Trends
& issues
in crime and criminal justice
No. 496 August 2015
Foreword | The prevention of assault
has been a high-proile, long-term
The serious impact and
consequences of physical assault
concern for government and police
agencies. However, while the nature and
Georgina Fuller
impacts of certain types of physical
violence, such as domestic or sexual
assault, have been extensively studied,
this is not the case for more traditional
forms of physical assault. Understanding
the needs of victims of physical assault,
particularly in an Australian context, is
important in order to ensure that services
In 2012, there were 116,105 recorded victims of physical assault in New South Wales,
South Australia, Western Australia, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital
Territory combined (ABS 2013); equating to a victimisation rate of 969 per 100,000
population. This relects a trend that has been consistent for the last 18 years of police
recorded crime statistics, where physical assault has had the highest rate of victimisation
of any of the four major types of violent crime (ie homicide, physical assault, sexual assault
are adequately able to address these
and robbery; AIC 2014).
victims’ needs.
Estimates provided by the ABS’ Crime Victimisation Survey provide further insight into the
This paper represents the irst research
to be published using the Australian
Institute of Criminology’s Database of
Victimisation Experiences; a qualitative
database that can be used to better
explore the nature and impact of violent
nature of physical assault in Australia. In 2012–13, there was an estimated 498,000 people
over the age of 15 years who were the victim of a physical assault. An estimated 60 percent
(n=294,100) of these were male, while individuals aged less than 34 years were more likely
to have been assaulted compared with any other age group (ABS 2014). Females were
more likely to be victimised in the home by a family member, whereas males were more
commonly assaulted by a stranger in place of recreation (ie pubs or nightclubs) or on
victimisation. In this paper, the indings
the street (ABS 2014).
of an analysis of cases of non-domestic,
Yet despite these statistics, the narrow focus of academia and policy on particular types
non-sexual physical assault are described.
of violence has resulted in the impact of some forms of physical assault being somewhat
While victims experienced a variety of
overlooked. For example, the negative consequences of experiencing domestic violence
psychological and physical dificulties
or sexual assault have been extensively studied. Briely, the experience of domestic or
consequence of assault, this study
intimate partner violence has been associated with the development of a wide range of
demonstrates how the impacts of
negative outcomes including mental health issues, feelings of shame or guilt and dificulties
victimisation often extended into wider
relating to men (see Ansara & Hindin 2011; Coker et al. 2002; Roberts et al 1998). Similar
aspects of victim/survivors’ lives.
negative consequences have been found for sexual abuse, as well as other effects such
Adam Tomison
Director
as dificulties in interpersonal relationships, particularly around sexual functioning (see
Cashmore & Shackel 2013; Colman & Widom 2004; Watson & Halford 2010).
Australia’s national research and knowledge centre on crime and justice
This type of information is particularly
Much of the research that examines the
physical injuries reported in this sample
relevant, as it has been used to inform
impact of violent victimisation has focused
were scarring, broken bones and loss of
the types of services available to support
on the psychological consequences. This
teeth. For these victims, all categories of
victims of these types of violence. Yet
includes increased risk to the development
effect were initially high for a few weeks after
victims of non-domestic, non-sexual
of mental health conditions such as
the crime; however, the impact diminished
physical assault have not received the
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
over time. This is by comparison with
same level of attention. In order to address
(see Betts et al. 2013; Freeman et al.
victims of sexual assaults, who reported
this knowledge gap, the consequences of
2013). For example, Boney-McCoy and
more consistent levels of social and
physical assault victimisation in isolation
Finkelhor (1995) surveyed 2,000 young
psychological stress over a longer time
from other types of violent crime are
people in the United States and found
period (Shapland, Wilmore & Duff 1985).
explored in this paper. The purpose is to
that violent victimisation (eg kidnapping,
discover the impact of physical assault
physical or sexual assault) was linked to
on both the victim and their family. This
the development of adverse psychosocial
includes the effect of this type of violence
outcomes such as sadness, PTSD-related
on the victim’s physical and psychological
symptoms and the low-on effects from
health, as well as their social, educational
these, such as poor educational functioning.
and occupational functioning.
Other studies have linked victimisation with
feelings of fear (Ansara & Hindin 2010),
The impact of victimisation
anger (Ditton et al. 1999), and stress
It has been suggested that individuals
formal and informal support networks
actively and continually construct their
has been found to decrease the negative
daily lives based on information received
psychological impact of victimisation
either consciously or unconsciously
(Norris, Kaniasty & Thompson 1997).
(Walklate 2007). Janoff-Bulman and Frieze
(1983) proposed that the average person
holds three basic assumptions about
themselves and the world in which they
live. Speciically, these assumptions are
the perception of:
(Jones 2002). However, engagement with
Despite the research focus, the impact
of crime is not just conined to mental
health; victimisation may also affect an
individual’s educational, occupational and
relational functioning. As part of a landmark
study into the experiences of victims of
• oneself as a ‘good’ human being;
crime, Shapland, Wilmore and Duff (1985)
• oneself as invincible or invulnerable; and
interviewed 276 victims of physical assault
• the world as a safe and just place (Janoff-
(n=198), robbery (n=40) and sexual assault
Bulman & Frieze 1983).
These assumptions provide a framework
to help the individual organise their daily
lives, plans, aspirations and goals. The
experience of victimisation violates these
assumptions, resulting in fundamental
(n=38) in the United Kingdom. Subsequent
interviews took place over a period of time
spanning up to three years. The effects of
the crimes were studied and separated into
More recent studies have supported
Shapland Shapland, Wilmore and Duff’s
(1985) indings. For example, studies
have demonstrated that the experience
of violence (including physical assault)
was correlated with negative occupational
behaviours such as absenteeism, high job
turnover and increased unemployment
(see Cook, David & Grant 1999; Hanson
et al. 2010). Kim et al. (2013) found that
individuals who sustain a traumatic brain
injury from a physical assault, as opposed
to a non crime-related incident experienced
greater dificulties with daily functioning.
Despite the lack of research related to
physical assault, these studies do provide
some interesting points to note. In particular,
while there were similarities in the reactions
to violence, victims of physical assault
appear to struggle particularly with the
impact of physical injuries. To gain a better
understanding of the impact of this violence,
this research explores the effect of nonsexual, non-domestic physical assault on a
sample of 121 victims who contacted Victim
Services, NSW seeking compensation in the
years 2005–06 to 2010–11.
four categories—psychological, physical,
inancial and social. Because of the large
proportion of physical assault victims
Method
included in the sample, this study is one
The data used in this research are drawn
of the few that has examined the impact
from the Australian Institute of Criminology’s
of this type of violence.
Database of Victimisation Experiences
& Grant 1999; Shapland & Hall 2007).
Shapland, Wilmore and Duff (1985)
(DoVE). The DoVE is a qualitative database
Thus, the traumatic experience of physical
demonstrated that the effects of violent
comprising 730 psychological evaluations
assault may have ramiications for victims
crime were persistent. Except for inancial
of victims of violent crime in New South
that extend beyond direct consequences
dificulties, victims reported that physical,
Wales who sought compensation from
(ie physical injuries) and lead to a disruption
social and psychological effects were the
Victim Services, NSW. As part of this
across a wide range of functions. Research
most consistent over time, although this
compensation process, psychologists
has linked the experience of crime with a
varied depending on the type of violent
evaluated victims in order to assess the
number of negative consequences across
crime experienced. In particular, victims of
validity of their claim. As such, the reports
the psychosocial, inancial, occupational,
physical assault reported struggling with
contain the perspectives of both the victim
educational and health domains.
the physical effects of the crime. Common
and psychologist.
changes in the way the individual perceives
and interprets the world around them,
including the way they view their own
capabilities and self-worth (Cook, David
2 | Australian Institute of Criminology
Table 1 Characteristics of the physical assault sample (N=121)
N
%
Gender
N
%
16
13
Weapon used
Male
78
64
Knife
Female
43
36
Firearm
6
5
Blunt
6
5
Age at report
14 years and under
5
4
Opportunistic (ie sticks, rocks, broken bottles)
14
12
15 to 17 years
7
6
Personal (ie fists, feet)
53
44
Other
18 to 19 years
3
2
20 to 29 years
28
23
3
2
23
19
30 to 39 years
28
23
40 to 49 years
22
18
No injury sustained
13
11
50 to 59 years
18
15
Minor injury/not specified
33
27
Greater than 60 years
3
2
Serious (non-life threatening)
56
46
Not specified
7
6
Serious (life threatening)
16
13
Not stated
3
2
The purpose of the database is to enable an
speciic purpose of compensation. Thus,
(15%) reported being the victim of ive or
examination of the nature and experiences
there is the potential for them not to be a
more offenders; this included one situation
of victimisation for four categories of violent
complete representation of the impact and
of mob violence.
crime—physical assault, sexual assault,
consequences of this crime, or to be biased
domestic violence and robbery. For more
in favour of more serious outcomes. Yet,
information regarding the methodology
in the absence of similar data and given
behind the DoVE see Fuller (forthcoming).
the rich qualitative information contained in
In total, 121 cases pertaining to non-sexual,
non-domestic assault were included for
analysis. This was the full sample of primary
Not stated
Injury
these reports, the data from the DoVE is a
suitable measure of the nature and impact
of victimisation.
The most common types of weapon used
were parts of the body such as feet and/
or ists (n=53; 44%), followed by a much
smaller proportion involving the use of knives
(n=16; 13%). Opportunistic weapons, which
were present in 14 cases, refer to weapons
that the offender was able to source from
victims of physical assault available for
It should also be noted that due to ethical
their immediate surrounding at the time of
analysis in the DoVE. Cases were only
limitations regarding the privacy of the
the offence (eg beer bottles, rocks). While
excluded if they pertained to secondary
information contained in the dataset,
injuries were common—concussions or
victims; that is, witnesses or family members
direct quotes will not be reported. Instead,
brief loss of consciousness in particular—
of victims who were seeking compensation.
information from the psychological
life-threatening injuries were only present in
The individual reports were coded and
evaluations are paraphrased.
approximately 16 cases (13%).
the themes explored using NVivo 10—a
qualitative analytical software tool.
Characteristics of the assault
Assaults most often occurred in the victim’s
home or another residential setting (n=46;
Presented in Table One is a summary
Limitations of the data
38%), followed by the street/footpath
of some of the characteristics of the
(n=19; 16%) or in recreational settings
Given that the sample is drawn from
sample of victims and the assaults they
(eg pubs and clubs; n=10; 8%). However,
individuals who sought compensation from
experienced. Over half of the victims in
Victim Services, NSW, it is necessary to
this sample were male (n=78; 64%) and
acknowledge potential issues regarding
aged between 20 and 39 years (n=56;
generalisability. There may be inherent,
46%). Though not described in Table One,
qualitative differences between those in
most victims were assaulted by a single,
the sample (who sought assistance from
male offender. This is in line with assault
a government agency) and other types
characteristics more generally, where males
of victims (those who do not engage with
are overrepresented as both the victims and
government or other services or choose
offenders in physical assault (ABS 2014).
not to seek compensation). Further, the
In this sample, 66 (55%) victims reported
reports from which is data was gathered
being victimised by one offender, while 15
were produced and structured for the
(12%) were victimised by two. Eighteen
it is important to note that none of the
residentially located cases involved ongoing
domestic or family violence. Domestic
violence was deined for the purposes of
the DoVE as violence occurring in private
residential locations between individuals
in intimate or familial relationships. Fights
between friends and at parties or one-off
altercations between family members are
examples of the types of non domesticrelated physical assaults that typiied the
types of cases examined here.
Australian Institute of Criminology | 3
In just over half (n=64; 53%) of the cases,
Janoff-Burman and Frieze (1983) listed
diminished, resulting in poorer academic
the victim and offender were strangers.
previously. Speciically, victims tended to
performance (PA0532). Another victim was
Assault involving acquaintances accounted
view themselves as more positive prior
no longer able to work because the injury to
for another quarter of cases (n=29; 24%).
to the assault. For example, one female
his hand sustained during the assault meant
Aside from individuals the victim had
victim described herself as having been
he could not carry out the everyday duties of
just met, acquaintances also included
a trusting, resilient and optimistic person
his trade (PA0501).
neighbours and peers who the victim
before the assault, one engaged fully with
indicated they did not know particularly
life (PA1184). Another male victim stated
well. The remaining 28 cases involved
that he used to feel strong, full of energy and
family members (n=9; 7%), work-based
was considered by others as a it sportsman
relationships (eg colleagues or clients; n=5;
(PA1185).
4%), ‘known others’ (n=9; 7%) and ive
cases where the relationship was not stated.
However, scars and pain could also have
an indirect effect. These physical injuries
not only served as triggers for traumatic
lashbacks and re-experiencing the event,
but also impacted on victims’ perceptions
Similarly, while feelings of safety were not
of themselves. One victim who was slashed
often explicitly discussed, victims reported
in the face at a party felt the scar made him
Based on the victim’s descriptions, the
active and engaging social lives, relecting a
resemble a criminal (PA0510). In another
majority of assaults did not stem from
view that their world was a safe and happy
case, the psychologist reported that the
pre-existing feuds. Assault often resulted
place.
facial scar received during a ‘glassing’ served
as a constant reminder of the incident to
from arguments or perceived slights;
however, other precipitating events included
Consequences of assault
the victim, leading her to feel angry, sad and
pseudo robberies (where demands were
Impact of physical injuries
fearful every time she saw it (PA05155).
Within this sample, life-threatening injury
Psychological impact
made for property but property was not
actually targeted).
or serious traumatic brain injuries (TBI)
The majority of victims in this sample were
in either the irst and second stage of crisis
response (Bard & Sangrey 1986; Cook,
were rare. However, concussion or loss
of consciousness was common, as were
As expected, the experience of physical
assault had negative psychological
consequences for victims in this sample.
post-assault problems with memory and
David & Grant 1999). Although some victims
concentration. A loss of consciousness
Depression, anxiety, fear, hypervigilance
were attempting to adjust to their new
or concussion was explicitly mentioned
and anger were common reactions to
perspectives, none had fully entered the third
in approximately 25 (21%) cases. The
experiences of physical assault. In the
stage of actual adjustment and integration.
prevalence of these conditions suggests that
31 cases where results from the Beck’s
many of the victims included in this sample
Depression Scale (which asks respondents
may have experienced mild to moderate TBI.
to rate feelings of sadness, self-dislike,
Results
pessimism and agitation) were available,
However, TBIs and related conditions were
Victim’s pre-crime perceptions of
self and world
not the only negative physical side effect
Victims reported diverse and varied pre-
Scars and other physical markers were also
crime backgrounds (ie prior to the index
connected with poor functioning. Both of
assault). Only a minority of individuals
these physical consequences could have
reported poor functioning in one or more
direct and indirect effects on the victim.
areas of their life prior to the assault
For one victim of a ‘king hit’, direct effects
(n<24). It is also important to note that the
included strong headaches which were
majority reported no prior issues with their
brought on suddenly, seizures and loss of
mental health (n≈104; 86%). Where prior
consciousness. This victim also sustained
issues with mental health were present,
damage to nerves in their face (PA11188).
it usually involved affected individuals
For another, the scarring around his eye led
seeking assistance for speciic life events;
to sight problems, which caused problems
for example, assistance with grief following
with coordination and prevented him from
the death of a parent or dificulties during
playing sport (PA0659).
experienced by victims in this sample.
time of their physical assault victimisation.
Direct effects like memory and coordination
problems impacted some victim’s lives
considerably, causing dificulties in their
Victims’ perceptions of self and their
educational, occupational and social
world prior to the assault aligned with
functioning. Due to problems with her
the three assumptions proposed by
concentration, one victim’s ability to study
4 | Australian Institute of Criminology
scores that placed them on the severe end
of the spectrum. One victim with severe
depression reported in the previous two
weeks a multitude of psychological reactions
attributed to her victimisation. These
included ongoing feelings of depression,
hopelessness, failure and worthlessness
as well as suicidal thoughts, dificulties with
decision making, inability to experience
pleasure from previously enjoyable activities
and hyperarousal. In addition, she also
reported psychophysical responses such
as decreases in appetite, libido, sleep and
concentration (PA06102).
Elevated levels of anxiety, fear and
adolescence. Few victims (n=19) reported
experiencing issues with mental health at the
93 percent (n=29) of individuals received
hypervigilance were used as indicators of
changes in a victim’s assumptions of safety.
Beck’s Anxiety ratings were available for
33 cases and of these, 66 percent (n=22)
scored in the ‘severe’ range. These victims
reported experiencing symptoms including
described being constantly aware of her
cause problems with occupational and
tension, irritability or panic attacks in the
personal safety and security and when out in
educational functioning. For example, the
previous two weeks.
public and was ixated on her peceived level
ways in which a victim’s functioning in these
of vulnerability (PA1184).
areas could be compromised included:
Potentially unpredictable situations (such as
Further, victims reported that this feeling did
• being unable to work because of the fear
those involving public places) led to feelings
not abate when in their own homes. Ten
of encountering the attacker in the street
of anxiety or paranoia related to a fear of
victims made direct reference to hypervigiliant
while undertaking their daily duties;
re-victimisation. For example, one victim
behaviours while at home, including
stated that public places now caused her
constantly checking doors and windows or
the development of serious mental illness
great anxiety because she was constantly
installing more complex security systems.
directly related to the physical assault; or
concerned someone was going to attack
One individual, who was the victim of an
her from behind. As a result she was no
unprovoked assault on the street, reported
longer able to function in crowded, busy or
extreme behaviours including compiling a
noisy locations (PA06107). Similarly, another
physical list of hiding spots throughout the
young man’s fear of re-victimisation led him
house in case she was threatened while at
to cease catching public transport and only
home (PA0528).
during the assault inhibited his ability to
Finally, the experience of physical assault
reluctant to hire someone with a pre-existing
Victims also feared visiting public places
could produce feelings of intense anger.
complaint (PA0668).
as they could potentially re-encounter their
However, there was variation in where that
offender. Side effects of this fear included
anger was focused. Speciically, anger could
withdrawing from public life—refusing
be focused on the offender, situation or
to leave home, avoiding certain areas or
directed at the victim at themselves.
Fear and anxiety were closely related.
shop in the company of others (PA0663).
shopping districts. In six extreme cases,
victims either had or were in the process of
completely relocating in order to decrease
the likelihood of encountering the offender.
Victims could seek to control this fear
and anxiety through hypervigilance.
Hypervigilance is a condition where the
individual remains in a consistently aroused
state in response to real or perceived threats.
The relationship between hypervigiliance and
anxiety is still being deined; however, it has
been linked to the maintenance of anxiety
through constant visual scanning (Dalgleish
affecting the ability to return or complete
or the work.
In one case, the injury the victim sustained
ind replacement work, as employers were
Being unable to return to work or study
can have ramiications for the victim’s
inancial security. For example, one victim
who was assaulted within his place of work
was no longer able to continue running his
focus. Some victims reported sudden and
business. It was reported that this victim
intense outbursts of anger. One victim was
now had little faith in his ability to provide
no longer able to work in public because of
for the future and considered bankruptcy as
dificulties in controlling his anger (PA0511).
the only solution to his inancial problems
It is not possible to link causally changes in
(PA0511). For a few other victims, the
psychological functioning with a violation
stresses associated with attempting to
of pre-held beliefs and assumptions.
return to work or losing their jobs because
However, the ways in which these dificulties
they were unable to cope, compounded
manifest, such as fear of the unknown
the negative psychological symptoms
and obsessions with safety do suggest
associated with the attack. For example,
a negative change in the way a victim
one victim, who for inancial reasons had to
perceives the world around them.
continue working, experienced anxiety and
a feeling of being trapped by her situation
interpreting ambiguous cues as threatening
One of the strongest themes to emerge
(Beck, Emery & Greenberg 2005). For victims
from the sample was the dificulties victims
in this sample, hypervigilance manifested as
faced in attempting to return to their normal
a preoccupation with security and safety or
lives. Dificulties returning to and maintaining
repetitive checking or scanning behaviours.
study or employment, and relationship
For one victim who was attacked in his home
problems were common. The economic
by a gang, the fear of being attacked again
and social impacts of victimisation are just
was paramount. His primary hypervigilant
as important to understand as the physical
behaviours included becoming hyperaware
and psychological impacts because they
and constantly scanning for the offenders
also mediate the likelihood of a successful
when out in public. He also reported feeling
recovery. The negative consequences in
incredibly anxious if he did notice people who
these areas can also have long-lasting
resembled the offender (PA1194).
consequences for the victim and their family.
For another, who was stabbed while on
Economic impact
as overt but still cause for concern. She
• injury sustained during the assault
Not all anger, however, had a particular
et al. 2001) and the increased likelihood of
a bush walk, the hypervigilance was not
• an inability to re-engage at work due to
Experiences of fear, psychological illness
(PA0536). Another victim’s anxiety affected
his job as a taxi driver and he reported that
he no longer felt conident in picking up
customers. He consequently worked fewer
shifts and made less income than before the
assault (PA10129).
Social impact
The relationship between physical assault
victimisation and social relationships was
complex. Social ties to intimate partners,
family and friends provided victims with
valuable support, helping them to deal
with the negative consequences of the
assault. Relationships, however, were also
tested as a consequence of the physical
and physical injury post-assault could
Australian Institute of Criminology | 5
assault, sometimes leading to a complete
colleague relationships also suffered.
to the attack he had been very naïve in his
breakdown of a victim’s social network.
The experience of physical assault led
view of the world as a safe place (PA05154).
victims to withdraw or isolate themselves
A third victim now lived his life constantly
from these broader social networks. The
expecting to be assaulted, indicating that
reasons behind this withdrawal tended to
he too no longer viewed the world as a safe
fall into either one of two categories—they
place (PA06101).
Immediate family members and intimate
partners were primary sources of social
support for victims in this sample. The
assistance they provided varied from minor
emotional support to more intense, dayto-day caregiving; for example, ensuring
the victims maintained personal hygiene or
providing alternative living arrangements
when the victim could no longer stay in their
own home. Given that some individuals
were dealing with severe physical injuries
as a result of the assault, the impact of
had lost motivation to engage with life
or anxiety associated with unpredictable
situations such as in crowds or public
places. For 12 victims, the presence
For many victims, the impact of physical
of crowds or members of the public
assault is severe and pervasive. As
heightened their anxiety because they were
illustrated by the victims in this sample, the
no longer comfortable around people they
impact may extend beyond psychological
did not know.
and physical injury to permeate all aspects
the victimisation could drastically alter the
Those who reported withdrawing from
nature of these relationships, especially if
and avoiding social contact, however, also
the other person had to step into the role of
felt that this contributed to their feelings
primary caregiver. In one instance, a victim’s
of isolation. In some cases, both the
oldest son became her caregiver as well as
psychologists and victims felt that this
taking on the responsibility of looking after
exacerbated or facilitated the development
the household (PA10121), while, in another,
of mental health conditions such as
the victim was reliant on their partner and
depression or anxiety.
parents to attend to their toiletries, dress,
and transportation. This was due to an injury
Post-crime perceptions
sustained during the assult which limited the
Finally, the experience of physical assault
victim’s use of their hands (PA1184).
caused many victims to develop negative
These close relationships often bore the
brunt of the victims’ change in psychological
functioning. Irritability, anger, depression
views about themselves and the world. For
two victims, this involved feeling weak, or
worthless, and for one, that their future was
hopeless (PA1189).
relationship breakdown. One defacto couple
These feelings could also be linked to
eventually separated due to the friction and
how the victim interpreted their actions as
constant ighting that occurred following
contributing to their victimisation or inability
the victimisation, and the emotional and
to respond to the assault. For example, one
psychological changes to the victim
victim reported feeling guilty because, if he
(PA0526). This caused great upset for the
had not gone to the location of the attack,
victim.
it would not have happened (PA0666),
the compensation process corroborated
the impact that the victimisation had on
them. One poignant example involved a
of a victim’s life; for example, leaving them
incapable of returning to study or work
and becoming isolated from family and
friends. Further, the support provided by
intimate partners and wider social networks
may be compromised if, as a result of the
assault, family and friends ind themselves
assuming extra responsibilities or dealing
with the victim’s psychological needs. Unlike
Shapland et al’s (1985) study, the limitations
of this sample means it is not possible to
and PTSD resulted in strain or worse—a
Partners who were interviewed as part of
Discussion and conclusion
while another was angry because he felt
that there was nothing he could have done
to have prevented the unprovoked attack
(PA0517).
accurately identify the longevity of these
impacts. Thus, while the indings of this
research strongly indicate the seriousness of
the impact of physical assault victimisation,
it is not possible to conclude how long these
symptoms last or evaluate the effectiveness
of treatment.
It is important that discussions of the
needs of victims of physical assault remain
distinct from other types of violence such
as sexual assault or family and domestic
violence. While commonalities, such as
poor psychosocial functioning, exist in
the reactions of victims of violent crime
generally, the experiences of victims of
physical assault are not the same as those
of victims of sexual assault or domestic
couple acknowledging that while they still
These negative perceptions were also
violence. For example, while victims
loved each other, they could no longer
present when victims described their world
reported developing and struggling with
be together because the victim’s anger,
views. For example, one victim stated that
negative psychological outcomes, the
alcohol use, lack of motivation or desire
his belief and trust in the legal system had
impact of physical injuries was a particularly
had irreversibly damaged their relationship.
been profoundly altered as a result of his
salient characteristic of the non-sexual,
The psychologist noted that both parties
physical assault. He was no longer able
non-domestic assaults described by this
were profoundly and devastatingly affected
to make sense of his world and could not
sample. This is in line with the indings from
by these changes and the impact on their
understand how he would ever feel safe
Shapland et al’s (1985) study where victims
relationship (PA0670).
again (AR05104). Another felt that his life
of physical assault showed greater physical
would never be the same again due to his
effects than victims of either robbery or
fear and mistrust of others and that prior
sexual assault. This does not suggest
Further, these changes did not just affect
those close to the victim; friends and
6 | Australian Institute of Criminology
that victims of sexual assault or domestic
way (see Rock 2014; Shapland et al 1985)
requirements of one victim may be drastically
violence do not suffer physically because of
and in Australia, many states and territories
different from those of another, hampering
their experience, rather that the impact of
have dedicated government compensation
the identiication of broader needs. Further,
injury and scarring is particularly relevant to
and/or victim support schemes. However,
not all of a victim’s needs can and should be
the experiences of physical assault victims.
as Dunn (2007) and Rock (2014) have
met by formal service delivery. In order for
discussed, the concept of a victim’s needs
more meaningful recommendations to be
is problematic. For instance, the response of
made regarding service delivery, a focused
victims can vary dramatically depending on
survey designed to qualify the relationship
a wide variety of factors, including severity
between impact and need for victims of
of the assault, prior experience with crime,
physical assault is necessary.
This research has focused on describing
the impact and consequences for victims
of physical assault. It has stopped short
of identifying speciic needs due to the
complexity of this issue. The recognition of
victim’s rights and needs has come a long
or presence of social support networks. The
Australian Institute of Criminology | 7
Georgina Fuller is a Research Analyst
in the Violence and Exploitation
team at the Australian Institute of
Criminology.
General editor, Trends & issues
in crime and criminal justice series:
Dr Adam M Tomison, Director,
Australian Institute of Criminology
Note: Trends & issues in crime and
criminal justice papers are peer reviewed
For a complete list and the full text of the
papers in the Trends & issues in crime and
criminal justice series, visit the AIC website
at: aic.gov.au
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