Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice No. 496 August 2015 Foreword | The prevention of assault has been a high-proile, long-term The serious impact and consequences of physical assault concern for government and police agencies. However, while the nature and Georgina Fuller impacts of certain types of physical violence, such as domestic or sexual assault, have been extensively studied, this is not the case for more traditional forms of physical assault. Understanding the needs of victims of physical assault, particularly in an Australian context, is important in order to ensure that services In 2012, there were 116,105 recorded victims of physical assault in New South Wales, South Australia, Western Australia, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory combined (ABS 2013); equating to a victimisation rate of 969 per 100,000 population. This relects a trend that has been consistent for the last 18 years of police recorded crime statistics, where physical assault has had the highest rate of victimisation of any of the four major types of violent crime (ie homicide, physical assault, sexual assault are adequately able to address these and robbery; AIC 2014). victims’ needs. Estimates provided by the ABS’ Crime Victimisation Survey provide further insight into the This paper represents the irst research to be published using the Australian Institute of Criminology’s Database of Victimisation Experiences; a qualitative database that can be used to better explore the nature and impact of violent nature of physical assault in Australia. In 2012–13, there was an estimated 498,000 people over the age of 15 years who were the victim of a physical assault. An estimated 60 percent (n=294,100) of these were male, while individuals aged less than 34 years were more likely to have been assaulted compared with any other age group (ABS 2014). Females were more likely to be victimised in the home by a family member, whereas males were more commonly assaulted by a stranger in place of recreation (ie pubs or nightclubs) or on victimisation. In this paper, the indings the street (ABS 2014). of an analysis of cases of non-domestic, Yet despite these statistics, the narrow focus of academia and policy on particular types non-sexual physical assault are described. of violence has resulted in the impact of some forms of physical assault being somewhat While victims experienced a variety of overlooked. For example, the negative consequences of experiencing domestic violence psychological and physical dificulties or sexual assault have been extensively studied. Briely, the experience of domestic or consequence of assault, this study intimate partner violence has been associated with the development of a wide range of demonstrates how the impacts of negative outcomes including mental health issues, feelings of shame or guilt and dificulties victimisation often extended into wider relating to men (see Ansara & Hindin 2011; Coker et al. 2002; Roberts et al 1998). Similar aspects of victim/survivors’ lives. negative consequences have been found for sexual abuse, as well as other effects such Adam Tomison Director as dificulties in interpersonal relationships, particularly around sexual functioning (see Cashmore & Shackel 2013; Colman & Widom 2004; Watson & Halford 2010). Australia’s national research and knowledge centre on crime and justice This type of information is particularly Much of the research that examines the physical injuries reported in this sample relevant, as it has been used to inform impact of violent victimisation has focused were scarring, broken bones and loss of the types of services available to support on the psychological consequences. This teeth. For these victims, all categories of victims of these types of violence. Yet includes increased risk to the development effect were initially high for a few weeks after victims of non-domestic, non-sexual of mental health conditions such as the crime; however, the impact diminished physical assault have not received the post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) over time. This is by comparison with same level of attention. In order to address (see Betts et al. 2013; Freeman et al. victims of sexual assaults, who reported this knowledge gap, the consequences of 2013). For example, Boney-McCoy and more consistent levels of social and physical assault victimisation in isolation Finkelhor (1995) surveyed 2,000 young psychological stress over a longer time from other types of violent crime are people in the United States and found period (Shapland, Wilmore & Duff 1985). explored in this paper. The purpose is to that violent victimisation (eg kidnapping, discover the impact of physical assault physical or sexual assault) was linked to on both the victim and their family. This the development of adverse psychosocial includes the effect of this type of violence outcomes such as sadness, PTSD-related on the victim’s physical and psychological symptoms and the low-on effects from health, as well as their social, educational these, such as poor educational functioning. and occupational functioning. Other studies have linked victimisation with feelings of fear (Ansara & Hindin 2010), The impact of victimisation anger (Ditton et al. 1999), and stress It has been suggested that individuals formal and informal support networks actively and continually construct their has been found to decrease the negative daily lives based on information received psychological impact of victimisation either consciously or unconsciously (Norris, Kaniasty & Thompson 1997). (Walklate 2007). Janoff-Bulman and Frieze (1983) proposed that the average person holds three basic assumptions about themselves and the world in which they live. Speciically, these assumptions are the perception of: (Jones 2002). However, engagement with Despite the research focus, the impact of crime is not just conined to mental health; victimisation may also affect an individual’s educational, occupational and relational functioning. As part of a landmark study into the experiences of victims of • oneself as a ‘good’ human being; crime, Shapland, Wilmore and Duff (1985) • oneself as invincible or invulnerable; and interviewed 276 victims of physical assault • the world as a safe and just place (Janoff- (n=198), robbery (n=40) and sexual assault Bulman & Frieze 1983). These assumptions provide a framework to help the individual organise their daily lives, plans, aspirations and goals. The experience of victimisation violates these assumptions, resulting in fundamental (n=38) in the United Kingdom. Subsequent interviews took place over a period of time spanning up to three years. The effects of the crimes were studied and separated into More recent studies have supported Shapland Shapland, Wilmore and Duff’s (1985) indings. For example, studies have demonstrated that the experience of violence (including physical assault) was correlated with negative occupational behaviours such as absenteeism, high job turnover and increased unemployment (see Cook, David & Grant 1999; Hanson et al. 2010). Kim et al. (2013) found that individuals who sustain a traumatic brain injury from a physical assault, as opposed to a non crime-related incident experienced greater dificulties with daily functioning. Despite the lack of research related to physical assault, these studies do provide some interesting points to note. In particular, while there were similarities in the reactions to violence, victims of physical assault appear to struggle particularly with the impact of physical injuries. To gain a better understanding of the impact of this violence, this research explores the effect of nonsexual, non-domestic physical assault on a sample of 121 victims who contacted Victim Services, NSW seeking compensation in the years 2005–06 to 2010–11. four categories—psychological, physical, inancial and social. Because of the large proportion of physical assault victims Method included in the sample, this study is one The data used in this research are drawn of the few that has examined the impact from the Australian Institute of Criminology’s of this type of violence. Database of Victimisation Experiences & Grant 1999; Shapland & Hall 2007). Shapland, Wilmore and Duff (1985) (DoVE). The DoVE is a qualitative database Thus, the traumatic experience of physical demonstrated that the effects of violent comprising 730 psychological evaluations assault may have ramiications for victims crime were persistent. Except for inancial of victims of violent crime in New South that extend beyond direct consequences dificulties, victims reported that physical, Wales who sought compensation from (ie physical injuries) and lead to a disruption social and psychological effects were the Victim Services, NSW. As part of this across a wide range of functions. Research most consistent over time, although this compensation process, psychologists has linked the experience of crime with a varied depending on the type of violent evaluated victims in order to assess the number of negative consequences across crime experienced. In particular, victims of validity of their claim. As such, the reports the psychosocial, inancial, occupational, physical assault reported struggling with contain the perspectives of both the victim educational and health domains. the physical effects of the crime. Common and psychologist. changes in the way the individual perceives and interprets the world around them, including the way they view their own capabilities and self-worth (Cook, David 2 | Australian Institute of Criminology Table 1 Characteristics of the physical assault sample (N=121) N % Gender N % 16 13 Weapon used Male 78 64 Knife Female 43 36 Firearm 6 5 Blunt 6 5 Age at report 14 years and under 5 4 Opportunistic (ie sticks, rocks, broken bottles) 14 12 15 to 17 years 7 6 Personal (ie fists, feet) 53 44 Other 18 to 19 years 3 2 20 to 29 years 28 23 3 2 23 19 30 to 39 years 28 23 40 to 49 years 22 18 No injury sustained 13 11 50 to 59 years 18 15 Minor injury/not specified 33 27 Greater than 60 years 3 2 Serious (non-life threatening) 56 46 Not specified 7 6 Serious (life threatening) 16 13 Not stated 3 2 The purpose of the database is to enable an speciic purpose of compensation. Thus, (15%) reported being the victim of ive or examination of the nature and experiences there is the potential for them not to be a more offenders; this included one situation of victimisation for four categories of violent complete representation of the impact and of mob violence. crime—physical assault, sexual assault, consequences of this crime, or to be biased domestic violence and robbery. For more in favour of more serious outcomes. Yet, information regarding the methodology in the absence of similar data and given behind the DoVE see Fuller (forthcoming). the rich qualitative information contained in In total, 121 cases pertaining to non-sexual, non-domestic assault were included for analysis. This was the full sample of primary Not stated Injury these reports, the data from the DoVE is a suitable measure of the nature and impact of victimisation. The most common types of weapon used were parts of the body such as feet and/ or ists (n=53; 44%), followed by a much smaller proportion involving the use of knives (n=16; 13%). Opportunistic weapons, which were present in 14 cases, refer to weapons that the offender was able to source from victims of physical assault available for It should also be noted that due to ethical their immediate surrounding at the time of analysis in the DoVE. Cases were only limitations regarding the privacy of the the offence (eg beer bottles, rocks). While excluded if they pertained to secondary information contained in the dataset, injuries were common—concussions or victims; that is, witnesses or family members direct quotes will not be reported. Instead, brief loss of consciousness in particular— of victims who were seeking compensation. information from the psychological life-threatening injuries were only present in The individual reports were coded and evaluations are paraphrased. approximately 16 cases (13%). the themes explored using NVivo 10—a qualitative analytical software tool. Characteristics of the assault Assaults most often occurred in the victim’s home or another residential setting (n=46; Presented in Table One is a summary Limitations of the data 38%), followed by the street/footpath of some of the characteristics of the (n=19; 16%) or in recreational settings Given that the sample is drawn from sample of victims and the assaults they (eg pubs and clubs; n=10; 8%). However, individuals who sought compensation from experienced. Over half of the victims in Victim Services, NSW, it is necessary to this sample were male (n=78; 64%) and acknowledge potential issues regarding aged between 20 and 39 years (n=56; generalisability. There may be inherent, 46%). Though not described in Table One, qualitative differences between those in most victims were assaulted by a single, the sample (who sought assistance from male offender. This is in line with assault a government agency) and other types characteristics more generally, where males of victims (those who do not engage with are overrepresented as both the victims and government or other services or choose offenders in physical assault (ABS 2014). not to seek compensation). Further, the In this sample, 66 (55%) victims reported reports from which is data was gathered being victimised by one offender, while 15 were produced and structured for the (12%) were victimised by two. Eighteen it is important to note that none of the residentially located cases involved ongoing domestic or family violence. Domestic violence was deined for the purposes of the DoVE as violence occurring in private residential locations between individuals in intimate or familial relationships. Fights between friends and at parties or one-off altercations between family members are examples of the types of non domesticrelated physical assaults that typiied the types of cases examined here. Australian Institute of Criminology | 3 In just over half (n=64; 53%) of the cases, Janoff-Burman and Frieze (1983) listed diminished, resulting in poorer academic the victim and offender were strangers. previously. Speciically, victims tended to performance (PA0532). Another victim was Assault involving acquaintances accounted view themselves as more positive prior no longer able to work because the injury to for another quarter of cases (n=29; 24%). to the assault. For example, one female his hand sustained during the assault meant Aside from individuals the victim had victim described herself as having been he could not carry out the everyday duties of just met, acquaintances also included a trusting, resilient and optimistic person his trade (PA0501). neighbours and peers who the victim before the assault, one engaged fully with indicated they did not know particularly life (PA1184). Another male victim stated well. The remaining 28 cases involved that he used to feel strong, full of energy and family members (n=9; 7%), work-based was considered by others as a it sportsman relationships (eg colleagues or clients; n=5; (PA1185). 4%), ‘known others’ (n=9; 7%) and ive cases where the relationship was not stated. However, scars and pain could also have an indirect effect. These physical injuries not only served as triggers for traumatic lashbacks and re-experiencing the event, but also impacted on victims’ perceptions Similarly, while feelings of safety were not of themselves. One victim who was slashed often explicitly discussed, victims reported in the face at a party felt the scar made him Based on the victim’s descriptions, the active and engaging social lives, relecting a resemble a criminal (PA0510). In another majority of assaults did not stem from view that their world was a safe and happy case, the psychologist reported that the pre-existing feuds. Assault often resulted place. facial scar received during a ‘glassing’ served as a constant reminder of the incident to from arguments or perceived slights; however, other precipitating events included Consequences of assault the victim, leading her to feel angry, sad and pseudo robberies (where demands were Impact of physical injuries fearful every time she saw it (PA05155). Within this sample, life-threatening injury Psychological impact made for property but property was not actually targeted). or serious traumatic brain injuries (TBI) The majority of victims in this sample were in either the irst and second stage of crisis response (Bard & Sangrey 1986; Cook, were rare. However, concussion or loss of consciousness was common, as were As expected, the experience of physical assault had negative psychological consequences for victims in this sample. post-assault problems with memory and David & Grant 1999). Although some victims concentration. A loss of consciousness Depression, anxiety, fear, hypervigilance were attempting to adjust to their new or concussion was explicitly mentioned and anger were common reactions to perspectives, none had fully entered the third in approximately 25 (21%) cases. The experiences of physical assault. In the stage of actual adjustment and integration. prevalence of these conditions suggests that 31 cases where results from the Beck’s many of the victims included in this sample Depression Scale (which asks respondents may have experienced mild to moderate TBI. to rate feelings of sadness, self-dislike, Results pessimism and agitation) were available, However, TBIs and related conditions were Victim’s pre-crime perceptions of self and world not the only negative physical side effect Victims reported diverse and varied pre- Scars and other physical markers were also crime backgrounds (ie prior to the index connected with poor functioning. Both of assault). Only a minority of individuals these physical consequences could have reported poor functioning in one or more direct and indirect effects on the victim. areas of their life prior to the assault For one victim of a ‘king hit’, direct effects (n<24). It is also important to note that the included strong headaches which were majority reported no prior issues with their brought on suddenly, seizures and loss of mental health (n≈104; 86%). Where prior consciousness. This victim also sustained issues with mental health were present, damage to nerves in their face (PA11188). it usually involved affected individuals For another, the scarring around his eye led seeking assistance for speciic life events; to sight problems, which caused problems for example, assistance with grief following with coordination and prevented him from the death of a parent or dificulties during playing sport (PA0659). experienced by victims in this sample. time of their physical assault victimisation. Direct effects like memory and coordination problems impacted some victim’s lives considerably, causing dificulties in their Victims’ perceptions of self and their educational, occupational and social world prior to the assault aligned with functioning. Due to problems with her the three assumptions proposed by concentration, one victim’s ability to study 4 | Australian Institute of Criminology scores that placed them on the severe end of the spectrum. One victim with severe depression reported in the previous two weeks a multitude of psychological reactions attributed to her victimisation. These included ongoing feelings of depression, hopelessness, failure and worthlessness as well as suicidal thoughts, dificulties with decision making, inability to experience pleasure from previously enjoyable activities and hyperarousal. In addition, she also reported psychophysical responses such as decreases in appetite, libido, sleep and concentration (PA06102). Elevated levels of anxiety, fear and adolescence. Few victims (n=19) reported experiencing issues with mental health at the 93 percent (n=29) of individuals received hypervigilance were used as indicators of changes in a victim’s assumptions of safety. Beck’s Anxiety ratings were available for 33 cases and of these, 66 percent (n=22) scored in the ‘severe’ range. These victims reported experiencing symptoms including described being constantly aware of her cause problems with occupational and tension, irritability or panic attacks in the personal safety and security and when out in educational functioning. For example, the previous two weeks. public and was ixated on her peceived level ways in which a victim’s functioning in these of vulnerability (PA1184). areas could be compromised included: Potentially unpredictable situations (such as Further, victims reported that this feeling did • being unable to work because of the fear those involving public places) led to feelings not abate when in their own homes. Ten of encountering the attacker in the street of anxiety or paranoia related to a fear of victims made direct reference to hypervigiliant while undertaking their daily duties; re-victimisation. For example, one victim behaviours while at home, including stated that public places now caused her constantly checking doors and windows or the development of serious mental illness great anxiety because she was constantly installing more complex security systems. directly related to the physical assault; or concerned someone was going to attack One individual, who was the victim of an her from behind. As a result she was no unprovoked assault on the street, reported longer able to function in crowded, busy or extreme behaviours including compiling a noisy locations (PA06107). Similarly, another physical list of hiding spots throughout the young man’s fear of re-victimisation led him house in case she was threatened while at to cease catching public transport and only home (PA0528). during the assault inhibited his ability to Finally, the experience of physical assault reluctant to hire someone with a pre-existing Victims also feared visiting public places could produce feelings of intense anger. complaint (PA0668). as they could potentially re-encounter their However, there was variation in where that offender. Side effects of this fear included anger was focused. Speciically, anger could withdrawing from public life—refusing be focused on the offender, situation or to leave home, avoiding certain areas or directed at the victim at themselves. Fear and anxiety were closely related. shop in the company of others (PA0663). shopping districts. In six extreme cases, victims either had or were in the process of completely relocating in order to decrease the likelihood of encountering the offender. Victims could seek to control this fear and anxiety through hypervigilance. Hypervigilance is a condition where the individual remains in a consistently aroused state in response to real or perceived threats. The relationship between hypervigiliance and anxiety is still being deined; however, it has been linked to the maintenance of anxiety through constant visual scanning (Dalgleish affecting the ability to return or complete or the work. In one case, the injury the victim sustained ind replacement work, as employers were Being unable to return to work or study can have ramiications for the victim’s inancial security. For example, one victim who was assaulted within his place of work was no longer able to continue running his focus. Some victims reported sudden and business. It was reported that this victim intense outbursts of anger. One victim was now had little faith in his ability to provide no longer able to work in public because of for the future and considered bankruptcy as dificulties in controlling his anger (PA0511). the only solution to his inancial problems It is not possible to link causally changes in (PA0511). For a few other victims, the psychological functioning with a violation stresses associated with attempting to of pre-held beliefs and assumptions. return to work or losing their jobs because However, the ways in which these dificulties they were unable to cope, compounded manifest, such as fear of the unknown the negative psychological symptoms and obsessions with safety do suggest associated with the attack. For example, a negative change in the way a victim one victim, who for inancial reasons had to perceives the world around them. continue working, experienced anxiety and a feeling of being trapped by her situation interpreting ambiguous cues as threatening One of the strongest themes to emerge (Beck, Emery & Greenberg 2005). For victims from the sample was the dificulties victims in this sample, hypervigilance manifested as faced in attempting to return to their normal a preoccupation with security and safety or lives. Dificulties returning to and maintaining repetitive checking or scanning behaviours. study or employment, and relationship For one victim who was attacked in his home problems were common. The economic by a gang, the fear of being attacked again and social impacts of victimisation are just was paramount. His primary hypervigilant as important to understand as the physical behaviours included becoming hyperaware and psychological impacts because they and constantly scanning for the offenders also mediate the likelihood of a successful when out in public. He also reported feeling recovery. The negative consequences in incredibly anxious if he did notice people who these areas can also have long-lasting resembled the offender (PA1194). consequences for the victim and their family. For another, who was stabbed while on Economic impact as overt but still cause for concern. She • injury sustained during the assault Not all anger, however, had a particular et al. 2001) and the increased likelihood of a bush walk, the hypervigilance was not • an inability to re-engage at work due to Experiences of fear, psychological illness (PA0536). Another victim’s anxiety affected his job as a taxi driver and he reported that he no longer felt conident in picking up customers. He consequently worked fewer shifts and made less income than before the assault (PA10129). Social impact The relationship between physical assault victimisation and social relationships was complex. Social ties to intimate partners, family and friends provided victims with valuable support, helping them to deal with the negative consequences of the assault. Relationships, however, were also tested as a consequence of the physical and physical injury post-assault could Australian Institute of Criminology | 5 assault, sometimes leading to a complete colleague relationships also suffered. to the attack he had been very naïve in his breakdown of a victim’s social network. The experience of physical assault led view of the world as a safe place (PA05154). victims to withdraw or isolate themselves A third victim now lived his life constantly from these broader social networks. The expecting to be assaulted, indicating that reasons behind this withdrawal tended to he too no longer viewed the world as a safe fall into either one of two categories—they place (PA06101). Immediate family members and intimate partners were primary sources of social support for victims in this sample. The assistance they provided varied from minor emotional support to more intense, dayto-day caregiving; for example, ensuring the victims maintained personal hygiene or providing alternative living arrangements when the victim could no longer stay in their own home. Given that some individuals were dealing with severe physical injuries as a result of the assault, the impact of had lost motivation to engage with life or anxiety associated with unpredictable situations such as in crowds or public places. For 12 victims, the presence For many victims, the impact of physical of crowds or members of the public assault is severe and pervasive. As heightened their anxiety because they were illustrated by the victims in this sample, the no longer comfortable around people they impact may extend beyond psychological did not know. and physical injury to permeate all aspects the victimisation could drastically alter the Those who reported withdrawing from nature of these relationships, especially if and avoiding social contact, however, also the other person had to step into the role of felt that this contributed to their feelings primary caregiver. In one instance, a victim’s of isolation. In some cases, both the oldest son became her caregiver as well as psychologists and victims felt that this taking on the responsibility of looking after exacerbated or facilitated the development the household (PA10121), while, in another, of mental health conditions such as the victim was reliant on their partner and depression or anxiety. parents to attend to their toiletries, dress, and transportation. This was due to an injury Post-crime perceptions sustained during the assult which limited the Finally, the experience of physical assault victim’s use of their hands (PA1184). caused many victims to develop negative These close relationships often bore the brunt of the victims’ change in psychological functioning. Irritability, anger, depression views about themselves and the world. For two victims, this involved feeling weak, or worthless, and for one, that their future was hopeless (PA1189). relationship breakdown. One defacto couple These feelings could also be linked to eventually separated due to the friction and how the victim interpreted their actions as constant ighting that occurred following contributing to their victimisation or inability the victimisation, and the emotional and to respond to the assault. For example, one psychological changes to the victim victim reported feeling guilty because, if he (PA0526). This caused great upset for the had not gone to the location of the attack, victim. it would not have happened (PA0666), the compensation process corroborated the impact that the victimisation had on them. One poignant example involved a of a victim’s life; for example, leaving them incapable of returning to study or work and becoming isolated from family and friends. Further, the support provided by intimate partners and wider social networks may be compromised if, as a result of the assault, family and friends ind themselves assuming extra responsibilities or dealing with the victim’s psychological needs. Unlike Shapland et al’s (1985) study, the limitations of this sample means it is not possible to and PTSD resulted in strain or worse—a Partners who were interviewed as part of Discussion and conclusion while another was angry because he felt that there was nothing he could have done to have prevented the unprovoked attack (PA0517). accurately identify the longevity of these impacts. Thus, while the indings of this research strongly indicate the seriousness of the impact of physical assault victimisation, it is not possible to conclude how long these symptoms last or evaluate the effectiveness of treatment. It is important that discussions of the needs of victims of physical assault remain distinct from other types of violence such as sexual assault or family and domestic violence. While commonalities, such as poor psychosocial functioning, exist in the reactions of victims of violent crime generally, the experiences of victims of physical assault are not the same as those of victims of sexual assault or domestic couple acknowledging that while they still These negative perceptions were also violence. For example, while victims loved each other, they could no longer present when victims described their world reported developing and struggling with be together because the victim’s anger, views. For example, one victim stated that negative psychological outcomes, the alcohol use, lack of motivation or desire his belief and trust in the legal system had impact of physical injuries was a particularly had irreversibly damaged their relationship. been profoundly altered as a result of his salient characteristic of the non-sexual, The psychologist noted that both parties physical assault. He was no longer able non-domestic assaults described by this were profoundly and devastatingly affected to make sense of his world and could not sample. This is in line with the indings from by these changes and the impact on their understand how he would ever feel safe Shapland et al’s (1985) study where victims relationship (PA0670). again (AR05104). Another felt that his life of physical assault showed greater physical would never be the same again due to his effects than victims of either robbery or fear and mistrust of others and that prior sexual assault. This does not suggest Further, these changes did not just affect those close to the victim; friends and 6 | Australian Institute of Criminology that victims of sexual assault or domestic way (see Rock 2014; Shapland et al 1985) requirements of one victim may be drastically violence do not suffer physically because of and in Australia, many states and territories different from those of another, hampering their experience, rather that the impact of have dedicated government compensation the identiication of broader needs. Further, injury and scarring is particularly relevant to and/or victim support schemes. However, not all of a victim’s needs can and should be the experiences of physical assault victims. as Dunn (2007) and Rock (2014) have met by formal service delivery. In order for discussed, the concept of a victim’s needs more meaningful recommendations to be is problematic. For instance, the response of made regarding service delivery, a focused victims can vary dramatically depending on survey designed to qualify the relationship a wide variety of factors, including severity between impact and need for victims of of the assault, prior experience with crime, physical assault is necessary. This research has focused on describing the impact and consequences for victims of physical assault. It has stopped short of identifying speciic needs due to the complexity of this issue. The recognition of victim’s rights and needs has come a long or presence of social support networks. The Australian Institute of Criminology | 7 Georgina Fuller is a Research Analyst in the Violence and Exploitation team at the Australian Institute of Criminology. 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