Journal of Intercultural Ethnopharmacology
Original Research
www.jicep.com
DOI: 10.5455/jice.20161222103956
Ethnobotanical survey and toxicity
evaluation of medicinal plants used
for fungal remedy in the Southern
Highlands of Tanzania
Mourice Victor Nyangabo Mbunde1, Ester Innocent2, Faith Mabiki3,
Pher G. Andersson4
1
Department of Natural Products Development and Formulation, Institute of Traditional
Medicine, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 65001, Dar es
salaam, Tanzania, 2Department of Biological and Pre-clinical Studies, Institute of Traditional
Medicine, Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 65001, Dar es salaam,
Tanzania, 3Department of Physical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Sokoine University of Agriculture,
P.O. Box 3038, Morogoro, Tanzania, 4Department of Organic Chemistry, Stockholm University, The
Arrhenius Laboratory, P.O. Box 10691, Stockholm, Sweden
ABSTRACT
Address for correspondence:
Mourice Victor Nyangabo
Mbunde, Department
of Natural Products
Development and
Formulation, Institute
of Traditional Medicine,
Muhimbili University of
Health and Allied Sciences,
P.O. Box 65001, Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania.
E-mail: mmbunde@muhas.
ac.tz
Received: September 01, 2016
Accepted: December 08, 2016
Published: December 29, 2016
Background/Aim: Some of the antifungal drugs used in the current treatments regime are responding to
antimicrobial resistance. In rural areas of Southern Tanzania, indigenous people use antifungal drugs alone or
together with medicinal plants to curb the effects of antibiotic resistance. This study documented ethnobotanical
information of medicinal plants used for managing fungal infections in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania and
further assess their safety. Materials and Methods: Ethnobotanical survey was conducted in Makete and
Mufindi districts between July 2014 and December 2015 using semi-structured questionnaires followed by
two focus group discussions to verify respondents’ information. Cytotoxicity study was conducted on extracts
of collected plants using brine shrimp lethality test and analyzed by MS Excel 2013 program. Results: During
this survey about 46 plant species belonging to 28 families of angiosperms were reported to be traditionally
useful in managing fungal and other health conditions. Among these, Terminalia sericea, Aloe nutii, Aloe
lateritia, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Zanthoxylum deremense, and Kigelia africana were frequently mentioned
to be used for managing fungal infections. The preparation of these herbals was mostly by boiling plant parts
especially the leaves and roots. Cytotoxicity study revealed that most of the plants tested were nontoxic
with LC50 > 100 which implies that most compounds from these plants are safe for therapeutic use. The
dichloromethane extract of Croton macrostachyus recorded the highest with LC50 value 12.94 μg/ml. The
ethnobotanical survey correlated well with documented literature from elsewhere about the bioactivity of most
plants. Conclusions: The ethnobotanical survey has revealed that traditional healers are rich of knowledge
to build on for therapeutic studies. Most of the plants are safe for use; and thus can be considered for further
studies on drug discovery.
KEY WORDS: Ethnobotanical, fungal, brine shrimp test, medicinal plants, traditional medicine
INTRODUCTION
The history of mankind has continuously remained
interlocked to the surrounding environment. The first
civilizations realized that there were plants with healing
potential. The value of plants has a long history in saving
human beings cutting across different cultures in the
world [1]. Utilization of medicinal plants by individuals
lies on the knowledge accumulated through the interaction
84
of people with the environment and the diffusion of
information, traditionally transmitted orally through
subsequent generations [2]. In the contemporary world
of conventional medicine, the practice of herbal medicine
has attracted more attention and is becoming accepted
globally [3]. Traditional medicine is not well documented
in most African societies [4]. However, the practices and
resources have been orally transferred from one generation
to another thus limiting its reliability.
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Mbunde, et al.: Fungal remedies used in Southern Tanzania
Documenting the indigenous knowledge through ethnobotanical
studies is important for sustainable utilization of medicinal
plants in drug discovery. Several active compounds have been
discovered from plants based on ethnobotanical information,
some used directly as therapeutic drugs [3]. Therefore, the focus
of the study was to collect and document information on the use
of antifungal medicinal plants and their therapeutic practices
among the Hehe and Kinga tribe in Southern Highland of
Tanzania. The information could further help scientific research
in drug development.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The study was conducted in Mufindi District found in
Iringa Region and Makete District based in Njombe Region.
Makete District is one of the six districts of Iringa Region
and is located in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania about
115 km from the regional headquarters (Figure 1). It is
situated within 9°15’0” S 34°10’0” E [5]. Mufindi district on
the other hand lies between 08°35′40″S 035°17′20″E. Both
districts are dominated by Hehe, Kinga and Bena ethnic
tribes. Furthermore, these districts experience high levels of
migration and mobility (61.4%) caused by seasonal workers
to numerous plantations in the areas and being a logistical
hub for transport infrastructural facilities by road and railway
(Tanzania-Zambia route) [6]. These unique dynamics increase
the risk for HIV transmission in the communities. Most of
the livelihoods are from agriculture which is the major source
of subsistence, occupying about 80 % of the households in
the districts [5]. Other activities include livestock keeping,
timber production, and petty businesses at small scale. Most
household members are thus compelled to engage in multiple
jobs and activities to make a living [5].
During the ethnobotanical survey that was done between July
2014 and September 2015 semi-structured questionnaire was
used as data collection tools to interview traditional health
practitioners, elders and selected villagers who have knowledge
on medicinal plants. This study employed a purposive sampling,
in which selection of respondents do only focus to people who are
considered by the community as having exceptional knowledge
about the use of plants such as traditional healers, herbalists
and elders. The questionnaire aimed to collect and document
ethnobotanical information of plants that are used to treat
various infections including fungal infections. Documentation
of plants, parts used and their preparations whenever possible
was done. Focus group discussion was employed to validate
information collected using questionnaire method.
Collection of Plant Materials
Identification of plant species was done by the botanist from the
Department of Botany, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,
and all voucher specimens were deposited at the Institute of
Traditional Medicine, Muhimbili University of Health and
Allied Sciences. Collection of the identified plants was aided
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by the traditional health practitioners and elders. Decision
on which plant and/or part of plant to be collected for further
studies was mainly influenced by the information given by
respondents in the field validated first by focus group discussion
and by literature.
Reagents
Absolute ethanol, dichloromethane, and petroleum ether
were purchased from Fluka Chemie GmbH (Sigma-Aldrich®,
Zwijndrecht, Netherlands), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was
purchased from Sigma® (Poole, Dorset, UK) while sea salt was
prepared locally by evaporating water collected from the Indian
Ocean, along the Dar es Salaam Coast.
Extraction and Concentration
Plant materials from the field were cut into small pieces, airdried and ground using a machine grinder consequently soaked,
sequentially using petroleum ether, dichloromethane, and
ethanol for 48 h for each solvent. The method of percolation
was employed during extraction process. The crude extracts were
obtained by concentrating the filtrate in vacuo using a rotary
evaporator with the bath temperature maintained at 40°C.
The crude extract obtained was placed in the refrigerator for
few hours and then subjected to freeze drier to remove solvent
that could have remained.
Brine Shrimp Lethality Test
The brine shrimp lethality assay was used as an indication
for bioactivity of different tested plant extracts as well as
investigation for toxicity [7,8]. Artificial seawater was prepared
by dissolving 3.8 g of sea salt in 1 L of distilled water. Brine
shrimp eggs (2 g) were added and left for 24 h to hatch in
light condition. Stock solutions (40 mg/mL) of all extracts
were dissolved in DMSO. Different levels of concentrations
(240, 120, 80, 40, 24, 8, 4.5, 3, 1.5 and 1 μg/ml) were prepared
by drawing different volumes from the stock solutions and
then added into vials, each containing ten brine shrimps
larvae. The volume was adjusted with the prepared artificial
seawater. Each level of concentration was tested in duplicate.
The negative control contained brine shrimp, artificial seawater
and DMSO (0.6%) only. The vials were incubated under light
for 24 h. The dead larvae were counted and mean percentage
mortality calculated.
Data Analysis
The mean percentage mortality was plotted against the
logarithm of concentrations and the concentration killing 50%
of the larvae (LC50) were determined from the graph using
Microsoft Excel 2013 computer software. Regression equation
obtained enabled calculation of lethal concentrations, i.e., LC50,
LC16, and LC84. The 95% confidence interval was then calculated
using method reported by Litchfield and Wilcoxon [9]. The
results were used to document safety and cytotoxicity activity
of plant extracts.
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Mbunde, et al.: Fungal remedies used in Southern Tanzania
RESULTS
Ethnobotanical Survey
During the ethnobotanical survey, a total of 40 respondents
(traditional healers, herbalists, and elders) were interviewed
from the selected regions. 5 different villages in Njombe and
Iringa regions were visited for the survey including three villages;
Tambalang’ombe, Mayale, Kingege, and Ifwagi from Mufindi,
Iringa region as well as Lupalilo and Maliwa villages of Makete
district in Njombe region. These villages were chosen based
on the information of registered or known traditional health
practitioners obtained from the District Medical offices.
A total of 46 plant species used by the Hehe, Bena and Kinga
tribe for the treatment of various microbial related ailments
were documented [Table 1]. The plants represent about 28
families with the most prominent families being Euphorbiaceae
(6 species), Combretaceae, and Rubiaceae (4 species each)
and followed by Rutaceae, and Fabaceae (each with 3 species).
Most of the ethnobotanical information were related to fungal
infections since the study focused on documenting plants
that were used in managing fungal infections among these
ethnic groups. Out of 46 reported plant species, 14 (32%) had
similar cited antifungal activity while 8 (18%) of plant species
traditionally used for managing other nonfungal infections in
Mufindi and Makete districts were reported by the literature
to have antifungal activity [Table 1].
Brine Shrimp Lethality Assay
The brine shrimp test is used as a preliminary test for testing
toxicity of a plant and anticancer activity after a single dose
administration. In this study, the LC50 values were clustered
per Moshi et al., [95]. The LC50 of <1.0 μg/ml is considered
highly toxic; LC50 1.0-10.0 μg/ml is toxic; LC50 10.0-30.0 μg/ml
- moderately toxic; LC50 > 30 < 100 μg/ml - mildly toxic
and LC50 > 100 μg/ml as nontoxic. Studies done by Moshi
et al., [96,97] provided the evidence that plant extract with the
LC50 <20 μg/ml could be a source for anticancer compounds.
The results from this study revealed that most (77.1%) of the
plants tested were nontoxic with LC50 value <100 [Table 2].
The present findings imply that most compounds from these
plants were safe for therapeutic use. Among the tested plant
extracts dichloromethane extract of Croton macrostachyus had
moderate toxicity with LC50 value 12.94 μg/ml.
DISCUSSION
Ethnobotanical Survey
Plant-based traditional medicine system continues to play an
essential role in primary health care for the wider communities
irrespective of the locality. This work has revealed the potential
herbal medicines used in managing fungal infection in Njombe
and Iringa Regions which are leading in spread of HIV infection
in Tanzania with about 14.8% and 9.1% HIV prevalence,
respectively [6,94]. Association of opportunistic fungal
86
infections and HIV have been reported from the early days of
the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Tanzania and worldwide [98]. The
majority of the people living with HIV/AIDS are susceptible to
fungal and bacterial opportunistic infections due to immunity
suppression [37]. Availability of fungal herbal medicines
may subsidize the effect of antifungal drugs resistance and
availability to patients due to recurring fungal infections. The
findings showed that remedies used in these communities
consisted of one or a combination of two or more plant species.
According to the traditional health practitioners, combinations
of different plant species increases the efficiency of medicine
and improves the cure’s power which could be due synergistic
effects in treatment of various diseases. Most of plant species
collected have been documented to be used in different
African communities for the treatment of skin diseases [12].
Furthermore, the study noted that there was a wide use of
the leaf part which could be considered as a good sign for
the conservation of the environment and ensures sustainable
utilization of plants.
Among the frequently mentioned plants, included Terminalia
sericea, Aloe nutii, Aloe lateritia, Zanthoxylum chalybeum,
Zanthoxylum deremense, and Kigelia africana. The claims on
these plants have a special merit as they are also recorded
in the literature to be useful in managing various microbial
infections. Pharmacological studies by several authors have
demonstrated the potency of the mentioned plants in terms
of antifungal activity [12,16,21,27,30,81,99,100]. However, the
proportion of claims made by traditional health practitioners
in Makete and Mufindi districts concerning some of the plants
documented in this study and which are supported by literature
evidence of proven biological activity or similar ethnobotanical
uses elsewhere is remarkable. The results also confirmed the
supportive role of traditional health practitioners in offering
health-care services to local communities in addition to available
conventional medical cares.
Brine Shrimp Lethality Assay
Apart from efficacy, safety of herbal medicines is of paramount
importance as little is documented about many plants that are
used in traditional medicine. Findings from various studies
have recommended brine shrimp assay as one of the methods
for preliminary investigations of toxicity. This assay is also
used in screening bioactive compounds from medicinal plants
popularly used for several purposes and for monitoring the
isolation of such biologically active compounds [101-103]. This
work present few results from plant extracts that were tested
for toxicity against brine shrimps. However, not all collected
plant samples were screened for toxicity since during extraction
yield was very little or none for some samples to be used for
the testing. Findings obtained in this study showed that 77.1%
of plant tested to be nontoxic supporting the popular use of
medicinal plants by communities since they are regarded as
safe therapeutic agents. Unlike other plants, C. macrostachyus
exhibited high toxicity level that suggests its potential for
anticancer agents. The LC50 of C. macrostachyus (12.94 μg/ml)
is not statistically different to the standard anticancer drug
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Table 1: List of medicinal plants reported for managing various diseases in Iringa and Njombe regions
Family
Botanical/common
name
Part of the
plant
Ethnobotanical
preparation and use
Acanthaceae
Dicliptera laxata (Hehe) Leaves and Roots are chewed as
roots
a stomach pain and
coughs remedy
Leaf decoction is
drunk to treat fever,
headache, rashes and
itching
Aloaceae
Aloe lateritia
Leaves
Combined with other
Litembwembwe (Hehe)
plant roots and use
Lyusi (Kinga)
for washing the
wounds for 7 days
Leaves can be boiled
and drunk or applied
topically for fungal
infections
Leaves can also be
used against typhoid
and wounds
Aloe nutii
Leaves and Grind the leaves and
Litembwetembwe (Hehe) roots
soak, for roots grind
into powder and take
a tea spoon. It can
also be mixed with
Toddalia asiatica and
mngalanga to stop
diarrhea for HIV/
AIDS patients
The juice from leaves
rubbed on the skin to
treat ringworm
Leaves decoction for
diarrhea
Anacardiaceae Sorindeia
Leaves,
Grind the stem
madagascariensis
stem barks barks and smell for
Muzingilizi (Bena)
and roots
headache
Root used for
treatment of
tuberculosis
Apocynaceae
Rauvolfia caffra
Roots and Roots decoction used
Mveriveri (Hehe)
stem barks for management
of mental case and
epilepsy
Stem barks decoction
used for rheumatism
and chest pains
Asteraceae
Bidens pilosa
Leaves,
Leaves grounded and
Lipuli (Hehe)
roots and
soaked to be gargled
seeds
in the mouth‑oral
infection
Decoctions of leaf
powder for kidney
problems, headache
and blood clotting
Leaves prepared as
poultice for wounds
and cuts
Reported
Reported phytochemical
ethnopharmacology profile or compound
activity
Frequency Supporting
of
literature
mention
during
FGD
Antimicrobial
Inflammatory
Antinociceptive
No report
05
[10]
Antimicrobial
Alkaloids, phenolic
compounds, tannins,
terpenoids
25
[11,12]
No report
Alkaloids, phenolic
compounds, tannins,
terpenoids
17
[11]
No report
No report
10
No report
Antioxidant
Antimicrobial
Alkaloid resperine,
serpentine
09
[13,14]
Anti‑inflammatory, Tannins, flavonoids,
10
antifungal,
phlobatannins, terpenoids
antibacterial,
and cardiac glycosides
antimalarial,
antitumor
Antihyperglycemic,
antihypertensive,
antiulcerogenic,
hepatoprotective,
antipyretic
Immunosuppressive,
antileukemic,
antioxidant
[10,11,15]
(Contd...)
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Table 1: (Continued)
Family
Bignoniaceae
Botanical/common
name
Kigelia africana
Mfumbi (Hehe)
Sausage tree (English)
Caesalpinaceae Ximenia caffra
Mtundwa (Bena)
Mpingipingi (Hehe)
Hymenaea verrucosa
Gaerth
Elaeodendron
buchananii
Muhulamwiko (Hehe)
Part of the
plant
Ethnobotanical
preparation and use
Reported
Reported phytochemical
ethnopharmacology profile or compound
activity
Frequency Supporting
of
literature
mention
during
FGD
Fruits,
leaves and
stem, root
barks
Take the fruit sap
apply over the
wounded part for
acute wounds
Leaves and stem
barks decoction used
for treatment of
STDs
Fruits and barks
decoction and powder
for skin, fungal
infections
Roots decoction
for treatment of
hypertension, chest
pain, infertility
bilharzia and
epilepsy
A decoction of leaves
is used as a remedy
for malaria, coughs,
toothache
Pounded leaves are
used as poultices for
wounds and boils
Antibacterial
Antioxidant
Antiulcer
Antifungal
Antipyretic
Iridoids, flavonoids,
naphthoquinones,
meroterpenoid coumarin
derivatives, lignans,
sterols, furanones,
furonaphthoquinones
16
[15‑17]
Anti‑infammatory
Antigonococcal
Antibacterial
Gallic acid, catechin,
quercetin, kaempferol,
terpenoids
07
[18,19]
Stem bark
No report
Terpenes
05
[20]
Stem bark
Antifeedant
Buchaninoside, glycoside, 08
dihydroagarofuranoid
sesquiterpene (mutangin)
[21,22]
Antioxidant
Antibacterial
Antidiabetic
Phenols, flavoniods,
sterols, terpenoids,
carbohydrates and
saponnins
12
[23,24]
Antidiarrheal
Anti‑inflammatory
Antipropulsive
motility
Antiperistaltic
Biflavanones, flavonoids, 15
steroids, alkaloids,
tannins and phenols
[25,26]
No report
Xanthones, friedelin,
stigmasterol
No report
Roots and
leaves
Stem barks powder
used for topical
application against
fungus
Chrysobalanaceae Parinari curatellifolia Roots, stem Leaves decoction for
Msaula/msawola (Hehe) barks and treatment of anemia
leaves
Barks powder are
used for vaginal
douches, treatment of
itching scalp
Clusiaceae
Garcinia buchananii
Roots stem Stem barks
Mduma/mfilafila (Hehe) barks
powder used
against abdominal
discomfort, pains
An infusion from
roots used as
aphrodisiac and
lotion for sores
Garcinia acutifolia
Leaves,
An infusion from
Baker
stem barks the roots is used
Mfilafila/
and roots
as an aphrodisiac
Mduma (Hehe)
and as a lotion for
lotion
Stem barks decoction
for venereal
diseases and powder
massaged for
abdominal
discomfort
Celastraceae
01
(Contd...)
88
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Table 1: (Continued)
Family
Combretaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Botanical/common
name
Part of the
plant
Ethnobotanical
preparation and use
Reported
Reported phytochemical
ethnopharmacology profile or compound
activity
Terminalia sericea
Mpululu (Hehe)
Leaves,
stem barks
and root
barks
Antimicrobial
Anti‑inflammatory
Antioxidant
Anolignan B, Saponins,
Glycoside, triterpene
sericoside, β‑sitosterol,
β‑sitosterol‑3‑acetate,
lupeol, and
stigma‑4‑ene‑3‑one
15
[27‑31]
Combretum zeyheri
Mnavasenga (Hehe)
Roots and
leaves
Antifungal
Antibacterial
Antioxidant
Flavonoids
10
[30,32,33]
Terminalia mollis
Mupululu (Hehe)
Leaves,
barks Roots
Antioxidant
Antimicrobial
Antiplasmodial
Anti‑HIV
Tannins, triterpenes,
flavonoids, gallic acid
and saponins
14
[34‑38]
Cumumis dipsaceus
Mtango
mwitu (Swahili)
Leaves and
roots
Roots decoction
for washing and
apply on wounds
and drinking‑fungal
infection
Dried leaves and
powdered to make
decoction for
dysentery
Roots and leaves
decoction for CD4
boosting, syphilis,
gonorrhea
Roots and leaves
used against ameba
infections and
abdominal
Boil the roots
and drink for
Oesophageal
candidiasis
Roots, leaves or
roots decoction for
bilharzia, coughs,
measles,
rectal prolapse, and
stomachache, HIV
Leaves and roots
pounded and used as
poultice for wound
treatment
Leaves dried then
grounded and
smear on affected
part‑fungus
Roots grounded and
soaked in water for
oral infection‑as a
mouth wash or gargle
for tonsillitis
Roots prepared as
hot infusions for
kidney cleansing and
roundworms
Latex is used
against sexual
impotence, warts,
epilepsy, toothache,
hemorrhoids, snake
bites
A poultice of the
roots or stems
is applied to
nose ulceration,
hemorrhoids, and
swellings
Roots are boiled
and the decoction
is used as a remedy
for indigestion and
intestinal problems
Antioxidant
Phenolics, flavonoids,
tannins
09
[39,40]
Antifungal
Antitumor
Cytotoxic
Anticonvulsant
Steroids, acetylvismione 12
F, prenylated
bianthrone and 1,
8‑dihydroxyanthraquinone
[41‑44]
Antimicrobial
No report
05
[45]
Antimicrobial
Antioxidant
Antiviral
Hepatoprotective
No report
13
[46]
No report
No report
02
[47]
Euphorbiaceae Psorospermum
febrifugum
Mfwifwi (Hehe)
Leaves and
roots
Clutia abyssinica
Mvuruku (Pare)
Leaves and
roots
Eurphorbia
candelabrum/trucalli
Mlangali (Hehe)
Roots and
latex
Uapaca kirkiana
Mguhu (Bena)
Roots
Frequency Supporting
of
literature
mention
during
FGD
(Contd...)
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Table 1: (Continued)
Family
Botanical/common
name
Drypetes natalensis
Hark
Fabaceae
Hypoxidaceae
Linaceae
Part of the
plant
Leaves
Leaves decoction
used against
fever and malaria
infections
Croton macrostachyus Leaves,
Stem barks decoction
Mulugu (Hehe)
stem and
used for bathing
Liwurungu (Bena)
root barks babies against skin
infections. Leaf
decoction used
against abdominal
discomfort, sores and
ring worms.
Dichrostachys cinerea Leaves,
Grind the leaves and
Mgegele/
stem and
dress the wounds
mgegera (Hehe)
root barks Roots decoction used
for TB, infertility,
venereal diseases,
abdominal ulcers
Roots and Roots and leaves
Albizia harveyi
boiled then wash
leaves
Msisina (Hehe)
the affected parts
and drink, fruits
active for scabies,
fungus and other skin
diseases
Cassia abbreviata
Roots, stem Dry and powder the
Mulimuli (Hehe)
barks and roots then take 1
leaves
tea spoon in water
3 times a day for
strong fever, tooth
ache, abdominal
pains, back pains and
feet pains
Hypoxis hemerocallidea Roots‑potato Young tuber eaten
Munyunyu (Hehe)
fresh for diarheal,
peptic ulcers and
vomiting
Hugonia castaneifolia Root barks Root barks used as
Ngaze (Hehe)
a remedy against
intestinal worms,
malaria, fungus.
Loganiaceae
Strychnos spinosa
Li/Mtangadasi (Hehe)
Meliaceae
Azadirachta indica
Mwarobaini (Kinga)
Moraceae
Ficus sycomorus
Mkuyu (Swahili)
Myrtaceae
Eugenia capensis subsp. Roots
nyassensis
Kivengi/
Mkangaa (Hehe)
Olax obtusifolia De
Roots
Wild
Mtungapwezi
Oleaceae
Ethnobotanical
preparation and use
Leaves,
stem barks
and root
barks
Leaves,
stem and
roots
Barks and
whole plant
Reported
Reported phytochemical
ethnopharmacology profile or compound
activity
Frequency Supporting
of
literature
mention
during
FGD
Antitrypanosomal
Antileishmanial
No report
01
Antidiabetic
Antimicrobial
Purgative
Anti‑inflammatory
Antiplasmodial
saponin, phenolic
13
compound, tannins,
anthocyanins,
steroids, triterpens,
alkaloids, coumarins,
antraquinones, glucosides
and essential oils
[49‑52]
Antidiarrheal
Antibacterial
Antioxidant
Nephroprotective
Immunostimulant
Terpenoids, tannins
07
[53‑55]
Cytotoxic
Alkaloids, glycosides,
saponins, Terpenes and
flavanoids
11
[56,57]
Antimicrobial
Antimalaria
Anti‑HIV
Flavonoids, sterols,
triterpenoids and
anthraquinones
04
[58,59]
Hypoxoside, rooperol,
phytosterols, laectins,
levoglucosan
01
[60,61]
Terpenoids, lignans
04
[62,63]
Alkaloids, terpenoids,
glycosides, flavonoids
and tannins
12
[64‑66]
Antimicrobial
Tetranortriterpenoid,
protolimonoid
15
[67,68]
Antifungal
Antibacterial
Antioxidant
Insecticidal
Acaricidal
No report
Quercetin, gallic acid,
Rutin
05
[69‑71]
No report
07
No report
No report
No report
01
No report
Antimicrobial
Antioxidant
Anticancer
Anti‑HIV
Antifungal
Cytotoxic
Larvicidal
Antibacterial
Antioxidant
Sap from leaves used Acaricidal
against snake bites
Antitrypanocidal
Antimicrobial
Boil the roots and
drink for treatment
of syphilis
Barks powder used
for body rashes
Powdered roots and
sniff for ‑Head ache,
flu and chest diseases
Leaves powder for
treatment of pains
[48]
(Contd...)
90
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Mbunde, et al.: Fungal remedies used in Southern Tanzania
Table 1: (Continued)
Family
Botanical/common
name
Part of the
plant
Ethnobotanical
preparation and use
Roots
Boil the roots
decoction and drink
Rosaceae
Prunus africana
Mwiluti (Hehe)
Rubiaceae
Gardenia jovis‑tonantis Roots and
Kilekamahame (Hehe) leaves
Rutaceace
Breonadia salicina
Ngwina (Bena)
Leaves,
stem barks
and roots
Multidentia crassa
Muwewe (Hehe)
Leaves and
roots
Catunaregum spinosa
Mpongolo (Hehe)
Roots barks,
stem barks
and leaves
Zanthoxylum
chalybeum
Lungulungu (Hehe)
Toddalia asiatica
Lutono (Hehe)
Leaves and
roots
Leaves and
roots
Zanthoxylum deremense Stem
Engl
Mkunungu‑Hehe
Reported
Reported phytochemical
ethnopharmacology profile or compound
activity
Frequency Supporting
of
literature
mention
during
FGD
Anti‑inflammatory, Glycosides, terpenoids,
03
Antispasmodic,
sterols, fl‑sitosterol,
Anticancer
lauric acid, myristic acid,
n‑docosanol, ferulic
Grind the roots make Cardio‑relaxant
Terpenoids, saponins,
decoction drink and Antisickling
smelled for migraine Antibacterial
Leaves for wounds
Antioxidant
Antimalarial
Roots decoction
Antimicrobial
No report
01
drunk as purgative
Antidiarrheal
Stem barks decoction
for stomach‑ache
Leaves are pounded, No report
No report
11
soaked in water and
the juice applied into
ears for ear infection
Roots used for
stomachache
Roots decoction
08
Cytotoxic
Saponins, coumarins,
for treatment of
Terpenoids,
Anthelmintic
skin diseases, HIV,
carbohydrates,
Antioxidant
epilepsy, oral infection Sedative
glycosides, phytosterols,
Grind the barks to
phenolic compounds,
make decoction and
tannins and mucilage
feed that child with
convulsions.
Its roots combined
with Dovyalis
abyssinica roots boiled
and drink 3 times in
7 days for syphilis.
Drink the roots/leaves Antimicrobial
Isoquinoline alkaloids,
18
decoction‑oral sores
protoberberines
and ulcer
Leaves and roots
Antimalarial
Flavanoids, alkaloids,
06
decoction used
Anti‑inflammatory tannins, steroids,
for treatment of
Analgesic
phytosterols, saponins,
microbial diseases
Sedative
glycosides, coumarins,
Hot infusion from
Antimicrobial
carbohydrates coumarins,
barks for cancer and Antioxidant
quinoline, nitidine
toothache
Fungicide
Inhibit HIV‑reverse
transcript tase
A decoction of bark No report
No report
05
and roots is used as a
remedy for malaria,
generalized body
pains, coughs, body
swellings, anemia,
and as a gargle for
toothache
Bark and root
powder is mixed with
oil and applied as
liniment for pains
and sprains
Root bark is
powdered and added
to tea oral, two cups
are taken twice daily
[72,73]
[47,74,75]
[76]
Not reported
[57,77‑79]
[80,81]
[82‑84]
No report
(Contd...)
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91
Mbunde, et al.: Fungal remedies used in Southern Tanzania
Table 1: (Continued)
Family
Botanical/common
name
Part of the
plant
Ethnobotanical
preparation and use
Reported
Reported phytochemical
ethnopharmacology profile or compound
activity
Frequency Supporting
of
literature
mention
during
FGD
Santalaceae
Osyris lanceolata
Mdunula (Hehe)
Stem and
root barks
Antioxidant
Antimicrobial
Antifungal
Phenols, flavonoids
sesquiterpenes and
pentacyclic triterpenoids
17
[85‑87]
Smilaceae
Smilax anceps
(Mkwangasale)
Solanum anguivii
Kumkalanga (Hehe)
Leaves
Antimicrobial
Alkaloids and saponins
04
[88]
Antioxidant
Antihypertensive
Saponins, phenols,
flavanoids
14
[89,90]
Solanum incanum
Musufi/mtula (Hehe)
Ndulele (Swahili)
Roots,
leaves and
fruits
Stem barks decoction
for treatment of
Sexual Transmitted
Diseases (STDs)
A decoction of the
bark and heartwood
is used to anemia
Leaves and roots
used against
backbones and
stomach pains,
fungus and typhoid
Leaves powder used
for body rashes
Combined with leaves
of Mkiringiti then use
the decoction to wash
the body
Fruits chewed for
coughs and chest
pains
Grind leaves and
pressed the juice/
ointment over the
affected tooth‑teeth
infections
Fruits used for skin
infections.
Treatment of painful
menstruation
Acaricidal effect
Cytotoxic
Anticancer
Hypoglycemic
Antimicrobial
Antischistosomal
Antinociceptive
Antipyretic
Antispasmolytic
Anorexic
Anthraquinones,
flavonoids, glycosides,
carbohydrate and
steroids
07
[21,64,91‑94]
Solanaceae
Roots and
fruits
Table 2: Brine shrimp toxicity results of medicinal plants used in Southern Highland regions
Plant name
Part of plant
Solvent used
LC50 (μg/ml)
95% Confidence interval
Cyclophosphamide
Bidens pilosa
Brachystegia
spiciformis
Cassia abbreviata Oliv.
Commiphora africana
Croton macrostachyus
Diospyros usambarensis
NA
Leaves
Leaves
NA
Ethanol
DCM
16.3
107.15
151.81
10.6‑25.1
69.94‑164.15
82.28‑280.69
Roots
Roots
Leaves
Roots
Ethanol
Ethanol
DCM
Ethanol
DCM
Ethanol
Ethanol
DCM
Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol
DCM
Ethanol
Ethanol
DCM
Ethanol
Ethanol
DCM
Ethanol
DCM
Ethanol
140.89
122.04
12.94
>1000
420.83
547.09
93
>1000
54.18
82.73
41.47
424
557.92
>1000
191.27
>1000
>1000
488.05
77.09
476.67
>1000
108.21‑183.44
75.28‑197.84
6.71‑24.95
‑
247.72‑714.91
306.81‑975. 46
64.95‑132.85
‑
25.16‑46.44
64.08‑106.77
30.64‑56.11
281.73‑638.12
315.52‑986.35
‑
119.64‑305.8
‑
‑
281.63‑845.79
60.15‑98.81
258.11‑880.41
‑
Drypetes natalensis
Eledendrum buchananii
Garcinia acutifolia
Garcinia spp.
Hymenaea verrucosa
Kigelia africana
Leaves
Leaves
Stem barks
Leaves
Stem barks
Stem barks
Roots
Lantana viburnoides
Leonotis lepetifolia
Mucuna stans
Stem barks
Stem barks
Leaves
Leaves
Olax obtusifolia
Parinari curatellifolia
Roots
Stem barks
Roots
(Contd...)
92
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Mbunde, et al.: Fungal remedies used in Southern Tanzania
Table 2: (Continued)
Plant name
Part of plant
Solvent used
Leaves
Ethanol
DCM
Ethanol
DCM
Ethanol
Pet. ether
Ethanol
Pet. ether
DCM
Ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol
Solanum incanum
Strychnos spinosa
Stem barks
Roots
Stem barks
Leaves
Leaves
Terminalia sericea
Zanthoxylum chalybeum
Zanthoxylum deremense
Leaves
Roots
Stem barks
LC50 (μg/ml)
95% Confidence interval
175.05
>1000
>1000
43.43
>1000
>1000
>1000
592.4
>1000
113.4
38.51
78.69
119.61‑256.2
‑
‑
36.9‑51.11
‑
‑
‑
332.89‑1054.24
‑
70.05‑183.57
32.50‑45.63
52.48‑118
Figure 1: Map of Tanzania showing the study areas (Muindi and Makete Districts) Ethnobotanical survey
cyclophosphamide (16.3 μg/ml). Other similar study undertaken
on stem barks of this plant to evaluate cytotoxicity and acute
toxicity in mice demonstrated the toxicity of the plant resulting
in mortality of tested organisms [104]. The genus Croton has
been reported to demonstrate moderate to high toxicities with
proven the anticancer activity [51]. This knowledge triggers
the use of plant products as complementary and alternative
therapies both as direct and adjuvant remedy. A growing body
of literature suggests the cancer preventive and therapeutic
potential of phytochemicals and a lot of research has focused
on the cellular mechanisms by which these phytochemicals
J Intercult Ethnopharmacol ●
2017 ●
Vol 6 ●
Issue 1
interfere with the carcinogenic process. With the ability to target
a variety of signaling pathways, phytochemicals are considered
to be promising therapeutic agents against tumors with limited
toxicity to normal cells.
CONCLUSION
The ethnobotanical survey has revealed that traditional health
practitioners are rich in knowledge of fungal medicinal plants in
these areas. These plants though have received little attention
from modern biomedical research could be a promising source
93
Mbunde, et al.: Fungal remedies used in Southern Tanzania
of knowledge for the discovery of useful remedies if this wealth
is preserved through proper documentation and research. Most
of the plants collected were ascertained to be safe for use and
hence could be considered for further scientific studies. The
reported species may be used for the development of new,
affordable, and effective herbal formulations for antifungal
health-care management or used in drug discovery.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors are grateful to all traditional health practitioners in the
study area for their support on data collection and sharing their
knowledge on folk medicinal plants. Much appreciation goes
to the Late Dr Joseph Magadula who participated in the initial
planning of the work. Furthermore, Mr. Haji Selemani a botanist
from the Department of Botany, University of Dar es salaam for
identification of plant species studied. The study received the
financial support from the Swedish Research Council.
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J Intercult Ethnopharmacol ●
2017 ●
Vol 6 ●
Issue 1