Geogr. Fis. Dinam. Quat.
35 (2012), 61-68, 8 figg., 3 tabb.
DOI 10.4461/GFDQ.2012.35.6
MEHDI MUMIPOUR (*), MOHAMMAD H. REZAEI-MOGHADDAM (**)
& ALI M. KHORSHIDDOUST (**)
ACTIVE TECTONICS INFLUENCE ON DRAINAGE NETWORKS IN
DINARKOOH REGION, ZAGROS MOUNTAIN RANGE, IRAN
ABSTRACT: MUMIPOUR M., REZAEI-MOGHADDAM M.H. & KHORSHIDDOUST A.M., Active Tectonics Influence on Drainage Networks in Dinarkooh
Region, Zagros Mountain Range, Iran. (IT ISSN 0391-9838, 2012).
Drainage networks are usually influenced by the type, orientation
and recent activity of regional and local faults and folds in tectonically
active regions. In the Zagros Mountain Range, Western Iran, most
drainage systems are controlled by neotectonics processes. The development of the drainage system of Dinarkooh region in the late Quaternary depends mostly on the activity of Main Zagros Thrust Fault
(MZTF) and similar NW-SE oriented faults in Zagros fault system. We
have done a geomorphometric study by observing river profile and
characteristics of mountain fronts in order to find spatial variations
and style of rock uplift. Mountain front sinuosity (Smf), area- altitude
relations (Hypsometric curves), Vf and AF indices differ significantly
between different parts of the study area. River profiles indicate maximal river entrenchment in the southern part of Dinarkooh Region,
probably related to the uplift of footwall of MZTF fault system. Therefore our geomorphic analysis suggests that Southern and Western
parts of Dinarkooh are tectonically more active and also Samand active
fold plays a significant role in this activity because of an active blind
thrust fault beneath it.
KEY WORDS: Active Tectonics, Drainage Network, Geomorphometry,
Digital Elevation Model, Dinarkooh Region, Zagros Mountain Range.
(IT ISSN 0391-9838,
(2012).
(*) Physical Geography Department, University of Tabriz, Tabriz 51666-16471, Iran. Corresponding author, e-mail: mumipur@tabrizu.ac.ir
(**) Physical Geography Department, Faculty of Humanities and
Social Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz - 51666-16471, Iran.
Authors like to thank Dr. Faisal Shahzad for his valuable guides to use
MATLAB scripts. Support from Research Council of University of Tabriz is
gratefully acknowledged. We would thank anonymous reviewers for their
comments that improve this manuscript.
INTRODUCTION
One of the fastest growing disciplines in earth sciences is active tectonics because of its developments in
techniques and forwarding to more accurate analysis
(Keller & Pinter, 2002; Bull, 2007, 2009a, b; Pérez-Peña
& alii, 2010). Another reason is importance of its results
for regional studies on active tectonics and evaluates
hazards of natural disasters such as earthquakes (e.g.,
Cloetingh & Cornu, 2005; Pérez-Peña & alii, 2010). In
Dinarkooh region, the study of active tectonics of Zagros
on drainage network is important for landuse planning
programs.
Recent and active tectonics is considered as the main
factor affecting rock uplift on mountains ranges and their
present-day topography is the result of the competition between tectonics and erosion processes. So drainage pattern
analysis and geomorphic features can be used for evaluating active tectonics (e.g., Keller & alii, 2000; Beneduce &
alii, 2004; Capolongo & alii, 2005; Bull, 2007; Bishop,
2007; Ribolini & Spagnolo, 2008; Pérez-Peña & alii, 2010;
Mumipour & Nejad, 2011).
This paper aims to evaluate the active tectonics control
and influence on drainage network evolution in Dinarkooh
region located in the Zagros mountain range (Western
Iran) by using geomorphic indices and stream profile analysis. Dinarkooh Region is a part of Western Zagros Fold
61
and thrust belt, and it posed on the Northern flank of
Iranian-Arabian collision zone. For examining the influence of tectonics activity on drainage networks and get
conclusions about the evolution of the area detailed geomorphometric analysis was done focusing on knickpoints
and slope changes. For extracting geomorphological characteristics with quantitative measurements, the longitudinal profiles of main streams and hypsometric curves of the
basins were analysed (Maroukian & alii, 2008). The tectonic setting of the Dinarkooh Region is influenced by the
NW-SE trend of subduction of the Arabian plate beneath
Iranian plate as shown in fig. 1. The drainage networks in
active regions are strongly and rapidly influenced by tectonics and erosion changes, and hence they are potential
instruments for tectonic geomorphology analysis. The drainage network of Dinarkooh has showed good geological
record of the movement, displacement, regional uplifts
and erosion of tectonic units. The Meymeh River crosses
Dinarkooh. It divides the Dinarkooh into Western, Central and Eastern parts (fig. 2).
We prepared the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of
study area from Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission
and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) satellite stereo images. MATLAB script files (Shahzad & alii, 2009; Shahzad
& Gloaguen, 2011) were used to extract drainage network
and lineaments from DEM. By the stream profile analysis,
uplift rates of each stream were calculated under certain
assumptions. The streams in central and southern Dinarkooh showed high steepness and concavity indices as compared to the streams in northern and western Dinarkooh.
Spatial distribution of geomorphic indices and uplift rates
differentiated among eastern, central and western parts.
The central and southern parts showed more deformation
and high uplift rates.
FIG. 2 - Hillshade of study area showing 4 main basin and 4 main
streams. Inner numbered points show the location of Valley cross sections that used to calculate Vf. Outer numbers are Basin number.
STUDY AREA
The study area is located between 32° 52´ N and 33°
08´ N latitudes, and 46° 54´ E and 47° 17´ E longitudes, in
the western Zagros Fold and Thrust Belt (ZFTB) in southwestern Iran (figs. 1 and 2). The Zagros Mountain range
hosts more than half of the world’s known hydrocarbon
reserves (Sepehr & Cosgrove, 2005). Compressional tectonics led to folding, thrusting, and large-scale strike-slip
faulting and significant crustal shortening in the Zagros
Mountains. The basement has gone through an extensional tectonic event during the Precambrian before the deposition of the Cambrian sediments (e.g., Stocklin 1968;
Berberian & King, 1981; Berberian, 1995; Mobasher, 2007).
The compressional Zagros orogeny formed a variety of
asymmetric, NW-SE trending, en-echelon folds, and NEdipping thrusts on the southwestern limbs of the folds.
Fold axial planes generally dip to N-NE, so that the southern limbs of the folds are steeper, and in some cases they
are overturned or vertical (Mobasher, 2007). Our study
area is located in Zagros folded belt, northern Balaroud
Fault. Samand anticline, located in this region, is one of
the major gas reservoirs in Iran.
METHODOLOGY
FIG. 1 - Generalized tectonic map of Iranian-Arabian collision zone
(modified form Homke & alii, 2004). The study area is represented by
white rectangle and shown in detail in figure 2. MZT: Main Zagros
Thrust; HZF: High Zagros Fault; MMF: Mountain Front Flexure.
62
Satellite images are available in variety of resolutions,
so this can affects the quality of analysis. We used the
ASTER DEM of 15 m spatial resolution to extract drainage network and lineaments. The drainage network is extracted from digital elevation model (DEM) of the area by
calculating flow directions at all points using D8 algorithm
(O’Callaghan & Mark 1984). Flow direction is related to
specific basin area and upslope area, that both of them can
be calculated using DEM and capabilities of GIS. Choosing stream delineation algorithms may affect the results,
for example slope, area and stream strahler order may vary
in different algorithms. Stream longitudinal profiles are
identified and selected based on least cost path analysis
that computes the paths of least resistance down slope (i.e.
the downstream flow path). This algorithm was implemented in MATLAB (Shahzad & Gloaguen, 2011) and all
of the required parameters were calculated. Applying
stream profile analysis on each stream, valuable information was obtained.
GEOMORPHIC INDICES
STREAM POWER LAW
Mountain front sinuosity (Smf)
The lithological or structural contrasts force the streams
to reach a new equilibrium condition. Mathematically, this
is written in the following equation:
Mountain front sinuosity (Smf ) was defined by Bull
(1977) as:
dz
— = U – E = U – KAmSn
dt
1
–
()
(2)
Where m/n is the concavity of the profile and coefficient is steepness of the profile. So, it can be written as:
–q
S = Ks A
(3)
that q and ks are concavity and steepness indices, respectively. They can be calculated directly using regression
analysis of data as shown in equation 3, i.e., area and slope
(Howard, 1994; Montgomery & alii, 1996; Snyder & alii,
2000; Whipple, 2004; Wobus & alii, 2006; Shahzad & alii,
2009). By combining equations 2 and 3, a useful relationship for calculating uplift rates is presented below:
U = knsn K
Lmf
Smf = —–
Ls
(1)
that U and E are uplift and erosion rates, respectively. K is
erosion efficiency factor which is related to sediments and
rock strength directly, A is upstream drainage area and S
is channel slope. The constants m and n are dependent on
basin hydrology, hydraulic geometry and erosion process.
dz/dt is the rate of changing elevation within specific time.
So, if landscape is in steady-state condition, then it is equal
to 0. Thus for a steady state equilibrium, equation 1 can be
written as:
U n
S = — Am/n
K
We used three geomorphic indices including mountain
front sinuosity (Smf), valley floor width-to-height ratio (Vf),
and asymmetry factor (AF), together with longitudinal
stream profiles and hypsometric curves for the main catchments of the Dinarkooh region calculated and extracted
from Digital Elevation Model (DEM).
(4)
that ksn is normalized steepness index. This equation gives
uplift rate for the area with steady state landscape by
choosing appropriate values of m, n and K. after logarithmic regression, analysis of area and slope values, concavity
and steepness values were calculated and by using their
values in equation 4, uplift rate is calculated. Constant values of n and K is obtained from previous studies (Tucker
& Slingerland, 1996; Wobus & alii, 2006). Because of importance of knickpoint selection in understanding landscape responses to tectonics, these points were selected in
stream longitudinal profile based on change in slope and
concavity. Selected points (illustrated as lozenge) can be
viewed in longitudinal profiles shown in figures 4, 5, 6 and
7 respectively for stream numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4.
(5)
that Lmf is the length of the mountain front along the foot
of the mountain, i.e., the topographic break in the slope,
and Ls is the length of the mountain front measured along
a straight line. This index has been used to evaluate the
relative tectonic activity along mountain fronts (Bull &
McFadden, 1977; Keller & Pinter, 2002; Silva & alii, 2003;
Pérez-Peña & alii, 2010). When a mountain front is active,
uplift is more than erosion, led to straight front with low
Smf value. In less active mountain fronts, erosion rate is
more than uplift rate, leading to sinusoid and irregular
fronts, so Smf increased. Some studies proposed that the
values of the Smf index lower than 1.4 are indicative of tectonically active fronts (Keller, 1986; Silva & alii, 2003).
Valley floor width-to-height ratio (Vf )
Valley floor width-to-height ratio (Vf ) (Bull & Mc
Fadden 1977) is a geomorphic index for distinguishing
V-shaped and U-shaped valleys. This index is defined as:
2Vfw
Vf = ——————
Eld + Erd – 2Esc
(6)
that Vfw is the width of the valley floor, Eld and Erd are elevations of the left and right valley divides, respectively,
and Esc is the elevation of the valley floor. Deep V-shaped
valleys (Vf <1) are a sign of linear, active downcutting
streams, that shows areas subjected to active uplift, while
flat-floored valleys (Vf >1) indicate an inactive streams and
steady state areas (e.g. Keller & Pinter, 2002; Bull, 2007).
This index has been applied to mountain fronts of Dinarkooh region.
Asymmetry factor (AF)
The asymmetry factor (AF) of basins was used to detect possible tectonic tilting at the basin scale. The AF is
defined as below (Keller & Pinter, 2002):
A
AF = —R × 100
AT
(7)
63
that AR is the area of the basin to the right (facing downstream) of the main stream, and AT is the total area of the
drainage basin. Values of AF above or below 50 indicate
that the basin is asymmetric.
In order to avoid possible confusions between the catchments located in the northern and southern slopes, we expressed AF as the absolute value minus 50 in table 1.
AR × 100
AF = 50 – ———–
AT
(8)
We have divided AF absolute values in four classes
based on Pérez-Peña & alii (2010): AF<5 (symmetric
basins), AF=5–10 (gently asymmetric basins), AF=10–15
(moderately asymmetric basins), and AF >15 (strongly
asymmetric basins). AF values in the eastern and western
parts of the Dinarkooh region shows moderate to strong
asymmetries. In the central part of the Dinarkooh region,
basins are gently asymmetric.
sion are specified by S-shaped curves, and concave curves
specify relatively «old» highly eroded regions. The area
below the hypsometric curve is known as the hypsometric
integral (HI), varying from 0 to 1, with values close to 0 in
highly eroded regions and values close to 1 in weakly eroded regions. The shape of the hypsometric curves (and the
HI values) also provides valuable information about the
tectonic, climatic, and lithological factors controlling catchment landscape (Moglen & Bras, 1995; Willgoose & Hancock, 1998; Huang & Niemann, 2006). We calculated
hypsometric curves for four main basins with the aid of
an ArcGIS extension (Pérez-Peña & alii, 2009b). The hypsometric curves show differences between the curves of
the eastern, central and western parts of the region (fig. 3).
HYPSOMETRIC CURVES
A curve that shows the distribution of area and altitude
within it in a basin is called hypsometric curve (Strahler,
1952). In this study, the hypsometric curves were drawn
by plotting the relative area (0–1) above each relative
height (0–1). A useful characteristic of these curves is that
basins of different sizes can be compared, since area and
elevation are plotted as functions of total area and total
elevation (Keller & Pinter, 2002; Pérez-Peña & alii, 2009a,
c; Pérez-Peña & alii, 2010). The shape of this curve is related to the degree of dissection of the basin, i.e., its erosional stage. Convex hypsometric curves specify relatively
«young» lowly eroded regions, regions with moderate eroFIG. 3 - Hypsometric curves of four main streams of study area. Curves
have been calculated using a 15-m DEM and CalHypso ArcGIS module
(Pérez-Peña & alii, 2009b). For basin number refer to figure 2.
TABLE 1 - Values of Vf (valley floor width-to-height ratio) for 16 points in
main streams (presented in fig. 2) and AF (asymmetry factor) for four
main basins of the Dinarkooh Region
Basin
Number
Point of
measurment
Vfw
Eld
Erd
Esc
Vf
AF
1
110
150
75
65
70
1240
1150
920
710
525
1220
1140
920
720
525
1160
1000
870
645
430
1.57
1.03
1.5
0.46
0.36
18
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
75
100
50
95
1150
980
850
690
1150
980
850
680
1050
900
800
600
0.75
1.25
0.5
0.4
7
2
75
105
50
40
1170
1050
890
695
1160
1000
890
700
1100
950
850
675
1.15
0.52
0.62
0.26
6
3
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
55
100
50
1040
1000
775
1020
1000
760
990
900
740
1.37
1
0.9
12
4
64
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The geomorphic indices presented in this paper suggest that the Dinarkooh region is tectonically active, that
more uplift occurs along its central and southern mountain
fronts, where Smf and Vf present the lowest values (fig. 2
and tables 1 and 2).
The principal aim of tectonic geomorphology is to extract tectonic information from the longitudinal profiles
and geomorphic indices. Tectonic information of such
stream profiles lies in the knickpoints and Strahler order
of streams. As the stream responds to tectonic forces or
lithologic changes, knickpoints location moves downward
or upward in the stream. By using stream power law the
data of steepness and concavity indices mostly give similar
information, because of changing between two different
steepness values is normally interleaved by a zone of very
high or low concavity. Generally low concavity value of a
stream shows increasing incision rate or lithological changes.
The knickpoints sharpness gives relative information about
TABLE 2 - Smf values for the different mountain front segments. Mean
values for each main front are also indicated
Mountain Front
Segment No.
Smf
Mean Smf
North
1
2
3
4
5
1.41
1.50
1.60
1.40
1.38
1.76
South
6
7
8
9
10
1.31
1.29
1.06
1.10
1.23
1.20
recent tectonics activity. In general, the sharper knickpoints indicate more recent activity (Wobus & alii, 2006).
We have studied four main streams using stream power law. The analysis of four main streams, i.e., the Meymeh
river (stream No. 1) in western part, streams 2 and 3 in
central part and stream 4 in eastern part is discussed here
in detail. The stream profile analysis of the Meymeh river
is shown in figure 4. This is a four segment stream. Three
knickpoints shows tectonic activity. All the knickpoints
show the presence of local faults. Three trends observed in
this stream based on morphologic conditions, i.e., an upper segment, middle segment and lower segment. The upper segment passed on relict landscape with steepness index 67.98 and uniform concavity index 0.42, which means
that it suffer moderate erosion. The middle segment shows
intermediate concavity 0.17 and steepness 73.73, which
means that erosion process are active. The lower segment
suggests higher concavity and steepness indices, i.e., 0.64
and 372.51. As the stream goes down, the sharp change in
the geomorphic indices shows gradual changes in lithology
and tectonic activity. The eastern part of the region has
low steepness values, and because steepness is directly related to uplift rate, it means that the region underwent less
deformation processes on the eastern section. We studied
streams 2, 3 and 4 from central part to understand the tectonic control on drainage behavior, shown in figures 5, 6
and 7. The morphology of all the streams consists of three
segments which separated by knickpoints. The first seg-
FIG. 4 - Stream profile analysis of the
Meymeh River (stream No. 1). It clearly
shows that the three main knickpoints and
three clear segments are identified. This
helps us separate the Northern, Southern
and Central Dinarkooh.
FIG. 5 - Stream profile analysis of Stream 2
from central Dinarkooh. It clearly shows
that the location of some local faults is
identified by the three main knickpoints.
65
FIG. 6 - Stream profile analysis of Stream
3 from central Dinarkooh. It is a three
segment profile showing less variation in
steepness.
FIG. 7 - Stream profile analysis of Stream 4
from eastern Dinarkooh. It clearly shows
that the location of some local faults is
identified by the three main knickpoints.
ment of stream 2 shows relict landscape with low erosion,
but after crossing a local fault it shows high concavity and
steepness indices. Stream 2 is flowing in central part and
has higher concavity values from 0.35 to 1.16 and steepness values from 62.24 to 106.94. Since the values of steepness are directly related to uplift, comparing these values
to those of stream 1 we can conclude that the central part
is more deformed and is uplifting, whereas eastern part is
more stable. The concavity and steepness values are shown
in table 3. This table shows normalized steepness and concavity in the upper, middle to lower segments, and variability of concavity indices in the middle segments and
normalized steepness indices in the upper segment. The
normalized steepness index is calculated with a fixed mean
concavity value of 0.45. The streams No. 3 and No. 4 also
show higher uplift rates in their middle segments.
By applying stream profile analysis on four main streams
of the basins and calculating the concavity and steepness
values, we calculated uplift rates in different parts of the
region (fig. 8). For using stream profile analysis to determine uplift rates, we assume that region is in steady state
66
TABLE 3 - Steepness and concavity values
Stream No.
Segment No.
Concavity
Steepness
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
0.42
0.17
0.64
1.16
0.89
0.35
0.13
0.44
0.03
0.18
0.30
0.10
67.98
73.73
372.51
72.02
62.24
106.94
142.32
63.27
175.17
111.50
72.64
160.65
(Shahzad & alii, 2009). The uplift rate map shows the
amount of uplift per year in different parts of the region.
In the eastern section the uplift rate ranges from 0.622
mm/yr to 1.11 mm/yr, in the central section from 0.633 to
1.75 mm/yr and in the western section from 1.10 to 3.72
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FIG. 8 - Uplift rate map of the area showing uplift values (cm/yr).
mm/yr. This suggests that the central and to some extent
western parts have been experiencing more uplift compared to the rest of the region. As shown in this map, the
southern part of the region has greater uplift rate value
that indicates more tectonic activity. Blind thrust faults
beneath this region may have a role in this activity (Berberian, 1995).
CONCLUSION
The geomorphic indices presented in this paper show
that Dinarkooh region in Zagros mountain range is tectonically active. Mountain front sinuosity (Smf) and river incision (Vf) indicates activity in central and southern mountain fronts, and the moderate activity in northern fronts.
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