Red and Black Wool Garters from Late Fourteenth Century England by Cynthia Sebolt

Red and Black Wool Garters from Late Fourteenth Century England Spring, 2015 Figure 1: The garters. (Photo: Alexandria Doyle) Summary:  Wool garters, woven on a rigid heddle band loom  Based on finds from London, late 14th century  White and black wool, dyed red with madder Weaving Materials:  Wool singles – naturally white and black Weaving Tools:  Small band loom  Upright loom for warping  Rigid heddle  Bone shuttles  Needles  Linen cord  Kraft paper Dyeing Tools:  Stockpot  Thermometer  Small scale  Blender  Glass jars     Stovetop Nylon bag Measuring Cup Monofilament 1 Dyeing Materials:  Madder root  Alum  Bran water  Lime  Vinegar Red and Black Wool Garters Page 2 of 17 Red and Black Wool Garters from Late Fourteenth Century England Spring, 2016 Figure 2: Extant red and black wool garter. Dated to the late 14th century England. Color photograph from Museum of London website. Detailed description in Textiles and Clothing. (Photo: Museum of London) th Description: Ga te , No. , f o a late -century deposit. The straight edge would have been worn above the [scallop]. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 143) Figure 3: Closeup of extant garter. (Museum of London) Brief History of Garters Garters are narrow bands, usually of cloth or leather, used to hold stockings or hose in place around the leg. The a e eithe plai o fa , a d at ti es ould e e o spi uous “i e e s tu i s e e short enough for garters to show, most depictio s i a t a e of e . As e s tu i s e a e sho te , the garter became more prominent in artwork. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 142-145.) Garters can be as simple as plain bands of cloth, which makes their identification difficult in archaeological contexts. Extant Examples Three purpose-made garters were recovered from a late 14th century context in London, all very similar. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 144) The most complete is on display at the Museum of London. Red and Black Wool Garters Page 3 of 17 Figure 2) While each one is different, all three garters have a scalloped edge and combination of red and black warp threads. The table below shows a comparison between the three extant examples and my garters. (Table 1) Length Width (including scallops) Width of Scallops # 388 (Figure 2) 270mm 22mm #389 220mm 18mm #390 195mm 23mm 7mm up to 10mm 8mm My garters 990mm 20mm 5mm Weave Warp i: wool, red ii: wool, black Ends tabby tabby tabby Tabby S-spun* Z-spun* 11-12 pairs per cm S-spun S-spun 10 ends per cm S-spun Z-spun 10 pairs per cm S-spun S-spun 10 pairs per cm Weft: wool, red Z-spun, 20-21 picks per cm S-spun, 8-9 picks per cm Z-spun, 20 picks per cm S-spun, 10 picks per cm Pattern: body 4 red ends, 7 pairs of black ends, 4 single black ends, 3 red ends. 6 black ends 4 red ends, 10 pairs of black ends, 4 red ends. 4 red ends, 10 pairs of black ends, 4 red ends. Thread count: scallops c.10 threads/scallop c.14 threads/scallop c.12 threads/scallop 5 threads/scallop * Indicates the presence of madder dye in extant example Table 1: Comparison between extant garters and the garters on display. (Source: Crawfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 144-145) The Weaving Materials and Tools The garters from London were all made from wool, which was the leading material in use in England during the medieval period. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 15) The yarn was spun from worsted wool, meaning wool that was combed to smooth fibers, creating a very fine, sturdy yarn. The yarn in the garters is very fine, with approximately 16 ends per centimeter (42 epi). The garters contained both naturally white and naturally black wool, which were spun but not plied (singles). It appears that the black wool was Z-spun in some, but not all cases, (see chart) whereas the white wool warp in the garters was always S-spun. I purchased commercially S-spun single yarn in natural and black, in order to approximate the medieval yarn. Red and Black Wool Garters Page 4 of 17 The Loom While there is no particular evidence of what type of loom was used for the extant examples, small band looms were used for narrow wares, including things like garters. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 25) I chose to use a similar style of loom for this project, due to the size of the garters and the heddle. Figure 5: Small box loom. (Photo: Author) Figure 4: Box loom with Rigid Heddle. 1450-1475. (Arachne boasts to Minerva about her weaving) Measuring the Warp This was my first time warping this small band loom, so I followed the instructions in Hands On Rigid Heddle Weaving, with help from HL Haraldr Bassi. (Davenport) Each of the three extant garters was slightly different (see chart above), so I did not copy one particular ga te s a pi g patte . I decided on the following warp pattern: White: 4 singles Black 10 pairs White 4 singles Because the garters are a pair, they needed to be similar in width and length. If they were woven one after the other on the loom, it is possible that they would end up looking different from each other, due to changing tension, beating, etc. I decided that weaving them side-by-side with the same heddle would help alleviate this problem. This meant double the number of warp threads, but half the total length needed for weaving. Each garter needed to be 3 feet long, and there was going to be loom waste and uptake, so I chose a 6-foot warp to be safe. Red and Black Wool Garters Page 5 of 17 Because a 6-foot warp is relatively short for weaving, I chose to use an upright 2-pole loom for a warping board. Such a loom was used throughout the Medieval period, and was already the appropriate length. I warped each garter separately, carefully counting each pass. I did 2 passes for the white, followed by 10 passes for the black, and then an additional 2 passes for the white. I repeated this for the second garter. Afterwards, the warps for each garter were choke tied together to keep them generally in order, similar to the oss o a a pi g oa d. (Davenport 17) The loops were cut at one upright, leaving the yarn in 12 foot lengths. Figure 6: Measuring the warp. (Photo: Author) The scalloped edges of the garters required a special cord to run alongside the weaving, which would be cut away afterwards. I chose a tightly spun linen thread for this, so that it would be easy to distinguish from the wool, sturdy enough to handle the tension, and easy to remove afterwards. 2 6-foot lengths were also measured out and cut. Transferring the Warp to the Loom Once the warp was measured, it needed to be transferred to the loom. The loo does t ha e teeth, a d did t o e ith do el ods, so I ade at hi g dowel rods for the cloth and warp beams. The dowel rods are what the warp is actually tied to, and the rods are tied to the beams which turn. Once the rods were cut and lightly sanded, they were tied to the loom. Figure 7: Cutting the dowel rods. (Photo: Haraldr Bassi) Red and Black Wool Garters Page 6 of 17 The warps for each garter were tied onto the warp beam (back of the loom) separately. Once the warp was tied on, it was slowly wound onto the warp beam. Because of the fineness of the yarn and the fact there were 2 wefts going at once, I enlisted the help of HL Haraldr Bassi and HL Alexandria Doyle in this step. I wound the beam and straightened the yarn, while they each held one of the warp bundles and fed it through with tension. The linen cord was also warped at this time, so that it was under the same tension. Figure 8: Winding the Warp. (Photo: Madelena de Orozco) Once the majority of the warp was wound, I threaded the rigid heddle. Instead of cutting the white yarn at 6 feet and putting the yarn through the holes of the heddle, I threaded a loop of yarn through the adja e t slot, a d o ked ith the a as a pai . The la k a as a ped as pai s , a d e e threaded through the appropriate holes and slots of the heddle. The white yarn would be cut and threaded singly into the holes of the heddle at the end of warping. Figure 9: Adding the Rigid Heddle and Tying off the Cloth Beam. (Photo: Author) A rigid heddle is a small tool with a series of pierced slats. The warp is passed through the slots and holes, and the heddle is raised or lowered, creating the shed and countershed. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 25) Mine is a commercial heddle, which was chosen because the sett (hole/slot spacing) matched the weaving, and it was small enough to fit within the loom and warp both garters at once. After threading the heddle, it became clear that the te sio o the a p as t as u ifo as it should be, so I turned the loom around and rewound the warp on the cloth beam (now the warp beam). As the warp was wrapped on the beam, brown kraft paper was put between the layers, in order to keep the warp smooth and the layers separated. It is not clear what (if anything) was used in period. Red and Black Wool Garters Page 7 of 17 Once almost all of the warp was rewound on the beam, the white yarn loops were cut and half were threaded in the appropriate holes on the heddle while the rest were left in the slots. (Davenport 20) The black yarn was left as loops, because they were all worked as pairs. Then all of the yarn was tied onto the cloth beam (Figure 9) Figure 10: Moving the white yarn to the correct hole in the heddle. (Davenport 20) Weaving the garter Figure 11: Proposed method of weaving the garter. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland Fig. 115) Figure 12: Weaving in Progress. (Photo: Author) I used the method proposed in Textiles and Clothing to weave the garters. This meant going over and under the white singles, and then over and under 2 strands of the black yarn, since they were warped as pairs. (Figures 11 and 12) Based on the natural shed the heddle made, my weaving went under the linen cord on the first pass, a d o e the o d o the etu pass, opposite of the pi tu e. M s allops did t ha e as a stit hes of needle weaving – each one had 5 passes (3 forward, 2 backwards.) The difference is due to the space between the cord and weaving. Red and Black Wool Garters Page 8 of 17 I used a pair of bone shuttles for weaving. For the needle weaving, I started to use large eyed tapestry needles, but found that thinner, sharper needles helped getting through the last set of loops, so I switched to those needles. Care had to be taken to NOT pierce the linen edge cord with the sharp needle. I also used the needles as pin-beaters to help straighten the weft as I went (see Figure 12 where the beating had t happe ed et.) Figure 13: The weaving in progress. (Photo: Author) Steps for weaving the garters: Tabby Weave:  Push down heddle.  Throw shuttle from inside to outside, under the linen cord.  Beat the weft and pull tight.  Lift heddle.  Throw shuttle from outside to inside, over the linen cord.  Beat the weft and pull tight, without pulling the linen cord inward. After about 20 picks on one side, follow the same steps to weave the other side. Once done with both sides to approximately the same point (one-third to one-half way across the loom), make sure both shuttles are in the inside gap, and start with the needle weaving. Needle Weave:  Starting from the last woven scallop, push the needle through 5 loops.  Use the needle to beat the yarn down.  Tu the eedle so it s fa i g the othe di e tio , a d ea e a k th ough the loops, goi g over the front part of the loop and under the back part of the loop.  Use the needle to beat the yarn down.  Turn the needle again, and go through the same 5 loops again. Beat the yarn down.  Turn the needle, and go back through again. Beat the yarn down.  Turn the needle for the final time, and go through the 5 loops again, pulling tight. This will tighten the scallop into a curve.  Whipstitch 2 times along the edge of the scallop to get back to the main weaving. Needle weave the scallops until there are only a few loops left, and then weave the other side. There a e the sa e o fe e loops left o e , ut this is oka . Advance the warp on the loom, and start the next section. Red and Black Wool Garters Page 9 of 17 Things I Learned During Weaving: The white yarn was weaker than the black a . I ot su e if this is due to diffe e t sheep eed, a finishing one had over the other, or some other issue. I had several warp threads break, which were patched with replacement yarn, and the weft thread would break after approximately 1 inch of weaving. When the weft thread broke, I learned it was much easier to deal with the threads if the broken end were brought to the inside selvedge (away from the scallops) before inserting a new weft thread – otherwise the ends would interfere with the needle weaving. I also learned that having a small loom for this project was much easier to use than a larger one would have been. I found it easier to do the tabby-weaving looking down the warp (traditional position), while turning the loom sideways (scallop up) to do the needle weaving. I also found it helpful to use the other eedle to help ope up the loops. Taki g off glasses I fai l ea sighted also helped ith the needle weaving. I do t thi k the des iptio i Textiles and Clothing was correct that the weaver did all of the tabby weaving first, and then came back and did the scallops. It would mean having a 6-foot loom to have the whole length in one section, or the weaver would have to unwind the weaving in order to complete the scallops. By weaving both at once, the weaving was complete when wound on the cloth beam, and there was no reason to go backwards. Figure 14: Finished garters before dyeing. (Photo: Author) Red and Black Wool Garters Page 10 of 17 Dyeing the Garters One of the scalloped garters f o the Museu of Lo do as tested, a d oth the ed a d la k wool had indications of being dyed with madder. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 144) Wool was either dyed before weaving or afte , a d [ ] the th century a distinction was made between high ualit olou ed loths that e e d ed i the pie e … a d heape loths o e f o a d ed i the ha k. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 18) Because of this, I chose to weave the garters first, and then dye the finished pieces, in order to get an even and consistent color. Madder (Rubia tinctorum L.) was one of the primary plants used to dye cloth red. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 20) While not native to Britain, it was imported onto the island during the Anglo-Saxon period. It was also a commercial import from the Continent at various times. (Crowfoot, Pritchard and Staniland 200) The pigment in madder (Alizarin) is present in the roots, which are harvested after 3 years of growth. Differences in growing conditions and age can affect the amount of pigment present, and it is sometimes a matter of trial and error to get a good color from natural plants. (Gundersen 8) This can be exacerbated by the source of water (too hard, too soft, etc.) used to create the dyebath. Recipes for dyeing fabric are available from later period sources, and there is no reason to suppose the process changed from earlier medieval times. The Plictho by Rosetti is one such source f o the s, and it has many recipes for the use of madder to dye a variety of cloths and yarn red. (Rosetti, Edelstein and Borghetty) Kristina Gundersen (known in the SCA as Maeve Douglass, OL) recently did a research project on the use of madder, and I relied heavily on her report to get the color I was hoping for. (Appendix 1) I received a handout on madder dyeing from Griffin Dyeworks, written by Bjo Trimble (known in the SCA as Flavia Carmigniani, OL, OP) which had very similar information. (Appendix 2) I also received information about the mordants and modifiers I used from Griffin Dyeworks (Appendix 3) This information was very helpful in translating the science involved in the dye process. I ge e al, I follo ed Ms. Gu de se s di e tio s Appe di root, and pre-soaking the garters in strong water. , espe iall ega di g g i di g the Madder Recipe from The Plictho: . To ake a fi e s a let. Make ead ou ath to o da t a d he it is tepid take six pails of this water and put it into a tub. Put in six twin handfuls of bran, or better six fistfuls with both your hands and then put the said water into the cauldron. Put inside the said cloth. Soak it well to advantage, and as you have it well soaked, take it out and set it on the crossbar of the soaker to drip. Then weigh 25 pounds of alum and 4 of tartar. Put in the cauldron and skim it well and then put in the cloth and make it boil one hour and a half. Then take it out and let it cool and when you are about to madder have the said cloth washed and set up the cauldron for maddering. Pestle 35 pounds of fine lumps of madder and put them into a tub and take four twin fistfuls of bran, and pour over them two pails of strong water and two of hot water, and then mix each thing together. Then put into the cauldron six pails of strong water, and as the cauldron is about to boil skim it off very well. When it is well mixed, make ready your cloth on the adde Red and Black Wool Garters Page 11 of 17 crossbar and see that there is a good fire below and then put in your cloth and have it get six passings, or better, fast swishings. See that the cauldron boils well and to good advantage. Give up to ten passings or swishing more slowly and then take it out and make it cool and then have it well washed. Make ready the cauldron with a new bath and do so that it is about to boil and give, in the bath, four passings or swishing. Take it out and let it cool a little and then wash it well and you will have made fine your cloth of half scarlet.” (Rosetti, Edelstein and Borghetty 117) I the e ipe a o e, it alls fo st o g ate . Ea lie i The Plictho, a recipe is given for making strong water, which would be made ahead of time, and used as needed. To ake st o g ate : Fill a cauldron with clear water and set it on the fire. When the water is sizzling throw into a tub the said water, and put in one Venetian bushel of bran. Mix very well with a strong stick. Having done this, cover the tub very well with heavy cloths, so that it breathes not, and leave it stand thus two days and two nights. Note that the grain must be very well pestle and sifted, and that the finest grain is that of Corinth which is between Puglia and Calabria, and then that of Valencia and then that of Spain. And this is the est to d e loths i s a let. (Rosetti, Edelstein and Borghetty 108-109) Supplies and Modifications The historical recipes for dyeing madder are for commercial scale dyeing, and often call for pounds of madder, alum, etc. (Rosetti, Edelstein and Borghetty 117) These numbers are much too large for most dyers, so most recipes have scaled them down. (Gundersen 9) My project is so small that even the ratios given in modern redactions are difficult to scale down for a u ate easu e e ts. The ga te s a d a sa ples did t egister on my kitchen scale, so figuring out a pe e tage ased o eight of fi e as i possi le. Be ause of this, so e easu e e ts e e reduced to pinches and teaspoons. Th oughout the p o ess, I d ed oth ga te s, as ell as so e a and dark yarn. tassels ade from both the white Alum: from a pool supply company. Lime: commercial lime (calcium hydroxide) from a hardware store. Both slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and unslaked lime (calcium oxide) are mentioned in recipes, but unslaked lime becomes slaked with exposure to water. Hard water: I have very hard tap water from an aquifer, so I used that when hard water was called for. I did t add a soda ash o othe odife s to it. Madder: from Griffin Dyeworks. Rain water: Ms. Gunderse s e ipe called for using distilled water for creating the dyebath. I have a ai ate olle tio s ste , so I used it fo all ases of o -ha d ate . Strong water: Created by soaking bran in water to let it ferment. I had a box of stale oatmeal (unsuitable for eating) that I used instead. Red and Black Wool Garters Page 12 of 17 Steps for Dyeing Mordant Fibers: I created an alum bath for mordanting the fiber. Mordants are mineral salts that bind dyes into fiber, assure light- and wash-fastness, prevent color bleeding, brightens or changes some dye colors. (Appendix 2) I measured out a teaspoon of alum, and dissolved it in a gallon of warm tap water. I then added the garters and yarn samples, and let them sit in the water for approximately 24 hours. Soak Madder: I purchased 6 oz. of madder, and took out approximately 2 oz. for this project. I put the roots in a nylon bag to keep the small pieces contained, and placed the bag in a pot with a gallon of hot tap water. This fi st soaki g is to help get the ello d estuffs out of the adde a d help p odu e a t ue ed. (Appendix 2) This was left to soak approximately 24 hours. Create Strong Water: I took a cup of oatmeal, and soaked it in a quart of hot tap water in a closed container. This was left to soak, and water was periodically poured off of it as needed. Create Dyebath After soaking, the madder was removed from the water, which was poured off. The madder was removed from the stocking, and put in a blender with more water and blended. This step was encouraged by Ms. Gundersen to help get the madder fine enough to release more dyestuff (8) The historical recipes call for ground madder, which could be done in a mortar, or more likely with milling stones for large operations. Water was poured into the blender to help clean out all of the madder, and all the particles were poured back into the nylon bag and placed in the dyepot. At first I thought the directions called for hard water, and used tap water to fill the bath. Then I re-read them and saw it required fresh water. So I poured out the water in the bath (which probably caused a loss of dyestuff) and re-made the bath. I took 1 pint of the strong water and poured it into the dyepot over the madder bag, and then added another 3 pints of rainwater to create the bath. Figure 15: The ground madder. (Photo: Author) Figure 16: The dyebath, with madder in the nylon bag. Red and Black Wool Garters Page 13 of 17 Add fiber I removed the garters and samples from the alum bath and rinsed them. Then, following Ms. Gunderse s suggestio I ade a s all ath of a st o g ate to help heat up the fibers before immersion in the dyebath. Once the dyebath was in the 140-160° range, I added the garters and samples to the dyebath. They were tied to a piece of monofilament attached to the edge of the pot, and they were left to simmer for about 30 minutes on the heat. Figure 17: Garters soaking in strong water. (Photo: Author) Figure 18: The garters in the dyebath. (Photo: Author) Lime modifier To get a lue ed, li e as used to modify the color. Because I want to use the madder bath for other projects, I needed to create a smaller bath for the lime. I took a pinch of lime and placed it in a small jar. Then I scooped out a portion of the madder bath and added it to the jar. The color change was dramatic and instant. I made one jar for each garter and one for the yarn samples. Everything was left to soak overnight. Figure 19: Creating the Lime bath. (Photo: Redg the Leatherseller) Red and Black Wool Garters Page 14 of 17 After soaking overnight, I poured out the lime modified water and rinsed everything until the water ran clear. I hung up the garters and yarn samples to air dry. Figure 20: The garters soaking in rinse water. (Photo: Author) Figure 21: The garters in their rinse bath. (Photo: Author) The next day I was VERY happy with the color of the garters as they came out of the dyebath. They were RED. After they dried, however, I noticed that the color was a bit uneven and they had lightened up. The yarn samples had even more color irregularities and areas whe e the d e did t pe et ate at all. Afte ereading Ms. Gunderse s di e tio s, I t ied e-dyeing them. Red and Black Wool Garters Page 15 of 17 I reheated the main madder dyebath and added a bit more rainwater and strong water. I soaked the fibers in warm strong water and added them to the warming bath. After soaking for 30 minutes at temperature (140 – 160°) I pulled the main bath off of the stove, and created a smaller bath, using the limemodified water from before, plus another 2 pints of the madder dyebath. There was un-dissolved lime at the bottom when I added it to the pot, so I did t add any more lime. I set this on the hot stove and let it get to about 120°, at which point I added the garters and yarn samples to the bath to simmer. After simmering for 20 minutes, I pulled out the garters and yarn samples and rinsed them until the water ran clear. Figure 22: The garters in the heated lime bath. (Photo: Author) All the yarn samples and the garters were dried and left alone for a few days. When checking on them, the felt a it u h , so following advise by Ms. Gundersen, I gave them a soak in a dilute vinegar bath. Figure 23: The finished garter. (Photo: Alexandria Doyle) Red and Black Wool Garters Page 16 of 17 Things I Learned During Dyeing: Patience is the key when dyeing. While the madder dye gave a good result within 3 days of starting, many of the steps make it clear that letting things soak longer can make a stronger color. Larger batches of dyeing would make following the medieval recipes easier, based on the percentages and amounts given, but I think that this small project worked very well. I would like to do other experiments to see how other modifiers would change the results of the colors, but it is hard to risk losing a good color for hat ight happe . Red and Black Wool Garters Page 17 of 17 Works Cited "Arachne boasts to Minerva about her weaving." The Epistle of Othea (KB 74 G 27, fol. 59v), c. 14501475. Koninklijke Bibliotheek. The Hague, n.d. Illuminated Manuscript. Web. 6 February 2014. <http://resources42.kb.nl/MIMI/MIMI_74G27/MIMI_74G27_059V_MIN.JPG>. Crowfoot, Elisabeth, Frances Pritchard and Kay Staniland. Textiles and Clothing c.1150 -- c.1450 (Medieval Finds from Excavations in London: 4). London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1992. New addition - Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2001, 2002. Print. Davenport, Betty Lynn. Hands On Rigid Heddle Weaving. Loveland, CO: Interweave Press, 1987. Print. Griffin Dyeworks. MADDER ROOT & EXTRACT DYES. Griffin Dyeworks, n.d. Directions from Dyekit. Gundersen, Kristina (SKA Meave Douglass, OL). The Root of the Madder. 2015. Web. 26 January 2016. <https://www.academia.edu/21609726/The_Root_of_the_Madder>. Museum of London. "Garter | Museum of London." Garter | Museum of London. <http://collections.museumoflondon.org.uk/online/object/309350.html>." n.d. Web. 27 December 2015. Rosetti, Giovanventura, Sidney Edelstein and Hector C. Borghetty. TThe Plictho; Instructions in the Art of the Dyers: Which Teaches the Dyeing of Woolen Cloths, Linens, Cottons, and Silk by the Great Art As Well As by the Common. Cambridge: M.I.T Press, 1969. Print. Trimble, Bjo. Griffin Dyeworks: Information: Understanding Mordants and Modifiers. n.d. Web. 18 January 2016. <http://griffindyeworks.com/understanding-mordants/>. Special Thanks – those who helped with this project Mistress Aldgytha of Ashwood, HL Alexandria Doyle, HL Haraldr Bassi, Mistress Maeve Douglass, HL Mariam Albarran, HL Madelena de Orozco, Mistress Willoc mac Muiredaig, and Lord Redg the Leatherseller