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Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
Ida FröhlichRelated Papers
THE BELIEF in demons and angels is woven into the fabric of Jewish and Christian teaching concerning God, man, and the world from its earliest period until the present time. How large a place in Christian theology the conceptions of good and evil supernatural or superhuman powers have held until the last century can only be fully appreciated by research students who are willing to spend much time and labour in the study of ancient theological treatises, embracing systematic theology, volumes of sermons, tomes of Church history, as well as medieval literature in general. The dominating position in Christian thought formerly held by the conceptions of Satan, the demons, and the angels will not be gathered from modern theological treatises, sermons, or other current religious literature. These conceptions, it is true, have not been entirely eliminated. The terms Satan or the Devil, demons or evil spirits, and angels still form part of our inherited religious terminology. But anyone who studies the writings of the accredited teachers of the Churches of today will be forced to admit that in relation to our subject these stand in great contrast to the teaching of the Church in any former period of its history since the time of the apostles. ANCIENT SEMITIC DEMONOLOGY The Background of Primitive Conceptions Friendly and Hostile Departed Human Spirits—Non-human Evil Spirits—Evil Spirits in Animal Forms. Arab and Early Hebrew Demonology The Ubiquity of Demons and Their Classification—Special Hage of Demons—Special Times for Demonic Activity—Corporeality of Demons—Various Operations of Demons—Sources of Demonological Conceptions. Babylonian, Assyrian, and Early Hebrew Demonology Suppression of Hebrew Demonological Beliefs by the Yahwistic Movement—The Dominant Features of Babylonian and Assyrian Religion—The Number of the Demons—Various Classes of Demons (The Utukku; The Alu; The Ekimmu (Edimmu); The Galli; The Tu Limnu (‘Evil God’); The Rabisu. Labartu, Labasu, Ahhazu; Lili, Lilitu, and Ardat Lili; Shédim—The Seven Evil Spirits—The Forms and Abodes of Demons—Spirits which Cause Disease and Sickness —Defences against Demons—Demon Possession and Exorcism (The Use of Magical Objects and Preparations; The use of Incantations; The use of Words of Power; Knowledge of the Super-natural Enemy; The Use of Sympathetic Magic)—The Relation of Evil Spirits to the Gods. CHAPTER TWO DEMONOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS EXPANSION IN RABBINIC LITERATURE Demonic Serpents (Seraphim) : ; : Demons in Serpent Form—Fiery Flying Serpents— The Seraphim The Se‘irim, or Hairy Demons . The Se‘irim in the Old Testament—The Se‘irim as Objects of Worship—The Form of the Se‘irim. Some Other Demonic Animals , Wild Beasts—Doleful Creatures—Ostriches—S¢* Pee Welt Jackals. Azazel (The Scapegoat) The Ceremony on the Day of Atonement—The Shien of ae Ceremony—A Survival from Ancient Popular Religion. Lilith (The Night Demon) Lilith in the Old Testament—Lilith in the Rabbinic literature Source of the Conception. Deber, Keteb, and ‘Alukah Deber, the Demon of Pestilence—KXeteb, the Demon of Nese. ‘Alukah, the Leech-like Demon. The Shédim The Shédim in the Old sere and in the Rabbinic Mente The Prophetic Conception—The Beginnings of a Hebrew Demonology. Satan . je - ‘ Satan in the Old Toe cre eotan in the Rabbinic Literature— The Origin and Development of the Conception. CHAPTER THREE THE RELATION OF JEWISH TO PERSIAN CONCEPTIONS . The Nature of Persian Dualism The Temporary Character of Persian Dualism—The Pedi World-view. The Character of Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) The Meaning of the Compound Expression—Angra Mainyu fee as the Supreme Spirit of Evil. The Realms of Ahura Mazda and Ahriman . Two Primeval Spirits—The Fundamental Idea— The temptation of Zoroaster. The Defeat and Destruction of Ahriman . , The Coming Triumph of the Good—The Coming of a Savior Renewal and Resurrection. The Relation between Satan and Ahriman. Satan and Ahriman the Heads of Hosts of Evil Spirits— Satan a Created, but Rebellious Angel: Ahriman an Independent Spirit— Satan and Ahriman are both associated with the Serpent—The Similar Functions of Satan and Ahriman—The Coming Destruction of Satan and Ahriman affirmed. The Origin and Nature of Demons (Daevas) The Changed Connotation of the term Daevas—The Daevas created by Afhriman. The Number and Classification of Demons The Demons Numerous and at first Unclassified—Demons are both Visible and Invisible. The Abode of Demons and their Abolition The Localities Favoured by Demons—Protection against Demons. The Principal Demons : Aka Manah—The Druj—Aeshma—Azi Date CHAPTER FOUR RELATION OF JEWISH TO GREEK CONCEPTIONS The Earliest Greek Conceptions Departed Spirits viewed as Demons—Demons cause Diseases and Other Ills—The Dark Underworld of Spirits—Ceremonies of Aversion. The Nature of Demons . The Early Usage of the Term ‘Demon’—Demons viewed as Mediators between Gods and Men—Demons viewed as Morally Imperfect Beings—Demons viewed as Morally Evil Beings. Various Demonic Conceptions ‘ . , Harpies—Gorgons—Sirens—The Sphinx—Erinyes. The Demon of Socrates . Socrates on the Nature of Demons—Discussions in the Works of Xenophon and Plato—The Nature of the Demon of Socrates. . Oracles and Demons . :The Oracle as a Means of Spirit Communication—The Oracle of Delphi—The Oracle and Demonic Possession. Some Later Greek Conceptions ; : : Pythagorean and Other Beliefs—The Testimony of Plutarch to the Operations of Demons—The Platonic Conceptions of Demons—The Teaching of Philo. CHAPTER FIVE THE TEACHING OF JEWISH APOCRYPHAL AND APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE . The Fall of the Angels and the Origin of Demons The Second Century s.c.—The Fall of the Angels—The Origin of Demons—Divergent Accounts of the Origin of Demons—The Imprisonment of Evil Spirits—Ethical Conceptions personalized as Evil Spirits. The First Century 3.c.—The Satans and their Chief—The Preiminary Place of Punishment—Satans distinguished from Fallen Angels. The First Century a.p.—The Teaching of 2 Enoch—The Character of Azazel—Satan’s Rebellion and Expulsion from Heaven—A Comparison with Rabbinic Teaching. The Chiefs of Fallen Angels and the Princes of Demons The Second Century 3.c.—Asmodaeus, the Evil Demon—Semjaza and Azazel, Chiefs of Fallen Angels—Mastema, the Prince of Evil Spirits—Beliar, the Satanic Spirit—Satan or the Devil. The First Century s.c.—The Satans and Satan—The Satans have Access to God in Heaven. The First Century a.p.—Azazel, the Fallen Archangel—Beliar, Mastema, and Sammael—Satanail, the Prince of Fallen Angels—Satan or the Devil, the Enemy of God and Man. The Operations and Doom of Evil Spirits The Second Century 3.c.—The Operations of Evil Spirits—The Final Doom of Evil Spirits. The First Century B.c.—The Activities of the Satans—Their Final Doom. The First Century A.D —Aerial Spirits and their Activities—The Two Impulses in Man—The Final Doom of Evil Spirits, CHAPTER SIX THE TEACHING OF THE NEW TESTAMENT I. The Teaching of the Synoptic Gospels mens of the Fourth Gospel The Teaching of the Synoptic Gospels: The Tenenee and Geena of Demons—The Phenomena of Demoniacal Possession—Christ’s Control over the Demons: Exorcism—The Exorcism of Demons by the Disciples of Jesus and Others—The Prince of Demons, Satan or the Devil, Beelzebub (The Jewish Background of the Synoptic Teaching concerning Satan or the Devil; The Relation of Satan to Beelzebub; Satan, the Tempter of Jesus; The Character and Operations of Satan as described by Jesus; The Final Destruction of Satan).—The Teaching of the Fourth Gospel. Christ’s Attitude to the Belief in Satan. II. The Teaching of the Acts of the Apostles . Demon Possession and Exorcism—Demons, Divination, and Sorcery—The Belief in Satan or the Devil. III. The Teaching of St. Paul’s Epistles . The Relation between Demons and Idolatry—The Pewee of as Air and the Spiritual Hosts of Wickedness in Heavenly Places— Beliar, the Prince of Evil—The Character and Operations of Satan or the Devil (General References to Satan or the Devil; Satan and the Man of Sin; The Delivery of Men to Satan; Satan, the God of this World or Age). IV. The Teaching of Hebrews and of the Sanaa Epistles Teaching concerning Denies The ee dees of ne Rebellious Angels—The Devil viewed as the Angel of Death and as Man’s Great Adversary—The Conception of the Devil in the Johannine Epistles. V. The Teaching of the Book of Revelation . I. Elementary Conceptions II. The Background of Old Testament Parent fier Teaching Concerning Demons—Abaddon or Apollyon, King ye the Demonic Hosts—The Conception of the Dragon—The Manifold Activities of Satan—The Binding, Loosing, and Final Destruction of Satan (The Binding of Satan; The Period of a thousand years—the Millennium; The Final Destruction of Satan. And much more look into upload for more Content Chapters and subjects not listed here due to space issues.
Association of Jewish Studies Review
A Seven-Headed Demon in the House of Study: Understanding a Rabbinic Demon in Light of Zoroastrian, Christian, and Babylonian Textual Traditions.2019 •
From the earliest times Eastern races, in common with the rest of mankind, have always held a firm belief in the existence of evil spirits, ghosts, and all kindred powers. The phenomenon of death, the mystery of disease and sickness, and all the other events of common occurrence in daily life gave rise to speculations about the unseen world, which gradually led to a distinction, although slight at all times, between good and evil spirits. The early Semitic people of Babylonia, whoever they may have been or wherever they may have migrated from, found a theology ready to their hands in the adopted country, which they took over from.... Even the Babylonians knew that they needed protection against the evil that existed, and sought their answers in the secrets that remained, them remannts of the story of Eden... It is therefore evident that when the Semitic Babylonian took over the learning of his Sumerian predecessors, he seems also to have unconsciously adapted an enlarged his ideas to fit their beliefs, receiving their doctrines in their entirety as worthy of implicit trust, and in the belief that his teachers must necessarily understand the supernatural powers peculiar to their own country. You will learn about: Various types of evil spirits and their classifications and purposes: where they dwell and where they came from- their origin. The truth about seven key evil spirits described in Luke 11:26 when he said, seven other spirits more evil than himself... How babyloinians used charms and magic to seek success and further their sorcery. Discover how secrets that were carried out from the Garden of Eden became key ingredients that Babylonians used in their sorcery. Babylonian cantantions that were to repell spirits. Secrets of the Babylonian tablets. Demons, Schools, Vampires, Hobgoblins, Ghosts, and Kindred Evil Spirits, which Attack Mankind Original goal of this book was to supply the student of Assyrian Demonology with English transliterations and translations, with the necessary notes, etc., of the documents printed in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Parts of Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets, etc., which have been recently issued by the Trustees of the British Museum. It includes proof of the fact that a considerable proportion of the magical practices which are in use in the East to the present day were well known to the inhabitants of Mesopotamia several thousands of years ago, and that many of them were borrowed by the Hebrews and other dwellers in Syria and Persia from their neighbors on that Tigris and Euphrates. The Roots of Science In these Babylonian magical records we have by far the most complete picture of the magic of the ancient world. It is a wondrous story that is told by those bricks and cylinders of stamped clay —the story of civilized man’s first gropings for light. For in these venerable writings we must recognize the first attempts at scientific elucidation of the forces by which man is surrounded. Science, like religion, has its roots deep in magic. The primitive man believes implicitly in the efficacy of magical ritual. What it brings about once it can bring about again if the proper conditions be present and recognized. Thus it possesses for the barbarian as much of the element of certainty as the scientific process does for the chemist or the electrician. Given certain causes certain effects must follow. Surely, then, in the barbarous mind, magic is pseudo-scientific—of the nature of science. There appears a deeper gloom, a more ominous spirit of the ancient and the obscure in the magic of old Mesopotamia than in that of any other land. Its mighty sanctuaries, its sky-aspiring towers, seem founded upon this belief in the efficacy of the spoken spell, the reiterated invocation. Thousands of spirits various and grotesque, the parents of the ghosts and goblins of a later day, haunt the purlieus of the^temple, battening upon the remains of sacrifice (the leavings of the gorged gods), flit through the night-bound streets, and disturb the rest of the dwellers in houses. Demons with claw and talon, vampires, ghouls—all are there. Spirits blest and unblest, jinn, witch-hags, lemures, sorrowing unburied ghosts. No type of supernatural being appears to have been unknown to the imaginative Semites of old Chaldea. These must all be ‘ laid/ exorcised, or placated, and it is not to be marvelled at that in such circumstances the trade of the necromancer flourished exceedingly. The witch or wizard, however, the unprofessional and detached practitioner with no priestly status, must beware. He or she was regarded with suspicion, and if one fell sick of a strange wasting or a disease to which he could not attach a name, the nearest sorcerer, male or female, real or imaginary, was in all probability brought to book.. Priestly Wizards The wizard and the witch were known as Kassapu or Kassaptu. These were the sorcerers or magicians proper, and that they were considered dangerous to the community is shown by the manner in which they are treated by the code of Khammurabi, in which it is ordained that he who charges a man with sorcery and can justify the charge shall obtain the sorcerer’s house, and the sorcerer shall plunge into the river. But if the sorcerer be not drowned then he who accused him shall be put to death and the wrongly accused man shall have his house. The Word of Power As in Egypt, the word of power was held in great reverence by the magicians of Chaldea, who believed that the name, preferably the secret name, of a god possessed sufficient force in its mere syllables to defeat and scatter the hordes of evil things that surrounded and harassed mankind. The names of Ea and Merodach were, perhaps, most frequently used to carry destruction into the ranks of the demon army. It was also necessary to know the name of the devil or person against whom his spells were directed. If to this could be added a piece of hair, or the nail-parings in the case of a human being, then special efficacy was given to the enchantment. But just as hair or nails were part of a man so was his name, and hence the great virtue ascribed to names in art-magic, ancient and modern. The name was, as it were, the vehicle by means of which the magician established a link between himself and his victim, and the Babylonians in exorcising sickness or disease of any kind were wont to recite long catalogues of the names of evil spirits and demons in the hope that by so doing they might chance to light upon that especial individual who was the cause of the malady. Even long lists of names of persons who had died premature deaths were often recited in order to ensure that they would not return to torment the livin Mesopotamian Myths and Legends of Babylonia and Assyria, is a book that includes explanations of Babylonian and Assyrian legends and myths as well as the myths themselves. Lewis Spence, in the Preface, describes his purpose in writing the book as providing the reader with "the treasures of romance latent in the subject, the peculiar richness of which has..... That Chaldean magic was the precursor of European mediaeval magic as apart from popular sorcery and witchcraft is instanced not only by the similarity between the systems but by the introduction into mediaeval magic of the names of Babylonian and Assyrian gods and magicians. Again and again is Babylon appealed to even more frequently than Egypt, and we meet constantly with the names of Beelzebub, Ishtar (as Astarte), Baal, and Moloch, whilst the names of demons, obviously of Babylonian origin, are encountered in almost every work on the subject. Frequent allusions are also made to the ‘wise men’ and necromancers of Babylon, and to the ‘ star-gazers ’ of Chaldea. The conclusion is irresistible that ceremonial magic, as practised in the Middle Ages, owed much to that of Babylon. Our information regarding Chaldean magic is much more complete than that which we possess concerning the magic of ancient Egypt. Hundreds of spells, incantations, and omen-inscriptions have been recovered, and these not only enlighten us regarding the class of priests who practised magic, but they tell us of the several varieties of demons, ghosts, and evil spirits ; they minutely describe the Babylonian witch and wizard, and they picture for us jnany magical ceremonies, besides informing us of the names of scores of plants and flowers possessing magical properties, of magical substances, jewels, amulets, and the like. Also they speak of sortilege or the divination of the future, of the drawing of magical circles, of the exorcism of evil spirits, and the casting out of demons.
2024 •
The confluence of different Jewish traditions in the Qumran library is evident. The Enochic traditions are not only counted as the oldest influences in Qumran, they also give it a certain theological unity. This is even more true in the case of demonology. Belial’s figure brings together a rich lexicographic heritage in which different traditions are integrated under the characteristics of the Watchers and Giants of the Enochic tradition (1 En 6—8). This study analyzes the theological characterization of the demonological figures found in Qumran to specify the Enochic influence on it.
Archiv für Religionsgeschichte 14.1 (2012), pp. 117-127
Their Divinity is Different, their Nature is Distinct! Origin and Features of Demons in Mesopotamian Cultures2012 •
“Demon” is a generic term that hardly fits the various Mesopotamian be- ings, which according to modern scholars are grouped under this category. Despite the evolution of demonic imagery through different periods and sources, these be- ings share a series of common features such as their origin, position and role in the pantheon, liminality, actions and powers, hybridity, and aerial form. In my paper I will analyze these features so as to argue that incompleteness constitutes the main aspect of their nature.
The present article provides an analysis of general traits of those particular extra-human beings conventionally called “demons” found in ancient Mesopotamian religion. Furthermore, methodological problems on the topic are discussed according to a historical-religious point of view.
A. Lange, E. Tov, M. Weigold (eds.), The Dead Sea in Context
Qumran Biblical Interpretation in the Light of Ancient Near Eastern HistoriographyPp 75-124 in: David Stacey and Gregory Doudna, with a contribution from Gideon Avni, Qumran Revisited: A Reassessment of the Archaeology of the Site and its Texts. Oxford: Archaeopress
"The Sect of the Qumran Texts and its Leading Role in the Temple in Jerusalem During Much of the First Century BCE: Toward a New Framework for Understanding" (2013)2013 •
Argues that traditional reasons for supposing a programmatically adversarial relationship between the sect of the Qumran texts and Hasmonean high priests are insubstantial, and that the sect of the Qumran texts controlled the temple during some of the Hasmonean era. Argues that the Teacher vs. wicked high priest conflict alluded to in the texts reflects the end, not the beginning, of the era of the Hasmonean high priests, when there was a dispute between rival Hasmonean claimants familiar from history. This essay appeared in Qumran Revisited: A Reassessment of the Archaeology of the Site and its Texts, by David Stacey and Gregory Doudna with a contribution from Gideon Avni, available from BAR Publishing, Oxford, at https://www.barpublishing.com/qumran-revisited-a-reassessment-of-the-archaeology-of-the-site-and-its-texts.html. The publisher requests this statement to appear: This version is free to view and download for personal use only. It cannot be reproduced in any form without permission of the publisher.
THEOLOGY AND DEMONOLOGY IN QUMRAN TEXTS
IDA FRÖHLICH, Pázmány Péter Catholic University
Demons are mentioned in a number of texts that have survived in the
library of the Qumran community. Some of these texts are narrative works
while others belong to the genre of wisdom literature. There are also texts
that were written for practical purposes. This article provides a short outline
of the theme of demonology in Qumran literature, presenting the
phenomenon of belief in demons in the written tradition, its background,
the question of the influence of Babylonian culture, the attitude toward
demons and magical methods, and the formation of a new method of
dealing with the demonic part of the world mirrored in various Qumran
texts.
4Q510-11 (Songs of the Sage)
4Q510-111 is a collection of fragments of two manuscripts. 4Q510 has
only one major fragment and 11 minor ones; 4Q511 represents a much longer
copy of the same work. On paleographical grounds both manuscripts are dated
to the end of the 1st century BCE. The work is thought to be sectarian, that is, a
work composed in the community, and representing vocabulary and ruling
ideas of the community. The songs are authored by the maskil, the sage. The
songs are hymnic poems of wisdom reflecting on the world order and the role
of human beings. Their main themes are the glory of God, the activity of the
righteous, and the works of evil demons in the world. The songs reflect a
dichotomous worldview. God is called the King of Glory (4Q510 1, 1); God of
knowledge (4Q510 1, 2); Lord of the divine beings (’l ’lym), and Lord of all
the holy ones (’l qdwšym) (4Q510 1, 2). His realm is above the powerfully
mighty (4Q510 1 3). However, God is once called El Shaddai (4Q 511 8, 6), a
name used especially in magical texts. Divine beings are also mentioned
several times in the hymns.
The Sage (maskil) is characterized by the knowledge he received from
God. He loathes all deeds of impurity, that is, practices resulting in impurity
(4Q511 18 I, 7). There is a group mentioned in the Songs as the associates of
the Sage: “those who follow the path of God” (4Q511 2 I, 6). This means in
Qumran vocabulary the right interpretation and practice of the Mosaic Law,
namely, interpretation according to the tradition of the community. Other
names for this group are those who know justice, (4Q511 2 I, 2) and the holy
1
M. Baillet, “Cantiques du Sage (i) (Pl LV),” “Cantiques du Sage (ii) (Pl. LVI-LXXI),” in
Qumrân Grotte 4.III (4Q482-4Q450), ed. M. Baillet, (DJD 7; Oxford: Clarendon, 1982), pp. 21562.
Hen 32(1/2010)
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Essays / Saggi
ones, (4Q511 35, 2-3). Thus, the group is characterized by knowledge, purity,
and holiness; the latter two because of their right practice of the Law. They
receive their knowledge from God.
The third element of the system is the demons. They are listed in both
exemplars of the work (4Q510 1, 5-8; 4Q511 10, 1-5). According to the list
they are spirits of the ravaging2 angels (ml’ky bl); the bastard spirits
(rw wt mmzrym); demons (šdym), Lilith, (lylyt); owls and jackals, (‘hym
w ‛yym); those who strike unexpectedly to lead astray the spirit of knowledge
(hpwg‛ym pt‛ pt’wm lt‛wt rw bynh).
The activity of the demons is, according to the Songs, not forever, but
only for the period of the rule of wickedness and in the periods of
humiliation of the sons of light. Periods (called q , pl. q ym) of human
history are often mentioned in several Qumran works, such as Pesher ‛al
ha-qi im, 4Q180-181, which is a theoretical work on these periods in
human history. The various periods are characterized by the activity of
various groups, the righteous, or the evil. According to this they are labelled
as periods of righteousness, or periods of sin. The latter, of course, are
periods of oppression for the righteous. So, the demons mentioned in the
Songs of the Sage are subject to God’s power, and they are mediators of
divine plans.
Shedim, Lilith, owls and jackals
As to the names and origin of the various categories of demons, some of
them are known from the Old Testament as well as from Syrian and
Mesopotamian lore, like the šdym, Lilith, and owls and jackals. Together with
Lilith, owls and jackals are mentioned as evil spirits dwelling at deserted ruins
(Isa 34:14). Isaiah does not inform about Lilith’s characteristics. On the other
side Lilith is well known from Mesopotamian incantation texts and amulets as
a night demon killing babies. The incantation series Maqlû mentions several
times the group lilû, lilītu, and (w)ardat lilî.3 The name Lilitu is to be identified
here with that of Lilith as well as in the incantation texts written against the
demons of the lilû-family.4 Lilith is dangerous, above all for newborn babies,
sucking their blood and eating their flesh. Her characteristics are very similar
to those of the Mesopotamian female demon Lamaštu. She is represented on
her numerous representations with lion head, female body, bird’s legs, holding
2
ebel ‘destruction’ from the root bl II. ‘act corruptly’, Pi. ‘ruin, destroy’. Pun possible
the root bl I. ‘bind, pledge (bind by taking a pledge)’.
3
G. Meier, Die assyrische Beschwörungssammlung Maqlû neu bearbeitet (AfO Beiheft
2; Osnabrück: Biblio-Verlag, 1937, Neudruck 1967)
4
The members of the lilû-family are the lilû, a male demon, an incubus; the lilītu, a
female demon who strangles newborn children; the (w)ardat lilî, a female demon, a kind of
succubus. For the texts see W. Farber, Schlaf, Kindchen, Schlaf! Mesopotamische BabyBeschwörungen und Rituale (Mesopotamian Civilizations 2; Eisenbrauns: Winona Lake,
1989).
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
103
snakes in her hands, and suckling a dog and a swine.
Jewish sources derive the name Lilith from the noun lylh, “night.”
However, its origin is the Sumerian word líl meaning “wind” (similarly the
names lilû and (w)ardat lilî). Lilith and her companions are constantly
mentioned in the texts of the Aramaic and Mandean magic bowls from late
antiquity. The inscriptions in the bowls served apotropaic purposes. The
majority of the bowls originate from the Jewish community of Nippur.5 Lilith
is well known in Talmudic and later Jewish tradition.6 Apotropaic texts called
segullah, directed against Lilith’s harmful activity, have been used in
Jewish tradition until modern times. Printed segulloth from Hungary from
the beginning of the 20th century used Psalm texts and names of the
biblical matriarchs as protection against Lilith (Lilit in OT).7
Without mentioning Lilit’s name Isa 13:21-22 lists owls and jackals,
ostriches and “hairy ones” (s‘yrym), all of them as demonic beings dwelling
among ruins.8 In the ancient Near East and the Mediterranean, owls are
generally connected to death and the demonic.9 The evil utukku-demons are
called “owls hooting over the city” in a Mesopotamian incantation text.
Similarly, the jackal is an animal related to death.10 A general name of a
demonic being is šēd (šd), usually mentioned in plural form in the Old
Testament (Deut 32:17, Ps 106:37).
The Old Testament mentions other demonic beings besides those
mentioned above. Saul’s mysterious depressive illness is caused by a bad
spirit (rw r‘h) (1 Sam 16:14-23).11 Saul evokes the spirit of the dead
Samuel, with the help of the witch of En-dor (1 Sam 28). Demonic beings
5
J.A. Montgomery, Aramaic Incantation Texts from Nippur (Publications of the
Babylonian Section 3; Philadelphia: University Museum, 1913); M.J. Geller, “Eight
Incantation Bowls,” Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica 17 (1986), pp. 101–17.
6
Mentioned in four tractates (Niddah 24b, Baba Bathra 73a, Šabbat 151b, ‛Erubin 100b)
as a long-haired winged being. In midrashic tradition Lilit was Adam’s first wife. He
gendered with her the šēdim who bring plagues and afflictions on humans. Lilit wanted to
rule over Adam, therefore he dismissed her. Lilit became an evil spirit, the demon of the
childbed fever and infant mortality. See V. Haas, Magie und Mythen in Babylonien: von
Dämonen, Hexen und Beschwörungspriestern (Merlins Bibliothek der geheimen
Wissenschaften und magischen Künste 8; Gifkendorf: Merlin, 1986), pp. 224-225.
7
I. Fröhlich, “Two Apotropaic Texts from the Jewish Museum of Budapest,” in
Proceedings of the Colloquium on Popular Customs and the Monotheistic Religions in the
Middle East and North Africa, eds. A. Fodor and A. Shivtiel, (Budapest Studies in Arabic 910; Budapest: University of Eötvös Loránd, 1995), pp. 295-303.
8
The term is mentioned in the Old Testament over 50 times. On the figure of the se‛irim
see B. Janowski, ’Satyrs’, in K. van der Toorn, B. Becking, P.W. van der Horst (eds.),
Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, Leiden: Brill, 1999), pp. 732-3.
9
A. Dunnigan “Owls”, in The Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. M. Eliade (New York:
Macmillan, 1987), vol. 11, pp. 144-145, esp. p. 144.
10
Gods and demons of death are usually represented in the form of various canines. The
jackal-form of god is the lord of the desert and the netherworld. See also M. Heerma van
Voss “Anubis”, ibid. vol. 1, pp. 330-331.
11
The word rw can also designate ethical evil, like the “spirit of breach” in Judges 9:2223, and “a lying spirit” in the mouth of prophets in 1 Kings 22:19-22.
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Essays / Saggi
are referred to in texts mentioning Azazel (‘z’zl, Lev 16:8, 10, 26), the
rephaim (rp’ym), and the vampire-like ‛alûqâ (Prov 30:15). Names of
illnesses and afflictions may comprise the meaning of demonic beings, like
mašhît, deber, qeteb, rešep or the “demonium meridianum” in Ps 91:6.12
Later Jewish tradition shows a rich world of demons.13 Illnesses and
afflictions in the Old Testament narratives are always God’s agents for
punishing sins. They are never sovereign entities.14
The use of amulets is also documented in the Old Testament. The
“moonlets” (shrnym) mentioned in historical and prophetic texts (Jdg 8:21, 26;
Isa 3:18) probably served as amulets. In all probability jewels (nose-rings,
necklaces also worn as amulets) and make-up used for apotropaic purposes
were meant when the prophet Hosea urged Israel to “put away her whoring
from her face (pnym), and her adultery from between her breasts” (Hos 2:2).
Golden bells (p‘mnym) hanging from the high priest’s garment (Ex 28:33ff;
39:25ff) “were in the first instance amulets to frighten evil spirits away”.15 A
tomb from Ketef Hinnom (Jerusalem) from the end of the pre-exilic period
provided archaeological evidence for the use of amulets as sacred texts written
on silver sheets with protective and apotropaic purposes.16
The Old Testament has a negative attitude toward magic. The historical
narratives of the corpus, possible witnesses of everyday practice, have come
down to us through the filter of the Deuteronomistic editors whose opinion
was adverse to magic; accordingly they tried to eliminate all magical elements.
For this reason references to belief in demons are not obvious. However,
behind these laconic reports there may exist a living but concealed world of
beliefs. It is hard to believe that in preexilic Israel there was only a limited or
temporary belief in demons, confined to an acquaintance only with some
demons, in certain periods. Belief or non-belief in demons is a vital part of any
worldview, and it is never partial or temporary.
Ancient Near Eastern cultures attributed illnesses, anxiety and psychic
disorders, afflictions, epidemies, and all kinds of natural evil to the work of
demons. This view can be said to be natural, since at that time there was no
knowledge about bacteria, viruses, other biological causes of illness, or
medical theories and concepts that are well-known to us. The Hippocratic
humoral theory that considers illness a disorder of the balance of humors in
12
68.
A. Caquot, “Sur quelques démons de l’Ancien Testament,” Semitica 6 (1956), pp. 53-
13
For a survey see D.R. Hillers, “Demons, Demonology,” Encyclopedia Judaica, ed.
Cecil Roth (Jerusalem: Keter, 1971) vol. 5, cols. 1521-1533, esp. cols. 1526-1533 for demons
in the Talmud and Kabbalah.
14
On the concept see K. van der Toorn, Sin and Sanction in Israel and Mesopotamia, A
comparative study (Studia Semitica Neerlandica 22; Assen: van Gorcum, 1985).
15
T.W. Davies, Magic, Divination and Demonology (New York: KTAV, 1898, reprint
1969) p. 99.
16
G.A. Barkay, G. Vaughn, M.J. Lundberg, and B. Zuckerman, “The Amulets from Ketef
Hinnom: A New Edition and Evaluation,” BASOR 334 (2004), pp. 41-71.
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
105
human organisms was a revolutionary breakthrough in ancient medicine.
However, it occurred only at the turn of the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, and
Near Eastern medicine had not been influenced by it for a long time.
Consequently the realm of demons was a natural and basic element of the
worldview of ancient Near Eastern cultures, including the Israelite culture,
from the earliest times to late antiquity.
Mesopotamian demonology
Ancient Israel’s culture is rooted in the Semitic cultures of the ancient
Near East. Notwithstanding that Yahwistic monotheism was prevalent in
Israel, the worldview and beliefs of Israelites are similar to those of the
Syrian-Mesopotamian world. The period of the exile was an age of direct
contact with that world, a living experience for the exiled. Aramaic
language and literacy were mediators between Mesopotamian and Jewish
lore. Aramaic was known even earlier as a language of diplomacy. 17
Demonology, magical literature and healing practice have been well
documented in Mesopotamia in literary texts, documents, and art. This is
also true for the Neo-Babylonian period, the time of the Exile.
Jewish-Mesopotamian cultural relations continued during the long
period of the diaspora. Jewish groups living in Mesopotamia were very well
informed of and a part of the political events and culture of their
environment.18 Mesopotamian literary and scientific traditions may have
been mediated to the Jewish communities in exile through Aramaic scribes,
well trained in Mesopotamian scribal tradition, and able to transmit it in
Aramaic.19 During the first millennium BCE, besides copies of works of
older cuneiform literature, an abundance of Aramaic texts may have been
produced in Mesopotamian scribal offices – works written on parchment
and papyrus, therefore not preserved.20 In order to understand certain
phenomena in postexilic Jewish culture one has to take into account
17
See 2 Kings 18:26; Isa 36:11, the report on Jerusalem’s Assyrian siege in 701 BCE.
To give just two examples: references to the Persian conquest of Babylon in DeuteroIsaiah (Isa 40-46) reflect accurate information on political events from the viewpoint of Jews
in exile. Authors of the earliest parts of the Danielic collection (Dan 2, 4, 5) are well
acquainted with Mesopotamian methods of dream-interpretation, presenting the method as
practiced by a Jewish exile, Daniel, on divine inspiration. See I. Fröhlich, ‘Time and Times
and Half a Time …,’ Historical Consciousness in the Jewish Literature of the Persian and
Hellenistic Eras (JSOT Supplement Series 19; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996),
pp. 11-48.
19
The Neo-Babylonian term sāpiru designates Aramean scribes, competent in both
Aramaic and cuneiform recording, see M.A. Dandamaev, Vavilonskie pistsy (Moscow:
Nauka, 1983), pp. 67-76. Competence in cuneiform recording was not restricted to
professional scribes, see M.W. Stolper ”Mesopotamia, 482-330 B.C.,” in The Cambridge
Ancient History VI. The Fourth Century B.C. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1994), pp. 234-260, esp. pp. 255-256.
20
B.T. Arnold, Who were the Babylonians? (Leiden: Brill, 2005), pp. 81-82.
18
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Essays / Saggi
possible influences of Mesopotamian culture on Jewish thought.21
The worldview of the Mesopotamians was determined by their beliefs in
omina and demons. The basis for the interpretation of omina was their
holistic concept of the world.22 Heavenly and earthly realms were
interrelated, earthly institutions being a mirror form of heavenly ideal plans.
They looked for relations between stars and natural phenomena of the
heavenly world, which gave rise to astrology. The constellation of heavenly
bodies, behavior of animals, especially birds, phenomena of the earth, and
dreams were interpreted as predictions of the future. The interpretation of
omina was an everyday praxis in Babylonia. The 4th century Greek author,
Theophrastos, ridiculed the Babylonians for their extreme insistence upon
interpreting everyday phenomena as prognostications of future events.23
Demons were considered in Mesopotamia as a natural phenomenon, an
imminent part of the world, representing natural evil. They were considered
as harmful beings, causes of illnesses, plagues, and any noxious influence
on humans. They counted as the most dangerous spirits the e emmu-s, the
spirit of the dead, especially those who suffered a violent death or who did
not receive a proper burial and offerings following their death. A babykilling demon called Lamaštu (known also under the name lilītu) was
generally known and feared. The demons lilû and (w)ardat lilî were types
of incubus and succubus who caused erotic dreams and nocturnal seminal
emission.
In many cases demons are simply known by the name of a symptom of
disease such as Headache or Fever. The fullest description of evil demons
and their nature is the series entitled Utukkū Lemnūtu. It is a manual of
demonology, a rich account of demons and ghosts. The demons are agents
of illness, fever, and drought. The utukku is “hostile in appearance” and is
“tall in stature,” “his voice is great.” "His shadow is dusky, it is darkened,
there is no light in his body.” The demon dwells in hidden places. “Gall is
always dripping from his talons, his tread is harmful poison” (UH 12:1418).24 They usually roam in bands. They ravage crops like scorching
windstorms, and spring up on animals and humans. They kill humans,
21
Jewish Aramaic works of the Second Temple literature show a considerable influence
of Mesopotamian tradition. Several themes of the Aramaic Enochic literature from Qumran
are inspired by Mesopotamian scientific lore. A further study of the impact of Mesopotamian
culture of the Achaemenid era on Jewish Aramaic literature will bring important results.
22
W. van Binsbergen and F. Wiggerman, “Magic in History. A Theoretical Perspective,
and its application to Ancient Mesopotamia,” in Mesopotamian Magic. Textual, historical,
and interpretative perspectives, eds. T. Abusch and K. van der Toorn (Ancient Magic and
Divination I; Groningen: Styx 1999), pp. 3-34, esp. pp. 25-29, 33-34.
23
Theophrastos, Characteres 16; see Theophrastos, Characteres (The Loeb Classical
Library 225; Cambridge: Harvard 1993), pp. 106-113.
24
For the texts see M.J. Geller, Forerunners to Udug-Hul: Sumerian exorcistic
incantations (Freiburger altorientalische Studien 12; Stuttgart: Steiner 1985). Utukkū lemnūtu
is a comprehensive survey of these demonic beings. The picture given in Mesopotamian
magical texts and omen literature tallies with the above description.
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
107
shedding their blood and devouring their flesh, sapping their stamina,
incessantly consuming blood (UH 4:1-8).25
They are indefinitely shaped dim figures. They are children of the Earth
(er etu) and the sky-god Anu (UH 5:1-10). They are counter-measures of the
holistic world. “Non-anthropomorphic breed of Heaven and Earth, amoral
outsiders sharing neither the burdens, nor the profits of civilization. They
attack man indiscriminately, not because of his sins … but in order to get
by force what they do not get by right: food and drink. The essential
characteristic of these demons is that they do not have a cult, so they cannot
profit from the co-operation with man on a regular basis, as the gods do.
They are not members of the civilised centre.” 26 These demons represent
the natural evil in the world, evil that appears in the form of various
diseases, mental illnesses, drought, famine, and natural disasters.
Demons were considered impure. They were supposed to live in
subterranean holes and in desert regions, among ruins of houses, outside of the
city, sites not belonging to the ordered world of humans, localities that were
isolated from human communities. Demons’ abodes were also rubbish heaps
and latrines, places considered as impure, where refuse resulting from
disintegration of human bodies, scraps of food, personal objects, and the like
were to be found, through which they supposedly developed their noxious
influence on humans. Places beside waters and alongside canals were also
considered the habitations of demons.27
Witches allegedly possessed the ability to evoke demons and make
people ill. Epilepsy and psychotic illnesses usually were considered the
result of sorcery and the charms of witches. For that reason witchcraft and
sorcery were considered as especially harmful. The series Maqlû was
written against the practices of the witch, in order to neutralize their
charms.28
Protection of houses and persons
Humans tried to protect themselves against demons in various ways, by
protecting the integrity of the human body, and hiding or avoiding
disintegration. Apertures of the body like mouth, nose, ears, and eyes were
25
Incantations of the Arameans of the Urmia region from the 18-19th centuries speak of
seven evil demons which creep on the cattle, their victims, like snakes, devouring their flesh,
and drinking their blood like vampires. Greek magical papyri mention Ereshkigal, the queen
of the nether world as one who is stuffing dung and gobbling flesh. See V. Haas, Magie, pp.
220-221.
26
W. van Binsbergen and F. Wiggerman, Magic in History, pp. 3-34, esp. p. 27.
27
Rivers, springs, etc. are in Babylonian and Jewish worldviews connected with the
subterranean waters (the earth being a flat disk floating on the subterranean ocean). See W.G.
Lambert, “The Cosmology of Sumer and Babylon,” Rabbi Louis Jacobs, “Jewish
Cosmology,” in Ancient Cosmologies, eds. Carmen Blacker and Michael Loewe (London:
George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1975), pp. 42-65; 66-86.
28
G. Meier, Maqlû.
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Essays / Saggi
protected by make-up (antimony for the eyes and red paint for the lips),
earrings, nose-rings, and necklaces. Tattooing served a similar function.
Cylinder seals worn on the neck served not only as sign-manuals of their
owners, but also as apotropaic objects. They commonly had scenes of the gods
depicted on them. The house was defended by similar methods. Gates of
official buildings were guarded on both sides by figures of protective spirits
(lion or bull), seen by everybody. Smaller apotropaic figurines were
deposited at the entrances of private buildings. Clay or wooden figurines
were buried under the floor of courtyards, rooms, and thresholds; divine
artifacts made of metal and stone were placed in brick boxes.
Illnesses were healed with incantations designed to remove the curses of
sorcerers, chasing away the demon that caused the illness. There were two
main categories of healers, the āšipu and the asû healers. The first one
specified the diagnosis, the second one dealt with the therapy, working also
with materia medica. Their views concerning the cause of the illness were
similar, attributing demonic causes to illnesses. Any differences lay in their
methods, the asû using more herbs and materia medica. Their relationship
was rather similar to that of the doctor and the pharmacist.29
Demons and ritual impurity systems
Belief in demons is a core element in the rationale of the concept of
ritual impurity. Impurity systems are known from several ancient Near
Eastern cultures. In addition to ancient Israel, Syrian, Mesopotamian,
Iranian, and Indian cultures were familiar with the idea of impurity, and
based various systems upon it. Impurity is human-centered in each system.
Basic impurities are the bodily (physical) impurities of humans. Physical
impurities resulted from organic states or natural human processes like
death or menstruation. A theoretical system of impurities in ancient Israel is
given in the Priestly Codex of Leviticus.30 Physical (bodily) impurities in
the Old Testament system are corpses, blood, lepers, and certain bodily
emissions (any flow from genitalia). Whatever contributes to the disintegration
of the body is considered physically impure.31 Belief in demons and impurity
29
J. Scurlock, “Physician, Exorcist, Conjurer, Magician: A Tale of Two Healing
Professionals,” in Mesopotamian Magic: Textual, historical, and interpretative perspectives,
ed. T. Abusch and K. van der Toorn, (Ancient Magic and Divination I; Groningen: Styx,
1999), pp. 69-79.
30
P does not discuss excrement, urine, sweat, and saliva. The first two were probably
considered impure. See D. P. Wright, “Unclean and Clean, Old Testament,” in The Anchor
Bible Dictionary, ed. David N. Freedman (Nashville: Abingdon, 1992), Vol. 6:729-741, esp.
pp. 735-736.
31
M. Douglas, “Couvade and Menstruation: The Relevance of Tribal Studies,” in Implicit
Meanings: Essays in Anthropology, ed. M. Douglas (Boston: Routledge, 1975) calls impurity
“what is not whole or normal.” G.J. Wenham, “Why Does Sexual Intercourse Defile (Lev
15:18)?” ZAW 95 (1983), pp. 432–34 associates purity and impurity with the ideas of life and
death. The best definition is from Mary Boyce: “apart from the corpse, the chief cause of
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
109
systems are related to each other.32 Whatever is impure is receptive to
demonic influence and vulnerable. Humans attempt to impede the spread of
impurity as a method of defending against the pernicious influence of the
demonic world.
The Story of the Watchers: Rationale for the origin of the demonic in the
postexilic age.
The expression rw wt mmzrym in 4Q510-11 designates demons. Bastard
spirits and ravaging angels probably originated in the Enochic tradition where
the Watchers had illicit sexual relations with earthly women. The Book of
Enoch was known early as a part of the pseudepigraphic tradition, in Greek
and Ethiopian translations. Its original language may have been Hebrew or
Aramaic. The Greek translation was based in these texts, but only a part of it
has survived.33 Fortunately, the ge‘ez (Ethiopian) translation has preserved a
much longer text.34 The work known only in translations is uniformly dated to
the middle of the 2nd century BCE. Some parts of it (chs. 37-70) are dated to a
somewhat later time.
The finding, among the Qumran texts, of fragments of the Aramaic
original of I Enoch, produced a veritable revolution in Enochic research.35 The
admittedly minute manuscript fragments found at Qumran not only answer
certain important questions about the history of the origin of the text, but also
provide insight into the role the text played in the literary tradition of the group
________________________
pollution is all that leaves the living body, whether in sickness or in health, the bodily functions
and malfunctions being alike regarded, it seems, as daevic (demonic) in origin, perhaps since they
are associated with change and mortality rather than with the static state of perfection”, see M.
Boyce, A History of Zoroastrianism (Leiden: Brill, 1975), Vol. 1:306-307.
32
Magical practices raising demonic power are always connected with the unclean while
solving the curse and healing mean at the same time a process of purification. For Babylonian
examples see V. Haas, Magie, pp. 155-196. According to David P. Wright the biblical system
lacks the demonic character of other impurity systems, arguing that the Bible’s monotheistic
ideal rejects any demonic impurity. See D.P. Wright, “Unclean and Clean, Old Testament,” in
The Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. D.N. Freedman (Nashville: Abingdon, 1992), Vol. 6:729741, esp. p. 739. However, the existence of spirits and demonic beings is never disclaimed in
biblical sources; to the contrary, the belief is positively attested in a number of cases.
33
Its editions are J. Flemming and L. Radermacher, Das Buch Henoch (Leipzig: J.C.
Hinrichs, 1901); M. Black (ed.), Apocalypsis Henochi graece (PVTG 3; Leiden: Brill, 1970).
About the Greek manuscripts see also A.M. Denis, Introduction aux pseudépigraphes grecs
d’Ancien Testament (Leiden: Brill, 1970).
34
The Ethiopian manuscript tradition can be traced back to the 15th c. The first edition of
the Ethiopian text is R.H. Charles, The Ethiopic Version of the Book of Enoch in Anecdota
Oxonensia (Oxford: Clarendon, 1906); for the new, critical edition of the Ethiopian text,
which takes into consideration the Aramaic fragments, with translation and annotation, see
M.A. Knibb, The Ethiopic Book of Enoch: A new edition in the light of the Aramaic Dead Sea
Fragments, 1-2, (Oxford: Clarendon, 2nd, rev. ed. 1982).
35
Their edition: J.T. Milik, The Books of Enoch, Aramaic Fragments of Qumrân Cave 4
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1976).
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Essays / Saggi
that hid the Dead Sea Scrolls in the caves.36 Based on the number of fragments
found,37 one may suppose that the work was not only known at Qumran, but
that it must have been an important work in the tradition of the community.
This is also indicated by the fact that numerous other works found at Qumran,
and in some cases already known from the pseudepigraphic literature, contain
a similar tradition to that known from 1 Enoch, or refer to 1 Enoch.38 No
fragments of the Parables of Enoch (chs. 37-70) were found at Qumran. It is
thought that these chapters are of later origin than the other parts of 1 Enoch.
The Qumran manuscripts, however, also contain fragments of the
Astrological Book and Book of Giants, not known from any translations prior
to the discovery of the Qumran cache.39 The oldest Qumran manuscript of 1
Enoch (4Q En.ar/a) may be dated to the end of the 3rd century BCE, and
already this manuscript contains the text of Chapters 1-12.40 Most likely the
entire Book of Watchers (chs. 1-36) belongs to this layer.41 The later
manuscripts contain more of that work; this indicates that the work was
continually transmitted until the 1st century BCE, and that in the course of this
transmission the collection was enriched by additional pieces.42 The
36
On the significance of the Aramaic fragments, see F. García-Martínez, “Contributions of
the Aramaic Enoch-Fragments to Our Understanding of the Books of Enoch,” in Qumran and
Apocalyptic, ed. F. García-Martínez (Leiden: Brill, 1992), pp. 45-96.
37
In his edition Milik identified seven manuscript copies on the basis of the fragments
found in cave No. 4, four manuscripts from the Astronomical Book. On the basis of the
fragments of the Book of Giants we may also suppose the existence of several copies from
this part as well. See J.T. Milik, The Books of Enoch, pp. 139-317. See also E. Eshel and H.
Eshel, “New Fragments from Qumran: 4QGenf, 4QIsab, 4Q226, 8QGen, and XQpapEnoch,”
DSD 12 (2005), pp. 134-157.
38
To mention the most obvious examples: the Book of Jubilees uses and explicitly quotes the
book, see R.H. Charles, Apocrypha, vol. 2, pp. 18-19, and elements originating from 1 Enoch play
an important role in its entire narrative. The Damascus Document alludes to the Enochic tradition
in its historical overview (CD II, 2-III, 12) similarly the historical schema outlined in 4Q180-181
is also based on the story of the Watchers.
39
J.T. Milik, The Books of Enoch, pp. 273-317. The Book of Giants contains a rich tradition
concerning the giants, the children of the Watchers, unfortunately in a very fragmentary form. The
order of the fragments is very problematic. On this see F. García-Martinez, “The Book of Giants,”
in F. García-Martínez (ed.), Qumran and Apocalyptic (Leiden: Brill, 1992), pp. 97-115. For a new
edition of the fragments of the Book of Giants (BG) see L.T. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants
from Qumran, Texts, Translation, and Commentary (TSAJ 63; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck,
1997).
40
Earlier works, such as R. H. Charles, The Book of Enoch (Oxford: Clarendon, 1893), pp.
2-3 considered the material of Chapters 1-5 to be a subsequently written introduction to the whole
work; in view of the Aramaic manuscript tradition, however, it seems certain that this part is
contemporaneous with the narrative parts that follow, and that it represents a tradition predating
the 2nd century BCE.
41
J. T. Milik, The Books of Enoch, p. 140. Milik also supposes that the writer of the text
followed the Northern Syrian or Mesopotamian scribal customs; and this may also indicate the
origin of the tradition. The fragments also prove that Chapters 1-5 already belonged to the so far
known earliest Enoch-tradition.
42
Ibid. p. 164 dates 4Q En/b to the mid-second century (this manuscript also only contains
the Book of Watchers; the later manuscripts, designated by c, d, and e which can be dated to the
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
111
manuscript tradition can be traced to the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries
BCE. This means that the Book of Watchers was written at least during the
3rd century BCE, and it may have been written even earlier.
1 Enoch and Mesopotamian tradition
Enoch was written in Aramaic, the vernacular in Mesopotamia, by the time
of the Exile. Besides I Enoch, several works composed in Aramaic came to
light from the Qumran library. They manifest several specific common
characteristics concerning their literary genres and content. These are worthy
of further examination.43 Several Qumran Aramaic works are well acquainted
with historical, literary, and other traditions of the Eastern diaspora, and they
contain Mesopotamian and Persian elements.44 1 Enoch reflects a solid
awareness of certain Mesopotamian traditions.45 Revelations on the secrets of
the cosmos given to Enoch during his heavenly voyage reflect the influence of
Mesopotamian cosmological lore.46 The figure of Enoch, and the elements of
the revelation-tradition associated with him, originates in the figures of the
Mesopotamian apkallū (wise ones), more exactly in the figure of the
Mesopotamian diviner-king Enmeduranki; and in the tradition about divine
revelation given to him.47 Thus it can be assumed that the kernel of the
Enochic tradition (1 En. 1-36) was shaped either in a Babylonian Jewish
________________________
first century BCE - 1st century CE, also contain parts of the Book of Dreams (1 Enoch 83-90) and
of the Epistle of Enoch (1 En. 91-107), see ibid. pp. 178-217, 217-225, and 225-244.
43
Characteristics of Aramean literary texts were examined by B.Z. Wacholder, “The
Ancient Judeo-Aramaic Literature 500-164 BCE: A Classification of Pre-Qumranic Texts,” in
Archaeology and History in the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. L. H. Schiffman (JSOT Supplement
Series 8; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1990), pp. 257-281.
44
The most outstanding example is 4Q242, the Prayer of Nabonidus which is well
acquainted with historical legends on the last Neo-Babylonian king Nabunaid (555-539
B.C.E.). On the historical background of the legend see R. Meyer, Das Gebet des Nabonid
(SSAW.PH 107/3; Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1962). 4Q550 uses Persian names, the story
reflects the influence of the pattern of the Ahiqar novel, see I. Fröhlich, “Stories from the
Persian King’s Court. 4Q550 (4prEsthar/a-f),” Acta Antiqua (Hung) 38 (1998), pp. 103-114.
45
H.L. Jansen, Die Henochgestalt: eine vergleichende religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung
(Skrifter utgitt av det Norske videnskaps-akademi i Oslo. II. Hist.-filos. klasse no. 1; Oslo: Norske
videnskaps-akademi I komisjon hos J. Dybwad 1939) examined the figure of Enoch in the light of
the Mesopotamian tradition years before the finding of the Qumran manuscripts.
46
P. Grelot, “La Géographie mythique d’Hénoch et ses sources,” RB 65 (1958), pp. 3369; idem, “La Légende d’Hénoch dans les Apocryphes et dans la Bible,” RSR 46 (1958), pp.
5-26, 181-210; idem, “L’Eschatologie des Esséniens et le livre d’Hénoch,” RevQ 1 (1958-59),
pp. 113-131; idem, “Hénoch et ses écritures,” RB 82 (1975) 481-500, written before the
publication of the Aramaic fragments.
47
J.C. VanderKam, Enoch and the Growth of an Apocalyptic Tradition (CBQMS 16;
Washington: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1984), p. 116. On the Mesopotamian
background of the Enoch figure and of the Son of Man figure see H. S. Kvanvig, Roots of
Apocalyptic, The Mesopotamian Background of the Enoch Figure and the Son of Man (WMANT
61: Neukirchen: Neukirchener, 1988). See also S. Bhayro, “Noah’s Library: Sources for 1
Enoch 6-11,” JSP 15/3 (2006), pp. 163-177.
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Essays / Saggi
diaspora-community or perhaps in a community of returnees that maintained
traditions from the Babylonian exile. This group of writings might have been
expanded by later additions to the text.48
The narrative of the Watchers (1 En. 6-11) belongs to the earliest textual
layer of I Enoch and represents one of the earliest traditions of the collection.
In chapters 6-11 two distinct narratives exist – the narrative on Shemihazah
and that on Asael.49
The Shemihazah tradition
The bulk of this early tradition is contained in the Shemihazah story (1 En.
6:1-7:62). According to the Shemihazah-story a group of the sons of heaven
(6:2), whom the text refers to as the Watchers (‘yryn as in Daniel 7), glimpse
the daughters of men, desire them, and decide to descend to them. Their leader
Shemihazah (šmy zh) considers the plan to be sinful, and he does not want to
bear the responsibility alone (6:3). Therefore, the Watchers, in order to fulfill
their plan, swear to unite on Mount Hermon (1 En. 6:6). Then the Watchers
“. . .began [to go in to them, and to defile themselves with them and (they
began) to teach them] sorcery and spellbinding [and the cutting of roots; and to
show them plants . . .” (7:1). The women became pregnant from them and
bore children, who became giants. The giants “were devouring [the labour of
all the children of men and men were unable to supply [them.” (7:4). After this
the giants begin to devour men, and then “... they began to sin against all birds
and beasts of the earth] and reptiles . . . and the fish of the sea, and to devour
the flesh of another; and they were] drinking blood. [Then the earth made the
accusation against the wicked concerning everything] which was done upon
it” (7:5-6).50 These then are the transgressions, which finally bring about the
punishment of the flood (1 En. 9:1ff). Thus the story serves as a justification
for the catastrophic punishment wreaked upon humanity.
The Asa’el story (1 En. 8:1-2) does not retell the story of the Watchers. It
is focused upon and limited to different data concerning such details as the
name of the leader of the revolt and the teachings of the Watchers. Here their
leader is called Asa’el. He taught metalworking, making weapons and jewels
for men, and the knowledge of eye-shadows, of precious gems and dyes of
48
A similar case is the Danielic collection, the earliest pieces of which demonstrate a good
knowledge of Mesopotamian lore.
49
This fact has already been noted by early scholars dealing with the work. R.H. Charles,
The Book of Enoch (Oxford: Clarendon, 1893), pp. 13-14, differentiated between two
narratives in the text of 1En. 6-11. More recently P. D. Hanson, “Rebellion in Heaven, Azazel
and Euhemeristic Heroes in 1 Enoch 6-11,” JBL 96 (1977), pp. 197-233 and G.W.E.
Nickelsburg, “Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11,” JBL 96 (1977), pp. 383-405 have
analysed the constituents of the text and they too differentiated between two sources.
50
Translated by J. T. Milik, based on the Aramaic text reconstructed by him; see J.T. Milik,
The Books of Enoch, pp. 166-167.
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
113
mineral origins for women.51 The section on Asa’el’s teaching is followed by
a report on the teachings of Shemihazah and his companions: they taught the
interpreatations of heavenly omina, each Watcher teaching the signs of the
natural phenomenon that was included in his name (1 En. 8:3-4).
The whole section ends with a report of the punishment of Asa’el and the
Watchers. Asael was punished by the angel Raphael for the sin Asael
perpetrated: he was bound and cast into darkness, where the Watchers will
stay until “the great day of judgment” (1 En. 10:4-7). On the other hand, the
punishment mentioned in the Shemihazah-story is the binding of Shemihazah
and his companions by Michael “for seventy generations” after they were
forced to witness their children, the Giants, perish (1 En. 10:11-12). The
devastation of the flood following these events signifies the purification of the
earth (1 En. 10:1-3, 20-22).
The narratives on Shemihazah, Asael, and the flood revolve around the
problem of the origin of evil. The Shemihazah narrative is similar to Genesis
6:1-4, which is also connected with the flood. The relation of the two stories is
complicated. The story of Shemihazah and his companions is a logical and
continuous narrative, whereas Genesis 6:1-4 seems to be a series of
theological reflections on the story narrated in 1 Enoch.52 As to the
background and meaning of the story of the Watchers, earlier theories saw
historical and mythological motifs behind the narrative. The motif of the
integration of heavenly and earthly beings would have referred to and
negatively judged the mixed marriages of the priests in the postexilic era,
objected to by Ezra.
The motif of the bloodshed would have mirrored the wars of the
Diadochi.53 Other theories look for mythological models, seeing the motif of
the teachings of the Watchers as modeled after the myth of Prometheus, Asael
being a protos heuretes.54 Of course, neither historical-sociological, nor
mythological models, including Greek images, can be ruled out. However,
observation of only one or two motifs of the narrative does not illuminate the
background and meaning of the whole story. Many elements of the story, such
as cannibalism and consuming blood, the basically negative nature of the
teachings of the Watchers, magic and interpretation of omina, are left
unexplained. In order to ascertain the background and the exact meaning and
51
1 En 65:6 supplements the list of the teachings of Asael by adding that the Watchers also
taught people to cast metal and to make cast metal statues. According to 1 Enoch 69 a Watcher
named Pinem’e taught people writing and the use of ink and papyrus - things that later could be
the source of several misunderstandings.
52
The Shemihazah story is generally considered by scholars as an expansion and
explication of Genesis 6:1-4. There is no room here to discuss the relation of the two texts;
this will be the aim of a further study.
53
D. Suter, “Fallen Angel, Fallen Priest: The Problem of Family Purity in 1 Enoch 6-16,”
HUCA 50 (1979), pp. 115-135; R. Rubinkiewicz, “The Book of Noah and Ezra’s Reform,”
FO 25 (1988), pp. 151-155; G.W.E. Nickelsburg, “Apocalyptic and Myth in 1 Enoch 6-11,”
JBL 96 (1977), pp. 383-405.
54
Ibid.
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Essays / Saggi
message of the narrative, all major elements of the narrative must be
considered. This can be followed by a discussion of the issue of foreign
literary influences. The tradition of the Watchers was a relevant theme in
Qumran literature. It was often cited and referred to in other works, certainly
because the meaning of the story was considered relevant for the spiritual
world of the community.55 Supposedly, the story had a specific meaning for
them, and its motifs embodied basic ideas of the Essene tradition.56 Notions
that are related to each of the motifs of the story are those of sin and impurity
and magic and the demonic.
Sin and impurity: ethical (prohibited) impurities
The purity system of the Old Testament is acquainted not only with
physical impurities, but also ethical ones.57 Ethical impurity grows out of
situations that are controllable and are not natural or necessary, such as
delaying purification from physical impurity, polluting specific sancta,
sexual transgressions, idolatry, and murder. The locus of uncleanness may
be the person, but proscriptions refer more to the pollution of the sanctuary
or land.58 Punishments of these sins are more severe than the consequences
of physical impurities. Punishment of the sinner is usually the
banishing/driving away from the land or the extinguishing of ones family
(kārēt).59
The main list of ethical impurities is in the Holiness Code (Lev 17-26):
1. Sins related to sexual relations are cases of the zenūt, usually translated
as fornication, that is, all kinds of illicit sex: sex among blood relatives, with
another’s wife, homosexual relation, sex with menstruating woman, and
prostitution (see Lev 18:1-30; 19:29). A special case in the list is kilayim, the
prohibition of mixing together different kinds of animals, plants and materials
in human clothing (Lev 19:19, Deut 22:9-11). A special case of zenūt not
55
The nachleben and infuence of the Watchers’ story in the literature of Qumran requires
a separate study.
56
According to P. Sacchi the peculiar conception of evil based on 1 En. 6-11 was a
distinct ideological tradition that was the catalyst of the schism between the group and
Judaism in the fourth century BCE. Michael Stone and David Suter date the schism to the
third century. See G. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, The Parting of Ways
between Qumran and Enochic Judaism (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1998), pp. 7677.
57
On the distinction between types of purity based on nonbiblical anthropological
evidence, see L.N. Rosen, “Contagion and Cataclysm: A Theoretical Approach to the Study
of Ritual Pollution Beliefs,” African Studies 32 (1973), pp. 229-246.
58
W.D. Davies, The Territorial Dimension of Judaism; With a Symposium and Further
Reflections (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991); D.P. Wright, “Unclean and Clean, Old Testament,”
in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. David N. Freedman (Nashville: Abingdon, 1992), Vol.
6:729-741, esp. pp. 738-739.
59
E.g. the Assyrian exile of Israel is explained in 2 Kings 17:5-23 as a punishment
resulting from “the sin of Jerobeam,” the improper cultic practice of the northern kingdom.
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
115
listed in Leviticus 17-26 is remarriage with one’s divorced wife, she having in
the meantime been remarried and then divorced or widowed (Deut 24:1-4; cf.
Jer 3:1).
2. Sins related to blood: bloodshed (Deut 21:1-9; cf. Gen 4:10, Ps 106:38ff)
3. Sins related to the dead: corpse left on the tree for the night (Deut 21:2223), cf. 11QTS LXIV, 11-12).
4. Sins related to magic: “Do not resort to ghosts and spirits or make
yourselves unclean by seeking them out. I am the Lord your God” (Lev
19:31). Magical practice is sometimes conceived as zenūt (Lev 20:6), and
those who practice it are to be killed (Ex 22:17).
Results of ethical impurities are summarized in Leviticus 18:27-30: “The
people who were there before you did those abominable things and the land
became unclean. So do not let the land spew you out for making it unclean as
it spewed them out. Observe my charge, therefore.”60 Qumran texts enrich the
Biblical theory of impurities.61
Sin and impurity in the story of the Watchers
The sins of the Watchers are their transgression of the cosmic order and
mixing with earthly women, and their teaching of magic. They became impure
by this process (1 En. 7:1, cf. 4Q531 5, 1). The Book of Giants qualifies their
relation as a case of zenūt (4Q203 = 4QEnGiantsª 8, 9), one of the main
categories of ethical impurities. On an analogical basis the mixing of heavenly
and earthly beings can also be a violation of the kilayim, prohibition of the
mixing of categories. Practice of magic is again an ethical impurity according
to the biblical system.
The sins of the Giants, sons of the Watchers are violence, bloodshed
(cannibalism), sins against the animals, birds, and fishes, and drinking of
blood (1 En. 7:4-5). Homicide is among the sins that make the land impure
(Deut 21:9). Cannibalism is not known from the biblical system. The meaning
of the sins committed against the animals is not clear; it can be a violation of
the prohibitions concerning food. This presupposition is confirmed by the
report on their consuming of blood, which is a violation of the biblical
prohibition (Gen 9:3-4). These are the sins of the Watchers and their offspring
that made the earth impure. The resultant flood is not only a punishment of
60
The citation is a summary of the Holiness Code in Leviticus 17-26. The land is the
Land of Canaan into which the people were about to enter.
61
The Temple Scroll (11QT) considers as impure the non-observance of the dietary laws
(11QTS XLVIII, 6-7), the bodily signs of mourning (tattooing) (11QTS XLVIII, 10), covenant
and marriage with the “inhabitants of the land,” which constituted idolatry (11QT II, 1-15, cf. Ex
34:10-16), burial-grounds not separated from surroundings (11QTS XLVIII, 11-17), the nonseparation of sufferers from bodily impurities (flux, leprosy, plague, scab, menstruating women,
women after childbirth), and idolatry repeatedly mentioned as zenut defiling the land. 4QMMT
(4Q394-399) adds to the list of impurities the offering taken from the pagan corn, and highlights
cases of forbidden marriages (priests’ marriage with commoners’ daughters) as cases of kilayim.
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these sins but, at the same time, a purification of the earth.
The Giants in the Enochic tradition
1 En. 15:8 refers to the offspring of the giants as demons (Ethiopic
nafsat, Aramaic rw ’). These beings are spiritual in nature, following their
fathers’ nature: they do not eat, they are not thirsty and know no obstacles.
Their destructiveness first and foremost affects children and women, as they
were born of women.62 The Giants are the protagonists of the Book of Giants.
The Aramaic fragments belonging to the Enochic manuscripts from Qumran
are not contained in the Greek and Ethiopic translations. According to the
narrative of a Qumran fragment, one of the Giants took to the air “as
whirlwinds, and he flew with his hands/wings as [an] eagle.”63 According to
this, giants were shaped like human figures that could fly like whirlwinds.
The story of the Watchers and demonology
Although the story of the Watchers does not mention any demons, the
motifs of the story are related to the realm of the demonic. The
characteristics of the Giants evoke the Mesopotamian tradition about the
utukku-s, a term generally used for demonic beings. The Enochic Giants
have the same characteristics as the Mesopotamian demons: they are tall
and obtrusive beings, roaming in bands, attacking their victims
indiscriminately. They ravage the work of humans,64 devour the flesh of
animals and humans, and consume their blood. They are born from a sexual
union of heavenly and earthly beings, considered in the Enochic story to be
impure.
It is to be noted here that the name and figure of Gilgamesh, one of the
giants of the Book of Giants, can be interpreted in light of the magical
tradition of the Near East. This name that is known also in Greek magical
papyri is still referred to today in magical incantations.
Binding the Watchers
The punishment for the sins of the Watchers is binding them and casting
them into darkness. Asa’el is bound by the angel Raphael, Shemihazah is
bound by Michael. Demonological texts regularly mention that the demon
is binding his victim. The witch, a constant figure of the Mesopotamian
62
This part of the tradition is known only from the Greek and the Ethiopic translations.
4QEnar/c, the fragment which supposedly contains this part of the text, is not legible at this
place. It is to be supposed that this part was also contained in the Aramaic text tradition of the
Enochic collection.
63
4Q530 (4QEnGiants/b III, 4), see L.T. Stuckenbruck, The Book of Giants, pp. 128-34.
64
4Q531 5 1 speaks in more concrete terms than the Shemihazah story, and mentions that
the Giants were devastating fruit, wheat, trees, sheep, and cattle.
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
117
incantation series, Maqlû, binds her victim by her practices. The binding
effect of the witchcraft is mentioned in the title of a series of incantations
entitled “The pregnant woman who was bound.”65 The bonds made by
witches can be solved by another kind of magic, healing incantations.
Binding is a constant motif in the Mesopotamian creation myth Enūma
elīš, in which the triumph of the gods over their demonic enemies is marked
by binding the enemies. Triumphant Ea binds Apsu, the primeval ocean,
and builds his house over his breast. He also binds Apsu’s helper, Mummu.
Marduk binds Tiamat, then, splitting Tiamat in two, he forms (létrehoz), the
netherworld, in the monster’s inner part.66
Sorcery
In the Shemihazah story, the Watchers teach humans magical practices:
“sorcery ( ršh) and spellbinding (ksph) [and the cutting of roots (Gr.
ridzotomia); and to show them plants . . .” (1 En. 7:1). The first two nouns
are general terms for magical practices. The “cutting of roots” means, in all
probability, the making of herbal ingredients for magic, and making
amulets containing herbs and roots.67
Metallurgy
Asa’el and his companions teach men metallurgy, the making of
weapons and jewels. To the women they teach make-up and cosmetics, the
most precious and choice stones, and all kinds of coloured dyes (1 En. 8:1).
Metallurgy and smithing are very closely related to the notion of magic.
Ironsmiths are considered sorcerers in the belief system of the ancient and
modern Near-East.68 Weapons made by forgers were attributed to magical
power. Jewels served originally as amulets with apotropaic function.69
65
V. Haas, Magie, p. 170.
Ibid. p. 92.
67
The Talmud is acquainted with two sorts of kemi’ot (amulets): a written one (a
parchment with quotations from various sources, including the Scriptures), and the kame’a šel
iqrin, an amulet made from roots of a certain plant (Shab 61b).
68
On the general idea see M. Eliade, Forgerons et alchimistes (Homo Sapiens; Paris:
Flammarion, 1956). In Ethiopic ironsmith and magician are denoted by the same word (dubanansa), see W. Leslau, Concise Dictionary of Ge’ez (Classical Ethiopic) (Wiesbaden: Otto
Harrasowitz, 1989), p. 181; similarly the descendants of Cain, who are ironsmiths in the Bible
(Gen. 4:16-24), in the later tradition related to them are associated with magical motifs (Syriac
“Cave of Treasures” folia 12a, col. 2, for an edition see C. Bezold, Die Schatzhöhle, Leipzig: J.C.
Hinrichs 1883, reprint Amsterdam: APA-Philo Press, 1981). In the Ethiopian tradition the belief
that ironsmiths have magic capabilities and knowledge is alive to this day; they are considered
sorcerers and therefore members of other groups do not marry their daughters to them. In an
incantation of the series Maqlû (II.128) the witch (kaššaptu) is called silversmith, whose spells
are to be solved by the incantation, see G. Meier, Maqlû.
69
V. Haas, Magie, pp. 197-198.
66
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Cosmetics
The ancient magical origin of make-up, especially the painting of eyes
and lips, is well-known, similarly the magic of jewels.70 In Enūma elīš, the
Mesopotamian creation myth, all the gods at war wear amulets, using their
magic power against their enemies. According to the myth of Inanna’s
(Ištar) descent into the nether world, the fertility goddess going to the
netherworld must, at each gate of the netherworld, part with one piece of
her seven magical powers, represented by her garments and jewels. At the
end of her journey she arrives naked and powerless before Ereškigal, the
lady of the netherworld. In the Sumerian variant of the myth two pieces of
Ishtar’s cosmetics and jewels are mentioned as having the specific power of
sexual attraction: her mascara called “Let a man come, let him come,” and
her pectoral called “come, man, come.”71
Interpretation of omina
The holistic worldview of the Mesopotamians considered everything an
omen for future events, and interpretation of omina was generally practiced.
Interpretive traditions were collected and systematized in a series of
interpretations. A collection of interpretations on heavenly phenomena and
meteorological omina can be found in the series Enūma Anu Enlil (When Anu
and Enlil) from the Neo-Babylonian era.72 Its content is similar to the
teachings of Shemihazah and his companions, referred to in the Enochic story.
The story of the Watchers as a myth of the origin of evil
The story of the Watchers is a myth on the origin of evil in the world.73
According to the narrative of the Enochic collection this is the first event
following the creation (the material of Gen 2-5 is not included in the Enochic
collection). The first stage of the birth of evil is dysfunction in the cosmic
order, the mixing of heavenly and earthly beings. Sins of heavenly beings are
designated as ethical impurities; therefore the deeds of the Watchers are
considered in the narrative to be ethical impurities. Initiators of the sins are the
heavenly beings who descend to the earthly women, driven by their desire.
The Watchers are conscious of the nature of their deeds. They even agree
together to commit the sin collectively. The narrative does not mention human
70
Ibid. pp. 197-198.
Innana’s descent to the nether world, lines 22-23. For the text and translation see
ETCSL (The electronic text corpus of the Sumerian Literature, Oxford)
http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcsl.cgi?text=t.1.4.1#).
72
W.H. van Soldt, Solar omens of Enuma Anu Enlil: Tablets 23 (24)-29 (30) (Uitgaven
van het Nederlands historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul 73; Istanbul: Nederlands
historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Istanbul, 1995).
73
On the problem see G. Boccaccini, Beyond the Essene Hypothesis, pp. 72-73.
71
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
119
responsibility. The authors and agents of the deeds are the Watchers. The
Giants, the beings born from the cosmic dysfunction, initiate further anomalies
in the world. These anomalies are ethical sins resulting in the defilement of the
earth. Impurity of the earth results in the punishment of the flood.
The story of the Watchers is an independent story. It is a parallel to the
narrative of Genesis 6:1-4 about the angels and the daughters of men, and not
an interpretation of Genesis 6:1-4.74 The story of the Watchers contains a
message that cannot be found in Genesis 6:1-4. It is a determinist myth and
an alternative tradition to the message of the primeval history of Genesis. In
the Enochic collection evil originates from the deeds of the Watchers,
following the creation. In Genesis the origin of evil is the human fall into
disobedience (Gen 2-3). The tradition of the Watchers is often referred to in
Qumran texts, with the implication that here is the origin of evil. On the other
hand, the biblical story of the fall (Gen 2-3) is almost never mentioned at
Qumran.
1 Enoch is a theoretical work. The origin of evil means the origin of the
demons, causes of natural evil. It seems that the author(s) of the Enochic
story use Mesopotamian lore in a conscious manner. Evil in 1 Enoch is
equal to sin and impurity. The bearers of evil and impurity are demonic
beings, the offspring of the Watchers. Demons are working in world
history.
The story of the Watchers (1 En. 6-11) was written following the
Babylonian exile. The terminus ad quem is the end of the 3rd century BCE.
Its language is Aramean, the vernacular of Mesopotamia and the lingua
franca of the exiled Judaeans from the 6th century BCE. The figure of
Enoch and the revelations given to him reflect a working knowledge of the
Mesopotamian traditions about the apkallū, the antediluvian sages, a
priestly tradition from the city of Eridu.75 Mesopotamian elements in the
Enochic literature are not simply a matter of borrowing. Mesopotamian lore
was adapted and built into a Jewish system of thought. The message of the
74
There is no room here to go into the problems of the relation of the two texts. Although
Wellhausenian text criticism assigned Genesis 6:1-4 to the Yahwistic source, there is no
evidence for an early provenence of this short and disjointed text that may even be a series of
reflections of a priestly redactor (4th c. BCE). The Enochic story of the Watchers is
backgrounded by a tradition not dependent upon Genesis 6:1-4, which was formed prior to
the end of the 3rd century date of the manuscripts of the Book of the Watchers known to us.
The Enochic story is thought by some scholars to be an interpretation of Genesis 6:1-4. See
D. Dimant, “1 Enoch 6-11: A Fragment of a Parabiblical Work,” JJS 53 (2002), pp. 223-237.
Similarly S. Bhayro, “Daniel’s “Watchers” in Enochic Exegesis of Genesis 6:1-4,” in Jewish
Ways of Reading the Bible, ed. G.J. Brooke (JSS Supplement 11; Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2000), pp. 58-66, and A.T. Wright, The Origin of Evil Spirits: The Reception of
Genesis 6.1-4 in Early Jewish Literature (WUNT 2.198; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2005). For
a different view see P.R. Davies, “And Enoch Was Not, For Genesis Took Him,” in Biblical
Traditions in Transmission: Essays in Honour of Michael A. Knibb, eds. Charlotte Hempel
and Judith M. Lieu (JSOT Supplements 111; Leiden: Brill, 2006) pp. 97-107.
75
See J.C. VanderKam, Enoch; H.S. Kvanvig, Roots of Apocalyptic.
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Essays / Saggi
story of the Watchers is determined by a monotheistic worldview,
backgrounded by the biblical system of ritual purity.
Beliefs concerning demons may not have been unknown among the
exiles. However, everyday practice of the interpretation of omina and
magical healing rituals were new for them, and may have produced a kind
of culture shock.76 The Enochic narrative interprets the existence of demons
as the origin of natural evil. However, the existence of demons is not
disclaimed; they are simply regarded as the evil part of the world. The
phenomenon that is considered in Enoch absolutely negative is magic and
its various forms, the interpretation of omina and the evil teachings of the
Watchers. These are all experiences the exiles would have known from
everyday Mesopotamian practice.
Phenomena and ideas are not explained at the time when they come into
being or practice, but when a community senses for some reason a need to
explain them and has time for reflection upon them. The Babylonian exile
was such a situtation that demanded from the exiles a restatement of their
identity. A vital part of reshaping their self-identity was their attitude
toward the new cultural heritage to which they were exposed in the exile.
Their incorporation and restatement of the Mesopotamian perspectives was,
at the same time, a distancing of themselves from certain phenomena of the
foreign culture. At the same time this does not mean a denial of the
existence of a demonic realm and the rejection of apotropaic methods.
Second Temple Jewish literacy (including Qumran) is especially rich in
evidences of belief in demons. Narratives and magical texts from this
period reflect the variegated methods used against harmful spirits.77
The Book of Jubilees
The early tradition of the Watchers surfaced not only in the later parts of
the Enochic collection.78 It can be found in other works that survived in
Qumranic written tradition and that were obviously important in the
community’s spiritual worldview. The Book of Jubilees can be dated to the
76
Cf. Theophrastos’ consternation of Babylonian superstition, Theophrastos, Characteres
(The Loeb Classical Library 225; Cambridge: Harvard, 1993), pp. 106-113.
77
P.S. Alexander, “The Demonology of the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls
After Fifty Years: A Comprehensive Assessment, eds. P.W. Flint and J.C. VanderKam
(Leiden, Boston and Köln: Brill, 1999), pp. 331-353; E. Sorensen, “Chapter 3: Possession and
Exorcism in Ancient Israel and Early Judaism,” in Possession and Exorcism in the New
Testament and Early Christianity, ed. E. Sorensen (WUNT 2.157; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck,
2002) pp. 47-74.
78
1En 85-90, the Animal Apocalypse, an historical overview based on the Biblical
tradition. The Watchers are mentioned in the antediluvian period as stars that fall to earth
upon seeing the black cows symbolizing the earthly women, and begetting with them
elephants, camels, and donkeys.
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
121
middle of the 2nd century BCE.79 Like 1 Enoch it survived in a shorter
Greek and a longer Ethiopic text.80 Jubilees was also thought to have been
written in Hebrew or Aramaic. A group of Qumran Hebrew fragments,
most from Cave 4, was identified as fragments of the Hebrew original of
Jubilees.
The spiritual milieu of Jubilees was not far from Qumranic views, it
seems. This is strongly suggested by the large number of copies of Jubilees
in the Qumran library, and the influence of Jubilees on other writings
preserved in the community’s written traditions. The relationship of the
364-day calendar of Jubilees with calendars documented from other
Qumran works (11QT, 4QMMT) is generally known. Jubilees is one of the
earliest examples of the genre of “rewritten Bibles,” retelling narratives of
Genesis, with both lacunae and additions.
At the same time Enochic tradition is systematically absorbed into
Jubilees. In Jubilees God creates angels when creating the world: the angel
of the divine Presence, the angel of the holiness, and the angels over the
works of the cosmos and the natural phenomena. According to the story of
the Watchers told in Jubilees (Jub 5:1-19), the Watchers were angels who
came to the earth in order to teach righteousness, but their intention turned
to the opposite (Jub 4:15). The children born from angels and earthly
women became giants. At the same time they had nothing to do with the
sins that began to spread following their birth (Jub 5:1-2). Jubilees does not
speak about further offspring of the angels and giants.
Following the flood impure demons began to lead astray the children of
Noah’s sons, leading them into folly and destroying them (Jub 10:1). The
demons were leading astray and blinding and killing Noah’s grandchildren.
Following this the text states that the demons originate from the Watchers
(Jub 10:4-5). On the effect of Noah’s prayer the Lord bound nine tenth of
the demons; he allowed one-tenth to work in the world under Mastema’s
leadership (Jub 10:7-14).81
Jubilees presents a hierarchical world of supernatural beings. One of the
functions of the demons is the same as in the earlier tradition: they cause
illnesses, afflictions and death. The demons attacking Noah’s grandchildren
evoke the figures of the Lilit-type baby-killer demons. At the same time,
new motifs appear concerning demons: they cause blindness and error. In
all probability, blindness is meant figuratively, not literally. Blindness is not
79
The earliest Hebrew fragments from Qumran have been defined as “late Hasmonean,”
and as such they are dated to around 125 BCE. As the writing of the fragments is semicursive,
according to J.C. VanderKam they must have been preceded by an earlier written tradition,
see J.C. VanderKam, Textual and Historical Studies on the Book of Jubilees (HSS 14;
Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1977), pp. 215-17.
80
R.H. Charles, The Ethiopic Version of the Hebrew Book of Jubilees (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1895).
81
The name originates from the Hebrew verb stm “bear a grudge, cherish animosity against”
(Ar. stn). Hosea 9:7, 8 mentions it as a common noun meaning “enmity”.
122
Essays / Saggi
mentioned among the illnesses regularly enumerated in incantation texts or
in other texts related to demons. Blindness, mentioned together with error,
is a metaphor that cannot be associated with children, only with adults.
Blindness, as a metaphor of spiritual error and improper religious practice,
is a topic that pervades Qumran literature.82
Mastema is again a character different from that of the demons causing
illness. According to the etymology of his name, he is “the instigator”
“raising animosity.” The figure is akin with Satan of the book of Job, the bn
’lhym who proposes to God Job’s testing (Job 1:6-12). In Jubilees Mastema
is the leader of the demons in Noah’s time. Subsequently, in the Jubilees
narrative Mastema appears alone, and always as the instigator: in the time
of Ur, Kesed’s son (Jub 11:5-6), and then in Terah’s days (Jub 11:10-12). In
the time of Abraham unclean demons, led by Mastema, ruled the world.
These demons are described as descendants of the Fallen Angels (Jub 19:810). Abraham has power over the demons; the source of his power is his
righteousness. He is not only unwilling to sacrifice to idols while living in
the city of Ur, but he sets “the house of idols” on fire (Jub 12:12).83 The
biblical story of the binding of Isaac (‛aqedah) is again reformulated in
Jubilees: the attempt at sacrifice is here upon the request of Mastema. He is the
one who asks God to test Abraham’s faith (Jub 17:16).84 He intends to kill
Moses on his way back from Midian (Jub 48.2-3), and Mastema helps the
Egyptian wizards, Moses’ rivals in Egypt (Jub 48.9-18).85
Evil and demons in Jubilees represent traditions of varied origins. The
basis of the idea of the Lilit-type baby-killer demons (Jub 10:1-2) is the
general belief in demons causing infant mortality and childbed fever. That
they lead to error and spiritual blindness is a scholarly assessment, perhaps
even speculation, that expresses the demonization of a religious practice
considered to be wrong. There is no demonic figure in oriental folklore that
parallels this Jubilees perspective.
82
The historical survey of 1 En 85-90 represents Israel as a herd. In the period preceding
the Maccabean revolt many of the sheep became blind and fell victims of birds of prey.
Finally white lambs appeared among the herd and began to open the eyes of the blind and lost
sheep. The Damascus Document refers to a group of the exiled who “perceived their iniquity
and recognized that they were guilty men, yet for twenty years they were like blind men
groping for the way. And God observed their deeds, … and He raised for them a Teacher of
Righteousness to guide them in the way of His heart”, CD I, 7-11. Uncovering of ears and
eyes is a metaphor for religious teaching, CD II, 3, 14.
83
In the Book of Judith, in Achior’s speech (5:6-9) Abraham has to leave Mesopotamia
because he refuses to worship the local deities. The core of this legend most likely came into
being at the end of the 2nd century BCE. On Abraham and Mastema see M. Kister, “Demons,
Theology and Abraham’s Covenant (CD 16:4-6 and Related Texts,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls
At Fifty: Proceedings of the 1997 Society of Biblical Literature Qumran Section Meetings,
eds. R.A. Kugler and E.M. Schuller (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1997), pp. 167-184.
84
Similarly in Pseudo-Jubilees, 4Q225 2 II, 6-7. The fragment preserved a tradition
similar to that of the Book of Jubilees, but the text is not identical with that of Jubilees.
85
On the Old Testament model of this episode see E. Eshel, “Mastema’s Attempt on
Moses’ Life in the ’Pseudo-Jubilees’ Text from Masada,” DSD 10 (2003), pp. 359-364.
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
123
Mastema’s figure is that of the instigator, a relative of the Satan of the
Old Testament. At the same time Mastema is not an independent power. It
is not Mastema who tests people, but God. God has power over Mastema,
like his power over the angels. At the same time, Mastema is a dangerous
enemy, the chief demon in Jubilees. As indicated above, in Jubilees the
motifs connected with demons have various sources: the folk belief,
Enochic tradition, scholarly explications, and the tradition about Satan.
These characteristics derived from various roots are merged and presented
in the figures of the demons in the book of Jubilees in a hierarchy and in a
historical perspective.
Returning to the demonological system of the Songs of the Sage
(4Q510-11) it can be ascertained that not only demons of folk beliefs
(šēdim, Lilit, owls, jackals) and demons of the Enochic tradition (bastard
spirits) are known in the work, but also spirits of error derived from
Jubilees have shaped it. Opposition of pure and impure, light and darkness
associated with human and the demonic world are also evident in other
works from the Qumran library.
Demons in narratives
The Book of Tobit belongs to the category of deuterocanonical books. It
is not part of the Masoretic canon. Fragments of four Aramaic (4Q196-199)
manuscripts and one Hebrew (4Q200) manuscript of the book of Tobit were
found in Qumran Cave 4.86 This cave is generally known as the sectarian
library cave, containing the most important works produced by the
community itself, and a depository for biblical manuscripts. As to biblical
books in Qumran, fragments of the books of the Masoretic canon, with the
exception of the book of Esther, were found in the caves. Cave 4 contained
at least one copy of each biblical book.
The book reflects a hierarchical angelology. There are seven angels in
the heaven who stand before “the glory of God” (Tob 12:15, cf. Rev 8:2).87
One of them, Raphael, appears as a mediator of God (12:18), proven by his
function in the plot of the narrative.88 Angels are spiritual beings. They do
not eat (Raphael only appears to eat in Tob 12:19), and they can fly (Tob
12:20).
86
One of the four Aramaic texts is written on papyrus, three on leather as is the Hebrew
text. All the copies were written between 100 and 50 BCE. A linguistic analysis defined the
Aramaic of Tobit as Middle Aramaic (612-250 BCE); the Hebrew as late postexilic Hebrew.
See J.A. Fitzmyer, “The Aramaic and Hebrew Fragments of Tobit from Qumran Cave 4,”
CBQ 57 (1995), pp. 655-675; J.A. Fitzmyer, Tobit, Commentaries on Early Jewish Literature
(Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003).
87
Late biblical and postbiblical literature mentions the following angels: Michael in Dan
10:13, 21, 12:1; Gabriel in Dan 8:16, 9:21; Raguel in 1 En 20:4; Uriel in 1 En 9:1, 19:1, 20:2.
Raguel (“Friend of God”) is an archangel’s name in 1 En 20:4.
88
As Raphael informs Tobit, “I was sent to test you” (Tob 12:13).
124
Essays / Saggi
Demons are represented in the narrative by Ashmodai.89 Ashmodai is a
kind of the type known as incubus. However, the demon has several special
characteristics in the story. He is the demon who kills Sarah’s bridegrooms
in the bedroom. The servant in her speech to Sarah makes her responsible
for the death of her bridegrooms, and she adds: ”I hope we never see son or
daughter of yours.” Thus she supposes that Sarah may have sexual relations
with the demon, and her words reflect a fear of marriage with a demon and
a fear of offsprings of demons. The demon loves Sarah, and he does not kill
her. On the other hand, it is explicitly stated that Sarah had no sexual
relations with the demon, that she was a virgin. In Tobit endogamy wins
over the demon, with the help of burning the fish’s liver and heart. This
method was taught him by Raphael. The exorcism is followed by the prayer
of the new couple (Tob 6:18). It is stated that the smell of the fish kept the
demon away, “and he made off (ephugen) into Upper Egypt.” Raphael
followed him there and promptly bound him hand and foot” (Tob 8:3).
Exorcism with the help of burning fish liver, the exorcistic method
applied by Tobias, is known from Mesopotamian healing traditions. The
prayer following the exorcism is a special Jewish motif in the narrative. The
angel Raphael functions in the story as a helper and the one who binds the
demon. The name Raphael (rp’l) is a function name (God has healed), the
archangel’s function in the narrative of Tobit. The binding of the demon by
Raphael is a parallel to the tradition of the Watchers where Raphael is
binding the Watcher Asael.
The Genesis Apocryphon is a rewritten Bible, a paraphrase of biblical
narratives. The length of the episodes in it are very different from their
parallels in Genesis; here we can read detailed descriptions of things that in
Genesis are mentioned only briefly. The narrative follows the sequence of
biblical stories, adding to them new episodes, while omitting other ones (the
story of Babel, Gen 11). The narratives of the Genesis Apocryphon are clearly
focused on special points of the tradition of Genesis. In spite of the many
additions of various literary characters, the work can be characterised as an
exegetical narrative.
Columns XIX-XX retell the tradition of Genesis 12, in which Abraham,
driven by famine, goes with his wife to Egypt where Sarah’s beauty attracts
the attention of the Egyptians, and they bring the woman, who said she was
Abraham’s sister, to Pharaoh’s court. Following this God afflicts Pharaoh
and his court with plagues. Because of these plagues Pharaoh gives Sarah
back to her husband (Gen 12:10-20). The narrative of Genesis leaves room
for doubt whether Sarah was given back untouched by the Egyptians. The
narrative of Genesis Apocryphon offers an undeniable proof that Sarah
could not have been made impure, either by Pharaoh or any other Egyptian.
89
His name originates perhaps from Pers. Aeshma daeva, “the demon of wrath”: see:
Y.M. Grintz, “Tobit, Book of,” Encyclopedia Judaica, ed. C. Roth (Jerusalem: Keter, 1971),
Vol. 15:1185.
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
125
Following the taking of Sarah by Pharaoh’s men a chastising spirit (rw
mkdš) was sent by God to Pharaoh’s court in response to Abraham’s prayer
(1QapGen XX, 16). Because of the spirit’s influence, Pharaoh “was unable
to approach her, let alone to have sexual intercourse with her, in spite of his
having her for two years” (1QapGen XX, 17-18). The plague had been
afflicting Pharaoh’s court for two years. Finally Pharaoh “sent for all the
wise men … and all the wizards (’špy’) as well as all the healers of Egypt
(’sy m ryn), (to see) whether they could heal him of that disease, (him) and
the members of his household” (1QapGen XX, 18-20). The wizards and the
healers were not able to heal Pharaoh; for that reason he sent his man
Horqanos to Abraham, asking Abraham to pray for him and to lay his hand
on him, for Pharaoh had seen Abraham in a dream (1QapGen XX, 21-22).
Following Sarah’s return to him, Abraham prayed for Pharaoh and laid his
hand on his head, banishing the spirit from Pharaoh (1Q apGen XX, 26-29).
Pharaoh gave lavish presents to Abraham, appointed men to escort him, and
Abraham left Egypt (1Q ApGen XX, 30-34).
The existence of demons is quite natural for the author of the Genesis
Apocryphon. The function of the demon in the story is to cause illness.
Impotency with other symptoms of melancholy is a well-known pattern in
Mesopotamian incantation texts.90 On the other hand, the laying on of
hands is not known from Mesopotamian practice.91
The Prayer of Nabonid (4Q242) contains a legend about Nabonid (to be
identified with the historical Neo-Babylonian king Nabu-naid, 555-539
B.C.E.).92 The king retired to Teiman, where he was afflicted with a bad
skin disease (š n’ byš’) for seven years (4Q242 1-3, 2-3).93 He prayed in
vain to various idols made of gold, silver, and other materials. Finally an
90
Incantation texts usually describe groups of symptoms, see M.J. Geller, Freud and
Mesopotamian Magic, in Mesopotamian Magic: Textual, Historical and Interpretative
Perspectives, eds. T. Abusch, K. van der Toorn, (Ancient Magic and Divination 1; Leiden:
Brill, 1999) pp. 49-56. On incantations healing impotency see R.D. Biggs, ŠÀ.ZI.GA. Ancient
Mesopotamian potency incantations (Texts from Cuneiform Sources 2; Locust Valley: J.J.
Augustin, 1967).
91
The laying on of hands (sāmak) is known from the Old Testament as a gesture in the
context of sacrifice. In the New Testament it is associated with healing, blessing, reception of
baptism and the Holy Spirit, and ordination. See D. Daube, “The Laying on of Hands, Jordan
Lectures 1952” in Collected Works of David Daube, ed. C. Carmichael, vol. 2, New
Testament Judaism, (Berkeley: Robbins Collection, republished 2000), pp. 224-246; J.A.
Fitzmyer, The Genesis Apocryphon of Qumran Cave I, A Commentary (2nd rev. ed.), (Biblica
et Orientalia, n. 18A; Rome: Biblical Institute, 1971), p. 140.
92
The text has been published in several editions. The editio princeps is J.T. Milik,
“’Prière de Nabonide’ et autres écrits d’un cycle de Daniel,” RB 63 (1956), pp. 407-415, pl. I.
A recent standard edition is J. Collins, “4QPrayer of Nabonidus ar (pl. VI),” in Qumran Cave
4.XVII: Parabiblical Texts Part 3, ed. G. Brooke, J. Collins et alia (DJD XXII; Oxford:
Clarendon, 1996) pp. 83-93. On the historical background of the legend see note 44 R.
Meyer, Das Gebet des Nabonid (SSAW.PH 107/3; Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1962).
93
The Old Testament has knowledge of a number of skin diseases epitomised as
“leprosy” ( āra‛at). “Leprosy” is the cause of a persistent impurity, see Lev 13-14.
126
Essays / Saggi
exorcist (gzr), an exiled Judaean, cured him by forgiving his sins and laying
his hand on him. The text is fragmentary, and in the surviving elements no
word referring to a demon (rw ’ or its synonym) can be found. However,
on the basis of the healing method, the laying on of hands known also from
the Genesis Apocryphon and the New Testament parallels, it can be
supposed that the illness of the king was caused by a demon (rw ’).
Demons in wisdom and other texts94
4Q560 is a fragmentary Aramaic text.95 The “evil visitor” (pqd b’yš)
which “enters the flesh” (‛ll bbśr’), “the male penetrator” ( lhy’ dkr’), and
“the female penetrator” ( lhlyt nqb’) mentioned in the text (4Q560 1, 3), are
probably causes of the symptomes described in the following: chill, fever,
and pain in the heart (4Q560 1, 4). It is not clear, how these are related to
the “visitors” and the symptoms of the sins (‛w’n wpš‛) mentioned previous
to the symptoms. It seems that the “visitors” are night demons who attack
“in sleep, he who crushes the male and she who passes through the female”
(4Q560 1, 5). The word rw is to be read in Fragment 2 (4Q560 2, 5).
Night demons of the lilû family are well documented from
Mesopotamian incantation texts. They are male (lilû) and female (wardat
lilî), types of incubus and succubus, attacking the opposite sex and causing
erotic dreams, and infirmity. They are mentioned twice in our text. What is
curious in our texts is that the second mention refers to male demons
attacking males, and female demons raiding women (4Q560 1, 5). The text
describes a group of symptoms which are characteristic of anxiety and
mental illness. Similar groups of symptoms are described in a number of
Mesopotamian incantation texts.96 Our present Aramaic text is descriptive.
Fragment 2, 5-6 may be an address of the exorcist to the demon (w’nh rw
mwmh … ’wmytk rw ’).
11Q11 is a Qumran example for the apotropaic use of the Psalms.97 Like
the Songs of the Sage (4Q510-11) and 4Q560 it is a “theoretical” text
94
For a survey, see E. Eshel, “Apotropaic Prayers in Second Temple Period”, in
Liturgical Perspectives: Prayer and Poetry in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. E.G. Chazon
(STDJ 48; Leiden: Brill, 2003), pp. 69-88, and E. Eshel, “Genres of Magical Texts in the
Dead Sea Scrolls”, in Die Dämonen, eds. A. Lange, H. Lichtenberger and K.F.D. Römheld
(Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003), pp. 395-415.
95
D.L. Penney, M.O. Wise, “By the Power of Beelzebub: an Aramaic Incantation
Formula from Qumran (4Q560),” JBL 113 (1994), pp. 627-650; F. García-Martínez and E.J.
Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition 1-2 (Leiden: Brill, 1998), 2:1116-7.
96
M.J. Geller, Freud and Mesopotamian Magic, pp. 49-56.
97
É. Puech, “Les deux derniers psaumes davidiques du rituel d’exorcisme, 11QpsAp/a
IV.4-V.14,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls; Forty Years of Research, eds. D. Dimant U. Rappaport
(Leiden: Brill, 1992), pp. 64-89; a new, standard edition: “11Q Apocryphal Psalms,” in
Qumran Cave 11. II: (11Q2-18, 11Q20-31), eds. F. García-Martínez, E.J.C. Tigchelaar and
A.S. van der Woude (DJD XXIII; Oxford: Clarendon, 1998), pp. 181-205, pls. XXII-XXV,
LIII.
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
127
written in Hebrew, regarding darkness and light, demons, and God’s power.
The text is fragmentary, and not easy to interpret. Solomon’s name is
mentioned (11Q11 II, 3), but its context is not clear. The verb next to the
name (wyqr‛, and he will invoke) and the following enumeration of demons
(šd, II, 3, 4; also mentioned in I, 10), spirits (rw wt, II, 3), and “the Prince
of Animosity” (ś[r hmśt]mh II, 4) may refer to Solomon’s power over the
demons.98
This is followed by a meditation about God’s creative power and his
creatures. He is over every creature, a man can trust only in his help. “Lean
[on YHWH, the God of gods, he who made] the heavens [and the earth and
all that is in them, w]ho separated [light from darkness …]” (11Q11 II, 1011). Angels (m[l’kyw]), and the holy seed (?) (zr[‛ hqwdš]) are mentioned in
the text; “who know his [wonder]ful [secrets]” (11Q11 III, 2-8). Raphael’s
name is mentioned as a healer (11Q11 V, 3), then follows an apotropaic
text with the introduction: “Of David. Ag[ainst … an incanta]tion in the
name of YHW[H. Invoke at an]y time” (11Q11 V, 4). However, the text
following this introduction is not a canonical psalm of David, but an
apocryphal composition. It speaks about horned beings, “[offspring of] man
and of the seed of the ho[ly] ones,” about darkness that is opposed to justice
[ dqh], and about Sheol and its gates (11Q11 V, 6-10). “Belial’s sons” (bny
bl[y‛l]) are mentioned as powers antagonistic to man (VI, 3). Names of
illnesses or other harms are not mentioned.
A new title, “Of David,” in the next column (11Q11 VI, 3) introduces a
new apotropaic text, this time a canonical psalm (Psalm 91), as an effective
remedy against demons and harmful spirits. The text differs on certain
points from the known Masoretic text.99 The mention of the “offspring of
man and of the seed of the holy ones” is a reference to the tradition of the
Watchers. It designates, in all probability, demonic beings, in the context of
darkness, Sheol, and Belial’s sons, adversaries of man.
Objects used for apotropaic purposes called Phylacteries (tefillin) and
mezuzoth were found in various Qumran caves, the majority of them found
in Cave 11. Both tefillin and mezuzot contained short scriptural citations
written on parchment and put in leather capsules. Tefillin were fixed on the
forehead and hand on the occasion of prayer, mezuzoth were fixed on the
doorframes of the entrances to houses and dwelling places. In addition, text
straps and leather capsules were found in the caves. On the basis of the
relatively high number of texts and objects it is thought that tefillin and
mezuzot were written and made on the Qumran site, for the use of members
98
The text is fragmentary, and the expression can be reconstructed both as ś[r mśt]mh or
ś[r hmśt]mh, i.e. Prince Mastema or Prince of Animosity. Based on the extent of the gap the
latter reading is likely. The Hebrew fragments of Jubilees read the two names alternately as
mśtmh and hmśtmh.
99
J.P.M. van der Ploeg, “Le Psaume XCI dans une recension de Qumrân,” RB 72 (1965),
pp. 210-217, pls. VIII-IX.
128
Essays / Saggi
living inside and outside of the site.100
Scriptural texts cited in Qumran tefillin and mezuzot are practically
identical with those used in later practice (usually Ex 13:9, 13:16, Deut 6:8,
11:18).101 Demonic beings are never mentioned in them. The rationale of
their use is the idea behind 11Q11: the holy texts have an effective power
against any harmful influence, demon or tempting spirit. The Biblical
verses cited in tefillin prescribe that “You shall put these words of mine in
your heart and soul, and you shall bind them as a sign on your hand, and fix
them as an emblem on your forehead” (Deut 11:18). The objects were for
everyday use. They serve as a shield in two important daily situations in
human life: the prayer and the inner part of the dwelling place. Besides
tefillin and mezuzot, no other apotropaic objects were found on the Qumran
site. Qumran findings of tefillin and mezuzot represent their oldest
occurrence.
Conclusion
To sum up briefly: demons are generally known and mentioned in
various Qumran texts, written in various languages (Aramaic and Hebrew),
and belonging to various genres (narrative, wisdom literature, other). Two
from among these texts, 1 Enoch 6-11 and Jubilees are of theoretical and
theological character. 1 Enoch, originating from the period prior to the end
of the 3rd century BCE, provides the rationale for the demons working in
the world. Demons (the Giants) originate from the sin of the Watchers, an
ethical sin considered as raising impurity. Demons represent the natural evil
in the world. They are associated with sin and impurity.
The story in 1 Enoch 6-11 is a deterministic myth, distinct from Genesis
6:1-4. At the same time, it is a self-definition of a group of the exiled; a
self-definition against their exilic background and not against another
Jewish group. It is characterized by an acceptance of the realm of the
demonic that represents natural evil, and the condemnation of magical
methods. Jubilees is an attempt to harmonize the Genesis narratives and
Enochic tradition. The Watchers are not sinners in Jubilees; however, the
demons originate from them. Demons work in the world through history.
They are subordinated to God’s power, and represent the ethical evil in the
world. Holy men (Noah, Abraham), on the grounds of their righteousness,
had power over demons.
Exorcisms of demons are found in some narrative texts. Demons
100
The Damascus Document, a rule written for the members living in families was found
in several copies in the Qumran library, see Qumran Cave 4.XIII: The Damascus Document
(4Q266-273), ed. J.M. Baumgarten (DJD XVIII; Oxford: Clarendon, 1996).
101
G. Vermes, “Pre-Mishnaic Jewish Worship and the Phylacteries from the Dead Sea,”
VT 9 (1959), pp. 65-72; Y. Yadin, Tefillin from Qumran (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration
Society and the Shrine of the Book, 1969).
Ida Fröhlich – Theology and Demonology in Qumran Texts
129
represent natural evil also in the narratives. One text (Tobit) refers to
magical method in healing, followed by prayer; while other texts present an
unparalleled method, the laying on of the hand, followed by prayer.
Raphael is known in Tobit as a helper and healer, and as the angel who
binds demons. Wisdom and apotropaic texts present a world of demons
representing both natural and ethical evil. Raphael is known in them as a
healer. Besides him Solomon and David are mentioned or cited, the latter as
the author of sacred texts used for apotropaic purposes.
Qumran texts related to demons reflect the emergence of a new concept
concerning demons in postexilic Judaism, and the development of new
methods represented by prayer and the laying on of hand. Protection against
the harmful influence of the demonic world was provided by means of
sacred texts and prayer; and eventually by means of a meticulous
observance of purity prescriptions, trying to eliminate impurity from
everyday life.102
ABSTRACT
Texts related to demons from Qumran often refer to the Enochic
tradition of the Watchers (1 En. 6-11). The narrations in 1 En. 6-11 are
compositions on the origin of evil. The Shemihazah story (1 En. 6:1 - 7:62)
sees the origin of evil in a series of sins (sexual sins, magic, bloodshed)
considered in the biblical impurity system as ethical impurities that defile the
land. The tradition of Asa’el (1 En. 8:1-2) ascribes the origin of evil to things
related to magic (metallurgy, jewels, make-up). Notions related to the motifs
of the stories are those of sin and impurity and magic and the demonic, the
evil being identical with the impure and the demonic. This view is
backgrounded and inspired by Mesopotamian magic as an exilic
experience. The Book of Jubilees tries to harmonize this outlook with that of
Genesis, to systematize the tradition, and enrich it with new figures like
Mastema, Belial, and Satan.
102
For modern examples on the duality of methods in dealing with demonic, see G.
Sengers, Women and Demons, Cult Healing in Islamic Egypt (International Studies in
Sociology and Social Anthropology LXXXVI; Leiden: Brill, 2003).
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