Action, Criticism & Theory for Music Education
I S S N
1 5 4 5 - 4 5 1 7
A refereed journal of the
Action for Change in Music Education
Volume 15 Number 1
January 2016
Special Issue: El Sistema
Geoffrey Baker, Guest Editor
Vincent C. Bates, Editor
Brent C. Talbot, Associate Editor
Foreword: How Can Music Educators Address Poverty and
Inequality?
Vincent C. Bates, Editor
© Vincent C. Bates. 2016. The content of this article is the sole responsibility of the authors. The ACT
Journal and the Mayday Group are not liable for any legal actions that may arise involving the article's
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Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15(1)
1
Foreword: How Can Music Educators Address
Poverty and Inequality?
Vincent C. Bates, Editor
T
he World Bank recently proclaimed, “Ending poverty and addressing
climate change are the two defining issues of our time” (Hallegatte et al.
2016, xi). Economist and philosopher Thomas Pogge (2013) puts the first
of these two challenges into stark perspective:
[W]orld poverty has overtaken war as the greatest source of avoidable human
misery. Many more people — some 360 million — have died from hunger and
remediable diseases in peacetime in the 20 years since the end of the Cold War
than perished from wars, civil wars, and government repression over the entire
twentieth century. And poverty continues unabated, as the official statistics
amply confirm: 1,020 million human beings are chronically undernourished,
884 million lack access to safe water, and 2,500 million lack access to basic
sanitation; 2,000 million lack access to essential drugs; 924 million lack
adequate shelter and 1,600 million lack electricity; 774 million adults are
illiterate; and 218 million children are child laborers. Roughly one third of all
human deaths, 18 million annually, are due to poverty-related causes, easily
preventable through better nutrition, safe drinking water, cheap rehydration
packs, vaccines, antibiotics, and other medicines. (section 1.1)
In addition, and often overlooked in such descriptions, is the high rate of
violence suffered by the world’s poor. Haugen and Bautros (2014) give convincing
evidence that, for the most impoverished groups throughout the world, “there is no
higher-priority need with deeper and broader implications than the provision of
basic justice systems that can protect them from the devastating ruin of common
violence” (xiv). Finally, the World Bank (Hallegatte 2016) warns that the effects of
climate change could seriously impede any progress that is currently being made in
addressing poverty, especially extreme poverty: “Poor people and poor countries are
exposed and vulnerable to all types of climate-related shocks — natural disasters that
destroy assets and livelihoods; waterborne diseases and pests that become more
Bates, Vincent C. 2016. Foreword: How can music educators address poverty and inequality? Action,
Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15 (1): 1–9. act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Bates15_1.pdf
Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15(1)
2
prevalent during heat waves, floods, or droughts; crop failure from reduced rainfall;
and spikes in food prices that follow extreme weather events” (1).
It is understandable, considering this bleak picture, that music educators should
be concerned about the needs of the poor, globally and locally. Faced with readily
available graphic images from around the world, as well as the realities of our own
students, feelings of empathy are likely to prompt us to focus our professional efforts
on this particular social issue. Those of us living in more affluent circumstances
might also act out of a sense of basic social responsibility or even guilt, feeling
implicated through our own destructive patterns of global consumption and our
respective nations’ roles in exploitative trade practices and warfare (see Pogge 2013).
At the very least, our actions could be motivated by self-interest, understanding that
a more equitable society is a better society for all.
The specialized skills of some professionals such as doctors, engineers, and social
workers seem especially well-suited for meeting urgent needs. For instance, the
aforementioned team of Haugen and Bautros (2014) provides legal assistance to
impoverished victims of violence around the world. The potential roles of music
educators, on the other hand, with specializations in musicing and teaching, may not
be quite so obvious. Music does matter and musical experiences can serve to meet
important social and psychological needs, but music is not a life-sustaining human
need on par with food, safety, clean water, vaccines, political empowerment, and
basic literacy (see Bates 2009). Nor would it seem that the poor are particularly
deprived of music. Jeff Todd Titon (2013) reflects as follows on 45 years of fieldwork
as an ethnomusicologist in the United States:
While I did find material poverty in the musical communities that I participated
in and studied since the 1960s, I found the people in those communities to be
rich in music and expressive culture. I never found a cyclic culture of poverty …
either. Instead, I came to understand that poverty was imposed from without by
discrimination, exploitation, and corruption. (74, emphasis added)
Ullrich H. Laaser (1997) offers the concept of “poverty cultures,” recognizing the
cultural richness of those living in material poverty, as opposed to “cultures of
poverty” whereby the poor are seen as culturally deficient.
Dissociated from the bourgeois middle-class, the poverty cultures of low-income
classes and economies are developing. Based on the pressures of
impoverishment and the need to survive, their cultures emerge from the grassBates, Vincent C. 2016. Foreword: How can music educators address poverty and inequality? Action,
Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15 (1): 1–9. act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Bates15_1.pdf
Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15(1)
3
roots level of everyday life, coping with problems and deficiencies of their daily
environment, and creating new, sometimes unknown cultural responses.… The
harshness of everyday life and the struggle for survival are reflected in a variety
of songs, stories, jokes, festivities, cults, myths, colours, rhythms, ways of coping
with work, hope, anger, pain, fun, love, mourning, and happiness. Taking the
example of music, one would find the whole range of popular music to be
unthinkable without such origins. Can-Can, Flamenco, Czardas, Jazz, Blues,
Samba, Tango, Mambo, Rock, Reggae, Hip-Hop: to a great extent they are all a
result of poverty and migrant cultures. (Laaser 1997, 53–4, emphasis added,
referenced by Harrison 2013)
This perspective has the potential to upend taken-for-granted assumptions about
obligations to serve the needs of oppressed populations through music. In fact, it
would seem that the wealthy actually might owe the poor a deep debt of gratitude for
the richness of the traditions they have developed! At the very least, recognition of
the rich musical practices and heritages of impoverished groups and individuals is
essential in avoiding the symbolic violence of programs predicated on faulty
assumptions that people who lack basic necessities also lack culture (Araújo and
Cambria 2012), music in particular.
Included within this symbolic violence is the conviction that music education can
help impoverished participants develop important personal and social skills, thought
to be characteristic of the upper or middle classes, and thereby overcome a “culture
of poverty” — breaking the “cycle of poverty.” However, evidence shows that the
poor already possess strong personal and social skills. For instance, compared to the
wealthy, the poor tend to be more ethical (Piff et al. 2012), compassionate (Stellar et
al. 2012), and altruistic (Miller et al. 2015); are no more likely to abuse alcohol or
drugs; and are just as hard-working and communicative (Gorski 2008). Deficit
theories, whether cultural, personal, or social, have largely been discredited (Gorski
2013).
Poverty is, above all else, a problem of social inequality (as Geoffrey Baker
discusses in this issue), rooted in tacit assumptions developed throughout the course
of human history.
The cognitive structures which social agents implement in their practical
knowledge of the social world are internalized, ‘embodied’ social structures. The
practical knowledge of the social world that is presupposed by ‘reasonable’
behaviour within it implements classificatory schemes (or ‘forms of
classification’, ‘mental structures’ or ‘symbolic forms’ — apart from their
connotations, these expressions are virtually interchangeable), historical
Bates, Vincent C. 2016. Foreword: How can music educators address poverty and inequality? Action,
Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15 (1): 1–9. act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Bates15_1.pdf
Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15(1)
4
schemes of perception and appreciation which are the product of the objective
division into classes (age groups, genders, social classes) and which function
below the level of consciousness and discourse. Being the product of the
incorporation of the fundamental structures of a society, these principles of
division are common to all the agents of the society and make possible the
production of a common, meaningful world, a common-sense world. (Bourdieu
1984, 468, emphasis added)
Critical theorist Andrew Feenberg (2014) explains, “The dominant culture can
serve its function of justifying class rule only insofar as this function remains
unconscious, insofar, therefore, as culture itself appears as eternal truth” (56).
Offering dominant cultural practices and artifacts as means to overcoming poverty,
therefore, serves primarily to justify dominance and can serve the opposite function
— that of reinforcing and deepening inequality.
Addressing poverty and inequality through music education, then, cannot be a
simple matter of providing music lessons and music resources to poor children. Still,
it can be reasonably argued that music educators can and should play a role in
addressing poverty and inequality — as long as they recognize up-front the cultural,
personal, and social affluence of people who have otherwise been subjected to
political and economic impoverishment. For guidance, we could begin by
considering the work of groups for whom alleviating poverty is the primary aim,
thereby avoiding the ulterior motives on the part of groups working for the
preservation of a particular genre of music or the profession of music teaching. I will
share four examples from Oxfam, an international organization that “is determined
to change that world by mobilizing the power of people against poverty” (Oxfam
International 2013).
First, in the Zaatari camp for Syrian refugees in Jordan, Oxfam partner, AARD
(Arab Renaissance for Democracy and Development-Legal Aid), together with the
VOICE Project, fund a men’s music group called SMRTE (Syrians Must Release Their
Energy) (see video at Oxfam International 2013). The mission of the VOICE Project
is described as follows:
In the fight against oppression and injustice, the first step is having the freedom
to speak out, to raise one’s voice, and it is the activist-artist who so often sounds
the alarm and calls others to join in action. These early responders to injustice
and oppression need to be able to do so free from persecution and prosecution.
Movements and issues ranging from the environment to equality and fighting
global poverty are dependent on the individual’s ability to advance these causes
Bates, Vincent C. 2016. Foreword: How can music educators address poverty and inequality? Action,
Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15 (1): 1–9. act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Bates15_1.pdf
Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15(1)
5
via this foundational human right; freedom of expression. Through music and
other art forms, artists around the world utilize this right to freedom of
expression to clarify, engage, question, and advance the causes which help
advance our species. Our goal is to be on the front lines defending those who use
their voices to speak out. (VOICE Project 2015)
Second, Oxfam America has partnered with the popular music group, Coldplay, to
develop a crowd-sourced video of “In My Place” raising awareness about land grabs
(Ferguson 2013). Third, Oxfam supplies a series of lesson plans “exploring global
music” in order to raise awareness of traditional musics and musicians throughout
the world. Finally, musicians working through ReverbNation can donate 50% of
their profits to Oxfam (Oxfam America 2015).
In the first example, music is a means for oppressed people to develop their own
voices in order to speak out against injustice. Music educators can (and some do)
similarly empower their students’ musical voices through a variety of means —
songwriting, for instance. The second example is about using music to raise
awareness of specific inequalities. Song selections for performance and general
music classes, as well as contextualizing discussions to accompany these musical
engagements, could easily serve this same purpose. By supporting the curriculum
materials and artists in the third example, music teachers can both raise awareness
and directly support the music of the oppressed. The final example brings up the
possibility, for school music ensembles and classes, of addressing poverty directly by
raising or donating essential resources. Music educators’ efforts relative to social
justice will have the most extensive impact, in all of these instances, as they are
directed at all students, not just the underprivileged. Everyone can benefit from
music education, whether privileged or not. Nonetheless, efforts to provide a music
education to students who don’t otherwise have that opportunity must, if they are to
avoid deepening social problems, take into account the issues previously discussed.
Concerns about social justice, including social class, permeate the MayDay
Group Action Ideals (2012), particularly the following:
III. As agents of social change who are locally and globally bound, we create,
sustain, and contribute to reshaping musics, ways of knowing music, and spaces
where musicing takes place. Thus, music educators must always strive to
provide equitable, diverse, and inclusive music learning practices….
Bates, Vincent C. 2016. Foreword: How can music educators address poverty and inequality? Action,
Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15 (1): 1–9. act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Bates15_1.pdf
Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15(1)
6
a. How can music educators address social issues surrounding equality and
privilege that stem from identity constructions such as socioeconomic
status, ability, race, sexual orientation, age, gender, sex, ethnicity, and
religion, etc.?
b. How can we work towards increased accessibility and equity in music
curricula for all learners?
c. How can we create continuously developing, socially responsive, and
sustainable partnerships for musical activity within our local
communities?
d. How can engagement with these local partnerships develop increased
sensitivity and awareness in ourselves as globally bound musicians?
Despite these expressed ideals, social class and poverty have largely been overlooked in Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education. Clearly, much of what
ACT publishes is based on the manuscripts submitted and so this oversight is, more
than anything else, a reflection of the profession. Still, critical theory and the
philosophy of praxis — essential to ACT and the MayDay Group — are, in fact,
founded upon concerns about social inequality (see Feenberg 2014). Consequently,
it is “high time” for poverty and social inequality to be seriously addressed here.
ACT is also centrally concerned with actual musical practices (praxes) aimed at
“producing ‘right results’ for those served” (Regelski 2013, 112), rather than
decontextualized theorizing. Given these considerations, it makes sense to fill these
online pages with critique of specific music education programs and methods,
particularly those loudly claiming to promote social equality. One such program is El
Sistema, a rapidly expanding international music education program expressly
intended as a social program to help the poor. Our purpose herein is to explore the
extent to which El Sistema does or does not fulfill that aim. Most of the literature to
date (referenced throughout this issue) on El Sistema has been promotional and
laudatory, stemming from the classical music establishment for whom El Sistema
offers particular promise. Subsequently, the intent of this ACT issue, in addition to
centering poverty and inequality, is to provide a counter-balance to the
predominantly positive narrative about El Sistema, by subjecting the program’s
intentions and record to critical analysis and commentary by multiple authors.
Geoffrey Baker offered the first extensive critique of El Sistema with his book, El
Sistema: Orchestrating Venezuela’s Youth. Later he co-hosted a conference on the
topic, El Sistema and the Alternatives (April 24 and 25, 2015, University of London).
Bates, Vincent C. 2016. Foreword: How can music educators address poverty and inequality? Action,
Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15 (1): 1–9. act.maydaygroup.org/articles/Bates15_1.pdf
Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 15(1)
7
Given these developments, Baker was invited to guest edit this special issue. This
also continues an ACT tradition of issues based on specific conferences (related to
the MayDay Group Action Ideals), guest edited by conference organizers, and
published as a service to organizations within the field of music education. All
submissions were subjected to double-blind peer review by four or five expert
reviewers including members of the ACT editorial board and “outside” reviewers.
Articles were accepted for publication only with a strong consensus from the
reviewers. Most of the accepted articles went through a series of revisions.
These essays are, indeed, mostly critical of El Sistema, but that criticism is
intended as constructive for those involved in the ongoing development of the
program, in the interest of refining or changing it accordingly; for those who are
considering this or other programs in order to address poverty and social inequality;
or for individual music educators working to forge more socially just practices.
Indeed, this issue of ACT is not intended as a final word or to silence opposing views,
but as another step in an important scholarly dialogue about this popular program
and potentially others similar to it. In this spirit, ACT invites further submissions
about El Sistema, including scholarship demonstrating its positive aspects and
outcomes, articles exploring the program in further detail or in specific locations
around the world, and critical responses to the essays in this special issue. It is also
hoped that authors will take up the issue of social class, and submit scholarship on
this topic specifically and/or weave issues of social class generally into other
professional endeavors.
References
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participation: Perspectives from a collaborative study in Rio de Janeiro.
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Bates, Vincent C. 2009. Human needs theory: Applications for music education.
Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education 8 (1): 12–34.
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Feenberg, Andrew. 2014. The philosophy of praxis: Marx, Lukacs and the
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Oxfam International. 2013. Voices of Zaatari: Oxfam helps Syrian refugees use
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