Automobile Dependency Improving Urban Resilience through Urban Planning and Design ! "$"%" ! ' " " #& "% # " ( % $" '#" % Preface ! " # " ( #% &) "& + $ $ #% & #% ' % 0 / & + ( % ' & " * " $ $, " $ " " # " / " " . + / % $ 1 Automobile Dependency " , % - % & " " & , Page 1 Contents Preface .................................................................................................................................. 1 Contents ................................................................................................................................ 2 Abstract ................................................................................................................................. 3 Research questions ................................................................................................................ 3 Introduction to Urban Resilience............................................................................................ 3 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 10 Automobile Dependence and Urban Form: .......................................................................... 11 Sustainability in the Work of Newman and Kenworthy ..................................................... 11 The Development of the Automobile City......................................................................... 11 Car dependence and Economic Growth ............................................................................... 20 Measuring Automobile Dependency .................................................................................... 22 Overcoming Automobile Dependency through Urban Planning and Design .......................... 25 Future City ........................................................................................................................... 28 Case study ........................................................................................................................... 31 Public Transportation System ........................................................................................... 33 Bus system ................................................................................................................... 33 Public Taxi .................................................................................................................... 33 Private Taxi .................................................................................................................. 35 Measuring Automobile Dependency in Kerman................................................................ 35 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 37 Four scenarios.................................................................................................................. 42 References ........................................................................................................................... 43 Appendix A: Urban Structures and Travel Behavior .............................................................. 47 Appendix B: Stockholm and car use...................................................................................... 53 Automobile Dependency Page 2 Abstract # " & # % % " " " $ & " " " &+ " & Research questions ) " % " % '2) 4 " 2# "2 ( % 4 " % 2 ( % 3 ! % % 2 " % 2 Introduction to Urban Resilience 5 " $ * $ 7 " $ & 5 % $ % ". " & 6 % & . " " ' " " & " " $ % 8 " " % $ & " 9 : % $ ( Automobile Dependency * $ & Page 3 Figure 1: Natural Disasters Summary Image courtesy of EM-DAT www.emdat.be & " " " " % 8 ; " $ " - % & " &< # * $ = " " % % $ % % * $ > $ " " "& % " " $ & Automobile Dependency Page 4 Figure 2: Technological Disaster Summary Image courtesy of EM-DAT www.emdat.be <Figure 1: Natural Disasters Summary> " " " &( % . 5 ? " 7 * $ $ % " " . & Figure 2 = % " * $ " Automobile Dependency " " & % & Page 5 & # < Figure 3>& 1 3 @ A9&9 ;& % ! 3 @ ;7&8 B 3 @ B9 & 7 A&; A &9 1 " < B & <+ 3 @ ! . > > Figure 3: Economical Losses Due to Natural Disasters 1950-2000 Image courtesy of Munich Re www.munichre.com ! % " " "& <! >) & < " " < " " 8> >& ) $ " " C ) " ( ' E1 Automobile Dependency " " " D& <) $ C " E B> " D& <) 9> Page 6 , <, - % ! 9> <) $ $ F % 3 & <5 G B> <- % E 4 E B> * $ <1 &- % H % " 1 >% " E > % $ " % % " <- % " E " > <G E 5 " & " % & > , $ % ' ' % ' " & $ & <, $ = > , $ ' "& I % % % " ' 1 " "I J $ 4 & " % " " % . " % $ "& ' F 1 ' * $" ' < % K ' F 1 K> " & % ' % & <0%" 8> $ # *& < >= % 3 " $ " & Automobile Dependency Page 7 5 % % "& 0 % L . 0 " &A8 M & 7 N5 . & H % % "& % " ' & 0 % % " 34. ' % & = " " =' "9 : ;A9 " " 5- ) 9& < & . > ) $ - % " % . 0= " ; " % % = % , $ 5 + ,= , O3 " ! " " " / " & <, > % % " " " % & "& + % $ " % % &# 5 " $ $ , - % % 1 Transit Oriented Development Pedestrian Oriented Development 3 Green Oriented Development 2 Automobile Dependency Page 8 &P ( % 0 & " & % " & 5= . & % & & # . <3& & 5 . " ' " >& = B : % # B&7 <0 A>& 5 5 , $= &# A % " % $ " % $ <& & "% $ H 1 5= < 9&8: $ " " & % % 1 $ % % $> "/ ; > <& & % "% / G >< " % E+ .; " A>& 5 % " " "% & " "<& &Q > " $ & Automobile Dependency Page 9 % ' &# / % "/ & Methodology "% "& + " " # ' & ' # % % # / * % & "& 4 % " " # * " % "& # % % * / "& % % & * + " * % Automobile Dependency % "% & "/ Page 10 Automobile Dependence and Urban Form: Sustainability in the Work of Newman and Kenworthy # " 7 % , - % % 4 % " % $ " / ( ' " " & % " & " % % % . / " &# % " 3 "% % C 4 % " " & D% " % 7 >< " <- % >& The Development of the Automobile City ( " % & ! " % $ % % " & " " Automobile Dependency E " " % . . "& Figure 4& Page 11 Figure 4: Traditional Walking City Image courtesy of (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999) " " ' % " . % " . % <Figure 5>& ) " " " / . " " % / " <Figure 6>& % " &F . ' % . Automobile Dependency ' $ % / " % & Page 12 Figure 5: Transit City Image courtesy of (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999) Figure 6: Automobile Dependent City Image courtesy of (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999) + < > % * % / " % " % " " % / H " " "& Automobile Dependency Page 13 % " % " % " " % - L & ! # " # # ! " " $ ! %&' ! ( ) * + (ibid, p163-164). ) < + " L " > % - " "& " L * % "L " " . % " ' " & ' % " ) % $ / . % - % ' " " " % . % % % " % . Automobile Dependency "< " " & 89. 9 >& % $ % ) 89 . Page 14 '. F & = $ * . - % . " "& 4 % % "< . > / . " < % $ > " " * ." * " R < " " . >& " " % " J % & , ! " . ! %&' / %&' # + (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999, p. 59) . " < * >& " . " / " & % % " & " . * % % % & Automobile Dependency Page 15 Automobi leOriented Transport Planning Increased Vehicle Ownershi p Reduced Travel Dispers Dispersed Developem Develop ent Patte Patterns Option Alternati lternativ e Modes Stigmatiz ed Generous Genero Parkin Parking Supply Automobi leOriented Land Use Planning Sprawl and Degraded Cities Figure 7: Cycles of Automobile Dependency Image age courtesy cour of Victoria Transport Policy institute www.vtpi.o ww.vtpi.org 2 # 3 # %&'! '! 0 # " ! %&' 1 2 3 # + (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999, 9, pp. 52-53). # $ ! %&'' 2 + (ibid id, p54-55). " " " C D< Automobile ile Dependency 8 >& Page 16 % % " % % $ % "< " >& H % 4 % " " % " D C" % " - % " & " " * " " % < 8 . 8A>6 . " " " C2 # # D< # >& ' . < " . . > '& $ " 4 " / " 7 & ; .% " < ;>& ) & &Q !" % % ? / & ! Automobile Dependency Page 17 " $ % % % % ' . & " ! " % " % & ( % " % % . % & " " " & / % * "& " % $ # # / . / % 8 " & . & % 4 Traffic Calming is the set of measures for slowing or reduction of motor-vehicle traffic to improve safety for pedestrians and bicyclists and improve the environment for residents. Automobile Dependency Page 18 " . & $ % * % " " % " " . < " >& % % . . % / & ( % / % . 5 " / & % % " & = " - % 4 % $ % " / % " " % &F$ % " " % " " $ & $ $ " % % " % ' ' " $ . " < >& " % " . % & % Automobile Dependency ' " % " + 7& Page 19 Figure 8: Annual Traffic Death Rate Data courtesy of TDM www.vtpi.org Car dependence ence and Economic E Growth # ; 4 $ AA 3& & " <%%%& $ 0 & S % T S " " & >& " % &= ' 0 ) % % < " " "& 5 % %%%& & & S % >& " S Automobile ile Dependency S & <5 > + & Page 20 Figure 9: Annual Per Capita Income Data courtesy of TDM www.vtpi.org Automobile ile Dependency Page 21 Measuring Automobile Dependency " " % >& % & % <% " " % $ J " " &= 5 .+ " " ' " " < " Table 1& # / 7 : " " " & % $ H " " % & % % " & / " " G >& " " " % * "% $ " % % % % * " . " & "% " " * " & Automobile Dependency Page 22 Indicator Description Low Per capita motor vehicle ownership (usually Less than 250 Vehicle Ownership measured per 1,000 per 1,000 pop. population) Less than 4,000 miles (6,500 km) Vehicle Travel Per capita annual motor vehicle mileage Vehicle Trips Automobile trips as a portion of total personal Less than 50% trips Quality of Transportation Alternatives Convenience, speed, comfort, affordability and prestige of walking, cycling and public transit relative to driving. Alternative modes are of competitive quality. Medium High 250-450 450+ 4,000-8,000 miles (6,50013,000 kms) 50-80% 8,000+(13,000 km plus) 80%+ Alternative modes are somewhat inferior. Alternative modes are very inferior. Mobility of personal Relative Mobility Of travel by non-drivers Non-Drivers compared with drivers Non-drivers Non-drivers are are moderately not severely disadvantaged disadvantaged . Relative advantage Market Distortions provided to automobile Favoring Automobile transportation over other Use modes in planning, funding, tax policy, etc. Minimal bias favoring automobile travel. Moderate bias favoring automobile travel. Non-drivers are severely disadvantaged . Significant bias favoring automobile travel. Table 1 Data courtesy of TDM www.vtpi.org 2 5 6 Figure 7># < # # +< 1 " - 7>& " % " " " % Automobile Dependency &F &, . Page 23 & % " " % "& 5 % " % % < " B 3& & & % $ " < @ $ >& " > 3& & ( / " %< > @ & "% @; # "% % % % &+ ' " & F$ % % " % $ Automobile Dependency " "% " & Page 24 Overcoming Automobile Dependency through Urban Planning and Design " " " & " % • , H < ! - ,F3 ;>6 = • • 5 ! = % $ " % $ "> < , E " & = < = > " & %" $ % %& 6 " • • , % • ! ' % % " % % $ % ; & 8>& " " " ' . C Automobile Dependency ' & " % % . . < ! - ,F3 " D % & Page 25 . * % $ " . • &, 6 ' . 6 / . & % $ • 3 $ " " " & % 6 " " & % $ • S " "6 ".% " % $ & F % " " " % $& / " % $ $ • # & 6 , " " • , " % $ % $ " " & # " < ! - ,F3 " 6% $ / " &# , ;>& " * * " & " % & 5 * " " " % &! " " " % " & Automobile Dependency Page 26 = C D& # . % % * " " & , $ " " & % & * < ! - ,F3 5 H " $ % % ' ;>& " 2 " " " 5. $ " <) $> # 0 % <( > 3 % 5. % 5. " %$ " % & % < % $ & % 9 & / " % "& * 5 5 78 % " 5 % & % * & % " " " &# 5 " H % & / U ' % ( % % $ > % " $ 5 $ G 55 " & % Automobile Dependency " & % $ GV / % % % $ " B " A $V Page 27 % <( % - EU & B. >& 4 % % " Future City - % " J / & % / & " " " . " %. " % " " . " " " " & % D $ " % % & C0 " % " " % " % & 9 # " +< % A 7> = " - % &, . Automobile Dependency $ " 4 % " & " < 78. 7 > " " % "% %6 Page 28 % * "% %. & " % * " " & " " $ % " & ' ! " J % * " " < % % >& # . . & / % $ . % ' " ' " % ( . . & % & * % % " . / $ / & )! ! ! % & $ . " & & / " # - % 5 " " $ >& < " + . 4 % " " / 6 W " " % $ " " " Automobile Dependency Page 29 Figure 10: The Future City Image courtesy of (Newman & Kenworthy, 1999) W " % " W * . " " . " / ' ' " " W+ % / W, % $ ! $ 4 % % " % " ' Automobile ile Dependency " ' $ $ "& % % - % $ & Page 30 Case study - . 4 " # 9B ;; ; & A$ X % & <, " 4 R ; % &# " 9 "; 8 B& > % % " % $ % "% " $ " $ S$ X % "9& % " " " >& $ % % < % $ 4 & ' % "& % & " % "& 1 " $ " 1 & % % & Figure 11: Gabri Gate Image courtesy of Saeed Ta`ali (http://innocent.mihanblog.com/) 5 As of December 31 2005, the population in the Stockholm urban area was 1,252,020 inhabitants, the 2 land area 377.30 km (145.68 sq mi), and the population density 3,318.36 inh/km² Automobile Dependency Page 31 2 :;<= > 2 ? ? ? # / @. 2 " :;<A / # / 2 ? ! !+ <, # " " 4 " / " $ "& " # % "R / < $ B " % % & >% &, / & % % " & / % & % % " $ % * - % % . .4 % " % "& 4 / % $ % / % % # " " & # ;> % ' 4 !0 E " 4 / ? ? !9 > 2 ? BC#CCC "& & " " " $ " & # " % & % " / & 1 " % / ' $ " & Automobile Dependency Page 32 Figure 12: Ruins in the heart of city Public Transportation System " % ' & Bus system6 # % 89 . " 4 5 " " % " & " 7; " " % .% " % & $ % " " & % &+ $ " " % & " $ " * B % Public Taxi6 % "& " & & % " & , ' % " ' " ' " " 4 % " &, & % ' " $ 6 Peak hour for the bus system is between 7 to 8 in the morning and 13 to 14, when students travel between home and schools. Automobile Dependency Page 33 "% "% & ' % % # ' % % ' % & " F-0 H F-0 " * " 8; 8 ' "& " % $ City ' & ' % $ / "& City area (Hectare) 13997 City population 578741 Private taxi Bus Taxi 2 Population density (People/Km ) 41.35 Number of taxies 4394 Average number of passengers (Per day per taxi) 120 Average work time (Hours per day) 8 Cost (Rls/Km) 500 Cost porportion of GDP per capita (%) 0.00196 Number of intracity busses 245 Number of bus routes 83 Cost (Rls/Route) 500 Cost porportion of GDP per capita (%) 0.00196 Number of Private Taxies 287 Average number of handled passenger by privte taxi (Per trip) 2.5 Average distance per trip (Km) 3.5 Cost (Rls/Km) 3000 Cost porportion of GDP per capita (%) 0.01171 Table 2: Kerman Transit System Automobile Dependency Page 34 " Private Taxi& % % & ' &= ' 7A ' 4 " % "& # " % & ' & = ;&9 $ % $ % &9 $ &( % & Figure 13: Taxis blocking the main round about at peak hour Measuring Automobile Dependency in Kerman " * % % " " & 6 / "R "& # " " % % B; & / % " & Automobile Dependency Page 35 6 / 5" % " " " % $ % " " " &= " & # % % & # % $ ". ' . "% $ % $ % " & % $ & "% % " # % " 7A: <- " " 5 >& 6 0 " / " " " " " & 6- . " " " " ' & 6 1 & " % " % $ " % % "? % &P &+ % . & H % % " Automobile Dependency "& Page 36 &% " "& # 4 #% ' " " $ % ' " 4 R & Discussion # A " # & " * " H C % D< A>& # " % ' / / % % & " * % % " / " % & B / % 9 H / & " * & " / % " $ $ & " " " % " $ $ $ & " " / / % " ' * " & # % && % ' ' Automobile Dependency % $ & C# % " / & % / . Page 37 % * <1 " > D < & >& + " <( % ' * " / & + > / / &+ % " # " - H "& <1 9 & 77> Figure 14: Aerial photo of Bazaar of Kerman / ( " # . " " ' <4 // & &# / 1 / " F = <Figure 15>& 4 5 A> '# &( % / % Y / & Automobile Dependency Page 38 Figure 15: Bazaar of Isfahan Image courtesy of Masoudi Nejad (2005) # 4 % % % / " % / <4 " ' 7>& # ' " <Figure 16>& Figure 16: The Global Integration (Rn) map of Kerman Image courtesy of Karimi (1997) ! / 1 / & ( / % % . - H ' " # " Automobile Dependency "& # 1 / " " & / / " " " Page 39 . &( " ' " $ C3 C5 % D& 3 / D - " % . / / ' & . 5 " "& / & 4 > ! % " <Figure 17>& / &# "% 4 <1 " < & 1 # / " " % D& 4 / / % " " C / Y $ - H 9>& Figure 17: The main traditional commercial roads Image courtesy of Habibi (1997) / % Automobile Dependency % $ % 4 % H "& # Page 40 & ", - % % % & 4 " / % / % "% $ 4 " H 5 " "6 % 5 + & ' " ( % & 4 * % % " % $ / . & $ " 4 2 &# & . % % & # ' ' " " " " % " " "& " % $ " " % * " ' Automobile Dependency ' " . 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Automobile Dependency Page 46 Appendix A: Urban Structures and Travel Behavior - <3 1 B>6 " % " " " % A7> = % "& < A > < " % H <F " E " $ AA>& " " " ' $ 6 % $ " <- B>& & % * " & R % " "& < " Figure 18> " $ " % " " & " " ? & = ? " " " " 5 " ! <- B>& 5 " % " % % " < > < % Automobile Dependency ' < " > % >& " $ % Page 47 $ % ". & = ' &= " ' & 1 "6 " "> > R % < <% < >< . % % % % ' ' ' $ % $ E4 >& Mutual location of functions within the building stock Geographical distribution And design of buildings Macro-level social factors, e.g.: • Level of affluence • Prevailing values • Social classes Transportation system: • • • Road capacity Public transport Parking condition Transportation behavior: Actors’ resources, needs, wishes • • Amount of transport Modal split Figure 18: Transportation Behavior as a Function of Land Use Characteristics Image courtesy of Petter Naess (Urban Structure Matters, 2006) $ " % & %" C C D $ " " " Automobile Dependency " D& $ " Page 48 &= % % " " "% "% &- " ' & < & & "> ' / % $ $ " " & - %6 CZ # !4 ! # D <- B> " C ' # D " " & " % & = % " S " &# % " & # " % % $ % ' " " % $ " $ Automobile Dependency " $&5 " ' & Page 49 . " < % $ > "& " % " " " " " * " 8 " " & > < > < < > <G " <% $ > & A7>& " % % " & " " <3 " >& ". "/ " " ' - R ". <- B & B>& G C < % 7 > ' ' " % D ' H " ' % $ $ " " H ' % " > % . D " " % Automobile Dependency " " ' "& % $ " R ' < & & & ' % * * " % " % $ " $ & ' H & D "& 1 " " % C . ' " & " & C- " ' & " ' " " % " "& % " & Page 50 <G " & 7 >9 % .B8 " C % "& D % ' & % $ 3 % $ " % % $ " C D . 9 & ' % " C D C . D ' " % & ' &# ' " C D % & % + " " % < & & " " %" * < & & " >& % "J > * " " ' " " " $ & # " % 1 & % * " " % " R & " " C $ " " D & % " % & C D " % $ " % $ " % & " Automobile Dependency ' % % $ * ' Page 51 % $ % / " &= " C ' $ . % . "& D % " % . " " " % " & + " & % " / " H & 5 % ' <5 . * ' " " * " B>& ( % ' " - & # " % % = . . D 3 <5 ;>& ( % C- % 3 D C 6 & Automobile Dependency Page 52 Appendix B: Stockholm and car use = F D % " $ " < 4 "> $ # / ' $ & " ' & % 9 " "% $ " " " % & % <F % E( 7>& " 5 0 + G 0 Q 5 &5 % < 7>& # 5 " . % & !+ <F $ # 7> E( " L " & 5 % " ' 1 " " <0 > ' " " " <5 , >& 1 % 6 " # , 6 http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/energy-resources/country-profile-173.html Automobile Dependency Page 53 " 4 #4 ! !4 . " # EE ! 5 ! AE 4 $ 0 #4 ! > $ ! !+ <5 B & > % 7 % <4 % Automobile Dependency "EF " .. " ;A $ >& Page 54 Figure 1: Natural Disasters Summary ____________________________________________ 4 Figure 2: Technological Disaster Summary ________________________________________ 5 Figure 3: Economical Losses Due to Natural Disasters 1950-2000 ______________________ 6 Figure 4: Traditional Walking City ______________________________________________ 12 Figure 5: Transit City ________________________________________________________ 13 Figure 6: Automobile Dependent City ___________________________________________ 13 Figure 7: Cycles of Automobile Dependency ______________________________________ 16 Figure 8: Annual Traffic Death Rate _____________________________________________ 20 Figure 9: Annual Per Capita Income_____________________________________________ 21 Figure 10: The Future City ____________________________________________________ 30 Figure 11: Gabri Gate ________________________________________________________ 31 Figure 12: Ruins in the heart of city _____________________________________________ 33 Figure 13: Taxis blocking the main round about at peak hour ________________________ 35 Figure 14: Aerial photo of Bazaar of Kerman______________________________________ 38 Figure 15: Bazaar of Isfahan ___________________________________________________ 39 Figure 16: The Global Integration (Rn) map of Kerman______________________________ 39 Figure 17: The main traditional commercial roads _________________________________ 40 Figure 18: Transportation Behavior as a Function of Land Use Characteristics ___________ 48 Automobile Dependency Page 55