I ts controversial ph'osophical basis in the form and postmodernism, - of neo-Marxism I ts lack of extensive epistemorogicar and institutional reflection, __ I ts pragmatic weakness. 1' The critical current derives from neo-Marxism and demonstrates connections to postmodernism. That is why it constitutes a reflection of the key cognitive probrems of both of these philosophies. cMS employs a modified perspective of the Marxist conflict of classes. The key con_ See C. Mazza, p euatlronc. A. Riccaboni, cds. Eut .6n " Models and Coses (Cheltenham: Eł ward nls.i iilBll'''opean Uniuersities in Transitiolt'. I ssues, 220 ruling and subject power' domination' rule' the cepts of this current are: drawn from other Categories appear that are class, false consciousness'Gl power'62 neo-imperi.ill"-* ^ neo-Marxists, such ast symbolic - rtn* * n Marxism'svisionwascompromisedineconomics'politics'andsociety critical current's last century' it lingers in the the course of the during anthropology' The critique sociology' and cultural ideas in management, especially when science has a long tradition' of Marxism in economic which or Keynesianos schools' Marxism' neoclassicalda the to comes it years' became school for over one hundred was a significant economic after orientation in many cluntries a completely marginal economic Postmodernand bankruptcy of communism\ ' the fali of "real socialism" as the epistemoespecially ł vhen understood ism is equally problematic' I I I l lrll 'lrl, il ltl li;' l I I logicalbasisforthedevelopmentofsocialscience.ThoughMatsAlvesson CMS' between postmodernism and clearly emphasizes the differences in common' These many scholars and ideas these two currents have Bauman' Jean Franęois Lyotard ' Zygmunt include: Michei Foucault' czarBurrelr, M. schultz, M. J. Hatch,B. and in our sciences: George currents are: The problems common to both niawska, and M' Kostera' the key role progress' development of science and a skeptical vision ofthe of power in of an increase in moral sensiotganizaŁrons' the postulate tivity,andthepref'erencefordiscursivemethods'skepticisminregards and is neo-Marxism with postmodernism' to social progress connects parafunctioning on the basis of this also present in CMS' Scholars violence' injustice' discrimination' and' digm concentrate on inequalities' the clear fact of social and' organizational often not caring to p"t""i-'" in which man functions' Organiconditions progress' which betters the l ri. I zaŁionenabledtechnical,political,andsocialprogress'whichencomperceive that' researchers do not want to passes all of humanity' CMS 61 J. Larrain, il' rl11 'j, l Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science Zawadzki Łlkasz Suł kow ski, Michał 6'Ż P Bourdieu' o'' ] .I . M. Hardt, Qhomsky' ł Macmillan' 1983)' Politv Press' leel)' (24'0l'20l0): "'p"'n''(cambridee: u ś ] o"-""''u"yi' '"horn"t.y'info> "r Harvard University Press' 2001)' (London: Mo rxism and' I d'eology L ";;";';;;;'{ i-"ii ''o"'" ' N'gri, z-i;""""td'"'i"u* "' "ondon: "'*il'ii,Jiicr.i"'e".Uniu"."itnofChicagoPress.1994). * i'iuk"ou"' 6oF.Hayek,,o"o| ł ,| i,,ł os;.1q.Galbraith,The,AffluentSu"i"ł y(Ro.to',ŃlJYlJ.rł ".gtt""MifflinCompany,1958) 221 though the economic differences between countries and societal groups are indeed deepening, this results from the rapid increase in wealth within the sphere of the highthe groups with the rowest incomes. of citizens and countries alread,y located est income, not from the regress of An analysis similar to this one can be conducted. in reference to scientific skepticism. A lack of faith in scientific progress, one of the more important themes in postmodernism and significant in cMS, is to a large degree irrational because scientific progress, including that ofthe social sciences, is a fact. ofcourse, the social sciences develop significantly more slowly than the natural sciences, but they do exhibit progress. science is entangled in society and is not axiologically neutral, but cer_ tainly contributes to man's and societies' development. other core concepts of cMS, such as: the struggle for dominance, false consciousness, symbolic power, can also be criticized as overdrawn and excessively ideological. Thus, postmodernism, with its radical cultural and epistemo- logical relativism, does not constitute a good basis for the development of science, unless it is as a source of inspiration and of metaphors. cMS is in the initial stage of development and, in a certain sense, above all connects enthusiasts of this approach. I t lacks the maturity of a paradigm that has gone through a series of phases of develop2. ment and crises. undoubtedly, a critical examination of cMS is needed, both from its own perspective, and that of other paradigms. Moreover, the promulgation of its concepts would be indicated, so that CMS could be present in the management discourse in many other countries. At present, CMS is barely visible in management science analyses in Poland, both in terms of the number of publications, and research projects or conferences. 3. CMS also demonstrates a limited pragmatic effectiveness, since there are few significant research projects realized on the basis of the critical paradigm in management. The concept of organizational"perfecting" change that takes into account greater ethical sensitivity is realized on the grounds of various paradigms in management sci- 222 Łukasz Suł kowski, Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science N!icĘ| '!ĘarĘĘ business ethof CMS' For example' framework the within only ence, not connects philosophical developing current that and essential an is ics Social Responsibility' Anoth"r example ts Corporate and business themes' to the needs of sociorganizations more sensitive whose goal is making emphasizing the meanof the humanistic current' ety. The significance in organization' and human creativity ing of subjectivity, self-realization' behavior in manon the level of organizationai increasing is similarly organizations undertaking projects to make Th".ufor", science. agement moving to the position does not have to mean more ethical and friendly of the critcritique from the perspective of the CMS paradigm-itto"gi' of management to mainstream conceptions ical current, in contrast insight is characterized by deeper humanistic' being to claim that lay 223 in marketing of humanizing conceptions and those accenting subjectivity and ethicality, such as: affinity marketing,oe relationship marketing,To and social marketing.Tl I t is also difficurt to separate postmodern themes from cMS in marketing. The application of the critical current to human resource management is also creative, though the image of the subdiscipline itself is distorted by cMS. The critique of strategic management from the perspective of cMS is less successful. The indication of the top management's rationalizations meant to disguise unethi- cal practices is interesting, but already known from the earlier managerial conceptions proposed by Karl weick,?z for example. The applications of cMS to organizational culture are interesting, because they indi- cate the possibie oppressive and ideological effect of values and norms. other aspects creatively developed by cMS are connected with ideol- intothoseau* ""t"of"organizationallifethatarehiddenandoftenleft * T-i:agement' ogy, oppressiveness of the management, problems with organizational paradigms' and one need within many different it is, of courtu, ptut'i"ud theory and practo critique managerial cMS of not be a representative attempt at takof cMS note, not every ,"fr"r".rtutrrres as Though, tice.67 science fits within results of management t' look critical a ing of undertaking critique 'n" The necessary conditions the critical current'68 is the use of the intellectual of the CMS paradigm from the perspective to emanformation' namely: an aspiration tools proper to this thought premises ofdenatuand the acceptance ofthe cipate unfavored groups authority, communication, and business ethics.Ta At least for now, the digression ofcertain representatives ofthe critical current, concerning: managerial accounting, quality management, and logistics, remain unsaid.66 When it comes * tn" critique of the concenlt:" ralizing managerial discourse' problem undertaken wilł vary depending on the A criticallook at CMS and postmodern currents I t seems that the critical and its subdiscipline. analyses, because they point of view of marketing are useful from the On the other aspects of this subdiscipline' point to tt'e mtt'ipt'tative do not perceive the development hand, though, CMS io""ttigators ffi...Społ ecznanieod'powieclziaI noś o"o";?!ł biznesu,,,in:Krytycznyntntzarząd'zania, ?joriz (Warszawa: z"* "jr* ii, (Warszawa: Wolters Kluwer and Ł. "J"' o zt "' Suł - * kowski,'M. i krytycznte ct.W. Kież un' ed", Tu rczo Restorah: An I nI roduction '':"' ł^ k.d"'iiuLcona.Koź miriskiego'2010)" UI LderstancJtnE ManaErmanl "-;; i. Duberlcy' P' Johnson' (Llniton: Sage' 2003)' to Epi"iefl'logv exotic and weakly rooted in theory.Ta I n general, the application of CMS varies depending on the research problem and subdiscipline. I n secondary literature, we can find examples of innovative and accurate applications ofthe critical discourses discussed in this article that proved viable, and examples of short-lived, failed, or less successful applications. I n summary, the conceptions of CMS as critical analysis serving to raise awareness, ethical sensitivity, and to deepen cognitive reflection, and consisting in engaging the premises of the critical paradigm in pragmatic projects of changing the organizational reality are very 6e K. Fonfara, Marheting partnershi (Warszawa: PWE, 2004). J. Otto, Marheting relacji, Koncepcja i stosowanie (Warszawa: C. H. Beck, 2001), 7r See N. Lee, Ph. Kotler, Sociol Marheting: I nfluencin.g Behaviors for Good (Los Angeles: ?0 See Sage, 2011). ?'Ż K. Weick, "Substitutes for Corporate Strategy," in; The Competitiue Challenge (Cambridge: Ballinger, 1987); K. Weick, Managing the Unerpected: Re.silient Performance in an Age of [ Jncertainty (San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons, 2007). ?3 K. Blanchard, N. V. Peale, Etyka Biznesu (Warszawa: EMKA, 2008). ?a J' Łunarski, Zarządzanie jakoś cią u logistyce (Rzesz w: Politechnika Rzeszowska, 2010). Critical Discourse in Contemporary Management Science Łukasz Suł kowski' Michał Zavł adzki 224 valuablecognitivelyandpractically.However'theconditionoftheir with the approaches value is a continual confrontation ofthe conception of other methods and their critical evaluation' Conclusion Thereflectionspfesentedheredonotrepudiatethecognitive lead to the claim value of the managerial sciences. They also do not while theory that all contents of management are socially conditioned, the interests ofparand methodology are constructed soleiy to satisfy ticular groups. Nevertheless, they constitute an attempt at analyzing A critical the possible ideological influences on managerial science. ,,objectively" seeking possible ideological connections may be analysis I nvestjgating the pera valuable source of reflection in management' spectivesofgroupsd.iscriminatedagainstingivenmanagerialcontexts ethnic minorities) may provide valuable knowledge about on the appearthe mechanisms of legitimizing social authority based of rationality or justice.T5 I n investigating the development (e.g. women or ances it is noticeable that of a particular method or conception of management, should not exagwe they often stem from social aspects'76 Of course' interest gerate with relativism and indicate cultural context or social we do not have direct as the sole source of knowledge.TT Assuming that are tied access to the investigated reaiity because our interpretations indi_ with the sociał context (interests' culture), we can still, at least rectly, cognizethe world and make changes within it'78 reflection The critical current in management science can be a sort of of knowledge and the political and cultural forms of ruling.Te I t is worth treating the problem of the context of creating management science seriously and remembering this knowledge's rack of universarity (situationality' adventitiousness)' The development of our discipline is sociaty stimulated' through an influenc" o., ooriri"ur rule, conflicts of interest, the significance of the academic environment, and how these social factors affect the content and manner of gaining knowledge in management should undoubtedly be researched. This wilr make it possibre for the standards ofrational and reliable creation ofthe sociar sciences to be upheld. The critique conducted within the bounds of cMS is radical, but at the same time originally and provocatively understands the basic problems of management, which encourages the undertaking of reflection and debate' The reconstruction of many craims and their formulation within the bounds of one criticar current is a risky operation, because the conceptions differ from one another. Nevertheless, it seerns that the common point is an in-depth critique of the ethicar and cognitive sides of management' which, consequently, courd read to the deregitimization of this scr'ence, or at least to its radical arteration. such an altera_ tion is especially necessary in polish managerial science and management practice, where the imperatives of economism and functionalism, destructive for man, society, and the economy, remain dominant. presuming the search for links between the creation and transmission ?s M. Alston, Breaking Through the Glass Ceiling (London: Routledge, 2003); t''M' Glennon' ,.svnthesism. A case of Feminist M'ethodology," in: Beyond' Method. strategies for social Research' Sage, 1983)' pp' 260-27L Gl i\ i;;.., erl. (BeveĄ Hills, London, New Delhi: ?6 For: Szamani zarządzania example, reengeneering. Aiter: J. Micklethwait, A. Wooldrige, (Poznari: Zysk i s-ka, 2000), pp' 29-31' * "'ł ł crf. zr"it "ii, Grori"n racjonalnoś ci. 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Hand'book "f Elgar' Órtenblad' Cheltenham: Edward Ed. A. Zyci ski J. Eseje z ftlozofii nauki.Warczasł a: 1993. Granice lacjonalnoś ci. Luck, I gnorance, and Moral Attitude DYskurs krYtYcznY o zatz,ądza;fliw we wsp ł czeJnych narrkach krvtycznecechy charakterystyczne nurtu coraz większą Streszczenie: Artykuł przedstawia zcł obywa t< iory M";;;;'";;;ś tudics" gł wne go w zarządz'ar'iu -.'c,.'ti| oi nauk o zal:zadzania. Autorzy wskazuią swrat'owyniJv"r."'"i"" w a Łakż e popularnoś ć intelektualne' jego dł a ź t nurtu' zaŁoŻ eniap'r.dyg'utv'";;;';;;t""ego uwagę na pł aszczyznc edukacji narzedzia* J'l'* L'"* '""3i11 stosowanc 1'i33r"i p'o"'* o* emancypacji' W koricowe| zp""'p"Liy* y skutecznoś ci częś ci przeprowad'zona)"'1"i'"r"'"''| '"y':i^ p'"y1mowu"iu krytycznego dotyczący | "i'""uv naukowYch. Piotr Machura PWN' adzki Łukasz'Suł kowski' Michał Zaw .jako najisl'oln iejszą Folia philosophica 84 I SSN Z35S_9445 (online) I SSN 12J1_0918 (print) wpisująca się w postulat nurtu w badaniach 9il'' p* t"* v auiokrytycznej CMS' w zan:ząd'zaniu' paradygmat krytyczny Sł owa kluczowel nurt krytyczny naukowych badaniach w urrtokryty""na kacja, emancypt"jt, potto] * t etlu_ Abstract: Public opinion has it that ethics should be concerned with studying and providing precise and reliable rules of conduct. This view is based in a rong phiiosophical tradition which begins with the stoics and continues at least to Kant; il is, however, a false view. There are good reasons to turn our attention to these aspects of moral thinking which refer to an.d emphasize the elemcnt of risk and uncertaintv. Jn the article I brie{ ly discuss two ofsuch reasons: th.e problem ofm.rai luck and the problem of'action based on ignorance. consideration of th""" two probrems leads to the conclusion that the most tr.icky element in moral thinking is the firm belief of the subject in the: t.uth of the premises on which they base their actions and in the irrelevance of external { actors to the assessment of their deeds. I n this light I argue that the basic requirement for a moraljustification of a particular action is not its conformity to a certain set ofrulcs but the subject's critical reflection on their course of action. I ndeed, what turns an attitudc into a moral attitude is an amoral, epistemological factor: criticism and openness to uncertainty. Keywords: cthics, criticai thought, phi.losophical criricism, morai luck, ignorance, moral attitude I t would seem that ethics is that field of knowledge which should support man in offering indications as to the proper way to act (along with their justification). I n the basic formula of moral reasoning, i.e. the practical syllogism going back to Aristotle, in which the major premise is constituted by the description of a certain good or a moral principle, while the minor premise is constituted by the description of the situation in which the subject finds himselĘ and the conclusion is in accordance with the correction introduced by st. Thomas Aquinas, a decision), all the elements of the reasoning seem to head in the direction of achieving a justified conviction about the rightfulness ofthe action undertaken on its basis. I n consequence, the moral attitude action (or,