Violent Conflict and Control of the State

Brian Ferguson

Violent Conflict and Control of the State

The State, Identity and Violence War an d Society ｅ､ｩｬｾ､＠ by S. P. Reyna Political disintegration in the postCold War world Edited b y R . Brian Fergus on Fe10dial .ad w... r""" Sde<kd .-.. a( Ktilh F. Ouerbeill T ...... bk<lT....... VIOle""" and...anan: in .... puc EIUtJ ｾ＠ J>tJJ.. L M _ - ' v..ii HI . . . ｾ＠ Roo.. or Viole..:. A histOf)' of war in Chad M""') A..... • D udly ｄ･ｾ､ｯｰｭｾ＠ ... . Copi,"h.m. ' ''''' and war EIIimJ ｾ＠ s.1' iUJ .. "'" R.E. .Ill"", Lanpalc and ...... EIII"" ｾ＠ Oris_ ｾ＠ - ' ,1';/01 L 11-""- 110. 50 •• *> Id . .. dty . .d ｖｉＮｯｾ･＠ l'I>Iitiul dDint<y.. ion in .be pooc·C<>Id W... .....:wId EIUtJ" R. ",;.. Mz-o • Introduction Violent conOict and control of the stale R. Brian Fe:rgu.sQ1I No on< aprded it. [D J96B, the Cold W... di<d. TIl< m:Un frame of glob>J political o..;..n.tion di>in,qatod. and talk turr.<d to bow to """,d "tho peace • ICw ｬｩｮｾ＠ ""'" opou" oround ""nd ,h'" dividend." Yes, th/:", ｾ＠ n<ed<d <0 be"tidie<;I UP: bu, ,he Uni.«! Nations (UN) .... <aling ｾＮＢ＠ of (Looonio 1'}9), 125} like a ny mo"",nt ill time,)I>U h:ad '" l>< ,h,,,,. In ,he 1.,e 198Ot..,d <arIy 19900, ｾｲＬＮＱｊｮｧ＼＠ .."d especially bnJt>.l ronllic .. ''''I''ed in Eutan Europ<, Centnol AWo, Africa ond elo<wbc= TIl< linkog<' 01 "na.""" ond .... at.," Ions unq""..;.,n.:d .. the inalucible uni, of !Jlobal politic., .u<Id<nIy "",m«I "''Y qlOCtlioruoble O>decd. In _ pLoua, the ｦｩｾｵ＠ ... ｾ＼ｮＺ＠ of ......, .. ..,.... .. "'" ｾ＠ ..... lncw it, wao in doubt. Optim;,." go", .... y to bleak ocen""" of cdl"f'O" and carn.ge fo:<! by I\OIhlng """'" than ruln.....1 dilf.",,,",,,. Th< term "civil war" ..an<d U\adrq""l< for In. . viooI<""" arrird QUI by irregular iOrcc .. delit>cntdy IarFtinJI: cMiWa. N_labch ....... coin«!:''wuo of the. third kind" (llobI; 1996), "non-trinitarian wan" (oon.(;Qw<wiuian) ｾＬ＠ C......!d 1991 ), CIt oimpIl\ " new - . ... (I(..Id,o. 1999). No< the end of lU"orr that one achoIar hod pttdO:tcd (fukuyama 1992).10 mO!J)l ｾ＠ look<! men: lik• •h. end 0( .ivai... ;.,." ',he coming an.n:hy" ＨｋＢＧｾＧｮ＠ 1m). ....'h ........ h"l'\><ning to the world? 11>iI book ...... ,taned during that tim • . ' tn. • In ｾ＠ .i'....';".. .he W20 Ieoo """,me ,h.., "",,"'ed. Bloody ' I'l l"' .... '" of.... ｾ＠ cul'ural Ｌｪ［ｶｩ､･ｾ＠ had in foc, been ［ｾ＠ ..;"g tor doc.des, eop«WJy ,in«: (he 19600 (G. n, ..1 1997). n,.,,,, W20 indeed • ,,,up , u'l!< ";th tbe md of ,II< Cold W1I", puking;" 1992. of rhi< vioIen« omplifood in ito <oo(nO( ' 0 the Juddenly <lefLoted ＸＢＧｾＱ＠ power rivalry, . ,><.1 if IouI to.oc. of " """ in"'n<i!y conlhcl>" lw l """" """r-IooI<ed while . ubwn>e<l 10 (Ire F....vW.. t ｾ＠ they bee.,.,. very apparen(;" ito Ｎ｢ｯ｣ｾ＠ lIu( the n...,m"r of ongoing ;"tornol ""'" quickly reU back to the Iollg_term t",nd lill<, and by ＱＹｾ＠ W20 OtO\>nd rhe 1<....1 of 19611 (Gurr 200(): 3{\-34, Walleruteen and SoIknbe'l 1991: 339). Son>< athoIan haw foUnd ground. roo- optimism A>out ｦｗＱｾ＠ ,-due(ions;" the rutun: (lIym.n and Va" E""no 1998: t 5), while nlhen point out (iIt: 8"'&1 number"" potential cruptioru "ill .....;1l!I OUt then: (AklkY n.d., Gu..-r and ManlWl 7000). In 1998 a nd 1999, tl>c "umber of major intern.1 armed """R.,,, , u'l!<d h.d up to the 1992- 93 1"....1, prim.riIy due to fight ing in Africa (S IPRI ＲｏＱｾ＠ No on< ..."""" NCh co"nit" to rlioappc .. in the fut"",. ｷ｡ｲｾ＠ ""=ptioon T th., w" ,..w ,..11" - - - - --_. 2 ｒ ------ Ｎ｟ｾ＠ M""yof the>< ,,,,,0",,, I, i, .",hn'pologilltS lik a ,rain, .ngulfing r",1d .i.ua· ,iOOl' which at II>< "an of th.ir ",,,,&/'Ch had i>e<n ｾｲｵＮｬ｟＠ 1lw roo w.., 001 no! - it had hapJ><nro in the 19ao., <opeciaIIy in South and Centr:ol Am<rio::.., A< .fucu...,.J in this ""!umc by \\lamon, tbooc earlier >ituatioru g= rise to an onaIytic..l ｨｾ＠ fOCu.w on !;,>""mmc,,' n::pr<..ion ond J>OPUIo:r ",';"aocc. Bu, 'llc "<wc' vioIoocc _ . diff.... n" commonly pitting one brood ＢＧ＼ｾ＠ of ｾ＠ ..... ｾｧＢＧ＠ ar>Olf;"" rath .. than targeting poIitiocally acti,,, opponents to tho "atta quo. A1tbough ' he con',," bctw<on .truggIc along hn<S of id<ntity """LIS tho>< of idoology can b< drawn too ... ｾ＠ ,,",,"fmann 1996), ignoring """...Lop> and obscuring origiru. in gcnaaJ th< diff<r<occ is qui« noal (Van den IkTgh< 19'J(); l:l), ""d ,h" ch.lkngn u> to <kvoolop new pooh, ﾫＩｷｾｲ､＠ uodcT· «.g. '<TIm Ｂｯｮ､ｩｾ＠ Ovtr 'he pa>I rlft«" yea .... anthropologist< ha"" prodoced a rubotantial ti"' ... • 'u,"" "" vioIo""" within ........ indooing monographs (BfO'WIl aoo I'<m>.nd<:z 1991 ; Daniel 1996; F<ldman 1991; Kapfer« 1988; W 1985, M..,L.l .. 1990; 1981; Toy"" 1997) and <dited Rich.r<t. 1996, T..."biah 1992, 1996; ｔ｡ＢＬｾ＠ ooIl",,';Qru (Carm><k 1988; ｣Ｎｾ＠ｾ＠ 1m; D .. 1990, Fukui and Ma.hl4 1m>; HaI""r" and Kid<cl<l 2000; Kleinman, Das and Lock 1991, N.m:I<lrQm and Martin 1992; Nordstrom and Robb<n 1995; Rich 1999; RicJ."" 1986; KOOb<n and Suarcz-Oro.co 2000; Sluka woo,,; Tu""n 19(17o; ｖ［Ｑｬ＾ＮｾＬＢ＠ and H""l>.bk 1998; ｗｾｏｔ･＾＠ 1993a; Y"""<o: 19930; ."d oe< N"S"np. I99iJ_ Moo. or Ｎｨｾ＠ work rdle<;.<d new in ........ quite indtp<nden. of the "".oblish<d anthropology of war (0« I'<rgtUO<I 19&4, 1999; H..u 1990; Otterbein 1973; ltcyn. and Downs 1994; Simoru 1999; ｖｾｮ＠ de,- Dcn"",, ＱＹｾＩ｟＠ Although a w;de ""riety of theore.icaI p,:ropcctiv<, arc cmplo-,<:d in .h ... ｾＮ＠ prominen. omo"<o: them on: dlOru <0 u"<kn ,.nd violence thrnugh explk.otk>o> of actual phyoioca! vk>Ienee. bloodktting. is local "l"tem> of meaning. [n look<d .. ｾＮ＠ only """ !"''' of • rang< of """ nicu, oIong with """" rouDn< ｬＢｾｩｯ｣＠ viole"",,_ injuries of ....... rura! .nd/or Ｎｹｭ The <.... i:olIe<ted here complement bu. do not duplicate pcropcc.ivc. This volume to """'lop a now a nthropolog>:a! appro.a<h, ｯｾ＠ that <mph.>" >ts .he ..... hropoIogi.cal pr<cmLo< of Wmi_ Our awr=ch to political vk>Ien", integra,"" "rueturn, pn:>C<00H and beli<f, ｾ＠ .... gin8 from .h< ...IDd J)I.tem <0 the grow root ... from th< mo<t glob.1 ."'''''' in political <conomy to the most boa! a nd 'J"nbo[t,tn_ In .h< cu<s d "".,...,d ""n, the la.e 19ao. and I .aw • fundamental chalkng< to <xi"itlg "hich "",n' far ｾｯ＠ routine politico, a nd which in 0'-" form or anorber ploy«! ou' a!or'R ｬｩｾ＠ of ,on'nuring ｋｊｯＺｮＧ［ｾ＠ •. IIo<n during wha' lle<m<d Iil< a global poIi.ica! mel.down, the goal of 'h il <ffort is '" '\ev.lnp a ,>Ow atllhropologi<a! fr.mewort for un<kr-.. . "d,ng ;nt<rrut.! poli.ical .trU!!!!"" ;" "' .... Lt. It I""";'ko • guide '0 the bis p;c,u"'. and how .h< par" rot ' og<th« for oil thooe ruture .i'uatiolU where . " at" ｩｭｰｬｏｯＭｾ＠ｾＬＧＢ＠ ;'l<n.;,\'""l; ... «1 viole""" T" !'tn.. ｌｩｮ､ｾ＠ Seligman" ,hows how tn. II-\aoiot Shining Palh .magcd out or ",ro! >OCto! . nd politic.! ＼ｯｮＧｲ｡､［ｾ＠ a ",1 ,ned '" mobil;'" Q!=h ..... 'g, i" " urban. m<>tlro rule to = . te • rodical ""mmun;" "'Sim<_ Johonn. ,....,.;.../ """""".icaI """...l. ,ho. .im. ,,,bo,"<'''''' .to,« wo. <oiik,i"" 1'"""""" u..ingcT port"'y> Ihe fund ..... nwist H indu dwleng< 10 the JoOCul..- ella""r or Indi •• and ;." arch .......aI Ｂｭｯ｢ｾ＠ viole""" against M uslims and orhe, ｴ｡ｾｳ＠ bdOre ..,d aft.". its caplure of governmen._ B<tte Dcnich diJcu.ueo the historic.al moment wI"," YugoWt.'"" cam< aparl.... ting the stag<: for ctlt.no-'w ..... alists to Ul< and war in a''''mpt> to CaNe out new ."pur<:.. ....... ａｮ｡ｳ＼［ｵｩｾ＠ K=Wosidou f""""" OIl who' happened when "the flxmcr Yugoslav Rtcpllblioc of Mac<dorria·· tried.o cultivate a Il<W national ｩ､ｯＺｮｴｾＮｮ､＠ ,hu'l""""'*<d in",_ oppoIlition from Gt-ub who p<=iYed J"'I .... orher th ..... (0) ,heir painfuHy romtruaed ...... of oa,;""hooo:l. Liberia. the oldes, ｾ｢ｬｩ｣＠ il, Africa. w>.. torn ap;tn by im:gular urn'" whioch. as Dia,... Brown <kocribcJ, .ool on ethnic iden_ ,;r",atiooru. Similar "ethnicizal·· wan OCCUJT<d in the posHoionw O(." e' of Angob. and Chad (di>c..... d by Hdio IIdik .nd Stephen R.cyn.a r«pe<.ivdy). leading 10 dtronioc """;"";a! hgment. ,;.;., ....... , oho,ruaed centnJ ruk. In Somalia. Ca.h<""< Beoteman conJid<1"I <OCalating warlord vioI<no: which dr.._ on a" ...... ing >lructu ... of cIanJ to destroy any s<mblaocc of ccntral !I"'"",n· ment. In the "ui,un.JJy diver", highland. of Po.p.... New Guinea. Andrew Stnothern.OO 1'""..10 St<W2rt diocuu how . """tr.oJ gov<mm<n •• hal neve< ｨｾ､＠ ..Jmin;".-ati"" control ｾ＠ "!emptins to use popular r.action agains' ram!"'nt criminal vioI<""" .. a unifying nallona! quest. Arrang«! in ,his ordet-. the>< " udia illu"'at< a rough pn:>gn:>oion from . ituo_ lions where .he f"1UI"< ai!lence of ,h. "ale _ms ""'u' . (if poIiri<:ally con 'e.ted). ' h.....gh """. ",he... , (.1 ... a", rragrn<n'ing into mWIer .(.1.... to an .. who", the """''''igotty of a n.>tio)na! g<W<"u'l<nt is in .. riou. doubt. Oth« cue. could eenainly fi t in this oolkction. Studies of Cambodia. AfghAnis.an and Tajililitan were IOUght, but prco.-ed impoooibl< to inci"ci<. TlffiC h.. brought n<w candidate. - the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Indon .. i>, Kooovo. Any additional c...,. would bring in • differen. mix of [actor, and pn>CtIO< ... bu, = n of e...... would only raioe the isoue of .i'uation. where • complete ｯｭｰｩｬｾＬ＠ conflict ,.... not "" .. t",me. Th< goaJ of this .....,n: is not '0 .,u,a ..... all poooibili_ tics. Indeed. """ migh. oay thai a pr<>bI<m of <;\Imn' ..... arch in polibcal ocienc< is the proIifera'ion of an ... n ... ｾ＠ number of cat<gories and foc tors applicoble 10 diffe",n, . i'U' liotts (oe< A)'<JOb 1998: 46; Brown 1997; Van Eve", 1997: 128-[ ＳＰＩＮｾ＠ Out coIIoctiv< goal. ""h«. has !>Nn simply <0 gain • better uoxler_ foe tor. in , l."ding of ... "'"' .truggle< by oomparioon of """,ra! <&>a, to ｾｴｩＯｹ＠ romm"" wi.n," the varia.ion. and th", '0 get • h.u>dk on 'he mind-boggling 1",,"," lori';'. of opecUoc 'iooru. T"" obj<cti.,..,.... not 10 m: ... on ｾｬｯﾭ p«!i>.. but ra,n« to belp <k",Jor • genua! frameworl! that could be opplicd. ....... y> with cau,ion ""d modif"ocation, to orh.r and fu'",e (on,em. A lew lh<:m .. were i<k"wlOd on particular ronc<rru, ""d Of'< d""...,..d in th< ｦＬｾ＠ com .... following this introduction. Eric Wolf ｧｩｾ＠ "" • bri<:f history of the "nation_.tate," and com>x .. lh<: >p<cio! p.-obI."" of being pcriph.,--al in today". global capitalist economy.Joseph T . in«r m.kes us exomine our Vrew''''''P'ions and pt"1"judiceo about complexity and collap><:. Y.le ｾｮＮ＠ _ pol;.ica! ",i.em;",. cau'io... ,,' abou. the we of ""the ,tatc" .. ｾ＠ "ate· gory in foct and thtol)'_ D.vid M.ybury_lLwis <xaminc. WUct of O1a' <> .. ,h..,. ' 'I"l"0l" .i,.... ".w. ."".Ott .. I 4 R. lIriaJo ｾ＠ ,.,1.0'" '0 the righ .. ond w<lI-l><ing or indi;;<now J><O!>I... Kay W:m= <mpha· und<nund Ioc.:i.I .!rugs ... in """" or thc diorincti'o"< culturn of .iz«> tho n«d tho participants. In 'his Introduction, I will pu>en' """ ｾ＠ of the ,"""'I,........ ' ''J'POrtrd by aD the .. diocusoions and = - a p",liminory..-up of ,I>< in",,....I>· ti.on,hip" bctwttn gJob.al """""'<otion>, control. of the ''''''' ..... tionali.. progromo. cWtuT"r, ",thnic ,,;oo,nc<." ond ido:ntity ｊ＾ｏｬｩＧ｣ｾ＠ &fore cIosin& the rthnici,y ｾｮ､＠ I!.wandan g<nocide " roruido=d u a wUf>«l appIitalion of the oynthai>ed r,ndinl!". Th< opinioru "",..I "'" not nr<=>arily ohatW by othor a "thon in this ... ｾｵｭｯＺＮ＠ '0 rememl><red ,ha, most arr.. of the rorrnrr s.c..;., Union _nt non·""lent/y; if d!aoticaD)I to IX'< rorm. of gwrrnan<e. Moo' criocJ 0C<."WTCd in two _TeaS, Centro.! Asia and ,he Tr""...c..uco ... , "g;om, where poJi.ic.oJ Ｎｾｴ･Ｌ＠ clung to moT<: .uthxi,.rian politiul and economic ttruc\ureo (ore Motyl 1997). The I:nu"l' of YugosLovia parallel. tho faD of the Sovi<t Union, and pr0bably would not haY< oocUJT<d if the USSR hod ｵｲｮｾ＠ unifocd - i, had bern both • pcra:ivod thrr .. holding Yugoslavia .ogcthcT, and capoble of inten-<:rting if i, fell "p"<t. Soch .... en.bling of d;,int<grolion happen,ed on a onon: global ,he;" powerful p.o.troru. Thil w " , moo' ......1 .. wdl, os weak client "",=rn' in Afn.:... As one indicator of thio, rombinrd military ... iltancc: from the US and thr USSR Afric&n go>"I'<'nunrnts, whiclo a. 13,287 million per )'far from 1930 to 1988, dropped to '332 million pcr year from 1992 to 199-4. leaving malty AlT>can natk>noJ ",",n"" io disrqWr (Byman and Van E"".. 1998: :l8; Hem.. 1997: 377). But again., moo' of I'.aot<rn Europe and many Af,.gn ....... ha.... not ap<rirncro &rI uJ>OUl1!'< in intcm&! violence ｾ＠ 1988, and in C""tt:oJ America :and other Cold W., 1o0N"ot. the effect h"" bern jUl' tho .ta"" ....., '0 The oign.! import=« or """ide ronnrctiooo for !"nr.. ting ond shaping Ioc.al viol<tlC<: among " <rib.!" p«>ple h.. =-oily ｾ＠ mud! a".nti.on in the ＮＢｴｨｲｯｰｬｾ＠ of war (Blid. 1988; tbpooo 1990, 199:"'; I'rTguoon and throrio.. have ""pIortd IVhi"'hcad 200R). On a f'&I"aiI<l Ind., ＢＢｾ＠ """,rna! fae..,... ｾｧ＠ "",rfare in tho gloI>al p<riph.')" (Boow& and on.:m 'Y"'''' 1990; Cha..,.o..hh ""d Hall 1993; Nagd &rid ....'honon 1992; Sclunidt 1990; White 1990). Thc autho... in ,h;, volume WC<"< ...hd to ooruHkr how glob.! procc ....... ,.., affecting the Loo:al viole,.,. u<q .""",ntered ｄｾ＠ may b<gin with the pobal ,)'S'em of . ......, its hiotorie>J ...... and ito ""tructuring aile. ｗｯｾ､＠ WIOl Il , IU d<ocribed by Wolf. Thc Uni,od Nationo b<:cam< the ptei«.per 10.- in'"ma<"",al nxogni'''''', and protector or the norm ,ha, ,he "ate wu tho only legi'im"'. basis of ."..,reignt)l ... di>cu...d by ｾ｢ｹ｢ＢＬＩＧｵＮ［＠ ru for u ..... billhod I"""'<r., gna , and ...,all, WC<"< O>I>«";'od, all lM,d .n::a IOJ1d moch of thr ora wu und<r at Ir ... the ""mino.! ..... thooi<y ()( 10m< .tate (Herl>rI l 997: ＳＷｾＳＷＸ［＠ Hobti 1996: 73-79; Taylor 1995). As o/\tn noted, ,he breakup or old empire. oftrn I.d to newly = ... ed . ... ..., with DO pric4" political ooherence. Writing about the ""u J>Olitic.oJ in.egration of posI-w1onial ｃｏｕｊｉｴｲｩ＼ｾ＠ｾ＠ in Afri<>., Herru' (1990; 1992; and I<e Ayoob 1995: 173; Southall 19H) note. th .. on. of their mos' import"'" .upporu w.. 'he ta.ci, agr<emen' of bo>th .... prrP'>"= that existing boun<!arieo dtould I>< upheld. Should internal oon'rol:! we ....... Oil< , uperpower w... atw.)'S ready '0 fIlC'>"e in where .he other·, clien, f.!.en:d, P"""""ing collapoe in • way his/Jlightod by T.in'er. Bu, with the g<"..,..'egi< rivalry rndrd, th.,.. WlOS a sharp rt:tr:octio<l of poli'ical ond material .... pport to thot end The poIt-CoJd W., o:ra brg.n 1988 with thc collapse of thr oomrnunist 'Y"em which r=IeJ tit. break up of the ｕｾｓｒＮＧ＠ It had 'wo prim.')" dirn<n.wILl: the di,integr" ion of the Sov>:t Union, and the end of Cold Wu polan'''''''' .. "I , uf""l'O'o"Cr . upport and control oox:r dio ". ,tau •. The crum· bJ inS of Soviet contral opened the door to I><W kind. of poli'ic> within jt> fOTmer borders, Co"""" thot went bcjoond norm.! jockeying for power to .he mo", raJ, a,>tl critic.oJ ;"'uc, of ddining new polit"', cre.,ing "",W boundariro "nd new ｲｵｌｯＭｾ＠ fu,. phoying the politic.oJ game (Rum" Ｎｮｾ＠ Sn)'kr 199Il). V""er>« ;n Tajikiotan ""d Chrchnya illuruat< one kind or ou",ume. Bu, i , ' " '''' I>< =, u. """,.-oJ = _.. At ano,her 1<'-"1. the end of the Cold War hao Iud varying implic.alions fOT dome"ic J>Olitic. in many CDUD,"",- As dr.ocribod by Srligmann in <datlo" to Peru. i, upse' J>Olitica.l alii"", .. along .he an,i-eommun;'t fa ult line, which ｾＧｵﾷ＠ aDy P "" Srnd<ro mono room to m..... u'=. In Ind4, (>to the other hand. w ,in!"r dcocribe. anti-wrnmon;,m '" ali.... anti ""n, in fundamentalist Hindu form. In other chapte ... the ;,our is not di>cusood diroctl)l bu, around 'he world it hao been oboe.....,d that the coUapse of oomrnunimo ｾ＠ it> oppooition hao enco;rw-agrd ethnic iden,ification as a Wlback ideology in ｾ＠ J>Olitico (Brubaker and Lai,in 1998: 2). In .um, the "deoomp"' .. ion dl"ecl," ... in .."",· tionoJ ",lationo theorists c..u it, hu bern a .ri.ical facto< rn<;Ow"a,ging viokn' Ayoob 1998: 32) conflict in oomc "".., 00' not other> (Acharya 1998: ＱＶｾＱｏ［＠ - in this volume, in .he foo-mer Yugosl""", Greece/Macedon4. UI><,;'" and Somali.. The faD of ,he &Me, Un"" and e nd ()( 'he Cold War are .... ntiaJ foc t> fo< undrr. tanding ,he .urge of violence around 1992. bu, th")" do not ""plain where, wloen and why war broke ｯｵｾ＠ and whe.. i, did not. In many=- the later his'ory ()( the Cold War itself i, an important comid.ration fu r underol..,ding violence. While "",aliu·· "rategic thinkers (see Y. ｾＬ＠ in this >OJun><) lamen' the loot " ability or • hipolar world order, it wa< bipoJar ､ｾ＠ in moeh uI" the Ie..·d..."lopod voorld (Achary:o 1998: 165-17 1). Many of ,he wan tha, h. ve tom :opart "ate. a", oontin.....tioru or otruggle. of Angola, Chad and initially .... pportcd bo{ the US or USSR, as in the ｣ｾ＠ Somalia, dio<;uSO«i in 'his ",Iume. The Cold War poured lethal """pon, in'o '""ny rrgiooo (Hartung 199-4). hi Upoo. in 19%. on AK 41 coot • • mud! .... chidrn (Byman and V... E"".. 1998: 39). Thr hug< amount> of arm, (r<>p<>mibk f'" 90 ptr « n' of recen' casual,,,,,) circul.ting in both lrgal :and black mw .. nukes any concept of an", control very difficult (Cooper 1999)' ags,"...""d . , 'he time of this writing by US opposi,ion '0 UN doort> ot . moll · .. rn, limitotiom (Crosoe lte 2001) "".il 6 R.lhoo....,.... ｾｩｯ｢ｴ＠ t - dr1nwic, lao wd-snodioed, buI probably IIl<JR impon.oD' ,haft any "doxomp<aDon eftoct" ｾ＠ P>I»l <e.o<><>rnic uu.do. n.. DeW """,hili';" of poIi';"oI dWnl<Jralion cam< on top of wl\o., fur much of ,n. lao '-Iop«! woold wu ,h. "klo, decade" of ,n. 19800. ,I... ,k>b.ol upit.olio, w<».cning tha, .," in ｾ＠ ,n. 19101 oil crisis, 000 f"ui"ll prit.eo lOr prinury (11<,1>" 1991: 376). ｾ＠ the ...... ..aioo. be.....,."n .....jot o>ationoI ｾ＠ oetboot:b ond rna. 10 - . . thal Brown (1991: 2O-23)aoodud<s thai .... bn>et" • to«:asory condition b !he Iatt« ｾ＠ ""= on: "'" ...... ｾ＠ viuIo::n<e e.upo in. boominJ ＢＧｾ＠ Indo. uia" a cbsooio< iD ..... ation. £.wept b 1M kq runnin( ｾ＠ if, Ea., ·/"woor. I..oon..i>. .... calm .... iI< it ... mained • World Bonk '''''''''''' ,,"')< whrn f""dalory inoe,n"ionaI oun<ncy :rp<Cuh.,ion «ombiro«! with a GOmIP' And indY",;" .. , g<.>'I'< ,""nen' to <n:IO« a -.io< o:rioio in oundards of 1Mnc, ......".01 I...,", oocW < k _ ouddrnIy turnrd vioI<n, ｾ＠ 1998; ｾ＠ 7001: ＳＲＭＳｬｾ＠ ""'" _ India, ......- - ' in th .. """"-. I --.:.I ｾ＠ ,.,. ....... ......"w <wo"" .. ｾ＠ yet d.';, apoou ......, 10 ｾ＠ _ Iittk 0< none. As IMY ..... ri<t""" tighteDed. ..-1\ ot tho: """,,",boon u'l,uicoce<101U.,, bu, ,m. ju" made tho: "","no&l decline ｾ＠ oharpe< G",.-u ｃｏｉＤＢｯｾ＠ tho M acedonWl threa' """"'''P'''"'"'><Ou>iy "';,h • I<ric. of economic I<'bo.c ... bu, let it fode ... <e.o<><>rnic b e _ from ",pon.u U"a<Ie S""". Ahom _tria faced t...i> with dapc:rardy ..."" mAIi«:u !Or tII<ir doopenldy boo ....,.,.... hod lOr ｾ＠ .......... __ "",..... 0 < ' " _ _ I\o:as.., ｾｮＬ＠ hoe been, if, _ pbDos, one of oil< "'<"I")' fow...,nu '" tappinjj; in", -...Ith ｾＮＬ［｟＠ 000 Shaw 1998; aoo .... SoothaJI 191t: ＱｾＢＱｾ＠ In th" ronl<:1'. otho:, .opec.. of Ih. '\II""r<n' ｾ＠ <:<:OnOIIIY ""'"" '0 th< fon:. .""", is oid. Tn. ｾ＠ lll< courotry. tit. """" ＢＧｾＮｮＧ＠ on aid it ,.nda ' 0 be. In Liberia, th< Doe oqime w>s utterly o:iepeno:l<nt on US IUppon. 000 feU .....hoen tlw ..... "'" oil SomaWo I:oroadoor proLIcnu uoociatcd wM h.....aitarian ｾ＠Ｆｯｭｾ＠ .. Of ＮＭｾｮＢ＠ "'lloniu· IIOnO (NGOoj Cd< Waal &nd 0.-..- 1993). W.u\ordo· 1""1 &.-.d iullooo\ ""'""" ...... then . - II) r-I inquIar ...:>Idicn &nd ｾ＠ pay ｾ＠ A, the ...... In-. thooc in IouI ｾ＠ a bdic ..", reoportoibiIity for ba&io: """';';eo, I<oving th< job to NOD.. In the,. and otll<, .....)'l, humanilanan ....... tanee ""d NGO p"'.. n« h""" come to bo: _jot f.CI ...... it. Ih. 0( loco! """mets. and "'" alwaY' ' " the bem:!" (Andenoo, 1999; ｓｾＬ＠ 2000) . Scwnd is the c><1n> ..omcia/ .... y produt.. """' ....... "'........iMaI tradt. TItD io not j ..... mallCr of ｦｾ＠ tndc. 00. iu milit.oiutioo. !u dc ..iIed ,,""'" in lIetdoI &nd '\I.>Ione (2000) show; IhiI m .... bo. ｾ＠ ..... ""1">" 01 CGIIl< ..... po:wuy gIobaIiuDon lit.. dir=Iy ｾ＠ ",ocrno/ .............. <other vioImce.' prool""" 'o'drnoe " n", .-m _ 'nlc 'nou ilh>Itn'" 80"<"""".' ,.,......,..,..,0/ <.to""'" lnoru>ingly multi-n.tional corpon.tiono ｐｦ＼Ｇｉｾｴ＠ their coc.bo..:o with COO'"pORIC ",."ccn.rico (Ik ..... 1997). Of lIt .......gh agrt.""'"" with w;"I""b.. Thio "",Iudc. legal " qu isitio", of 1""""''''''. wood;t. <to•• boot 0100 prc<iouo <OI1 1"",,"rod luch .. "bloud ､ｩＮｭｏｬｳｾ［ｴｏ＠ I.a....u." diteu ... " in llus l'OIumc. and of rou .... drugs. 1 ... in Pcn.o. In .... ｾ＠ '"'!Ifi<t . . _ of or.. _ 7 dca.dc. oo:veraI AIiicon ...... ntriD '-c""""'" tntu.hip. ""'", poin.. in th<........ ｅｷｵＭａｭ｣ｾ＠ <hi! """". ｾｧ＠ .....jot wpp'''' for IouI .... rIordto ｾ＠ 1999). Tho: dimlpli", ｩｮＬｾ＠ of ,hi. " .. 1< ...mpliftcd ｾ＠ • third ｾｯＮ＠ Tho: tratUJla_ tionaliu.tion of eopital and """""n ""aUnCd lhoc economic powe, of !""""'onen..... diocU>t<d by Wolf. l.windc of _ _ n, ｾ＠ policy .. """" """" obarpIy ｾ＠ .". cooodioboo .. impoocd by the 1M.; !tuft little k" .... thio book. n.... cofIcn not obit: to """""" .., ｾ＠ n<:<:<b or """"'" .... ｾ＠ thao brings inlrrnAl "'f'PO<I. wttiI< "",ra.!"""",,,,,,,taI and ｾ＠ iII<pI ｾ＠ not ｾ＠ .... ronstraioed by th< IMr, art inae ..... , their wcoltlt and powt:r Ｈｾｮｯ＠ＱＹｾ［＠ RichlOf<h 1996). 0tIkr gIoboI prtI<lCIOCI all"a:' ",,"nt domeo<ic """Dicta. The upando:d roI< of th< UN inter>-o:n.ion in _>Ilio::t. .. nIwiout., boo, "';,h the pounlial to ｭ｡ｫｴｾＮＬＨｔｨｵｲ＠ｉｾｾ＠ In a ｾＮ＠ the UN·• .......ro roI< ... dcfr.nd<t of ...... omaripty - "fll"" UN. _ to _ _ th< ... ,ioort-stak .. .... wry tisundolion of inl<"matio:onallil\:" CBow--Ghali 1m} - as ｾ＠ .". Maybwy-I........ io inctusingly ｾｴｩ｣＠ (Thakur and Newman 2000). Tho: ｾＮＬ＠ of NGOs. beyond ｾ＠ aid (. . . .""", 1997), ... m.jot p an of wha,..",.. ..., IU th. k<y dcv<lupmcn' of con'<OHJ""""f giOOoIi ..,;.,.,: ,II< growth of hori_tal r:rou-ruotiooroaJ "".n«';",,". and ,ho nooion of lUerarcltical rutio<W ""' • .". of control (I.anshOtr>< 2001 · 1(l-S5; Ury 1999-. 92-98). or <p<ciaI .....""""'" ""'" ""' diaopOtu. ...... ...00 ha.... tnCMd Ｎｾ＠ from tbrit !tomdand catoo play • crucial ..... in ｾ＠ • JeIUo< ol ...,...... idnttity; _ in ........... ....,.. may _ agiuo';"" b indq>rndcnt n.ariooW homcIando CAppadotoai in Gledhill 2000: 161 - 163). Int<mano...J m;p.n.. ol counc, ""'T aIoo play _h • rule, IU ｾＧＮ＠ eIi"' .....nu ol India Wu ...... ""D. A40 ol tignol imp""""a: .. in,eouifyina Slobal <:ontmutticarion.. Concerning w ar in Si<,,,. [.<"n•• Rid>ordo {l 996: ｸｶｩｾ＠ malto:' a wong caJC , 0.1 vioI<nc< .. <hoped by _ piaYl to ",n. media Ilowo and (Ul,ur.ol hybridintiOt>, ,ha, mW: up p.baIizro modot-nil)l" Ｎｾ＠ boIow th.c ｾ＠ of sJob>I ｾ＠ bu, IMlmI '0 is io the incn:uittg oi&niI"One.: ol rq:ionaI ..... Iopmu>to in ｾ＠ intnn.ll ｾ＠ to >Uta.. Thio taka onouol b ..... In P"'" ol Africa, &nd in CIud &nd I..iII<:ria ｾ＠ th< old Jln.n<ophono-Anp>phonc r."h Ii"" hoe ｾｮ＠ＢＧｾ､＠ WI,h direct impli<.>.Uon. lOr miJif;ol"J .upport ＨＮｊｴｉ｟ｾｨ＠ｾﾷＬ｡ｮ＼｣＠ now 1«1 ito "'''ro''' dtaIIcng<:d whicI> app<"I< t<pt-.lly in lI"""".,k"" .... Ira""" on<we by lho US tit"" til<a it'lCT<-.:I inD... ",,< of rqinnal powcn. Libya and ｎｾ＠ R..:gionoI occurity ｾ＠ .. "'" b<alrnit'S ........ actM: _ in'""",nlio."" (A.chuya 1998: 182- 188; T_ ｾ＠ but .,.., li.trth<r UJII......... hooriIioioeo, .. Brown o/ioa.,. in ｾｩｏｴ＾＠ '" ｅｃｏｾｉｇ＠ .. 1.iJcno. (oDd .... Sohnobd and Thalur 2000 on NATO ,n Kooaw). "",",o<! "'" ..ood, domntlt: political vioIoencc become> • rep:onal ioruc, thl"fH18h . "",,4xordcr ｲ｣ｦｾ＠ iNurg<ncico, ,.... ".. border ""<le. a nti .,.",. n.,,,,,",,," (lhlll"ock! 2000". Pn:mdao 1991: 10-1 '1. !Jiving ,it< to wh .. ar. being c. lkd "h.d ''''iahhorhoods" (KaldOt 1m: 107_ 1(9). • V,""", "'If5n Itq;onaI <""'1eC1iom '" ｾ｡ｊ＠ conn;., .. ...., rlram.u.o.lly illwm..'" in_tit Asia. 1 .... <OIl>.poe or the USSR .."d ill withdrawal £roo .. Afghanisun .... _ o>nIy '" i.""rn.! ..... 'h ..... bu. abo to "bl<>wl-k" (a CIA "I'm >pp6<d to ito b."., 1"'1") ｉｲｯｩｮｾ＠ 01 bWnlc b n<:w ..n ...... AI .... stOla..oo """. wt.a.: .round the world. Ｑｾ＠ ..... a ....... of ........ and roch""" to ........., ....tUd! opiIlcd"""'''to Kaohmir. the..,.. .... 0I....tUd! ""'IP will &II<d 100ia'. -.a in de. . . with ioo .......,. ""- idmr;,y.liIIkcd c<oodlicu, _ to ........... ifo nuclear face.dI" with hliooan. c...m,nlly. .............. Sa .... , ｾ＠ Ruo.i.&, .00 c:entt:oI Aoian ......... ""'Y ........,. ............. in ｾ＠ the o.;J -.. in ｾ＠ (Canguly 1991: '203, 1_ Rpu _ 700 1; Rubin .. __ 700. ; Wti.,.,. 1m). ＢＱｾ＠ .. noJ ｾＭ oIl..n do<s"",.oy tIw-,. Global ｾ＠ ale ... w....abUy .... iI"IC..... , t.... the op<cif.. ｾ＠ and oaIienI:e or atonal .... is< ｾ＠ ........ vioIonct wi"'''' IUIa ｾ＠ｾ＠ｾ＠ CJdtJnal COM«Ciono shape local 0>I>IIict0 indiredI)'. -*"'t fish"" m, ........... "'""0:",". n... inro:iruDono, tho::modveo on: p<'<IIhoo::u 01 ..<1;'" ooIooi.al II>ICtUU, ｾ＠ p' &Dd ｾＭｭＮＬ＠ ..bid> (otoj:.wn. &Dd Sh.od< 1992: 180-181; SourJu,D 1914= 1601- " . hw .... ..,.... II> "'I"" .... reanI vioIrnt n>nI1icI ohouId I>< .,.n .. "'.. rnall-,l ralh.er ....... ｡ｾ＠ｾ＠ (A)ooob 199): 1119; 1998: +8; lIo1oti 1996: 12&-1+0). \','i ........ ｾＮｨ｡ｉ＠ it io local octon who make the ｾ＠ 1 botlie\.oo d';. ohooId _ bot,...q ...... itbu/or .,-ioo. M...,. &>]><:CtI or ,lie poIiticoi ............. been ohap<d lor plbaI ｾ＠ tiona. n.... ""'Y to. Ｂｾｲ､ﾫｬｉＮ＠ """" "" !l>e iruide, who wi ... wbswoti.aJ ju..ilk.a';"" can blame """"n' ...... u. .... 01\ • hiorory or ouuide meddling. If as<nci<o 01 tho:: """" devdoptd ..orid hope '" ..,..I;on.. vioIen. :.uuggIc in 1<00 <i<Ydop<d ｲ･ｐｯｮｾ＠ it io imponanl to ktep .beo< in.. ractiono in !l>e o:oncq><uaI [""'ground. They an: ｦＮｾｴｯｲＮ＠ dUl' .he outsOd< -'d can >If"'" to .... op< !l>e fu ...... _ And .., puoent, tit")' OI:<m to bt ､＾ｮｧ＼ＢＧｾ＠ ",i"' ....""'od in impotw.. cin::Ie>.' ,ha, .,.t<. 11Iio volu""" .. diotinguiahe<l by on apl;,;it b:u. 01'1 .he Bur tho:: ....... i1>C1f io. probI<"",ric conttpl. Wolf m»unlS tIw IOrm. of 11>.... differ radically ｾ＠ a lo<I!! hiscOl'}' '" ru.te-bo.olldint p<Ojecto. Y. caUbono abou. the ､Ｎｾｲ＠ of ..Wo';"", "' ......... the bard way in poIi.ic:aJ oricn«: and intu....-uoi rda· t;"", tb<o<y. "Tho ...."'" io not. unitary ｴ｢ｾ＠ It h.u "" inlCn:OU, it doco no! oct SU ....... . . - up 01 0 varieIy 01 indlvidualo and Wtirutiool, whiclI may hav.: o:omp<1i"ll 01" roe" ron,rad......,. _ n L ｾ＠ O<a tho:: p oblu ... inh<:n:n. '" ..... ｟ｾ＠ .. .., ",,0' that ,heooy bt bt".. off without it. Wolf abo "1'1"";"'''' .hoot dangero. t... ..... vatu. .. ｾ＠ 010 ... '" multid ..... ru.ioftaI ｰｯｉｩ＼ｬｴ｡ｾ＠ wi,h imporun' rub ont;Ioodinw ......."..,n. or tho:: conIIicu genent<d lor capiIaI and ｾ＠ or bcg<""""" n>lion<al cultlllCl (occ aIoo """"- '!!!II ; E.ano .. __ 1986; Gidd<no ｉｾ［＠ 11"""-'.... 1m M""n 1988; Tolly ＱＹＩｾ＠ A. 10M..,.... ol .... diopuct .bou. the ....."""" and UliIiry or ........... - is "'manhe, • produa ol amlquow ｾ＠ and "",....,..00... inmKd from past terr- mw" oo;eurnub,,,,,,, tJNI_""'' ' iii< ",," 9 Nl<lCialiono ";th d l/l"<I'm' ..1I00I. n( ＬｾＢ＠ ... bnmo (1988: 69--12}. lOIlowiog Miliband, ""'ognila • "tw. 0)01""'- made up ci .be institutions and ｾＢＧｬ＠ 01 poIhlctJ and control - ... "", [ .....,..)d call ｾｮＮ＠ _ but dioMp.... "'it ... of powerful ｾ＠ .,.ncieo &om the 6ctioon of &n ;"terarcd, """",."riry tailed "the """,.- Y.. thai Ii<Iioo Uq>o ｾ＠ ;"10 :and dIoIonint: Ｎｾ＠ 00 benn to dlope.* wich "the 1Ut<" aDd ｾ＠ pn>eioo dottaipti.., !IkocpoI Ｈｉｾ＠ 3, s,. in DDntnost, .... the ""'" ＭｾＢ＠ brin&inII ....... Ii.InaionIoliM ..... __ <>l • ncvtnI ｾ＠ｾ＠､ｩｦＺｾ＠ｪｾ＠ ......... -t. out their dioaJrn ......... TIl< ｾ＠ b ' -. ;,. • "wrighry _ ...... up 01 "Ofpniulion&lly ............, ｾ＠ of ...... oITocio.Is," ｾ＠ m.1iooooIIlpo both be.-.:n o:MI JOciny aDd publit authority _ and ..-id>in ..... ...o..y iud( Th ... io io _ ｾＬ＠ 10 ｾ＠ the - . bod in" and IuotoricaI onatyo;o. " io Iunl to _ much ""-,,,,,,, .... g' ..... ' .............. n "'""" -"'inFY ..... d I"""riom M ano<h« cqmpk. in !hio .......... T........ """ Y. ｾ＠ .... otr wry diffucntIy in 0>nCq>I...!Wnt!: the _ ...... ad up "'" that I&r "fl&I1 .. th.y I""I!". throoJsh d;..,........ of<:urrmt ..... ..... Anttuopo>los, t... iIs own hiolofy of IhiI dtb= In the po-d"aco: 10 J!IMoo ｨｊｩｦｵｾＮ＠ RadcIifroo. Brown (1!J4O, niio") <;<;>r><:Iudrd wn." Sutc ... doc. """ o:>1Ol in the phmomcn.ol worid; it ... {>clio<> '" the phiIooop/>tn. " I " E.WOo fi I'bIiIiuI &n.9. f ri..J (1 961: 221-Z29) 100II ..... with Iimibr conduoion&, and <Itoctibed"o Ita,." u. W !I '*"P. """=n: ｾｮｭ｣ｴ｡ｬ＠ iostitutiono oJ """",ion main"';" ........ iflOd oociaI onto •. Mojo< ""tNopoIo>fjiul ,hcorisu on poIitiuI ｾ＠ Ito .... ",",,'in....:l '0 0« ....... in Utio W2)' (Carneiro 1970: 78; H.... I95Z, 76, 172; II"";' 1m, 151). 0.,....,.. .............. of irutitutio". .upcr_ ""fin." ｾＮ＠ tieo of llnlhlp, rnain, ..... - by I<>n:<, if r>ec...ary - • oociaJ O}'$Iettl whe ... <>r<I<'r go<" r""", th" to!> ....... n ond <>.lRCbon rrom ,he boItom up. Unl .... doYok>ped p"',nrnentaJ in" i""ioou among, for cumpk, the Ch"",n"" (H""I><I 1978) or ,h. l roqooio (Morgan 1912), i""",nm."" or "01", ,.k, AltilOU&h dill , uWO<" the VlIli<liry of "the ..."': jll COI'IIrao' "" Ab....m.. i, <Icw<"a. with his moo! impor".", inlighl (19B8: 75-76): "'ho,;. ....ry ",a) abo.... ",I>< ..... " is 'he myth of ito M p,,,.,"'n' •• iooenc.. Bdo.f in JUl. is ao::<pWlC. 0( being nJO:d. T he .... or II>< OIa,.Iqi.jmatel the cornpuI>ory control of • population by • palM>:'" ･ｾＮ＠ｾ＠ from c6x"""",, "I' It> 'bio poinl h.. I><.n the dea lha .....1eO :o.n: tcnitotial!y bounded. wilh a capiIaI tho< a' I<aJI ｾ＠ =ru """,..,;gn ruI< "" to """'" borde" Ｈｾ＠ 1991 : 9G-96, Rugg;. 1993). Ewo ,.. iot<ma] poImal ..,....,..... C<IIbpoe. bordm by ... 01 late< ｾ＠ｾ＠ if HOC ,,,,,,",,,d, by nei&hbon. 'n.. world .. divi<i<d in", .. rritorial "COW1tro...," • "'...... 'iofW poJibcal m<a""'8 of "ota .. - duol • KttpI<d ...... by y: ｾ＠ ......... domando io. io I1atdIy • ",vial ｾ＠ "The bounded d1arat:... or ...... makeo them "con ......... " onablin&. ｉＢｮＮｾ＠ II> C<lOIC«IInIl" its &Ioca_ .... '""" .u............. ..-uo, ,hu/; incnHiDg ilS ｾ＠ _ (G4ddmo 19M: 13) - """n if <boo< tuOUn:a ...... J'<Cft>dy t-n uodeft:u. by p.tooti ......... (oto , ......., til;. ..,..u ..... ; <:oonaroIf ｊＹｾＩＮ＠ mlhin IIat< boundoarin, .u tuQj'"'" '* tcr...........,. to.....,......u.. no. ,o. .o. n.. 10 R. lJrimt " " - that 1'''...." ;, appIi<d in a """jally rtructurod way by ｾ＠ romtitu,cd adminj",. tiv< o.ganization, (Rube"".in 2001; Taylor 1994; ｖｾ＠ and Pel...., ＱＹｾｊＮ＠ It .. tbe Ｐｵｾ＠ of a " ". Ｇｨｾ＠ ,.uk<:. S""="m<:I'Il .. ><h a ....... ighty acto<," &rod oocial ｾｨｹ＠ with;" thoo< 00111>';•• truCtu .... bow that _;p., i< thrown &I'OUDd. s.en th" wa)\ "g<:I"<,nmm'" Jot.. any funotionaliot t;", <of ,..u"olj,)< ｾＧｮ＾＼＠ .. ,1eY<1op policies .."hid. alf"'" th< rou ... of Iivro h;,tooy wi,h;n th<ir bord<n. p"",', ogran..n ,dorm, ..,en . , critiul by Sdigm.nn. th(>Ugh .. ONting brooder intCfna,Mm>.! "..,,,ds, ..... particuhr «> P"",. It io the fact that"" much vWon« ;, h2pp<n;"g within the bord<n of " .... that hal oou>«l .., much ""'''''c,,, .. i.oo "motIj! policy m....... wl>O are f .... mon: """"",.ned to d..aling with good oId-f",h"'O<d i", .. rna,;",w ....... CG"o"p'".li... i.oo ol th< .to" is. critical f"",,,..;" effi:>ru .... ,Ievolop ""'" 1>Olicy. "R..I;"" ;ntunational .dationJ theory ;,. I"."'ioed ot'I an rl<. of th .. " .." .. the indivioiblc unit <>f politi<> (_ Y. Ferguoon. in tlriI ,"",un><: F.. rgwoon ond M....o..clt 1991). From thio p",mioc, "", .. nt probk"" of ,n,emal vWoncc 0'" th< of """ok .... ""'. (Itt M igdal 1988) 01" " mte rolh poe" (... . Z..,.,m"" 199»), . "d the ooIution;,. intern,tional lUJlPOI1 '0 ""ad up thete .... t... 1998; ond..,. lIuoan 1998) <1';,;. (Hdoti 1996; Zo"'"an 199»). A)<>Ob ＨＱＹｾＬ＠ ci>< •• tandard ,,,,,limo lOr ｾ＠ th .. pmhlenutic of Third World ... t .. , romparu'g their Ou", .. nt ＬｾＧｵＮ＠ «> an ...... lie, stage" ol " ... cooMnIOt"'n ,uch ... h., det<rlh.d by Tilly ＨＱＹＱｾＩ＠ for ｦｩｴ］ｮｾＬｨＮＧｵｹ＠ n,.,J;ev.oJ We...:.n r.urope. Bu, Ayoob'. "",haI",n r<aliom" r";tt",t.. th ......... ｾ［Ｌ＠ the problem. ond its >tr=gthening the ooIu,io". AnthropologisOJ, on .he other hond, "'" much l<M liI"Jy to cnvisic<t "the V. te lU the o<cunty !'Jan" tot !Or • popuIat<d tuntO<)'" (Zonm;on 1993b: ｾＩＮ＠ In th .. ir marins ol ,It< J;ved ... penen« of peoples &I'OUDd tbe ....orkI, it is the IotaJ .u(ho<;,ie . ........ ...., often th< 00"'''' ol violence oM mocun'Y ro.- 'ht porul.otioo (Nag<ngaot 1994: 114-116; Stuka 2OCIOb: 1-6; Van den llc'ghc 1990: H; and ..., ocher citations on _ 2 ol this chopt<r). The ........ .. yotem 0( oornpuWoo. and ... ploita 'ion ｾ＠ nakedly evident. '" Rummel (1997a, b) h ... qua",jf",d. "<kath by g<:I"<,nmen'" b.. b«n """,,01 tima ｾ＠ likely th.on death by rn 'hio century; Too olt." ""the great... threat to moot of ｾＧＢ＠ P"OP" in the n,ir<l World corne. no' from in,.,nol war, bu, from their ownleo<k,.." (David 1998: 93). Nor ..... anthropologi>ts likdy '0 h" l"",uade<! ｾ｜＠ .. won within Thir<l W,M ,tot.. ca:n be ondcro,<><:>d ... . n <ally Ｂｧ＼＠ｾ in • uniline.,. ocheme 0( ,to", MUti.oo. The «:ODOmic and poIititaJ "metu,.. forged in violent Il"'ggle are ..acti"l!" to .... .,.. «>ntemporary global rnput:t ｉｾｙ＠ diocu...,d • pmmioc:"..".. ,.," without kadin!!' to it'ICTT",ing ;",.gnotiom (Serda! ond Malone '1000; Rich 1999; K oldor 1999: 90- 111) .I'.Ii"" OOMoC"""d with moy >\'OW 8101,.J norm, aboot . tote -.:rtign,)\ .. A)OOb (1 995: 71-17) ""'. . ｾ＠ bu, th. , ;,. ixca"", ,,,d, nco-mJ "'1'1"'" ,h.;. """" control . "d ond it io punui, of tlx.. ;nte",." which corn""",ly t2lc. precedence oooO$idc""ioru oJ " .,,, building (O.vid 1998: 81-90: Hcrbo< 1997,393). TI,e i.dca th;ot it ;, ,tote _..me.. 01'" coIlal"" ,lutt ;, the Ca.'" 0( f'ghting ill"oreI the fact 'hat i, ;, !!"""rnment ilXlf whi<h it the objt<' of ",oggle. T he ",,,,,,omincd ,.,,,it e/ut""". woo, .oo 8"""'''"'''"' in"'"" ", 0"." institutions &rod i"""n.... n" of guvemmcn,. tl>ough no! unitory. are pinn...des ol ,he .trurntraJ 1aJ,,\oc.af"'. mog'>etiz<d node, 0( .... alth .nd powe'. This is especially tnt< in poot-<:<>lonial mlel, .. oumm ariud by VtIIalon (1998: ｬＭｉｾ［＠ &rod ..., ｾＧｵｫＢｩ＠ and M.vbIUs ｪＹｾ｢Ｚ＠ 1!-9) foo- Africa""t with appiic.,i.oo beyond tlut, continent. F."", if '-.....ak H cornpaKd to aomc oche ... tho::oe go.er-nmentl are often Ｂｾ＠ ",,,,,,",,n" in I<Tm' 0( empioyn'''''', 'hey ｬｾｩｹ＠ a c.itic.1 ond tbey cl.im th .. m-,jor role in dorneoIic .. alloaliol> oJ" • Ｎ［ｾ｢ｫ＠ htnc6" <>f m;".ral a:nd oUt .. ｾ］＠ e>.<n<:tion. Sometim .. , 1M .tnt.ggIe ｩＬｾ＠ｾ＠ ... id..",r<ad """"men' ol P<"'f'le woo ..... nt the guvemm<nt off 'heir backs. Othe, times, i, involves 0 t=g< ol ""ton who uIC fi:>tc< to wall 011' !!"""'"n· m<nt .uthority 00 'hey can I",,..,,e tho::ir own profit through >ioI<n.:e and patton,,*, - warloorlo (Rich (999). Cnm""O<ll)l the soaJ ;,. to k«p or 00>1t..a of il"""""n><nt. As Reyna ootc. for Chad in this wIwne, internal "ha .... ｪｾ＠ oll'o<:ial.. ""..,fftcia1s, ｾｮ､＠ .....,...(d. b/: officiab killing """It other ... for "",,1>"01 the ,tote. ｾ＠ｏｾ＠ wlticlt struo tht """'1m .... go,..,.<nn,,,,,ts ... ,he C.IJIC of in,..,n.aI vi"knc<:. will, ,I", Jl<'Iicy in' plic. ,ion that otorn&l po" .." . d>ould do """'" to _ them up, ignore the foci that in ｾ＠ ClUCI th .. gowrn' "",nt:" what the fighting i, all aOOuL The m<>1'< rcoourta."d pow<:< ｣ｨＢｮｾｫ､＠ 'hro.Jgh it. th< more valuable 0 ..nrc it bc:wma. Reno (I998, 2000) h.. dc....loped ,he conoq><of !he "fhadow ....ｴＮＬｾ＠ ........... n ol patrimonial rule _"uncd «> global p<>Iitical """"""'¥ 'rne ohadow ....,. it a ｮ｣ｾ＠ of .. I;te pow<:r ond patronage that .,.00 along>HIe th .. off>cial go.ernm<:nt irulitutioR' . 'Th<:« at itl pinnacle <XpIoit the facade ol B""=nm<nt, bo, peroonally"calI tho:: , _ .. ond oPJl"Ol'Tia", .. much _al,h .. they can by towing fi>rt:ign .id .nd enclave-baocd prodoctioo of val..ed commodit;"" Th .. ht, ..ftciouies ol 'Y"cm, Reno oted inttteot in prom<><ing in""""ity Ihcn« the nrtd fo, patmru) and • war economy (smuggling, MJru .ntl<; ｣ｴＮｾ＠ and .... apin.. divenion <>f "'''''''''''' to public goodo. Okktyk upital ＢｭＧｾ＠ .. i.oo via exploiution ol pcaunt prodoc';"" ;, too limitro, and """,Id requw rount ..... proIitobie .. """n<li'u"" on ",",un,"" A . Reno pointl out. such ..,..,.nu are unlik.1y to c.....,. p....c .. 01" develop functioni ng- iruli,u.ions of Ir"""rnm<I)I., Bt't)WIt dioc:woco thio cona:pt .. ｾ＠ applies '0 Lihtna, and ...... ,he 'l"",tion <>f whal violet><. trornpiI .. when tho:: "'tobliohcd ,It.adow "ctworl: and off,da! g<:I"<rnm."t are oeparotcd by a n usu'pe'. AlwaY' and JOrev"r. ,h.", ;, competi'ion ""'" who oonttolo g<W<",m .. m, or part.I 'hen:or. ond what the govern"",nt controls. II", th;, ",,"ume fQo" .... "" "mggle that goo, weD bc:)und normal poI;tico (_ Bailey 19691 • which laY' siege to rorutituting de""",,, ol • " "e. Om: typo: of '\ego thaJleng .. b.sk prom .... of gowrnment, •• cb ,hat tho:: old . tate pc ....... b\., " nde< • radically diffen:nt rqpnle. II >«ood 'y!'" d,aJI>::nges the territorial boondin!!' of . ....te, more by panitiot, ,h' n «>nqueo" but ",10 by _ c.. ntral gwc,nmcnt i< "'" in· doubt. In the third typo:. the", it r<al doubt whethe, "'!1 centr.dly dominat;"g gowmmcnt will .....hlioh . ny IICfDblanc<: of control i,. offICial bordcrs io (h .. rutUI ... The COl< studies ｾｮﾫｴ＠ th ... c"'"8"<"" and this orde,. Peru'. _, ';'ICC the mid,l980s superficially tu<mbleo ,I>c ;",u'8'ncieo "'"""=.. ,ain war, ow, or <to""n, 'h" _rgo"' .. ,,_ . .... .,,,i "''Or V"""" ""!fIi;,.".J ｾ＠ .m common in ｾ＠ America lhc 196Ot, fue led by ｾ＠ ooooitio.l .. en.du,.."j by much of the pop1,I",""", Bu, the no,_ of the oh.Jleng< '0 ,II< " ". ..,d ,II< SO""'nrnt'" rapon .. h .. be<n unique, pe,hapo O>'m pooomod<rn. 11>< Maoist ...... "'fl' of people', war """ transl"e...ro 10 the ａｮ､｣ｾ＠ <""';"'1 On while in'.rn",ion" oommunism rolIapo«l. rundc<1 by dn..g """"'">I aoo Iirl.uy P'" otl the deft,..;,." nOl by ｾ＠ r...,is, K"nenl. oot by • "poIi'M:"ly neu,raI» tochnoc ..,. w" ., ....... Wh" e in du. ,troggl< """ t>OI the fu,,,,,, ais",ne< of r.:", _ Scndero WOJ dd""",d by i" bordon - 00' ,alh<T the buM: of the r.:no ..... n "0«. which til< ",bolo promioed (or ｴｨｲ･ｾ｣ｮ､Ｉ＠ '0 utterly InruiOrm. ｬｮ､ｩｾ＠ foea multipk ｣ｩｴ｡ｬｾ＠ including internation .. boundary ronfbct. and in, urge"";,;" oIong rogionoJ. !ribal ."J othe, line, whM:h could Icod '0 ..",.., bou,Mlltty dtanp Bu' tho cl...u.,,,SC d..crij,.,d by Lotoingd com .. fnom • ,.,.,.,.,. men' whidt is adaman, >bout ｾ＠ cur"",' !CJritorw in"'grl,J' Hind. fundan>onlalisb aim"" to (and did) ,uecttd lhc Conpas Pvty wlticlt ｾ＠ ruled indqocndeACe wi,h • commitmen' '0 """u1"";'m. &cui ... go,,,,,,,,,,,,o, had ,"" ,lcliverod the ｾＬ＠ fOr ",:my pwpIe .• nd itO incro";ng debili,y . uch thot it ...... incap>hlc ""'n of ",.. ＢＬｾｩｮｧ＠ ron;., again.. "",t.e.t..,,,,, mobs. The Hind",,,. combino', pis ............ ich oupp<>rU their.,.;,;..., of Hi"d" cult"re .. ,he basio of JOcicty, ｙｵｰｾｶｩ｡Ｌ＠ p;millding J"UCd"" in lhc St...... Unioo. also bad. J>artY iden';· f>Cd with SO"',,,,,,,,n!. which oh<, fo.iled OJ • lo«:Mder. 00' with • JUddcIll>tlS 'hot Ot"at«! • new "l"".ing too- !bnte oIreody in !><>W<1". H'n: "",n. of«n ｾ＠ Comn,uniru. fram"" • SO""'nrT>Ontal CfW. in of eth.ot.>JUtionolism _ .0 """'" up tho old uaoo "";'0,), Tbe brulrup of ｾ＠ was Ii>Ilowtd hy ",rial W2rl'OK <0 C"' ..< new. "pu"," Ita«., 'The ".te is d<Ad; Ioog I,,,,, ,h. "a",. G,«e< .. one of III< 1IrongC" It.... diocwood in th .. book. I" imagined ｾ＠ ...... ich brounc offo;;ialIy known .. ,be fornt<r Yugoolav RepublM: of ｍｾ［＠ •• is moo< ITagilc, yjn.wly for<:<:d into uaochood by the c"""" of """n" in YugooI...... ..,,1 "",k;"g '0 mnoo/i.b'e ;" po.;tion via hinorical ..,If· T.; "",,... poin' ,hat ... ,"" .re urtlikdy '0 def",;,;(m, i fYROM" collopoe comple ..1y wben "",", Ita ... OK in lh< .... ighborhood.) ｾｵＧ＠ lh< OONtru<tion of oon''''''pooat)' G<tt<e, agairut ......".OJ "'hcr p".. ibili,ia, is '00 r<C<:n' ｾ＠ ,,, let 1>O!<ntial aI""n>'n.:. go unchallcng<d. T.d.i"ll .u the .Lx""""" together. "" >« ,hat di(fe«n! corutnxtiono of hiMoti<iu:d identity <an I>< uxd to """.throw. divide. "";"f""", '" g<n<ra!c " ... ｾ＠ .. will be di><uw:d t..". B,,, in all __... tIt< fu'"", "";"e""" of _ o<n, ...1 ,.,.....",,,,,n. domina';ng wi,hin tlcfined boro<:n ...,m. :urured. UI:oerio. is on<: of doe okleot of ,II< con''''''po<ary or AlTic.a. "" • <cn.u')' .nd • h.lf. the USA , uPI",,«d • p."in.",iol. rcpre»i", ,.,....'nmcn'. US aid papered ""'. ""ining tic .....,.,. aoo l<tIOi<>no, even .fle, ,II< f.U of .1>< AI.oe,ko-UberWu. Bu' when 'he •.,1"'"..,...,.... 100, i"lCTC.I, • ..,n)ke "''' ",.." who """kl ,ule. $oill... Bro"'n obtcn-a. the", ;, no m""" for d i,is;"n ".. "", ... ion. All I" n icipan" in .he conniru Ｎｃ＼ｯｾ＠ tho """'«>eo of a ｛ｾｉ＾･ｲｩＧｮ＠ " .... and ""pect;, <0 ooIidifY og ..n in the fu,ure. cit.,."""" .m w., ""InS ill",,,,,,... ".t"" of Ih<,"'" 13 The f".u," ,,r ""'" ;, """" ｡ｭ｢ｾ＠ｾＬ＠ otbet p&rU of AITiaI. Ibot"'«llonial '"."'. in Mrica .... re ....... to I><gin with. <;rcared by pronouoc<m<n. aJ...o.s arbitrary colonial borocn, and ｾｧ＠ boUt ｾ＠ in"nll",:n" and ""p<"ricno< in goverrun<n' (oce Wolf. in thi. wIurn<). Angola =mpliflCl tItio f.-.gility - Jiven no ｾＮ［Ｂｮ＠ ",.u for Ｇｴｬｲｾｮｭ＠ •• '''"' "' ..... by ......... m i.. ｩｮ｣＼ｾ［ＢＮ＠ •• no time h.. it conltit",,,,, uinglc ...... '" pe>«. Much of that fosh';nlf <fuectJy involved 0"" of lhc hot«" "'P<"J">'I"<' confrontationo of 'ho bte Cold Wu. au, unlike odxT former "'P<:'J'OW"I" hot opou (.. g.. Na,ogu.a). the AnsoLan ....... );"l" guing when tho Cold Wa, e-ndod. 'n..: """';nuing 'urmoil .dk.nda, lacking even • fune!io:ling <u,rency. and !h< .......1, <0 l>< had by who<vet could con'roI the n::p,ru into which Alp had Ingmcnted 1bc brief history of in<Xpmdent ChAd is """.bo, uIe of woe. St.", b<tal;. down in Uhad ;, no< 10 much t<,,-itoria! /'tagm<"tatioo .. n " on _illation of governm"" ...1 e><paruion ""d c.olb! .... A ",bI;""1y f"''''' poIi'M:.ol «:n'<1" which ｾＧＢ＠ Oftly aven"" fOO" rising above .ubsi"enc< labor pericolically ｧｾｩＢＬ＠ control """ i" nominal te,,-i1Or)l bu. new, ｬｮｉｹｾ＠ ... Ib" pooition. T"".. go ｵｮｾＮ＠ roado <nimble. Soon • rqime is falling b.<:k before .... iIling ooaIi· tion.. P""'<"'" by inl<fnaJ ond <....,w in"'"",., which do:vclop ".u ... ,1<ic imtiMion, ,,r vioIcnce. »This ru.o ha"""ned five ＮＢｾ＠ Somalia WOJ not • twM:.ol P<'I'-<donial cn><ion. $ci%"", of 1'0""" by the ".,;"n'u", oocial ...." ｓｾ＠ Sarre. profOundly a1te"'" th.< cloaroctef of tho Ita ... fIrst with Soviet .... d thrn US ruwon. th;, govemme," O<t out to fOrcibly I'<mal« oocM:ty in ito dairnl """g<, The "",. """ mon: • pr<:>U1Or .hOll oorvan' to m"'" Somalis. Local "",i"."", grew jUl! .. ,uP<'P"""'" in'eTC.It ond .uWOrt tapocd, and !he Somali ""e blew ''''.J' h io hard <0 im>gin< :my co:n,nJ govern· m<n' """, ... hliohing con,roI """ dive11C locally groun<led powe,.. ",.d in r"" • m.joT I'<gion hao doocial'<d iu indcp<:ndence. A<xording to lIeo<=u.n. Somalia .od'y may b< Or>< of ,be "moo< pia«:< on <artlt." Highland Papua New Guine. migh' b< char.<:t<riud as <>rl< of tho "I... """,Ieoo place> Oft .anh." Gav<'fIID<n, rorltrol. as mu","'" by tit< proItibilion of \ocal wanare. ",rivro within living m<m<X)l .nd proved fragiI<. crumbling as Australian authority ruro.d. G-",m<n, ointt th.n hOJ beat a oonswt. "'SO" .iation wi,h local tribes, wi,h ,bo b".,. oft<n "'tling the lCnru. ""Tribal viole"",," """ned. 00' in for"" that changed witlt lhc ltighbndo' chonging '0 .k<tor.ol poIi.ico, go"'C""".n, •• nd ,he: ",,",I bo:)<>nd (xe S,,,.,h,," 2(00). High kY<ls of viokn, orime . nd brigandage in 11", hishfando to ,II< <(fee' M! ab«:n« of govefnm<n. au,hority, re' """" of !he oIf.nden -.n poli,icaIIy wo:U· oon""",od. V"JOI<n' c,in« ,,,,,,If h.. beeo"," .n ;,,"" "pon wfUel< SO""",m<" . n.go<ia« 10m. ''''w f<>r", of o>ntra<:t and local J>WIlIa can try Th< co"", coO",,<d hetc ilhrnrot< tIt< 8"''' varia.ion which ""isto "',...,. cit.l· ",,,g<' '0 "",01 "The cumul.,;"" clfed of thcoc .nd othe, in.e,nol rn.a .nd ca'''",,", creatod. in ,he <arly 19900, the f<af that """" go::n<",1 ｰｵｉｾｍＺ｡＠ .... <hang< .... undcrwal' Bu • •ho::u ...... oom<:,hing 01 .. th .. m:..tIo: ,be viole""" of ,ho:: early 19900 '" frigttt<ning. In "arlt con ..... to the tool cakulUi of n.!;"n.1 "'1"""'''" "at*" """ncction. ""iIY '0 , ｉｾ＠ ........,"'¢<t-' __ rfINJIooo" ｒＮＯｊｲｩ｡ｾ＠ bf inlO'rntl ＠ｾ d>a< -nan, cI.oo:<n<Iano of a..-w;.. by ｾ＠ irnDoou.I ｾ＠ｾ＠ &0 apIain mo<krn ..1Khm<n1>, Thq ""= • wu> ><em _ _ conflictin& ........ <- v.u. ｾ＠ I ｴＹＱｾ＠ MI<. 01 !he rno<I<, n "";""..uoo, whid'l 100- ｾ＠ had been 00 fiud in OW" poIititai fir"",""",' that _ coul<I blithely <Mrlo:d tb< b/lIl&nt problem of that 1Iyph<,,"'ro romtruction. ｔｯ､｡ｾ＠ ,l1000 IWO m<anin gs of "".....,., • ...., hu.ci ng hcodo. S""88linR ""'oL ....Jo:r. within one "oom ny _ane< radic&lly diIf.",n . id<.. of wha< tb< nation. io orlhould be. prinul1nyalria and ch2lltnt< to "'" ""'Y , .... wood ＭｾＢＡｩｲｊｪ＠ｾ＠ ill l77f(Hechl<'r 2000: S). h io& mo<krn, hao twq>I - . . d>t world. Many ｾ＠ " - been a.:ribed to Ihio maIIoabI< !<nil, _ Oed .., "'" political of opociflC 01' ｾ＠ (Aod<non 1991: G.Uner 1997: Hechtcr 2000; Hobobawm 1994: R.oood 1997; Smith 198'. V.... r........ 1997: Ymmg 1993b). Tho:: .".-0:: io ,10 .. . boo",1oed ...... "''frn o»unlry • hould be .....a.tNl ,..;th • " .... on ｩＮ､＼ｮｴｩｦｾ＠ people. ''''''' ..... '.Il10 to othot peopIca. "[A) broad cono<I\OUI <10<. exist in th< ochoWfy I.... '"'"I .,. ...Iion· tion 01"", COO''';.u of fJOIiticai octM1i<o that aim '" m.ako: th< a cullUJ'&lIy ｾ＠ coIItctMty ｾ＠ 10 ｯ､ｦＭｾＢ＠ .. ｾ＠ ...;u, dI<* of th< 1laIe" (Hechler 2000: 1). Comaro/J and St.:.-n (1995: 4) add. ot<Ond Weotom im=tion, ....1Uch IU 00 many ooh<n pnaiI"""''' w.., .........,.,..,•. .,.ndao ion: ,'"'u.. boundat'" "' ....... "the ................ daimof. _ .. _10 ..... ........ of common .. ntimmt and .xl......., DDmmilm<nl, of lop! .."""' ........ and join. The ...... _ nI na,ionaIiono ;, • """"""'bili')\ on !he pan of I.. ｡ｾＧ＠ dtf.ntd territ"'J< You ｾ＠ be. ｾｉＢＬ＠ withoot it 2000: U-l f : Smith 1983: .iii. :uJlv). Th..., «.titOf)' """""" rymboIic VM.: ｾ＠ the motorial """n of ....... it ｏ＾ｉＱｴＮｩｮｾ＠ Rewgniud bound. ric ... pr<Md< ｾＢ＠ｾｮＮＱｹｴｩ｣＠ｬＩｴｾＮ＠ from no!ionaliot ＢＬｾＮｴ＠ d,t<>Ugh "at •• to the ｾｉＮＩＧ＾ＬＢ＠ｎｾＧ＾ｯｮ｡ｬｩ＠ laloe the ttiotcr>e< 0( . ....1< for gn<ttcd, it II • p«mio< of their 1""1'''''. ,."., idea 0( "11oc _." lqitirna,.. tho r"", gf ,uk:, ""o.i<>n>liom I<sWＢＧｾ＠ """,, controlo tho ale, "" whom, and to ...... , sn><rt.I ...,.. - ........, if • ........ kiIliDc ""- who do "'" 6, in. To tho do:pn: Iha, • nariorWioI ....... 000>kr-0 .......""" on • """"""",t ". """"nmmt, it ｾ＠ to... ...... "'" <:1iminal<. <he ....,.. for po.>nishmoma Of ｾ＠ 10""",,", ...... pIiance. A -=cao/"uI ｾ＠ II"ICIUOOI the ...curiry and I'<"""" of • rtpne. NOlionaI ... ....;,;on,.oR cdIectM:. ］ｾ＠ｵｮｾ＠ tropn ouch .. ＢｦｾＢ＠ "corruuu"it\\" "IOIk," .". ",he p«.>pi<-." l"" nat ......... ' vbion. 'yp.",Uy I.. ｩｾＮ＠ ..,.". oocw c:.tcgorieo """ oth .... ThO)' a", '''I'\><'O<d to ."""'np.... .u f""'I'Ie wilh", .... '" b<>nk,." but oIItn ore ;wociat<:d with 0"" "'(lOll. .""h .... coo" ond "'" tho in"tio< .. dc.oc.ibed '" thio...,."""" by 0.1 ..... They " .. ltc, claim "'" unlf",.tion of city and <:wntry whi<h Io<lUkI ....... _.ned .btun:l in • .m.r ."""'an in cit.... ...,many opodto (Erib<n 1993: 102), bul typic1lIy lind _ coptaIo. National identity io oaid 10 .......... <"1<1 duo, bu, • io rypoc:aII:y .. pponcd by the ｩＢｉ､［ｧＮｾ＠ ... (Smith 198', .... i;). I'0I;0;';'1 diu:s of"'n ;'i.n,iry'" """"'" ......., ompo<tI.IOt ｾ＠ (""""Itt "",ionaI'" ,j,. ｉｾ＠ ... th ___ ..........., (Von dom 8crzb< 1990: 8). Panicula. ｾ＠ may to. _"tilioxl wilt. ..... ,.n<nIion, all " " " in Africa wilIt the ｾ＠ of the iead.B gf ....bonaIiot ｾｮｵ＠ who.: p<non.oI <hariomo hood been a IOundation of •..pn. oubiIity (VlIWon 1998. 12). N·tion·liom oIl.n io ｾ＠ a •• dcli: .... of ｾ＠ womatIhood, but ""*"""'>ft raul" in the ....P!""'.. i<>D of W<lIII<1I', """"",,,"nu and f","",,"," (1:Wot 19I19; Sapiro 1993: ＴＲＭＫＧｾ＠ G. ... ｾ＠ partie"I., nationofut visionJ .,. likely to ben.:fi, the""" 8""'P WhKh ]K"OPOUOOs 'hom, and 10 be ""U ｾ＠ by ""- ｾＬ＠ ", umben Io"ho <an an'icipa,. ""nona! ｴＮｲ･ｦｾ＠ (Hec/tler 2000: 30, ＱＲＳＭＱＴｾ＠ Q""" >Udo ｾｬｩｯｎＮ＠ i, io "'" IUrprioinr tJo.o, ""--"",, ol _ ... 6oft.. ......... may ｾ＠ them willi an _......... ",""",,", ol m iU.nn ial ｾＧＢ＠ wdj.-. "" ,heir ｾ＠ 10 unifY d.iopon.., croupo. 100-1, in ....... ......,.,....;."..:;" and reIigjouo" - . om .... Oft< (I . • 1. iii thio '"""""": and _ ｾ＠ 1996: 20). s..,;,io (1 98,; ...;....w.) rondudos, uoudy 'hio io ". ona!I<r ol ...,.llMic ol ｾ＠ｾ＠ ,....", and .-hctoric, "'" ol dotlrinc 0.- oowaniution." N •• iorWlsm C<Jm<O .,.,. r""" a ｾＬ＠ but from <>l<ulaoing poIitiaJ <"'rep.-...."..; no< from ....... l.!o'ion bul from .o1f·"""';"g ;"' .rpr<tation. c( ..... WUle<! I<nowkdg<. And i....... no< ."...,,,1 pur.ty heo. .... of il> 01'1'..1, bu. io inlJi<>O«l th"",gh ｾ＠ and poli<ical control ol <:d""",;"", 1CIUc, '-'ever. n.ationaIUm_ publicotiono, ood othe, n>«l". In a """" to. """ '" ixintI6ke. "'lip><> (Kopkra 1988), ... ..:1 ｾ＠ to.l;m, JYmboIo, and rirwolo which dr-aw> .... local poIiti<:aI .....trun .... in (1919: 19) ...,.,., ".-IDsh ｾＮ＠ """"""'" and kong-botinc .-.do 0lI<l ｾＢ＠ •...., impel ac<ioa - "" inotanoe, tho hlc.-..rd.y of Sri I.anbol nationaIiom ........ the ｾｯｬ＠ａｵｴｾ＠ notlotWiom. ,."., ｾ＠ ""-m ......""" ....... un to. ""'" ...... ｾ＠ 01 faith. no. """""pi den ... from • tnonoe-I'.npnd model ｾ＠ ... <>onaI unity, which Y. I'<rgutOOl ond M.yWrr-1 """io '.mind "" Io.ao ｾｩｯｵＮ＠ few .... mpl . .. in the re" &," aIf...nr. ,."".--oJ c-u.., ....,.,jd (_ Bunn 1991 : 12- 11). R..ccn, ｾｵ＠ｾＧＢ＠ lo<uI>td '''.n'''''' on "'" fundam<n\aJJy di!l<rent m.",,'rogs c( "nation ·: .n "imaJined community" which "'8<<her tIoo-ough ,onilyin8 civic institutionoo ... ,hin ......,. ｾ｟＠ _ 0.- ....... aoII<ctMcy ｾ＠ » ＼ｵｬｾ＠ diotincI;.... in ito .,.." right. Thio diooinclion boo loom JI<-d .. ".,;.,.;.;" 0.- " . . . . . . . . oiQniot- rooriona!iom, ......... "portiNarioito at "<Ihnic- naciocoAliom (Brown 1991: '-9; I/<dooer 2000: 6; nmbialo 1996: 11 - 12; d Coonoro/l" 1995: 262-267). Un,il Jftrtidy. tI><oe ｾ＠ｾ＠ 01 -""lion" could to. dOkd, if not in tho ｾＧＬ＠ at least ..... ;"",.. or-.obI< ru' ..... <IeYolopmcn' . Nt <i«:ado:o, both _",1;$1 and capiuJio, ｾ＠ pn:op<.lUn<kd dilf<renl ",.. ion. of 'he .rini,yof <COllom", <.b-elopno<n., ""'"""" 1," ....1 m<xIerniution, ond a mildly p>lriotic n.tionaliam. 'l'lih:> .... d ocloolo.. ,ho "'<1<1<1 """r. ""n non· oJign«l "...., ...,......,.. the rai,h that """II pn:ooperiry wouJ.l ....... .""'y "p.....mode,-n·oocw ;,."i,u1klat and idt-,,';r""" ..... in r ' - " a 0Kubr indMduaIionL En¥tctoed ""·"'te"", and ｾ＠ in 1hc 'l""'ading. bcroc6ciooI. iouUutliont '" <MI JOCIC"t)' (:ooee Comao--o/f and Coma""'" 1999'j and the ......, would boer pew aII<goan<... to ｾｮｭｴｉ＠ whicb dfut ....Jy mediated Tdotiono ｾ＠ｒＮｉｊｮｾ＠ 16 \f>c .....td ",,!>id<. to < b<D<fi. of all. TI><:n: _ -,!k'<tM '"""""' if rJu ,"'" 17 ｾ｡＠ lTligion of mod<-rniza· 1981: ltJ<>"iii, ｾＱＴ＾ＩＮ＠ｉｾＮ｡､Ｌ＠ the opp<>Ii •• ｍｯＮｲｮｾｩ＠ and \be iocru.ing --"'" of g<lWf""",nl> "",..,cd mon: 10 figh' ｾｲＬ＠ &nd ,he".cd j(". r<:gioool t-e. of mobiliza'ion. Comrnen\all>t"O from ""y dill"c",n, 1"""'1'""';"'" og= thn, o:>nttary to ｾ＠ the rnod<m _ &nd notiotWi<m U"": g<n<n.ted or in ......>cd. nth.:r than dimim.hcd, cthni.e o.otilicalion (G.ocru 1963: 120; Guidic,i 1I.t. 1988: B; Homwit. 19M: 5; Smith 1981: I &-ro, Stack 1986: 6; Tarnhi.>.h 196/1: 3, 1996: 12-18). Theoe .ub-nati.on.al id<"Uf>:atlo< ....... b< toIcnbIc while < rnod<m;u.;.,n p.o.r1(\;gm ;, backed with inc",..,;.,g ...... t 1<.., artrit.;>otcd proopml}' In """" place .. the <10:..,., u.me tN<, .. 1<&11 /Or "'"'" p«>pi< ••t 10: ... /i>r a while:. ｾ＠ f.ut Arian oountrieo ""<>d OIl' in thiI way ""tilr«:<ntl)\ wh.",.. they """" at .... tn", ho.. quicldy <COI>OI'I\i.e <io:di"" ..... lead to ido:ntity-linkcd ｾＮ＠ Bot /i>r m>1lj\ pm>p<";Iy """,r hai'l"'ncd ., all. WO<1<, """""""i.e ,..,.,.,r>alo threat<n<d """n the ....... ｾｵｯＮ＠ Aspirations .... '" r2iocd, then daahc:d. ......ul.. on < """""""'" of n>O<lo:m nationaliml haY< bo<n """,nltd by "'sm<n" of -x.y ...tUcII .... '" Ilrandc&n in.<Ikc.uals.o ｾ＠ .1>< runI pop..ation mon: "".ively in,o national ooc;'ty, wi,h cducot.,., a key instrumen •. Ib.tral ｾ＠ n:opoodotd with enth......." /i>r cd..cation, but fOund ｾ＠ｷ｡ｮｴｩｾ＠ They found < n.tional;., vision <neon' 1""1'""" lOr ..,.,.. b", not "'beB, di"iding th< C(OWlll)1ido: into &nd "=-n. M u.ch of th< ,ural middle duo, including t<ocl>crs, ..... 'h<ir ... ,;",tion. fI ..... W"tro &nd II>rn bIotl<d. 11M:x r.ilura opened th< door lOr s.onde",'. revoI,. In the ocrugp: that ."wed, rural 1""'1..... ｾ＠ a' w"", by both 5<"""", . nd ,he goyo:,nm<tlt, together <l><ir own civic iluti,u';"'" _ I - u , with managed to otrong tiu to the toWnS .. od cioieo. I, ;, ,h;, rtIOI"e rol><oiYe eM! >Uciety tha, ｾ＠｢ｴＺｾ＠ targeted by ....,.,. natlonolist visOoou from poIitid......... ariI'I! lo>.b. oymbolo.. T1>< political m"i". _ unccru.in, with ioc",ucd rural ir"<&nOOt, '"1"""'. With &II tha, Ioao happo::ncd oinc<, it _ _ OUJ"]>Tiaing tha, ｍｾ＠･ｲ＼ｾ＠ from 'erri,ory th"",gh ideology, it . nti-colonialism, copi"3 ,,;,h ｦｾｮｴ｡ｩｯ＠ grappl<. wi,h ,.hat io "«<nuine Ango>IioUd<." When eI""Iion. produced 'hitt""" political parrio, tho", """'" ,hitt""" views on < I\ll;ocl. While Savimbi ond Ihe UNITA ",bdo <OfX'U'< an .... rtiv<ly AfricaJ1 >=lion (Hcywo<>< ｾｩｯｮｳ＠ in the capi'ol, < pIwnl>itI& of hiolOly .nd myth, ,ho. funding of national .uthon, the .... of ombiguou. and dooblt-cdged tyrnbolo _ N< oinking '\'\.o 'goian Towrr of I'isa' _ &nd abovt: all, th< claim tha, the a"thtn'i.e Ang"!>" m ... " b< • Chri,tian. In Chad, nolionalism ;, >gain.' """t<r It>g<. At in Anguia. 'he", h"" bt:<" . .... noou. ,rr"", from ,Ioe """tel 10 dc ..\op .. ","boo.1 idt "'ity. TombalbaY"·' virion _ f.... baoed on rnodc,niaation, <1><" Tdarn, then -rchaditudc." The ""lu<ntial opponent> fi"OIn ,he hin,erlands abo f"<"Cd nationalist vimns f", the "grande f>mile tdadien".." .. tbcir jwtiftcatiMI (0 goyo:rn. II", analyzing """nOl in Ot:quc!Ke ,how> ,h .. ,he ""tionaIist ,ioio"' ..... x ,.,.. fac'o ,...,ion..Iiz.· ,ion< of quats rot".-..... ol",ady bqun. wi,h <ion •• (Smhl\ '-n«!. win""" u,,,,,,,,, r"tun: ... new &nd not entirely un'"",bIing potrnu.1s. The notional 0.. or Indio '''''''allu form, ,hoogh challcngod by ntJIn<....... local _men'" B", ... hicJ>. .... bon.aliom will ,";umplJ? The ｾ＠ Party .. hid> had ",led ｾ＠ ind<po::oo.I>C< wao r"mly """"",i<ted to <k:vdopo:nmt and a oecubr, ..... r dt:adt:o hod b«n higlily "n<\'Cn. The m<odcmized """ntry. Bu. il> ｩＬＢｉｾ＠ H indu nationaliru .... mbl<d .0. ｾ＠ <:<>ali,ion or < I<n·b<hind IdeoIog'ocal <>pp<lI01ion '0 Wes'ernintion w;u tied '0 • promioc of """""",i.e ttlief Now H ind" natlonolis" haYc &;ti,>ed CGr"roI of _,nmrnt. Their 10<.. ｾ＠ allow. anti·Islamic .",1 OIl><r ,,;,.,&en«: 10 continue .. hi!< ｾｲｯｮｶＬＧ＠ disclaimo <t:spon. ibiJity. By, th< Illp'. io:l<okosY Jimi" its pot,ntial political anJ global <:COnom;' ,.,..lilies f""", th<m to IOIIow p>ths troddrn by ｴＱｾ＠ｾ＠ i\ll ,hex tcnoion. fOrwv.l "'to ,he rot""" /Or " g<M:O"Ring ｾ＠ which iou.. ] ,h., detona'ion of " nucl.., bomb ...... sr<" unifying na tion&! oymbol. ｙｵｾ＠ wao ｗｬｴｾ＠ r«:<ntly a n>O<lo:l or rnodcrnir.ing. in«gnting ""tiooaI;,m, ,.;,10 i.. _ .. phi.e in'egri'Y """ptcd OIl faith up until ,I>< mo"",n' it feU u... _,do. b<gan . . . I«:IHlocrat, on """""""i.e ",fOo:mcr. 8", with < noddtn. dtantatlc failure of ｾｮＧＬ＠ coITrioJ tnrnt:ripto of n.1ion and !""'S"""O' crumbled •• nd hiddrn <>DCI bunt 1Orth. fuliti«ki"ll ourvivaI hi' on othnona<ionalio' th<rneo ..... fallbad, ",inIorotd by fapidly ｾ＠ view> in dilfc",nt ...pons. Europo::." """"II"i<ion or initial dairno to ....,iotuI indcpo::oo.n«: triwmJ • Cltocw. of mobiliDtioono, ｾｹ＠ iIIu ...... ing tha, aoccding- to new .tIl,,;. boundarieo may only ocl colT new W&I"f&n:. T1>< h",ory or G,."..,., pr"<>"id<o.." i .... igh' into ,ho lung dilfocul, proc<a &nd .h. human 000" of roo>tru<:tWm of national itltntity. It _ the role of church, and ...te, in not only f<:nding off rompo::titon, but in otiIling local oIterna· ,;v.,. ll is'oriaAo .... e"""Y muclt. ｾ＠ or thio po:oc .... In Grteoe, it "",..ted. By. when < ｾ＠ proop<rily which had ｾ＠ ""imil.1ion ",,,mblrd, "ol....,...oaccdonianJ" fOund a ",inorily approa<h linked '0 FYROM appealing 11M: ",actioo .... "tOn! &nd delvod deep into the ""'" rooa., with ('..-eek identity procJ..irned from '-ohist to oompo::r >tickct-. M",""""ia i...1f io &J>Oth<r nory, &nd ito nxky rood to national iden'ity ｾ＠ at pn:oen. the ""If of """'""P"po::r lteadii"", . Libtrio tal<a ... in,o all the pnobIcmo of ".tion.l..... built on Africa', c0lonial ｾＮ＠ 101 ""ional elit< is "civiliud" - E.>gIMh-.po::Uing. li ...... « ond rule a ... y frotn Christi:on. At ittrimonial 1I,,,... :rn,,,.n, gt"od"ally ＢＬｾＮ＾＼ｬｯ､＠ ,lit: <;ONt. i. fix<d the CIIltum variotion ;, cn<otJntuci ;"to tribt:s, .nd dt:vt:1· oped." enca....: tun"""y whiclo. did <\01 unify < rountty. T1>< 19700 el'fun. at rnoo:lem, do-triba!i..:<! na1ion·building ht:Id ..... y primarily;" (he capi,ol. Doc'. c<oup cam< from the tribal ....... and on<:< in """"" h< and his ops><>n<n" elf",,· ,;"ly . - theoot: cl<avageo '0 divide anJ ruk.. Yet th< war did not d<otroy the ;nt<TIuhje<1ive "'ruot of Liberian. th .. Libtrio", tbt:y """', al;w;Nt <l><it own .-.: p.o.rtieul .... idcntitia. Ironically, ,he f>e< tha, 10 m:ony b<came emu·borde, rcfugta ",inforcro their Lib<";"" ido:ntity "",n """". <om""""" A.np>tt nationaliom ;, nialiun, ｾ＠ "",n """" po:oI:oI<mati<. DMdcd into tribto by wit>- indcpo::oo.n<:< with no pn:p.o.mio<t, unifocd only by past 18 v....., ｾ＠ｒＮｂｲｩｊｭｾ＠ Som&ii nationali>m WiU chArnpiol><.l by *oclo:n,j/jc -uw,,* Siyad, wt.o invaded FAhiopi> in an irredt:nUst campaign 10 unifY Somal;" Int<TnaII)I bis drivo: 10 m<><Iemize (he nation """'" On .ttack on *",btJiom' by literally W<d their old .tructureo '0 ooI;.tify .. opport oyw.win, clans, <Vrn . . he ｾ＠ｾｲｯ､＠ "'l llk<n encrnia. R..p..c;otu pnodation on "",ieta/ rnotlfCeI by Siyad ond '''''''' who ｾ＠ in IW wUe d<vao ... ted civil ｏ＼ｾ＠ ..,'ling .he otagt fOr ,.orlon1i"" whO:!> ...."ed unr><ciful ol unif)'ing ｶｩｯ［Ｂｾ＠ I'll"", "" ... <Ibu 10 ｾＢ＠ ooc;.i onio:r from the &row>d up, bu. wha, nation may emerge from this is ""'Y mt>dt open 10 qucotion. Pap ... Now C uinu is both oimib.-IO ond diff<r<n' from Somalia. ｉｮ［ＢｾＮ＠ dn.:..i.y the .. had bun DO ... tiona.I ruunti.e, bu, Ioc&I clan ｾ＠ "",ruoi,."j """'!' GM:n lhe ｷ･ｾｫｮ＼Ｚｍ＠ ol goo;<rnrnen. ｾＮｸ［ｮｧ＠ ,he categorical rupport of k")' pby<" in ,he Cold Wv), no dirKt . uppreoo;on of clan ..,tivi,;", WiU poaibIt. But roW Ita.... been joining on:&I tog<.her, a"d new """t> and poosibiI. 1'«<>""""" " rue. (... wl puh.1'" not ye. enough £Uiu",,) ......, Ｎｾ＠ atpiraOOots too- ｾ＠ ChrUtianity and Tul PiI.in, the 5Jtp4ft-. .... bein8 1ocaI8"""P' ....1 used creatMly and oymbOOeally in curlul ""IOI""iono with !r"""rnmeft! '" ""'..... """" civil ｾ＠ .... "'01 by"""ncc. If a m<aJ>ingfi,1 PNG na(ionoJ"", rnt""!"'- i, will "" througft b"amacOotu sud> .. oheoc. 'n th<o< <:ala ond othe.., u..,., is no a.gumen. >.saiNt mod<mization, dNcl. Df"""n', <:duc.ation, no- ""moe...",. ProbI<"" ...ociated with modernization Of poIi,;';,1 ' '1''''';''8' l<"1>Il k' be:ouociated wi,h obrupt chAng<. f""" .rod/no- the.foi/wr<.o deJi....r what waa pr<m'ioed. In the run. '-":vet, tI.:y offer the surt3l safcguardo ogairut intem.oJ viok_ (8rown ond de ｾ＠ OuoJraat 1997; Kaldor 1999; Rummd 1997<)_ II io'l\o< th •• I><W ､･ｾ＠ ond pr= frttdoo-n nuy be uoed I" whip up hatred< (Premd .. 1991. I ..... ｉｾ［＠ Srryde, ond B.Ik"li .... 1991), but nut in..- tnnsitiona to de" ...... ,,,,-'"Ilhcharya 19'-l8· 175-116). Oevo:!oped den ...... .-..:y ｾ＠ .1>< be>I. though not fOOI .... onf, prno«>tiom "!I'i,,.( in ..",.1 ....... (SIltb 2OOOa: 1) ond in ......... w,u, . . """ democ...."'e. nmy if ....... go 10 w;u ｾＮ＠ eadt oth<r (the ｾ､･＠ J><'<"'l (Rusot:u 1990). MOI'W'>'«, !Or """" time the", h.oo bun inc....ing ｾ＠ oon><",," (hat <l<mocr •• ;'; elec.;.""",,, (he only ｾ＠ basio <Ji !q:ilin"" go.<T' nane< (GottliIogie&l ....::uwru. For posted <1tI«r by the dr..m of mo<l<mization. ih<", WiU both • 1000 <Ji f. ith in the ｢＼ｩｧｨｾｹ＠ ,oonsIructed fu'"n:, ｾｮ､Ｎ＠ n«<l too- oem< other vioion to ｾＢ＠ it. 'n..grating f.,,,,,,, ,uch lOS be""""" Jon, older..,.,......, "n<t< "'000 n... bringo lU to etllllicil)< Ethaidty aDd ｣ｵｬｴＬｾ＠ AI Eriben "",.. (1 993: 100), despite "the «rnubbIe oongroct>« ｾｮ＠ thro-rO:. <>l nation&iiom and ｡ｮｬｾ＠ theory <Ji ."'nM:ity .. . the I... , Ixw&s of th<OO)' ha"" latW1y dcY<1opeo1 u.lo:p<ndently of Ｎｾｨ＠ oth<r" (d. Smith 1961, 19631. W"hin ""ade.,,;" . ..,d ,",hropology in plnM:ulo.r, ethnici<y has h<o>me a Oonzale>. and vinuaJ irod",(,), (AIOO 1m; All><nda 1997; Cohen ＱｾＷＸ［＠ ""'....boI of iii< """ 19 V"""". McCommon 1989, 1l&U .. oJ. 1996; 1990; Wtlliam. 1989). The", .,.. ..,......, ,\iITe""",'" in the tha, lerm. "'" uoed_ 10 the ＮｾｨＭｓ＠ Afl'k. li,eral"'" (e_!, V:t.iI 1969), for instonc<, "trib<" io ",,''''nonly .-d !Or who. r would caU "ethnie. - AI I US< the 'n".., "ethnie" ..ren '0 • """"'" """" at<: pel'CriY<d by thanocI..... Of other> ... I><ing <WIIIttoIIJ distinctiw - who ...., ........ hying 0 dntinctM: ".y of life or not tItcy havo: any political otganizo. tion ... puotp (oe<: Erikocn 199]; 10-1"1). A .ril><, in ron,,,,,,, is a ｾ＠ _ . (oe<: ｆ･ｾ＠ 1997; Fri.ed pOOtic&I<><ganiu-tion un,,;n8 t1iffi:r<n, Ioc.oI 1975; Ib... 1990: 172; South.aJ1 1970)_ Ethn;';' may enoompuo ''"c. many, 0' n" triboo, trib<o may anWpmate [><OllIe from """" ""'" OI. . . ."oie _ lI. ｟ｩｾＢＧ＠ rdationohip not unlilo thlOl of nation ond .ta... A ,da.ed I<nJt ;, clan, d;";" .ion in lI. wido::r and multifoccted 'Y'.. m of otpnizotion, bO>ed On """"ructed """",,.,, wtUch em "'" . . . Imis !Or pol;hul cohaion at di/k-renl, level of don n>OO'e-Of> .... incl"';"" levelo of "'1I"hiution_ If "". f.uty ｾ＠ ""l!""intion ｉＧ＼ｾ＠ acts . . . political unil, thio may be ealled • tribe. "T"heomicolt)l front ,he -m: of the ｾｴ＠ thirty y<1H thcn: has eme'8<d • widely """"!"ed oynlilm - with plenty of ",,,,,';ning, of rou"',, - ol th ... buic vi<w:o d <tltnicity (Curr 1993: ＳＭｾ［＠ Smith 1983 : Ｂｶｩｾ＠ Tombi..h 1996: 21; Tunon 1997b: &-1 . ; Younl 1993b; 23-25): (I) ethn;'" are oocially con""""",I, 'I><ir ､･ｦｩｮｾ＠ cltor1oc1erioliD .. ,d !toundaria a [>«>d .... of dialec.io:a1 in'e.-..cuoru "i.h othc .. I"conotn>ClionIol'1; ("l) ethn;'; identity io uoed ulW\lm<nta1ly; ob<ain poIitic&i and m ..ｾｲｩ｡Ｑ＠ odo.-antagc. in romp«i.iYfo or confficted .ilUabono ("iru<rum<nlalistl; ond (3) ethIDc identity an be a powerful ｰ＼Ｉ､ｴｾ＠ f..:tor Ｌｾ＠ off«ting pcn:q><iono ｾｲｯ､＠ octiono in ｛＾ｏｾｴｩ｣Ｆ＠ .trugpc., bc)<:tod imI",meno.&l ｾｴ｡ｧ｣＠ I"prim<m:lialistl. Tho: Icrm prim<:w<lialist has """ m<aningo, which mus, I>< clarifoai. i\:o dten ."plied to.-.:cen' corill;';", i. it . oI'orlhand ....y of >:lying Ｂｾｮ｣ｩｯＺＬ＠ loy&Irico orod ... ,irnooitieo," thc idea that cu ..... nl f,gftIO ｾ＠ con,inuatlon. of • grodge goin8 bo.<k cenN'''' (e.!-, Koplan 1993; no- 0 -'*'" r... Tonti headline ｾ＠ from 2. 1>-10,<:1, 1999: "i\ncie". hatr<do, I><W b,o,\l<'l. The other "",oning. as ｾ＠ｾ＠ by ｾ＠ (1963: 109; ond "'" SUck 1986). .. fe .. to IUCribed iden<itico wi.h a powerful emotional hold. 111< opeJ'll.ti", word io not "ooc;",o'," but "sivo:ns." It io the or;p.w meaning which can be oynthe· oUed with OOIUb"Uctioniot ond irutrum<n.aliot . pproacbe. 10 Wuti.cil)< Who' I will ",fer thc "&J>Cientanimosity'" penp<ctiv< conb"odic" them - ethnicity is ... COOIlruct«i bu. onc.i<:n(, Ih< oon!li<. is ""' oboot political and ooonomic ｩｮｾ＠ but .boot identity bdon: &U ｾＢＮ＠ Althoogft the .",,;"'n, onimooity !M:. Oft in popular dioc..woru, i. h.. bccn ..;dely considered ond uniformly r<j«:Ied (A)I>Ob 1996: 4!1; Brown 1997:]-01; Comaro/T 1995: 2+7- 24!1; Hamburg .. 01. 1999), ... i. is in ,hi. volume.' In this ｣ｵｲｾｉ＠ｏＩＢＧｾ＠ ethnic iden.;r",IOIion is ""yoking 1:00." natUn.l. E(nn;" .... not tim<1<so, unchanging IOCW ｾｰｯ＠ - &ithoogft i, io importon, to note ,n .. their boondedncoo, fIxity a' birth, and oalicna: V2rieo ｧｲ＼Ｎｾｹ＠ from ';,uaDon '0 sin... ion (8<U·F"llIlkoff 1996: 00). "They.", inherently ..la'ioo.aJ, the produc' d his.oricalIy n"" .... 'in8 "dillogu<o" wi.h peopI< who "'" "'" of .h.... hnic - ,..y """""'1' rwPO JOCw ,,"< ...-gu"""" '0 ",.ten "bou, '0 .. ＧＭｾｈｩ＠ 1:;:: C t'I Ｍｾ｛ｲ［Ｎ＠ｾＺｬｩｊ＠ＢｩｾｬＡＬｴｲ＠ i"!.H-i! s eta ,fa ｮｬＡｾｩＧ＠ｾＭＡ＠ - [ .. ｾ＠ ''''fHLl 5ｾ＠ｾ＠ｾﾷｴＺ 'U ＠ＵｾＢＺｩ＠ '-HHUl ｾＺ＠ .. ＭｾＧｐＮﾷｦｾＮｩｬ nt' Ｚｦ＠ "fI. hI""!' fi P' Ｚｾｳ＠ｾＧｩ＠ｾ＠［ｗｾＺｨｬＮｈＤＧ＠ to :Ip r ＢＤｾｰｾｦ［ｪＬ＠ ,.<; ＮｾＺ＠ .1.1 .. ll'3 lb !jl:!'"t,J .l'HjqtmHl$j I: . S ｾｲＵ＠ , 'J,' ｛ｮＡｉｾ｝＠ rim ! q :!"i'Pt!"t tt 1· ,gIJI!:li:[lrJll: ｾ［ｴＺｩｦｊ＠ iii 11:'-,.1" f'J Illl " ｴＮｾ＠ｾＮｩｬｻﾷ＠ ! ｾｗｈｨｊ＠Ｍ［ｾＮＬＱＢ＠ﾷｾＢＡｬｩｦｈｾｨＱｩｍＡ＠Ｎ＠ lr 11. ｉｬｦＡｲｊＱｩ［ＺｴｾＬﾷ＠ ! •• ＭｩＡＮｬｾ＠ --ｾｩＭ ;,roＧＱﾷ r.ｾＮＧｬＢＡｾＺ｝ＮｴＲｧｾ＠ ' ! '-'.ＺＺＧｲＮ＠ｉＧＢｾ＠ＧＧｩｬｾ＠ｾＧＳ＠ Jfl ｾ＠ ..t If<,,·'h i - ｾ＠ｴｬｾ＠ I ＧｕｾｲｦＮｩ＠ -llS'·i,I;,,! ｉＡＮｾﾷ＠ＧｾｲＡ＠ＧＡｊｲｩｈｬｨ｢ｾ＠ lip p" .iilln ＧｲｬｾＢｉﾷ＠ｨＧ ; ... p •• ＡＺｾﾷ［ｊｩｲｬｦＬＧｉｴＢ｛＠ｾＡ＠ｾ＠ i I it ｾＮ＠ 1hl"i1h!! ｗｾ＠ＮＡＮｾ＠ Jrlmi .H1 n t<r 5 iii IH;! ｾｴｬ＠ｾ､ｩｈＱＧ＠ｾｽﾣＮｲｩｬｦｧ＠ｗｲｾｬＡｦ＠ 's J." !.. . ｾＧｈ＠ＢｦＡｨｾｆ［ｴｊｬｲ＠Ｑｨｴｾ＠ｾｆＢｨ＠､ｈｾｩ［ｲｬｮＧ＠ｾ＠ｾ＠ HPf"rUmiwHf J ［Ｇｾ［ﾷＺＢｬｉ｟ｾ［ｩ｟ｌ＠ .. E!!!r'Jr.a. 1 r .ｾｓＧｴＮ［ＺｬＢｩＬ＠ sr L5_ t 1 .11. HHWHW,.1"tHjlmHWiHt ! r , !d.t".h ｟ＺｩｲＧＮ｣ｾｈｲｌ［＠ •• " 22 ｒＮ｡Ｍｾ＠ V".... ｾ｟ＭＮｬＢｉｖＧ Beyo .. d "ethnic ｶｩｯｬｾ｣ＮＬＢ＠ coercivt. po:rnm<:nt • ..00 _ Ha....., -...cd tho ｾ＠ :md ｾ＠ of .lhni<iry :md "*",,,,,, in ｾｴﾷ＠ ocaI ouuaJe, it • """" imp=oti-.: to ｾ＠ tho idea that conmnponry ｾ＠ can be eo.pIaoncd .. "et.hrUo: -.fIicl." W1.iIc many eminent ICIJdo:ms of tb< ....,..,. .... t.he ....,...! "ethnic" to apply to al_ any p-oup irnapnaI to t-. • ＱＹＸｾＺ＠ H. M.» t.ury.I.rowia, in th • ＮＬｾ＠ in my common orisin (... Ａｾ＠ opirMon, indio<;rirnirw. application of that label to "",nlet oit ... liono iMpo:o:l<> "'" u"""""rwIins- ""The ...ry phr»< 'nhnic: conni<t' m;.,;.oo.. .... It hao bea>me a lhonhand ..,..,. to abotJt any :md 011 violent conl"ro4lt.atioru bttwe<n rouP" of poop .. I;"';"!!;" the .."", C\>Yntry" (Bow.:n 1996; 3; .nd "" ope"" Brubakrr and u.i ton 1998: ......5) ..... Ga n ...1 (1997: 123, 136 - I:J.Il) ""''''' it .. anaJogJ.., '" ｾＧＢ＠ o:onc<pt ''proxy w..... " which muddied 0<1' under"""ding of colIoctiYo .ioI<nce in pr<Viou. d<c.dn In bil ,u"-C)' ol u,ttfnaJ wan (rom ＱｾＵ＠ to 1992, ... ry bcpn in ethnic ｲｯｮｦｾｴｩｭ＠ (,he R_t>d>.n 8=OCide is Ｐｉｬｃｾ＠ 'l""'8h many took on ethni<; thq J>I"OIraoed. MomM:T, the put m¥ri<Y cI: ethni<.aJIy ooi<nled mnIlO:tO "';,hin .....,.. """" ..... \cd to .....""" (UdIide, 1998; 126). A r-dat..! idr.. dw ctoItunI ｾｮｯ･＠ i!><lf g;.... ... to violent con/llct, olt'-gb it <bot ｾ＠ <mSmoo u, hip.poIicy em.. (H....unpo. ＱＹＳｾＮｾ＠｢ｹ＾ｄｭ｡ｮｹｾ＼Ｚｩｗｰｬ｣＠ I)"IDbi01;' t(IOl<iounoe ..... it • hard to _ how ...,..... a>UId .....,... io.. "Then: ;, no nccaIOt")' connection ｾ＠ actual cuIturaJ diwniry and vioItnt eo<tf&a. lteurosc ....... p«>pks get aIoag wdl, and ...uty identical p«>pI<s an be rivett by fattional (lIow<n 199Ii: 11I-1'1). Even ca.m.. ri>oWs lend 10 apply .... Lobel "<lhni< connict" ""'"' '{id<1y Ikon ｾ＠ ItriotIy ............. Ied. Erilutn (1993: 2) wri, .. tltat "moot" III .... thirty-1M maio< """nictl in ,he ,.".-Ld in 1991 'could ｉＢＧｴＮ､ｾｹ＠ be deocribcd .. ethnie COItn ... u," including ..-i.oIc:nc. in Narthern b eland. I" 0 ma..ivt current otudy of II ... ｡ｦｾｵ＠ .... ini'iated at the "'I.... t of V.:e·l'rflidcn' ｾ＠ and Soc .. wy of 51>. .. AIIbrigh', "cthni.c .......""'" on< III tQur <:ate"'"" of intra· .... Ie oiolc:_, oc:roun,i"ll fifty...,i ... of 23.1 inuances b<_n ＱＹｾ＠ &nd 1996, includ;,\! '\OoIcn, contention among clan-ba..d ...... rton\o., in (Gun- " iii.. n.d .. ＺｉＭｾｾ＠ G\UT and h .. ooIIeap<s e<rtainly ,he .-.riabIc, cort¥i. catcd, and ｾ＠ｾ＠ of idrntif....... ..,..-!tich ......""" (CUrT 1993).,.. ｾＮＭ､Ｂｮ］ｬ＠ "' .. MoommunaIg""'t-" '" minorit .... Pc.1t.apo Gur, "iii.. bod; 10 ".u...ic" in ｾ＠ ""'" t.he t<h Iin>iud ＬＢ｢ｯｾｬｲｹ＠ .nd an atrandy mmplicoled f"1I2lil)l. " ptoblell' with ",hidt this .... hot- io ""'1' oympiIthctX:. People "'-" ..tw ..h";'; t:o:>nIli<;t .....ano.. BtM """ ｾ＠ｾ＠ｾ＠ ... .mou./)' millradi.\s ﾷｆｾｨｮｩ｣Ｂ＠ io a mul.r..oc.Jic '.J"'dool, ........ing <6II"o",nt thi"" '0 diirc=, peoplc, and Ｎｾｰｲ･ｯｩｮ｣＠ and .11CIllnf! """'I! KUtiona. 'This ｮＬＮｾ＠ 1t perf«t b political diocouroe" ｾＱ｜ｬｕ＠ where ｰｯｉｩ｣ｹＢｾＮ＠ｾ＠ It.ao ,alIcn on ... Ａｾ＠ ,,..,.,., like the old '"tribaliYn- wi,h whiclt i, io in'..-ch""II"d. " It oonju"," ul' the itIc. of ﾷｾｯ｣ｩｮＧ＠ Ioyaltie• • nd ""moo"",,". The imago that viol.nt re... dime....,.., .. ...w _"ned ro. Somal" """"nwld --= r..u m...... "''-"<n our -.tI, •..- c.,.,n"1 bubbleo up (rom on,,, tt.< p">pIc ,10,,,,,0::1...,. <>n<:C cen tral ...u a'ning power It....... kern:d io perruao '...... It .pito",i"" the HOObetian myth·<I.. t1., juO\,rY;"g ..,..,.... _ _ _ , ... ｾ＠ｾ＠ｾ＠｟＠ 23 " . map:! ror ｾ＠ dloocmNtcd pop-ocioona: of • .......... P arnifJI _-&rouP cruniry'" tMbD<t 1998; ＮＧＳ［ｾ＠ .. and Wmr 1981). "The bbdan'" a _y of objr.c. ..00 ｾ＠ ochen, on _ I70r -inc one" It.a...ts of tho: m.U",". C.....J "" ...... owdi<d applico<ion of "ethnic oonIlia" may actually doat mindtt and m;oh " ........ dilfocult 10 undcnrand wIt.at io .. oily .... on. ｾ＠ need to mIIin1< "nhnic: ronfli.ct. • .... V. !"c1J'lO<'l' =nindtt '" in thio \OOIu ....., then: an: " If'"<Ot tn&DY baoeo of political identity bmation, and the ana.lyli< tuk ;, to understand why ccna ... 0 " •• ....",,'" saI;'nt lot a ｾ＠ moment (_ abo Ilcll· • .aJkoIf 1996. ＱＫＭＰＶｾ＠ no. calC. _n'e<! here ' ''Wit' oc' III ""riab/a which in diff"",n' tifrirts cotnhinotion. , truc'u,c "rugg'" alon, idttltity linc,. 1"hcx indude cul'ural cthni.ciry. bu, abo dioti"cbono b..o:J on ｾｨｩ＼［＠ rciPon, rural 1;"';ng. daoo 0< cute pooition. raoo, ｾＬ＠ rdipon. tribe, dan. C<n<ranon, :and c<nder. Not all ar _n _ on: illYOM!d in any p..n cue, lot ...... d<",ib<>d .. !hac cltapo<." bu, 10m<. wnobiruotion of ｾ［Ｌ＠ cvidet>t ........yo. ·fltio accrion diocouoa IUd> rompoIIIOuo ｾ＠ 'W)' ｾ＠ ill culQn, and hiuoric.uy th<y ｾ＠ Iarhd . . ._ of COI'._ ...... iry, but .... Q.o<d> ... becMnt:...... ｾＭＮ at ..... ill .....'l"" of _ - 1flrou8h a mmmon hiot.ooy of OW' ••. Since ....... !ottn _ _ who " - dono .... OW""Ij!, thiocan aIoo ........ ." • ->aJ divide.. Sino. ...... beint oqu<ncd u.. tcndctl '" be p<:AIIln" and ap;.:..ttw:>.l laI:o:nrl, (bt<:dt ... identity It.ao • major eta. .nd runJ durac.... - in<Iccd .... inourFnta' ..... t<gy ...... to otnnp: ,he citia. S<nd<ro Utminooo 0...... """"'8 • rru"rncd rural middle d .... with opccw opp<:aI to ""- """""n who ...... odditionally ronruain«! by "",,,,,ntional ",ndci ..!.at ....... It ...w itself ... vanguord 1.",ling ｾＬＮ＠ .nd had 10m•• """ ... '" ""'ruitin, the <COOOmoppooition by ",ally diopoueoo<d; but =ntually it ereat..! .... n man: ｩｮ､ｾ＠ I" .... iom, ita vioIatioo> of tun! not"mo of ｾｴｕ＠ ... and t:q...wl)l. &nd ;,. '.rrnr. ThrouSh tJr.io ｣ｯｮｉｬｩｾ＠ .... Ｂｴ･Ｍ｣ｮｯｵｾ＠ Cl<1reInc1y un·indigc""", runJ d,," ddt.... """,,un:, by hrinPtIt: to(Cthcr b:al ......... and ｾ＠ common ｾ＠ tOa;onu""" f""I>bru, may have conlribut..! 10 !he ｾＮ＠ of • ..... pan-Qo:d>,.. ...... of nhnic: idrntioy. In Ind... .... _ .-mta.- danm.. <""ub;".d in vtty diffci"ftlt _yo. MHlnduova," "" Hindoo-...... an •••• 'S. I"....., ..... i<h D""".... poIioical ...... into .....,... """'- I, io _ ... much mouero 01 faith dw arc ｾｴ＠ ...... bt" COInpeting vioiQn of culton. Hindu Ii.tD<WnomWism .. ........,.m asairut • P'<rnrnen\ which It.ao .nshrined ...:War admmWacion. "The ｾ＠ caJl _ I n frum t.he <;u... I" ..... rd. io kiQ< .,....1< ... Hinduo left behlJld by modernlZ>bOn and \hrra'cn<d by dainu of """",n and _ of low .,..,... Bu' ,he ..... divtn.1y ｯｮｉ｣ｾ＠ wml.d 'hey •• ...;.;00 appeal. 10 m....,. - high and low, ",ral .nd ｵＮｴｾ＠ - ..-!to justly r••1victimizo:J by Ｎｾ＠ " Pwr )'01"'8 ""'" wi,1I 00 f"t"", arc CJf>Kially .",o«..! '0 thi. o.Il.,,,,,,i ... , . m! I"""ki< much of the m.... k u,.d og ... "" the ,""",,,.tnt·, ｃＧｉｾＮ＠ Hindu,,,,, al", . ppeol, to ｈｾｒｬＢＮ＠ ""toc-r • ｾｈｬｩｆ＠ＮＡｩＡｾ＠ • ＭＧｴＭＢｾＧｾｬ＠ﾷＺＡｴｬｾｩｪﾷﾷＧｉｾｩｲＮｬ＠ＧｉｴﾷｲｴＭＧｉｾＡｬＡＱｾＬＺｴｬｦ＠ＬｴｾＧ＠ＮＬｉＧＡｩｾ［ｦｬ＠ o[_1_- " ｾ＠ - _ - , ,. c .•ｪｾｬＧｲｦＡ＠ '_-.II!<,.- Ｇｬｾｲ＠ｌｨｾＢ＠ＬｾＡＮ＠ ! ＢＧｈｴｾＭＡｬｊｪｉｦｩ＠ -··-il-.·'-.ＭｈﾷＡＧＢ＠ - ｾＮ＠ i' i Ｎ＠ＡｊｬｦＮｲｾ＠ｴﾷｾＡＱ＠ !!!rlllll!f!l. ｊｬｴｩＡｾ＠ｾＧｲｩｬｦ＠ f . -1'<[ tl · it -I ＭＡｲＭＧ｛ｾｉ＠ＱｾＧ［Ａｊｲ｛ﾷＢ｟ｉＮＧｾＺｨｦｲＮ＠ t-tl"-- , ｾｅＺ＠ - I. !I .. _ ｊｩｾｃｾ＠Ｍ - Ｎ＠ K.,j - fi!ftlltilitit II! (lftllllll)I!1 lit ｴｬｾｩＡＱ＠ - Iflz!ttlIJJflftlolll!J,;[ni!f]J-tjrtfllt,itllll ｬｩＭｾＢ＠ [1 ＧｬＬｾﾭＭｧＭＡＧｾ＠Ｍｾｬ＠Ｇｾｈﾷｦ｛Ｂ＠ l"' ｾｐＮＡｴ＠ H, t,-li!:l -. ii-I 1 '. ' fz: •__ ｾＮｲｬ＠｛［ｦ｝ｾｪｬｲｩ .II 'fill ｈＧｾｬｲｨ＠ - ",'lib ,dnll ｾｈ＠ｲＬｲｾＮＡｩｬｴＧｊ［ｉＨＱ＠ＮｩＺｴｬｨｾｈｦＱＬｰｲ＠ !l·t ＱＡｈｩｮｦＺｴｾｨｕ＠ rid Ｌｩｾｈｭ［ＧＱ＠ｗｾ＼Ａｩｨｴ＠Ｑｱｎ r) i' ·rl1f ｩｾＡｉｬ＠ｊｾｈＧｴ＠ｬｩＡｾｪｕ＠ｗＡｩｾｨ＠ H ｬｾ r ｾ＠ it l" i t I [ .ltl {f ;"fH'!I-!PP ---<--- > •• im ＡＧｦｾ＠ i! 'l hi rfi ＱｾＡｉ［ｲｬＺｩｴ＠ i ｉＧｾ＠ＡｲｾＧｈﾷｬ＠ h! ｾ＠ J ｦｬ＾ｴｨｾｮ＠ｾｩｨ＠ fl ｴｩｬｾｦ＠ＭＡｨｦｾ＠ fnnl: HHrt ｩｾｴＡ＠ｩ｛ｾ＠ f l H· i ｾｈｉ＠ " 26 ｒＮｉｬｍＱｴｾ＠ Gu;"" •• "ne octually do<. im<>I"" dan .. ""'" and in<titutioru, moot notably the unction of viookncc fur fo.iluf"C to 1M: up to clan obligation., !;..,t ....;0, vay "" ... ekm<n" IUld incq...Jitic. mix«l in. Ne ... ｾｮｩ｣＠ tfuparitico bt:\wo:rn ;ndivid. u;w IUld reg;.:." re.ult in ell"ort. to extract ""oJth through """'p<"' ation I"'yrnrn'" lbcking candi<ht'" fur ;.!;md cIectio<>o ent. iII ""'" anirnooitic, and coots. (At our meetings, Stn.thcrn ,kocribcd • practice ol <r><mics <l<mandh'8 0J>I>0I>rn" ......... homicide comp<n<at;"',.) n.: <>thor kind ol viookncc .. crim. inal, """""iatN! with •• .... kol.,'· u. tiaIIy )<>Un! m"n who op<tatc oot>idc clan institution<, but ,.... oft"n C<>nnccted with w.;ncOlmrn or poi;.;"ia"" In hoIh thr.!c and other kind! ol '-'olen«; """' .. that i",-","ving .... ult """'I)' a.- "I..,. ｴｩｯｮｾ＠ _ n ;vc ofI.cn the vkti",• . Although d", aulhon in tluo voIu"", were Ji""n no ch«I.1'" of .opics to """", g<:""ralizatioru rtiIJ emerge. All the eonfiic" <kJcribcd i" thio volume loa"" • otmna rpoti.ol dime""", invol.u'S lOIn< ｣＼ｾｮ｢ｩ｡ｴｯ＠ of ｾ［ＮＬ＠ >n and pooit;"n in the rural- u.-ban continuum. N.tion.>J", and oth., identities, along with criticalll""",,,,,,,,nlal <kcit.;"..., <mana" from ""nttol cities, "']><"cially Ｂｰｾ＠ tob ("'" U.rhot 1991: 376, 3Il5) to n>«t <O\Ultcr-natio.naliorn. and identif... .."" til . , d .... U in "" ｾ＠ from the hinterllUlds. Lo< .. ion ';'">1<"1 p.opJe in f"C1a,ion to «oIog)I, """',,,,.,., production regim ••• nd m.rl<cts. and pbc<:. thern in the h;",a rdty of con,«>4 'hot flo,.. from citie. '0 towru to ｾ＠ and o;ountryoide. Wh"", F}'<>Pk Ii"" in moo' .,."" tkteTmine< ""'" ""'r mHe • living, how _D thoy liv<, and how ""'r ",lat. ,,, wh..o.""", io being """ta'N!. . Inte' ..... '" funhe, >p«ifocd hy btmd oocUJ divioioo ... SOCW cI..., "'I,..;,. lIy middle·d.... " ",u., mapa political aU.p,w::<: in """,tal c..... o.h« major ｾｩ｣ｯ＠ an: elit", ...... iated ,..;.h the ...."" food prodcocero (.... " .. =ryor>< .Ioc), and _ "'Iump<n"' elen,."l of tho>< "';th little I>roof>«' of p<"""",nl employment "'00 ,.... ea sily fCC", i",,1 fa.- violence." C ..... a nd "'"""," outline import."t ｾ｡Ｑ＼Ｋ＠ gorieo "';,h claoo <",,,,1.0,;"',., ｾｴ＠ 'he >am< lim< bringing in major 01 oocw ideo>(it}< MOl"< !!<""raIi)\ th""'8oout the c.... tMI"< io a roug!< divioi<on betwe<o thooc b<""ftting and thO>< .ulfi:ring from the lIat ... 'ItlO. and thio in i"'n "'flee" people'. connc<tiom '0 .h""" in pow<r. fbii,;"al ｲｾｴ｣＠ • • nd thoo< woo seck to .<pI... th.", IyJ,ica1ly attempt to cre .. " • coaIi,i<on of ,uppo<tcn that """""" cI ... lin.L G.nde,. ｾｮ｣ｴｩｯＬ＠ and age .... p.imuy identiti<s ,,·hi<h ,,,..,ogly m.pe one', li""d cxp<nrno:e, im"", ... and ｰ＼ＢＬ｣ｴ［ｮｾ＠ Armieo .nd _n'o ｾｮＢ＠ >.fOUnd the woold "'" only the m<o<\ vioib!e .xp,.,.';"n, of th<oe ordering princi_ pia. Educ:o.,N! WOfJ><n of rural Pc", . •• iocd • linle <><oIy to be OOotruct<d and "'p",..ed, gav< "'"nsth to s..ndem I...""ino..,. I'.bewher<:, wom<n .r<: >pe<w targ<" of violet... . polarized vioknce uflWrl.n.ing!y will """ ..... helm agendas of wom<n'. ri!{it'" (_ Wa, .. " WOO: 22H- 229). Mot<:: commonly, poor ＢｾＸ＠ men. pow<n. .. ...-.d oom<,irnc. Ｇｾｉ＠ by both """""" .00 eklcTo, h_", wn lh,,,,, ,non:: e...ily .urne<1 to vXiIo"" •. Thio has emo::rg<d" one of th< gn::.t rommotulitico ol "",,,nt """fl;.;u - r"mg mo" "';!hoot prospect>, ...... tN! from rquIar poIi.ico., a", I"Cgularly "",,,,i,«l and launched by ,he pow<n ," wh.n ther< io dirty "U,k to be (Abdullah ＱＹＸｾ＠ Enloe 1998; TambUlt 1996: I 7). ca."" mati"" .,,<1 do". IU Collie, (2000: 9-4), .n eoonomiot, poin" out, W: """"'.. of • n:beUion depend! in pan 00 W: COO< of at<neting """,it>, and un<d"",,'N!, )<>Ung m<n "';th no other incom" opport"nitic., <h<ap. " ..... ""rr ..... U_ited m ... orpnization. Fk>tiblc and Religioo .",1 Ｂｾｧ＠ .bIe to <n<ornp ... p«>pI< who differ in many oth<, ..... ys, both ｾ＠ • ha,ic upcct of p<roonal identity whldt can hooIo: up ,..;th ""'<turin« pan ....".... ol i"t< ..Ｌｾ＠ｉｾ＠ cthrucity•• <e<ognizcd common language io "'" a Jiv<n, .. exr:m· plifoed by the ide<oIosi<aI b",akup of Serbo-Croatian into r"ur puta'ively dilline, langlaageo in the 19900 (liudoon 2000). Religion, .00 oom. tirnet lango' g<:, can be an impooitio<t of urban """"'" 00 hin t.rland&. ｉｾｧｵ｡＼ＺＬ＠ .nd JOm<time, religion, cazt be l'qIiooul, ｾｮ､＠ til ... integral to cthn;" identil)< Ethnic iden'ity itorlf typically cryuallize' in urb1n in"'eactionI, and then in ""'" way'" annthe, ;, applied to rulructw"< the coun.1)' (_ IWo< ＱＹＦｾ＠ Th;, -'al and symbolic ｾｹ＠ ;. only panWIy aligned "';,h, .00 """<tint<> i" ｾｴｩｯｮ＠ '0, ｾｲｯｵｮ､Ｎ＼＠ oocial ",aJjoy. Th;, ""'.... a big poI<otial fur all..,,.. of probl.mo - if ",m<One io Iooki"41 to rid aUght. Whc", routine int«a<tion ,..;tIl the land, the """,hbon'" the " '" h .. !Ii""n rUe to bounded dan. 0< tribe., th.", confer an though highly malleable buio for immcdio", political identity, a nd • ＼｣ｯ､ｹＭｾ＠ otg.nintion, '" do no doubt • hoot of mo«: modt:Tn IoeaI .... i.1 """:t"n,, ... hich. .... Ie.. likoly to I"CO<M anthrop<>lopcal not;c.:.l' It io impotWtt "'" to r<ift .ny of the analytical ca•• gorico u.sed in thi> . ion. They morph ink> e""h Othe', .. clan bee"""" tribe, .. r<ligion b<<;Otn<O ctlutic identif>C>.lion becomto ""fOI'< in • "'ginn, <te. E.ndIe.o """,bin.1ions """", and go, all ,..;th endlcs! variation> in thei, -'al """truction b)" .,;rive political >g<:n", eaeh "';th distinctive implications 1« poIi'ical octi<m. It ;, oj", impon.nt to think aboo. ""'" th,,'" categOric' .ppIy '0 ｩｮ､ﾱｶｩｵ｡ｬＢＧＧｾ＠ Ethnic identil)l important i. may be in .,;....n ,;t .... tion, io only """ dimension. Individual . .. do:tcribed in .hio vol"",,, h.a"" multi-dim<rWonaI, compound oocial identitica. f\ p<,oon ;, not ju" • ,,,,,robe. of a p&rt;.,ular etlmicil)l but an indio •• occul"'oon, ",Iigion, "tc. vidual of >p<ciIic gende,. 'g<:. ｾｩ､･ｮ｣＠ Each dimension of • ]>Croon', pooi.ion in _;coy can affec. their pra.ctical in",..,.", the w.y ""'r in""pret the world .round them. and the symbol. they ro::opond to, .. w<U·d<.o<;ribed in .. la,ion '0 Afghanisuo .. by c.,,,f,,,1d (1986, 19118)." In m""y cueo, ... hat io in"'<cot and "hal io ,df-identity may be<:orne a 1",...J y ae"""mic ､ｩｳｴｾｬｃｲｯｮＮ＠ I""'=t and identity an "'" ..,panb/e, but f"",d, .nd .ny un ""'" on identity """ftOIl<>. IVben KientilY io im-uIvo::<I, is.uct will ｡ｬｷｾＩＧＤ＠ be .bout more than in""."., ,;,... one',..,llk of ..If openo the door '0 bc-,<md mat<riaI conce",o. A ouc« .. f" i piteh !Or mobil.iu.tion will pl>.y to exm;"4I ",,,,,,rial ｉｾ＠ . nd d,,...ten ' . ngil>le putl"hmcnt fur ,ecaJci. 'ranc', but it io "'uch m<lf"C c<><npclling if it becom", • matter of identi,.". The Kientitics invoI...ro, """"""r. . ... anythUl! bu • • imple and unifurm. A growing puli,iu) IOr<J: wilT not be COfUt"'ctW upon ctltnicity or .ny oth .. • iogl< raetoo"_ It will bring "'K".he, an ini'i.ally am" ,pOou' and ..!,ifiing <.<>mtella_ tion of ",mpound identit;" .00 intero::>to. r .,. rro'" .. ,wcitating 10m<:: :one;'n, "",i.1 roIkctivity"';!h a nc;<nt &nimooi,,,, _ howe....r mtJ<:h those .ymbol. may «<n. '0 dioc,,,- howe"", .ue 1'':'''''''''' ,«.. _trOI of tAt S14" JIi%otI ｾＬ＠ II. n.;". " " _ 28 29 - ,be ..... io:ion wt.ld< I"'" in", poIiticrJ combo, ;, illdf _. and rapondir\l dirutly '" iwut.o '" h< ... and...- H_ <;an .......... '" ouch a <hin&? If " ... bDie" io mioleadin&. io any ",her <em< _ ｾＱ＠ Non< """ I know. Thus I ...,..]d . . . . . . coinins a _ ' ...... : --......... An - . . , . . . , ioan ad hoc .o.molpmation 01 di/kt-tn' !Undo 01 in .. &Mn IUoooricaI and politico! _ion, ........ "'FIhe. "'.,....... ..... ,..,_ maw:riaI and ..,....tx6: pin. An _ _ . . . io ono: in ..... im .. 10_ on< oud> """" ｾ＠ ....... n pu«i..... ....,u".,. JUeh IfO"P oaicI '" poo< 0 ｾ＠ thrut. Thio ,am ..... id........................... he. 6a rq><OI<dy """"" in thio """'- """ coIIoctM """"""" io WIlh 0 do ,I ＬＮＢｾ＼｡ｉ＠ hiotor,; f\Ui<aI which ...... tailo with inn......,,,,, .orl;', thooria flO ,thni.< confliot Ｈｈｾ＠ 198.5: 119-180). Bu. NOh f,or;" Iw<Iy o.. ,,,,,,"u.: 01( uni¥<nol (_ .... .u.ruc """,po ｾ＠ to ... ,.. (Brubake. ond l..aiIin 19911: 17)), and pn>mo<ion of ,och floor io """ 01 the boor. dou.>men'ed ..... lOr ,tim;" ｾ＠ (K.oufman Still, ｾ＠ lMd otp<,;""", ｾ＠ｾ＠ and relentleoo 1997, ＱＶＷＭＱＷｾ＠ .,..,....,..... lead peopIo .. the ｾ＠ rootI 10 conclude Ihal old ... thoritia will "'" pro"'!CI .bern, and ..... ,,01'1<"''''''' t.... ,,,PiI i..... them in the pOI! may be doinc ;, opin ooon, """' will be • """"& lendeney to r..tl bad into local ..........u - flO kinohip. ｾ＠ｾ＠ foaioo>,..a. ,,,," - _ I " «ady who oed! 10 ""'aIe • """"""" wi! "'"'*">CI 0 .......... !hoi _01110 the .. , ....... and idl:n'''''' of ､ｩｬｦ･ｾ＠ lindo 0( """"*,, and "f'I'<2Io ... <"",h IICnOOI in diflKeno "'" 0I:II\V'k'" -1'- -r- ... ho "'or the call .... Iikdy '" ｾ＠ｾ＠ ......... 10 ........... the _ _ ploy> to Ihcir toOal, ｾ＠ of .<If and Jdf·inl ...... and ....... potmli.ol .Iion io ........ _ ..-ilh who 'hey ...... s.o...., wiI ........,.. &.,n, the tidelines, _ will """ to the COR, ...... will ...;.a ,he ......... IU ｗｵｾ＠ ..... pha&auo. ............ "'" be 1iP>' uf -",,,,,,,,,,,,,,1Mo., wt.ld< ....y P<"""'id< 0 crucial ",.,..,.,. lor ｾ＠ a rommur>ie........... conf1ic' ed bwndon.:., and lOr ｾｩｯｨｮＬ＠ l"ho: .".;,;",,1 n>I< 01 poIHlo;oIltaden 01( "<thoric ｃｬ＾｢＼ＢＧｅｨＮｾｮ＠ＮＬｾ＠ to mnimizo ,h<;,- own _a1<h ond ...,..... hoo bten ｾｩｺ｣､＠ In many IIUdico of i:lte. nol poa;tio.-..I viole ..... ond .... (000, lOr uaMl*'. Ca• • Corn,ru,.;.,., 1991; DoWlI!/9fl: B7 ; Kahll!/9fl) I. E.. n wben .0";.01 <olli ....... ore driven by m .... d.ryoantlo and Ih...."'., 'hon inuit-,ed from ,n. top down, .,adrn IK"U'" ",.i, .b1o",d pOoition th"""h prog .........1y men ronfronLational ".Ihnic Ｇ＠ 116-171). Thio;, .. d;.lcctical pr<I<flL IU oud:,;,\Ji:l1" (Kaufmon 1ｾＱ Seli!;,""''''. ond ,he "ikn« .... '" ronoe", ｨｩｦｬＧﾫｾＮＬ＠ .df·in ..... " ;. ouliur>lly and o• •all"<, by, .... .olIO pmdocu of. ";,uationaUy COIU'''"''ed. Poli.;"al ｾｩｬｮ｣＠ k1e... bOY, ",I.... (Wt .",1 Rothchild 1991: 10') 111). "The d,al· IcnB" for io therdon: '" <Icc. ... the intefUI <>f the ｾ＠ in • way tha, coinoida...m. ilH:ir own .......... in ........ " (Gop<>n 1997: 131). A kry oonclum.. of ,1M: Ca''''';'' Commiooiut> ..... oit>ce politie&l ,ien "'" 10 .".;tic.ol in ｩｯｭ＼ｮＡｾ＠ .. rife, ",he rn.:<hodo and inoic!<" of poyd.ia"Y and of ｾ＠ dinmuR be ｾＬ＠ .0 bur" to untIenund """ n>I< ;c..[, ond _ial ｾＢＧＪ｣ｙ＠ (II .... ""'" 0/.1. 1m. 1). SuI,...........tolNOh indMduab h.o..... oiwoY' .... n ..-ith us. If .... ..-an, undtntond ....... lbeir po)ChoIocy ;, transIat<d into <:oll<cti.... violence, i, io ,,.. irnpo<Un' u",....and how 1II<io- maNfI"I 6, with IoeaI cuh ..... and .......... iooo. ......... an ｩ＼ｉ･ｭｾ＠ coaIi.ion .. pIwo ont.. Abotno:tIy •• Ie.... thrne otheoph.o.oeo ..... be dentil;.d. Pho.. I... , io ＼ｾＬｩｯｮ＠ of an inte,n..! ">ccurity ､ｩｉ･ｭｴｮｯＮｾ＠ IU n:oIioto uy to adapt their theory 10 ｦｴ＼ＺｮＮｾ＠ ... 0 kry ｾ＠ Iw be.,.. to pooiI ..... lot -..uk _ . the orcumy diInn...... the beart '" thev th.eoneo flO in......,><:>na! "anan:hy" .,... WIthin ...... - ...., ... ｾ＠ the ..... <1MOI ,...,...- ..... urity, one ""'"I' .... pod " ' _ .., "or :ooo<ber, and _ io """' ... conIlict tqino (\...oI:e ond ItoIhchild 1991; I\ootn 1993), 0 pelaprt';" io poIoorigrion. Thio oociaI <Iynamo< hu bonJ .... IOUdied (G"II""" 1997: 137- 140; lA< ond RnUodUld 1997; 109-112), ... hoo !he pn:ocuo '" ...,. ' "c' .01 ... ..,......., ...-hid> det""""- odkn ｾ＠ and s....,... 0..-:0 2000: ｾ＠ Soone flO m. ............... ...,..... ",.,. be _ _ ..... ..,.",;,.. _ pre. ', ...,. 00 <be, "";""'ine; ,ho:meo vi '",odkry and ｾ＠ 1996; ｉｾＢＧｾ＠ ",.. . . - o:riticaI and de ... phu< ..... ;" to _ ........... .... (BrubU.er and Laitin 1996: ｈｾ＠ N.:Jdun& .. 0 b<1ter indieol<oo" flO <21" . . . . to """'" than the .......... appo:"""'" vi ornalI o.pnooed I""'P' ol" .-dent ""'" (1'oot1I 1993, S'J, Qnc" one tide bqW to kill """'" beca ... ol" ""'" GlIIqOr' ioal ｩ､ｴｮｾ＠ ........."""it;", ,,&in 0 ooci..t diotinttion in blood, then ttw >insIe din'I<noion _ hc ;, <thn;";'" or ............. - ｾ＠ the ｾ＠ ider>tit!' IU pitff (1997, 58) dctcribed in rftolion to C .....;a. """" the killin!; bcpn, 011 ,be ,,",,".ion. ond nuon«o <>f local ｾｴ･Ｂ＠ ........ owept _wall Ic";ns ponicipanll lbenudve> to ｾ＠ 0' how; in ｟ｾ＠ 0 >hort nm." one boca .... "only 0 Serb." oi<Iea, un<len:utl middle sround, poioom ＢＬｾｩｍ＠ (K.ufmonn 19\16, 63, 1997: 268-2n). Vel ... aliotro ou<h .. Kaufr=nn ..... y ""' ... "'le the UTtivenili"l ｡ＬｾＡ＠ per" ... ...,nce r:Jf --" ,If«II, fOr ..... n wh, ... m oxh loch aI Sanjcw (H.lpern and Kideokd 2000: blood hal l...n 'pOlled. in ＱｾＦｃ･＾＠ 14) 01" lhe r:Jf Sikh ... tio<uJiom (Mah"""'" 1996: 2), &nd through tho: paga vi 'hi> oo"l<.nd the daily .....""'per, .... fmd lhooe ....... otrugg\< ago;"', l"unh..- be ｩｾ＠ """"*' . . .,." ｾ｢･ＢＧｫ＠ a,...., oenoe to il .,,,,Ie.. rd.,.. «o'e. ,H,.,. '0 ｾ＠ V.......... ........... w.""", ,h., .,..... w... betn.,.,.. a ........ r.p, {UenidI. ;" thlo """'-<: sm- 1997: ｂＲｾ I.... viole".., and rontinuins pOI&riulion. Su.....,ary ..... d .... ppllc.do .. , Rwand. ,0 I I ",.. ...1"......... oondwioou 01 thio in,rodoxtion can be IWlUJlOrUaI .. ""lows. An in...... lJOfW ryIIenIlw n:quired ond oupponed the unM:naIiiy of 1<tritorioily dofoned ........ TIlt. ..... of the Cold War, ....,. many ,.an of Cold W.. og:ravorio<>f on<! _opono ｾＬ＠ ohupy ｾｕｲｴｏｩｉ･､＠ ......moI ｾ＠ 10 <cntr>I P""""""nll, ond in ...... .,..... ellCOU,. ｾ＠ｾ＠ GIob.U cc.onomw: "''''''. . play on ｾ＠ """" <mual role, ｾ＠ｾ＠ 0 dtcode r:Jf intre ..... - . . i o inunioenllon of ｾ＠ linked 10 d>anP>I: ｾ＠ markcll, the . . . . ｾ＠ al h........i........... ｾ＠ '" divenoon or conud, _ IOrrno of tnnsn&tiorW trMe ttw ... ｾ＠ olwind., and rquIation 0I1oc.oI ..-mm<'" ｾ＠ by inte<N>tionaIIinuJcioI Voo/mI ""fI!i<11l1III "",tn/J ｾ＠ """" .... ,;00.. -r"",Itt., the>< h«o t.a...: unoX.-mir>«! the """ ..,I 01 mo.ny gcv<rnm." to. Su... '"'" bow><l<d URiIl ,,;th poIi.icaI ..nln'l, and ｾｮｭ･Ｎ＠ admioniolra_ tion illOcialIy.nd 'P".iaUy bi»<d, Wi'hin ,otal C(IJl.IeX!, i. ;. Ioc.a! J>OIitical oaon (_ "'...,...) r"""",,) .. ho ""'Ol' 0<1 ...1 ..... n' «>"Uicu, ｉｃ＼ｫ［Ｌｾ＠ t" o.Itc...I><> "",,!rob. 1I, ,,,,.n 1,,..,n', who. g<>Y<rItmon' and/or bow. 8"""',nmont rults. 'InUi ;"kTnal vK>Icnct io _ just • 01 tho: ""akn.<io 01 gcv<",mon'; ,..tho:, ,h. 11",.:.o"",n, illClf io the 1"';'" .h.t is ｉｾ＠ COIl'C>lro, ooen .• pua.llel 01 ,he ",",i'icaI ＮｾＬ＠ and ..... the official ins,;. tu,ioru 01 a gcv<,nmen' for i" own power and pro/"M, and titer may ,""ually ,m. """,rob, nul'.,. net""""" """troI. "",,,td 1"""""""'''' promote instability. war, and dytfunc.ionalit)< Conffic" _r 01 g<M:m'n<n' play ou' ;" ,h,.., main "')'1: ｾｹ＠ al •• ｲｩｮｾ＠ 00' rq>la.cing the _ial haoo: 01 ,hooc ""'" ruIt and the ｾ＠ .... of: I"N"'nmen'; ..｡ｲｩｮｾ＠ apart oid ...... in", ""'" <Iomain! with diff""",. roovophic anlC .. of: rule; or mraotins the rule of a ooen'er away from peri"he,aI arus. 1'hooe ""'" woukl rule dowlop • national", idwIogy roo- ",."reI of • ICrritoty pt.......x. ochen '" join ;" and .tatt, which justifies thtm",/ves and hope{uUy their JlfO:it:ct, oJt"""gh ill _aJ will vuy aoco«ling '" the dw-act<ristict loUd c;"",mol'''''''' 01 diIf.",n. ptopI< in th<V .....,n • . In ..:cen. yea .. "..ionol'" vKioru fi>Ilowed • creood of modtrni ... i.un and dowlopmcn' which <omm ;mded I't'P"'" only u long as i. delivered the """'" or ｾ＠ lik.1y to in the fUM" - . cr=:l which has loot i" followi", in mart)' ｾ｟＠ Modern";"g ..... ionoJiIm, 10k .ny othe" ..as spoliaUy and _iaIIy rigged '" fit_ or harm dar... n, _ 01 ｾ＠ and it inevil>bly !!<ne... ,ed roun,.,-.itIeoIogits, ..""""' ItI'tnglh ｾ＠ .. dcv<1opmen1 railed. • ｾ＠ ... i.tJJy inequoJitie. ar<: olton keyed ;"to local popWatioru wi,h ､ｾＮｩＧｬｃＢＬ＠ cul.ure&, or .1Ion .... 1.oeoJ <ultu,oJ identibcs"" 00< ftxcd bol._WIy and h"'orically """,,,u,,,ed 'They on:: ",.,"puIOled for political Ｆ＼ｍｮｾＬ＠ and ye' ｾ＠ c ulture and iden,ity a,.. ve'Y im['O<t, n' to the _ y p<q>It: pe=;"'" themotlves, their .;,,,,,tions and their int ........ Id<>. >bou, ..... """ affec' ito Ul>ge, and ito is i...1f ."1"'<";",,, O<t that redeftna '"'" abo m'ie>1 in ｾｩｮｧ＠ Ieoooru ronffict ';tuation. Ide .. of: historical ｾＧＢ＠ and oymbois tha, can be uo«l to ddin. oolite,"", ｩ､･ｮＧｾ＠ loUd to variably ron""'« undemanding> of curr<n' cit'CUnlIWlc<S ""d op';"'''' Bu, cultural diIf.",txe or <lhnicity is only """ of """,.-.I important :uptcll 01 iden,i", Othe-n ;nd"de region and ru.-.lfurban ioeat ion, poIitical-«OnOmi<: pooi,i.un, .--dig;"'", ｬＮＢＬｾ＠ ••aI«. ra<e, 'ribe, d.n, ",noX.- and ago_ yariablt: mru:. or .uch f<a,ur<> will produ<c VMiabIt respotUCO to ""y caIIo lOt ,r.ob\iiza· lion, No identity .nd rnt< .... ' "'" on." fu.cd. 0' ca" I.. .-...d.e tI,a' .... y in conflic, . itualio.... I ruggt:II ,ha' ,he groupo and <onnieu which inYoIYe them b< call<d by d,. neoIogiom ""iden""""," "' ....... than labeling them all "<tImic, " CO<tfficu h ..." IOu, ､［ＮＬＢｾｨ｡｢ｬ｣＠ openin! ph ..... oJ""""h tbcot: will _nap in pTII<ticc: (I) I<>,mati.un 01 • ron: group; (2) .rntion 01 mu'o,1 f.,,, k_mity dil.mma"; (3) poIariu,"", and ptOjectioo of: nepaw;",,«, ; and (4) calcul.,ed vioIe""._ F""" tho, [>Oin'. full ocaIt WM ,noy """""red usage I"""'..... ,n..: 0<' an commu"n ,n..: io:le,,,.,..,, a IN ,,,,,- 'I ......., oJ,huugh th .... is abo ,tt. poosibiIity of: cotm'nv.oiling oonOlrucUono Iu.ltins the eocalation. To iIluotrat< bow this summ.uy p<rsp<etiYe . ... be oppIied, I will consider the RwaO'ldan g<nocide. freq ... nlly ＼ｾＢ＠ the of . thnic vioIene •• And • C20t "'" "u, ........ ｾ＠ in thio ,"",ume. In April 1994, tOOwands of: Hutu went ou, to delil><rately .Jaugh«r Tu .... """,nd 800,000 ·[""i died, in an <><gy 01 .,.;.,&0""" thai stunn"" ,he ....:.\d. Ru. the doo<r on< look., th. ba Rwanda """'"' I<> ilh...., ... ancien, and lUlimositia. and ,It< mo,"" i, ""' .... a pmdoct 01 the fon:a ond ｾ＠ diocwotd in ,hi> In,tOdo>:,;."., 11rio overview dots not off« ""y new ;"rorn",tion, It iI baJ<:d "" thorough n ..arch oIreody (1 996). HiJujens(I999). l<..... rcn.,.d undcrta.l<tn. by de W:uJ (1 994), ｇｯｵｾｨ＠ (1 994), Longman (1996), Mamdani (2001), Me.c' lulty (1999>.), Peniva! and Honv:r-Dixon (1 993), Pnmic.- (1995, ＱＹＷｾ＠ Taylor (1999), aOld Tu<Utt1 (1 997b). (Direc' dtatioru will be pr<I"idt:<l only roc ,he moot focuo«l diocu.i.un. ｯｦｾﾭ uIar topia, or ,,><cif.. po;,,11 001 frcqu<nlly nport<d.) My goal h<T< iI 10 ilI""tn.. the fuoibili.y and utility 01 appn>adting ma>I poIi' ico! oornco . . . layered problem, will, ron.ribu'ing Fac'or-. running from 'he nIO>' &IoIu.l I<> ,he moo, 1oc>J•• 00 from oubN..""" I<> ｾｭ｢ｯｬ＠ Focton <xtcTnai to Rwanda ott the II2gc lOr genocide, Befor"< ,he .oIoniai ...... .utooomow poIi'ical dcv<lopmcn .. cre.,ed • e<nu-tlW:d ...... which ..w the ,hen RcIgian administration. &nod .he Tutoi sup<too'dinat< CN<T HulU. ｾｮ＠ Catholic Church, howc>o<r, rigidilXd this r",.merly Ouid increo.. ing Tu,?, e:.pIoitationoJ Hutu, ond fw:d it ....... with profound coootqU<tICeI.!u ,tt. 1JlobaI ........ 01 decokmi ... ,i.un ｾ＠ ,n the 19!JOo. rodicoJ I<"dene'" ........ in the ruling Tuui minority prompted both colonial .nd Church adm;";"".._ I0I"l '" shif' support to HU'b, wI>o _rthrew the Tutoi eli« in a ooci>I ""","ulion in 19 59-1961, with iodeptnde_ foUowing in 1962. Aft.r that, the .astI...... dMde of ,h. Cold War had littl< impact on this "",,_..,....gic ｡ＬＮｾ＠ bu, the I'rrnch ｾ＠ ;"1<> the vacuum Ief, by deJW'int! Belgians to bull"" ,hoi.F,onoophon. opht,..;" control Alri.ca. In ,h. 1970., Rwanda bcumt a ｾ＠ 01 .",..nally suP!""'«l moderniza,ion, dcv<lopmtn' and ､･ｭｯ｣ｾ＠ ,he "H,dc Switzcrh,,'d of Africa:· I" 1986, """""'r. plunging pri«> for ito mait, . xpoct coff«: began .he slide. l.,lOt income mean' _ ring in.... n>.tionoJ debt, M:>.di", in 1990 10 an IMF I World B...... . truc'uroJ >dju."""'" progran' .hat ｾｉｹ＠ .urtailed ｾｴｯＧｬｃｮ＠ Ip<ooing on _Ifan: ond ocrvicco. ｾＢＧｩｮ･＠ ""' ....... n Rwanda and riling deOlh ..... ";,1>00, majo< !r"'"",run.n' respono< ｾｴ･､＠ IIOCW '<n",,",A, ,hi> poin', ngional J>OIi'''' tItOY<d «n'",,"og<:. In ,he oo<ne< ,ha' accom｢ｵｮｴｬｾ＠ of thouoando of: Tu"; Iled to f""ied ,he ""","ution 01 ＱＹｾＬ＠ ""ighboring ｕｾ｡ＮＭ､＠ • • nd Ｎｬｯ･ｷｾＮＢＬ＠ In the 19SOo, 'hey It<lped """nblOW • Ugandan !r"'""'""m.n, thot ..... trying '0 push them bad ou', I" 1990, Ug.ndan ｾ＠ they had helped to install ,urned >gai,," ,hern. giving impetus '0 a military invuiott of Rwanda ;" 101< 1990 by the Tu ...-<Iomin ..ed Rwanda Fron' (lU'F). I.o<ali<cd sI.ugh .... 01 Rwandan Tu .. i beg.n at ,his time, The RPF ｾ＠ support r""" 1;"";;" ､ｩ｟ｾ＠ in Afrie>. I::urope and Nonh .. 'pO'''''''' \oylol,'" ,h. ru.,,,,,,,;.,,.,, down-m ;" ,h. r.,riotic - , 32 R. &;"" mp-. Voo/m< -J&.and_o/toV",,,,, America. M<on .... hiIc, the r ",nch !!",",,!nm<n' b<g . ... m . .. ive incrc..., in militory ."pport fOr- the ｾｃｔｬｴ｡＠ RW2lI<bn Patriotic Army (R PAl, .... hid> grew from 5,200 in !99O to ＳｾＮｏ＠ in 1993. The ｾＮｲ］｣ｨ＠ a!oo lJ"ained an e!ite PY<.id<ntW gtW'd, .. hid> in 'urn tuined mony of the kad kilIus in the gooocid< (ICC M cNulty 1999lo). R<gional """,io", ",,,,.ocrbat.ed in 1993 wh<n Tu ..; 0Hica. in the Burundi ""my IN!. ooup, liDing. popularly elec.ed Hutu pre.iden •• ")""g ....;.h an <>tima.ed 50,000 H u.u. In",,,,.,ional J'T""""" forred them back to their ｾＡｕＬ＠ bu. "';,hou. further punishmen •. Burundi Ｎｊｶ｣Ｑｏｦｾ＠ m<nt> pucipi ... ed fiRhting b<"""'n H",u ""d Tu" i in the neighboring Nonh Kivu ar<oa of Zaire (Prunier 1997). In thi. voI ..ilc, vioIrnt oonl<Xt, intmi< p.....,"', i>y the UN, the Organizaoo.. of African StaIa, Rwanda·, main fin:wcw dooors, and NGOo oomhincd with RPF mili,.'Y advomc<. to for<e Presiden. lIabyarimana to the t>argaining table in Arush .. 1'1 .... Roo- a coalition !!""<'"nmcnt wen: >igncd. with a «&>e-firc in AugtUI 1993. ｃｏｴｬｩｮｵｾ＠ p<e«u,.. lopt H abyarimana '0 the limctabk, ....;.h the traruitionaI goo.<ernmcn' due 10 b< imtalkd on 8 April Ill!». A S"""'Ufal Adjunment Progtam. paym<n' of 530 million >OnlI condi.ion .. on poij.kal pmg,..,.., and >Ct 10 expire on 23 ａｰｲｾ＠ (U intjen. 1!)99, 258, 262). Ac:oxding '" de Wll.) (1m: +), up to ,h;, point Rwanda "wa• • nx><lcl fo< a transition to dcrn<><raC)' and thc I",;u;o::ful of armed oonf\ict,ｾ＠ with inttrnational superviton ina,,<ntivc to the ｣ｾｴｮＺｭｩＮＬ＠ f.ctionalimt th., ...... buikling ;o.g-.in" Habyarim ..... ....;thjn his own government. On 6 April, Prtoiden' Habyarim."" and ,he PY<oidat, of Burundi ""tt killed ..nrn " ground·l.ounched miWlc ､･Ａｾ＠ their plar>< .. it I"<tU!"ned to Kigali .•11tc --=.nWy """""'bon gcnocid< began immoodiately. • Af'er deba_ A, tlW point, inttrnational respo>n ........ n<>tal:ok to.- it> ｾ･Ｎ＠ cle. in Som..Ii. and AngoLo.. no 0,,", ...... willing to in""",ne. TIl< humani,";an price w.. not;"1 the de. th ol 800,000 people in Rw.nda. The g<::n<>cidc, and the ｒｐｆｾ＠ JUbo<qoen' d<f•• , of the Rwandan arm); .., the , tag< fOT a dUWJKO\Ot Jeries ol vioIen' cI."h .. throughou' the G",., W .. rtgion, imo:oIving Rwanda. the former Zaire, Burundi, Tanzania a nd USaMa, in what ;., being called "Africa', 11-.. World W"".'· .n.,.. di"inc. bu t inte""l,ted conl1ict. .... being dri .... n by gnbs fOr v:aluablc ｾｲｯ｣ｳＬ＠ eopocially in .he Democratic Ikpublic of the Congo, by high governmen' and mili",'Y official", using nation .. ' fm;". ｾ＠ borde.... ｣ｲ｡ｴｩｾ＠ or ooop<rating wi,h Io<al warlord;, and crim.ioal n.etw<>rb . (.... "P...oci of Expe .... ·' 2001; Jl.kNulty 1mb; Prunicr 1997; Woinncin "lOOO). Rw. nd.\Jl dcvclopmonts illus", 'e ,he «n".a.Ji'y of the , ..... Fint • .., • CO\ln '1)I aU of the region" inn ... """, j .... tlOI<:<l we", "'aped i>y inlCmat;""a! b<J<dc..., •• memb,..nCl .ff"""'ing the /low of peorJ<, ide>J and violence. Il>Iicie< Otistn"'ing in the diff=n' capitals.rc key picu< ,n ,he nogional m .... Of e";,ical in,portana is Uganda, .... hich in """'Y waY> sh .ped !he Rl'1' inva.ion ("'" Jl.h mdani 20(1). T he H.byariman. gove,omen' h.d kop, thooc Rwa:nd.\Jl Tutsi ,..r''Sed from coming back acrca the border u oc< 1973 , claiming tbat d<.,../y P<'Pulotro Rwanda (_ I'ncivaJ and Homa-Uixon 1995) simply had ..., mo<C 33 '''1'1''''"' .b<m (M c.o-":ulty 1999a; 87). \\"thin the ｾｴｩ｣｡ｬ＠ ront>incr of borden, Ｎ､ｭｩｮｾ＠ polk;", ""'''' decidedly ohwed. Ｑﾷｬ｡｢ｹｾＬ＠ roup in 1973, fOllowing. time of <e<momic ....llllation, replaced ｾ＼＠ domination by "",,'hem H u'u with nonbern Huw, and 1',...,,,.Dd benefits ..... no rcdrn:cted aa:ordingIl' The ｾｮｯ｣ｩ､･＠ provide. a glaring rou ntcT-aample '0 the idu.!ba' ....te ..... aII_ T>C>S is . he c.u .. of viole""" (H intjcn, 1999; Longmon 1998). Even in p",..colonial time .. the Rwandan po!iry had bc"n ｃｊｬＱｾｩｮ｡ｲｩｬｹ＠ ccn,.-.d;«d been ro.",r«l i>y Clltcrnall'atrom dunng its goId<n )'C .... of development, with clt.a.in. of command thOl ..." ••:1>«1 down to indivXIuol hou .. • hold.. ｔｉ＼ｾＮ＠ the 100" militia groupo which did moch of the ｫｩｬｾ＠ in the g<nocid<, b<gan as ....<XOn'roIkd rur" .. If· help groupo whkh imctn.,ionally pniscd ;u .,...,ntW to R"",nda·, dcvcIopmcnt. ·' (I] f anything, the , .. te bream< 50 powerful ... d <lIicieo, !bat it crushed ... d ovcrwhdmcd Rwandan JOcicry completely" (lIintj<n. 1999: ＲＱｾＬＺｬＶＡＩＮ＠ The actual g<1'ooidc, aU ogre<, w .. met;cuiously pl..mcJ ""." a long period, wi.h dctoile<l ptOCedu,.., ...d de.th Ii"', .nd ouricd tltrough ccntraliud dirccti .... ｾ＠ WhO! w.., the C<:Jrt issue> Control of ｾｮｭ･ｴＬ＠ ....;m tbe ruling clique abou, to " - it to .... inte",atiorWJy rupcrvi>cd, ind",ive coalition. Although R""nda long It.>d a fOr govetn"",nt eff".ocicncy aDd romparOlive/y ｾＬ､･＠ oven co ...... ptioo, oon:nectKm to the ｾｯｲｮ･ｴ＠ W2JI Ille """" imporun. key to "PY<Ddent Habyariman. b<1d .btoIu.. f'O""C< aDd pofitical and economic ｡､ｾ｣＼ｭ･ｮＧ＠ ..... ,.. 1.org<ly ckpendcnt on ｾＧｙ＠ to the PY<siden' and h is coterie" (Taylor 1999: 108), i.e. to moo< tlte J><>rthcrn clans tha, ....... hi> PO"'" ,until the cnull in oo/fee pricco, ｨｾｲＬ＠ pl"O<pCT"iry wall . uJlici<ntly g<neral that lIt2Ily could do "",U, """" T ulli, if they did ,., quietl)' From 1990, with war and .tructural adiUOlment, conditio .... IN! '0 the development of .... ha, Reno would call a shadow , ..... ··!S10mething new...,.. ＼ＢＬｲｧｩｾ＠ ... • mili· tarization ol Rwandan .... e expenditure and growing com..pli<m among the poli,ka) elite:· Hum. nilarian .id ...... div<ned, drug traffidmg ""d money !aun· dcnng wett linkrd ,,, high pi..,.,.. !aDd '0 Rwanda', --= 01.>00::" "". "u' "'J'U"'''''' b"'l .uc«u. o....c. or "Tho ｾ･ﾷＮ＠ dctuminotion to ",main in power gradually !cd '0 the d<fe .... .;...., e,.,,.,ion of a ··" OIe ....;.hin • &tate;· cm ..rcd on oontrol of pa .... mili'.ry )"W.h organization>, whitn opcwed in tandem ....;th .he .. my . "d other . .... insti,utions 01 nalion.>J, ru"rict and muoicipallevcb.. h the paid mil;' tw of p.mg men grew; r...... r a Dd fewet Rwandaro peopI< b<n<fi,ed from the pro.ection and patru<\ag' of the Rwandan .... te. (Hinltc '" 1999: 257, 261 ) ｒｾＢ＠ "['u,,;, poo< .,0<1 ",uthe", Hutu, and int<"'.,;"" .. og<ncico incrc..oo, this nonhem dite . aw it< association .... im the imperil«l. H.byuimaM, fon:<d to compromioc and looking ou' fOr his own political r" ,u"', hccam< pan of .!>t. ,h"'at. It was ,h;, .hadow ...... ha. planned th< g<nocid<, . " d fon to cru,h any a "d all dome.tic oppooition. '" <1'P""ioo.. from 'he RPF, ".te Ｍ .H It ＭＺｾＭ］ｬ＠ s.-....,... 1'''' -J'iL1 "*' -"'" "'" N.oo...u.. Yioi<>m " - '-" ley oda:oIop:a1 ....... ｾ＠ ..:unI. ｾ＠ _ all ｾ＠ arou ...... he ｈ｡ｭｾｩ･＠ hypotbeoio' (Mamo:bni 7001; T-r\or 1999). Pooi<ionint in ma.ion 1O .. ...no.. _ _ has t-... drar ｾ＠ 01' poa;r;c..I .offiliatioa .."...... .... run. n... w.: 01 R........... R........... Ir.iotooy WIU ｾ＠ by Chun:h ｾ＠ ant)-., ...;....... """" >ddan. S.....,.", iI hold. """ Rwanda >0» ｾ＠ iMabItflI by IIio. ｾ＠ calIood Twa (who _ _ up .... <halo 2 P<'" em. 01' the j F ......ｾ＠ n.m came a.n." fa, ....... ,he II" ..., .. pan of • mill........ """ _ n At..,.. ｲｾ＠ call.le-ralain( 1\,"; <am< &om tlw: nonh c:onq ...... tho lando. 'The n,..; ....,," aIIq;od '" he r3Cial/y .uprno. ｾｬｉｯｭｩｴ｣Ｂ＠ p«>pIt, ";,Ir. ..,..".... blood,·"' .... • xplamin! .... ;,. deYeIoprnen, 01 indir<nowo ""es, .nd iu,,;ryi ... f.oop<.n and ""'"'"-d.... ""at'0 Catholic ｲ､ｩＦｮ＼ｾ＠ An on Ih<m to """. .. with broow:I p<... nt .upport, who <>1><11.<1 Tutti f...,." pooH;.,... 01 oulhoriry in ＱＹｾＭＶＮ＠ occq>I<d ......... ,Iw .... Tuni om-< ....iodly a&n inYadtn, """"" 01 <lOUI'O< ｾ＠ lhrir >up<riority. 100. I<ad<n _ _ d .... apI<W.,;.", ape. ie ..... d u..o.. _ T...,; domi- "'''''1''''' lIuw ｾｬｩ＠ cot",.......... ... nu. ..........oom.r >l1a<b by ｾ＠ Th ... t<itlbud r. ... and I<d '" ... ornaI ."..b by H..... opinoo: Thni, Tho ...-.""" itxlr _ -.. ...... uub:w.tin .... , 01 do" ....... ｾ＠ It ｾ＠ """""""MY aDd dipiry ror .... H ...u,...:I io. ｾＮ＠ """,mol iron of H", .. ｾａｬＮＭ tb< 1913 coup, Habyarimana, ........... ",.,.......aJ pa<rona, , ..Itf... d ......... _ _ bnw.o<n II .. IU _ n. .. from ncioIlO eduuc. and oIfocially ""-'"red doc 1o.1a'. ｾ＠ incIuoioa in n&Iion.oIlik ... ".;"".;.,. in. plw'alooa..,. V.. m.............. odnJ tho: hundtodoollhouoando ofT.... wI>oluod lied ｒｾ＠ "" Upoda. who """" "ill ........ ｉｨｾ＠ .... and ｾ＠ｾ＠ "' .. -;tuoeCIl. • • AI Mamdani (2001) ｣ｾ＠ lIot.y.rima". did "'" diminatc .... 1i.. ,uiThul dlvido in poI;.ico.l inotioutiono, lh......... inIl; oondi,ioOI "'" ito oocial ",produetion. The id.. of the Tuui .. on noct (h,..""in, to Ihn\l r<maintd ... parriai/)' ｾ､＠ '''''', ...it}, inrdlc<.lliIl lid"""".. rtady '" brin.!I ｾ＠ I1>rth when I/obyarimana rou.od ｾ＠ ......... dkilL W"h 'no RPI' '''''''''''', r-..tio and Ｌｾｨ＼ｔ＠ n>td.i. bIlI>«d thi< """'"8" in the moo! inllornma..,..,. _)'I. ., ,Iw ol'l)<ln< wbo _ no! ooIicI:y with lIutu ｾＮ｣Ｌ＠ thc I;\IrK1U ,.,.......,....nI) _ 1irW:d '" imadrn, whowiol><d "''''''''u,n thedJn: .. 0I19)9, and ......... Thui ruI<. 'Tho Tu"; with tno RJ>t' - and';"'" they...,., thc ti.iI war; I.heI;\lrK1U ｾ｟＠ t.a.... dawn«! 0II1loe odoer !.and ..... Ibo H........ ｾ＠ • """'J'Indy """"Co tMt T....i,1!lULu and T_ t.a.... ｾ＠ b<m ... pcorIo, and tIw • and "-old b. the buio of the RWUKIan narion. "RI'F .. thai I.he .... m.: IAbdo I lu,u and Tht.. "", _ _ ..". of '.... isoah·. 1".,. popubnZIl: """ t.,r Iwl"",_ (0 the "'Y' .............. of. unifood k wandeo< peopk ,u,••.oi<d ｴＮＬｲｾ＠ (de W...I I994 ::!). 'Ibe;,- h;pe. V21 ... i< .,;....o:.r,w .at ............ denootnC'Jl...t.O::h ..... n .. I ..... od ...... ac the majoriry H mu trnd to bo: Ｎｾ＠ lWI"ici<y in R_ndo wriI iUustn.......... hfft elem<nll of til< <Urn ... ",)d.. arly .,.,,,11... 01\ .h, .ubjec'_ Gc:"ainry; map" "",pies .. , h;"OtICOUy .nd lo.;iaUy AJtOOo'sh ;n Rwanw ,h. H .. ninc h)'!lOOl>esia ia (", .. dy • r",,",, ii, aU ill <l<'ailo, Lh< .... iflh' of cvXJ.._ <loa indic.", th .. 1\oui """",d a1.,,, u.. .don......,.... .""tent< """""",«1. ,Wt !5 inoo thio . .a &om """""" .... IiII«nIh _"""" r...... _..n. .. .........:I .... H..... M_ proboobIy tbqI arm.,d '" paoooo-al m ........... 000IQU<I'<It'0. While it ....,. "",;-ifoed '" opea.I; ol _ _ ........ bom ...... ｨｮｾ＠ .... __ <aruIOt br: >aid b H_ ""'" ｾ＠ ..... of ........-.IIy ｾ＠ and diotmctiY. local pop ......... T"..; ..... II"", de.doped .. poIiocal iden ...... of "'pc.-' and ouborｾ＠ Theoe<:OtqOria-= Iluid and p"""'obIe, with I I ..IU ｾｔｵＢ［＠ and vice >ftlIII. M..-w, T""; and Il .... -=...nio:&IIy IinkcP"'l't ... ,;pIifoed and l""OCitJilIed the - . ｾ＠ and boW , ........ local paIJ"On---cli<n • hl<nrchies ... (hOC! two national ...,.'" rnI'!JO<I. kle"tiry <:&!do .... ,.., iDu«l 10 fil< pI .... men .... ruI< of p.otrilincal inherit"""" of "",ia1 .... WI ｩｭｾ＠ and in -... cueo ""'<JOri<aIIr ｯｲｮｾ＠ｾＧｨｯｉ｣Ｚ､＠ on th< buill ol 00w many attl< they -...d (1Iw>ugh .... widdy .. pr>rIC'd "foct- ,h .. ""J<'f'< with ............n kn head ol caltle ""'" caL<J<>rixd Thui ｾＱｉｹ＠ ""'" oppIH:d only .........,n pc"'"'' ....,. in -... _ ｾ＠ Mamdaoi 200 1' 9&-99). ol ｾ＠｡ｮ､ｾＬ＠ T\,..,; and II..... t..c........ on<:. " [llbr: ｾ＠ ollD<lq. II"", and T .... indeed <Ral<:tUrioo of S<iII, in _ ""'"'viM. ｾ＠ and ｣ｵｫｲ｡ｉＮｨｮｴｾ＠ (),tamdani 2001: ｈｾ＠ In .... OOWItryW .... ｾ＠ Il\ltu and ThIs! .... ｾ＠ｩｮ､ｯｴｑｵｾＮ＠ Ah ........ 110..... and Tuui on: ph, . oIly ｾＬ＠ｾ＠ .. oudt .,....,.u,p &lid bItndit>& that tbo: JI<' idal kiIIco1 bad '0 rely on &lid pointinc ("'I"'"' '" _ who to kilL \ ... br:ron: I.he build-liP '" rmocide. ",,,,,,,, .... little .........,." of.,...., looo<iIity from 1Iah.. ,u _ " ' " ,heit lIaIu"; ...;Phon and rda, ,;,..," (B in!j<m 1999: 2'111). Du""l hil r..w--t in 198:J-M, Taylor (1999: 86, 1(8) found.hat "etlmkily ...mood to b. ""'«ling .. . poIitDl ",,,,,," and that "11. .... nw ""'" """" dMdcd by cllUl and,..,(ion than by othnic;"," Tho: poIitkal manipuLotion of .... hiotoricaUy ｾ＠ lI ut\lrfuui divide .... "'h lOll ." rmocide _ tnnspon:nt. and i' WU eff<:<:tM.. KIm..,. """" [S)"ry ｾ＠ of ooIoniaI and ThtJi !\lie, M>d LlIiny-IM )'tan ol HII'" {b-l =-d diooinct and mutudy ｾ＠ HuN and Til ... )'t.... Klmuu.., whid> b all the haiw ..... 01 .....,w ..:irntiot.. _ """""'" ... [11' ia ｩｴｬｾＧｯｉＮ＠ to in...."...,. ｲ］ｮｯＮｾ＠ uiboIlaboh, and thq- .... the Iobo:b "'"" tor aI. "..,p. kill ud, othet- bcan,., 0I1.hem .. withooa .... peopk ｉｾ＠ identifiably I"U<iUi"OO '" ｾ＠ (de \Y:W 1994.:J) Ikot .... ohouId ........'" It> "I'I"Y - ';hnic' to _ ,"""po which OK cultw-ally oden' tical. and IlH: two c.uqori<o ｾｩｮｉｙ＠ do "'" ....,..,opond 10 tribes, koo .ac... I'owtrli.ol .. they.,.., .. ｾ＠ 01 idcntif)o, they "c, u M.mdani (2001) <osmlly..-gun, .... n'io,lIr J1<>Iiliu! idcntitica,!hoped by. long hiatory of dilTcr, entia! il>tOfpontion inlo • variety of llratifood 1)'1'.'''', carried .Ions by malIe.bIe ...... Ump ol diooii\C1;'" hiatorin. To cau -..Iw. "",,,,,,nod ..lmi<. tribal • m""" r'ioI<>tl uo,/Ii4 - ' - ' of IIu or racial vioI<""" inevit.bIy 'ugg<.tJ ".ncient ｨＮｾＢ＠ Of irntional X'''IOPh<>bi>., ond obocm',," til< fact that the J<1'IOCide wu, by :011 ocroun.., d<bb<T.t< ｾ＠ viokn<c. V.. "poIiticaJ violo:"",, " f..... to convq" the iden'ity-linked passioru invvI .."d. [n my view, "ide"t<""... ｾﾷ［Ｌ＠ mort a.:o:u .... te .nd ...h:q""", than either al'ernative. That <loa 00< dimirrisb the imJ>O<lan<:< 01 ｣ｵｬｭｾＮ＠ It is Mamdaoti ,..ho \tn:OOe. ,he R .... nd." genocide, in "mtTa>! to 01 the Noz'" w.. done by h.,..[. in tho neighbo.hood. f..,. to f_, wi<h many ｾＢｉｳ＠ 01 Huty ",,' ;v<iy f>Vlici. I"'tinJ "(T]he main Qf til< genocio:l< "",.. ,he oro;""''1 pc ... tbe,,,,,,Nc'" (!'run;". [995: 47). Disc.....,.. of this distutbing liet ", ... t h<gin by "'pc.1ing th .. the kimng WlU c<ntr-..lly pl.nnro .nd <liroct«i, Ｎ｜ｭｨ＼ｲｉｴｬｏｾ＠ -..ll agree th .. then: WlU ' ＢＬｾｪｯｲ＠ demen' 01 CO<rr;'>n - 'booe Hu,u woo •.:[.... d to join in killing ..... oII<:n kiUcd tbern .. ho:o - .nd ｾ＠ .. numben cl lIutu Ikd ra!h<. t[ .. " being dn.wn On", .Ioe carnage. 8.. • ....., w[", ""'" initially fOro:<[ to kill, OIId m&nJ' woo ｾ＠ not fcJrNd bu. wiuntc"nod, 0/1.1> bee""'e quit< ＮｮｾＬ＠ ... i· a"ie in their .O>ko. N on< kilkr later put ｩｾ＠ .. [ om ash..,,«I, but ",Oa' wouId)OU h.", done if)OU had been in my pIKe? Either)OU tool< put in.1I< ｾ｣＠ 0< "'a' .'It. ,ha' n" """'*" """f">''' -' e1.. l'<'" """" m.....,nod )'OW'O<lf So [ lool: I *fmJ<J lit # "!:I' _ ｾＱｉｵ＠ (Pntn;"r ｛ＹｾＺ＠ 2H). .... <h;, 'IWI.1ion indkateo, On< moti .....tion wu f<ar, feu crutcd by mcdiao overflowing wi'" Tu"; pIoto ... ,,1 ｾ＼ｲｯ｣ｩｴ＠ Some h ..... >bo .. th .. Rwond.", h.ve been long conditioned to obey ""len - I"" til<"" ""'" plemy Woo ,.,.;'t<d aUU>ont)< Momd.n; .mpru..m... tw<> "'P""" of politio:al ideoIog)' in,n>dua:d by roi.,. nial;'.., .",1 1>eYe. purgci f""" R"'''''don cuitLll't. Uld ;k in oth<r "cthn;''' oppooitioru in Africa, Tu"; h.d bc<n Intnro .. boIh r.dally ､ｾｴｩｮ｣ｲｙｴ＠ fi>reign - m""h IiK the f.urop<ano they """" ab<ttcd. ｔｨｾ＠ tontl'ibulOd to • pc ..« mOl"lOi (U!f, • iwtiflClOtion for ""victitru to become kill< ..... It t.eIps explain ･＼ｭｬｾｴ＠ to Dlh« ｶｩｯｫ｣ｾ［ｮ＠ A&;c"., wao. d<liberat< why tI,;" vioIe""c, in <iron to otermin .. e "" en.in: cat<g<><y cl prop!<. Taylor (1999) <mphao ..... othe, upeetJ 01 Rwandan ｃｙ｛ｉｕｾＬ＠ roomeet«i to im_ of tho >rorId and tho bo.i); ond Ilowo .nd ｢ｩｯ｣ｬＮ｡ｧ＼ｾ＠ He poi"" O<It that killing WD f.. from limple o.I. ught<r. It "'gI'Wiy irtvo/\'I:d nopc, ,,,,tu«, mutila.ion. oeg... d.tion, all irucribing meooageo on Tuts; bod ... in wily> ' oe>fi rttOII"tud as "tll<matio:,coo::n "for",ul. ic." [n hil view, lIutu h.t< p1aytd into iodigtnou, them . . . bout Ｎｾ｡＼ｩｮｧ＠ 'b!oclU"I) being>'" ｾ＠ and "l'f'liod il ..1f to :olI TUl>i. "",pe.,...l.,.. 01 atrocit}' '""= then, On th<", mindo, ＢＬｾｧ＠ out "I ...... i"" rltlllli cl purification" (Taylor 1999: ｉｏｾ＠ｦｵｲｴｨ･ＮＬｮｾ＠ th;' ritual wu highly I"n<bcd. Tun; """",n....,r<: not """ed, but "f"'cially to'8"t«!, c....n by th.ir lIu"l hLJ>b>.ndo, Th. politico cl dcoir< W2JI long ..,.;.." ill Rwanda, "';Ih mOllY HutIJ men finding Turn wom.n <>pCCiaJly .. t... eti .... and ..' 1<"0 ...._ .... til< hat< built up, th;, ume to be:lttn . , . Tuui >tratcgy of racial f"'l lu.lon, that bad to be eliminated at the . - , Even b<yond ,h. HYlurT,,,,; ,[Mdc, in r....,'· ""oed ; ,><1 ".rk _.ndo. 11K" •• mOOc. ni:t.ing .... 1«'''" of RW2IIda, womon ...."" ..wins "ritIat, c....n ,urp.using m<n. The ltiIIing of .u,,,,,,..fu[ women ....... n H um women, wao Ih"" part of "".s.." u<g I"'tr""""Y, ''''It 37 Deopjt< the ""' ...... helming imponan.c. of the Hutu/T u.. i divide - h.,."..,..., charactcriz.eo i. - it .. ,,;U • po<!< indica"" 01 woo kil[ed who. It wu not only Tutsi woo""'r"< Itill.d. Recall 'hat thm:: tubou.ntial Hum _it;"".o lh. !I"'=",,«n•• and the icaden cl "';, <>pp<>Sition """" among tbe lint vM:timo of the d<oth [i .... T he .hod tro<l!'" "",.. .he a<gani><d militiu, who had be<:n tnincd for th;, puTj)OOe, and other mili .. ry :uooc;'uxl with thooc wlto killed H'bra,i",,,,,, - him>elf lil< head Hutu, Wh<n mon: ' ''hI wen: necderl, f'OOt!., .. young men of the c;lico ""'" eru;.,led, liqUOTed up. ... d giY<Il til< noon mo", intoxicating pow<T Qf life .nd de .. h '''''' •• hooc who had once been their "''''" .... ｾ＠ Tcochen, .. uden.., doc..,.., eYen the ...,U..d"""",1 ""'"' mwtlcred, !C.illi"S mctho<lically 'l"ead to "'e town. and country, following ... n·!>."'! p1anL BUI ,,;U, it was nDl timrfy Hum again>< Tu";' In tbe countryside. th ......... '" economic diffe.."",,- "the pe<lI>i< whooe <hildn:n had to walk to ochoo[ IUU.,I til< p«>pIc who roukl buy.hoet 10< tbei.. " (Prunior ｩＹｾＺ＠ＲｾＬ＠ Looting wu oII"n • InotM:. N>gUO lOU,hward, often including ""'thetn HulU politicl>.rut. Laotl\\ .il< cur of Rwanda i1hlltn'" the ph.... of identity-linked vioI<"c<. al,loough l inc< 'hi . ...... ｾ＠ « ntral;,w plan, th ... w.. much L<mporal """rJap (_ Hinljona [999: 262- 267; MeNu[t)' [999.0: Ｙｍｾ［＠ fumier ＱＹｾＺ＠ 226 Ｒｾ［＠ -T.yIor [999: 6-26). Th< idente .... roaIitiort wao ltd by elite memben 0( nonh«n clo"" ｾｴ･､＠ with goo-.=tmcnt, ,he """l' .nd ｲｯｭ＼ｾＮ＠ "Iney ""'" . HIed by ;" t<lI«tu",", Ｌｾｏ＼＠ raloo ""*"3" ..... r"<lenth:osly diooomin .. cd by .... dio ond other mcdill. 'The call " ... 10 all Hu.u. al!hOYgh thosoc _inc !he current <lique were n<>l ""kon'e. and thoo< not benefiting from ;1 wen: n<>l enthusi.uric. h n::[iod on ､ＢｩｰｾＬ･＠ militia. and po<!< people "'oo"w an opporlunit}' again" til< rich. Key '" til< .\llCC'" cl thio progrom ..... til< aut;"" of • "",curity dikrnm .. " by ""l","odIy urK'OV01'cd »roof." th. t don""tic Tutoi ""rc ｾｩｮｧｷｴｨ＠ invadero f..,m Upndo to """"IX the 1959 =<>Iulion. and I«u'" their poIit;"" by ""","ninatinS as many HU1U AI they could i tll< Bahima. ron",;"""j . I\obri... tion ｰｾ＠ 'pac<, "';th ""ode .... "" killed by death "luado (ullcd "Netwo<lt Z • ..,·"). I'rojrttion of rc ... was ｾｵ｡ｊ｛ｹ＠ <lear. "';<h many Hutu ＮｸＺ･ｬｾｩＢｧＡ｡ｳ＠ lhot ,II< invading RPI' "'"'' demonic <onnib",", F"tnaUy,.1I< violence, wltich had begun with thc RPF invasion, w.. al .. od)' '" p",,'a!ent Won: the IoCtUal genocide beg ... , that m."y Tu";:lttmod ｾｹ＠ ""'igncd to ,heir o!. ugh.", when t( fuuJIy arriYcd (I« Gourevilch 1998). Pnm;"r (1995: 228) aw "did the piottc" octYaily think tbey rould corry it ofI?' He and McNu[t}' (1999a: 96) think they d"'!, .,><1 they almoot ,<><=«kd au. _ C"o'<n dioreganhng the manifat inhumanity - "'... io ",,:uoo to <Jucotioo whnh« d""i,du>g to '."gage in the g<DOCHk of. mojo< oc!,nent of "'. popuI •• tioo, ,,1,.,1, w... u[>po<'cd by. diJcipfut«l irovad;ng umy th.l had been h.lled only by • nego<ia"d «_·f"", in .be f_ 01 int<rna,ion.ai pow<1'I",.d)' to apply iDa,;"g ..."'tKotu [of "'" octually int<JV<ne), <an be eaIIcd "r'OIiorutI:. w.. iI ffiOf'< rational Ih.,.. 'ryin8 to .... the offlC;'[ .nd unollieial _ " they "ill """,roUe<! 1<. maneu,,"' tll<mscho:o into on acceptable, jf dimin"hed, poIition In the I'<CW I)'!!cm? I ､ｯｵｾＮ＠ timple -yaM is _ ible. Ro'II<" this m.y be. c... cl On< was. bar_ v.....,'*f/id -' _1roJ 'If lilt ,.,. !code" bd;"";", in ....i, ""'" ..tj"j""iIYinI ｾＬ＠ on<! c.ou/(h' up ;" tb< r.:a...nd ,I"U ,h.ey ＬＱ＾ｮｭ＼ｾ＠ Ir.a", tKatt:oi If 10, they .......,!d 0>01 II< "n"",al. I "'I"" "'whe.. (1'efJwon 1m, 407, '200 I: 11»- 106), tIr.at iI • """ <rf .... - * dcpr.... " _ _ II <rf """. d.." thooo who iniIw., ｾ＠ b<Iio<Yo in .... ha,""" moral COI'n:dnao of .... ao ....,. d0- n.. sonooido .......... the ............... of ... "...0- ｾ＠ on<! It illUO<ra1<S ,he -.I 10 F' bqonnd lhe I.abd "rtImi< aonIIi<t. " n.a. calth· ........ '" • applied 10 ｾ＠ ........ culn.no.I difl"CRII<l< • 0>01 critical ... cwo pn:oo:t>l, and ""'" in the moa r.aIimo ｾ＠ ouch as Rwan.r:b, i, I""""'" 00 I>< a rn.ioItadiag rWdc to ,I>< .....,Itrpmcno of ........... We: -.I '" dcoodop • _ _ upb bu, ""'"' ..u.or: ｾ＠ of how a • ｾ＠ inro and thapto vioIn>t ottugIe. To do tIr.at. _ .,...,... oC ｾｩｲ＼＾＠ """'" a pe' ............ tIr.at cad ｾ＠ｾ＠ from prbaI """"""'Dc IrCDds 10 toc.l cultunI oymboIo. Rwand>.n ｯｩｭ＼Ｎｾ＠ｾ＠ hnplkaUo ... or ..... (or aathropolofY A> -.,,\ '" ,boo IW1 oflhio inllU<luc,ion. ... ＬｾＬＬＢＧｩｯ＠ .. , <10M: """",n'..- wilIr intno .....'" W>Itno< in tb< 19700 and 1911Oo th>JI<:nt«I pnctiIionen to 6nd ｾ＠ IOrmo <rf ronaIysio, and ｾｮｴｬｊ｜＠ '0 find new ways 10 poIitDIy .-..pond 10 the oloo<..-!. Analytically, tb< ............ D<d '0 OYOIt'ml 01 rneanintI: and ""'rtappins freld. 01 JXMU. EAhicoll)\ ,he main raponoe W;M \h.o., ... lhropoiopu <»<rid bear wi",.,., "I""" and ",;'e ",airut oem>< """ IlIUally <>ri«:inatcd within the ｾｲｭＢＧＱｴＯＮｾＧＢ＠ -u.t matri:.. and wao dincted down ...ord >ali.,.. ｾ＠ nen\ll (Rob/xn a nd 5"....·0r0u0 2000: 12i Sluka 2OOOb: !I-13, 30; Ｕｾ＠ 1991: 2%-231, W.,.",n 2000: 229- 231). ])ul"", wi,h tho: poIi';'" oC the RugotJ and"Tha1Ckr era, the idea tJf ....mug wi,h j><OI,I. ; " po>w<:r '" """'n viokn« I«m«l a """, ,ra<iiction in ter_ Simil. rl)\ .. ...ri ..... """'iIlg from the more troditional anl hmpolosy 01 W&l' tried II> arappI. with ,h. C<>Id W.... (Roo"" and Rub.m.. in 1966; Rubin"d" ond ",",er 19I16; Tu ..... r and ｉｾＢ＠ 1989), I cautior..d abou. din:cli"ll "m <lIOn. 10 policy unter .. "'hktr would .... <>nIy whal furthered alrtady ... ablio..,d polo. R.o,l\tr, [ arwued. anlluopolopu ,.,.... .11] .hould '''8"8'' ",i,h """"" poIilico - .. kilo:: ocrioody OIl<Ia<krinJ OIl .., i.tid ., baoio oppo<1uni .... lOr "'P'" policy (re,!",<", 198&, 1969: 15+-159). Time. d ... ,,«,,- Many ...trcr were ...... <:t>mnri1ted '" "<>ppIn( JUP<'l"""'" ;"..."t.."metI' in "p<o:r1y....,.." ..... I>OW lOr more ｾ＠ｾｭｴｒＧ＠ 0( vanow <><pniuciona - .... NATO..... UN, Nco. - 10 ｉＧｦ＼Ｂｾ＠ lOop 01 ｾ＠ from IoeoI poluocal ""*'>ce. 11111 undtntandinc oC ,ho nuon 0( ""el, ""'IlI!k>. limi'«I,.nd _ ...........lIy in ..... C<II1«pouai d............. I0_ 'irqr will be ｾ＠ kaliom "" ..""-'!r _.fuI o.orROt in policy cirdo:o - Ilao b-mulajed • _ ... te-«II.emI p;rndip1 b ｾＬ＠ ... dcal ibn\in pieces 1hroughoo.o. lI"s 'n.e ....,..'" .. wnI< <Utet, wfIich <aJ <thnic S""'P' '" n:a<l 10 _ h "" ........ oqy lID<> do in into"",botuo.I - anan:h)I" ..... """ _lion io '" build up " ....... -.: «n ..... Stwno, ...nmnc ....,. '' Q us. tall"" ["""duc''''''. in,,,...... 19 ,..>lisa ... ｾ＠ th. will be difficul1 '0 do ",hilt ｡､｢･ｲｩｮｾ＠ 10 ....01"'" <rf human rip .. lA-yoob 1998: ｾＹＺ＠ 7.. nman ＱＹｾ＠ 269-271) - ""- than dimcuI. I .......1d N)\ on<! how.......1d it be done? dear. If friclrw,ln&, policy JUlddin<s, IU<h .. Kaulinann Ottre.. ｾ＠ (1996, 1997). Hio b-muJa lOr iN..... nin(;1\ """.....a:tdUUy.-rMng - etluUt: <:MI waq- • 10 " ' - ..... oidc 10 "'PI""" (OIl ,""", ptlO1ft<Ia irr _ spr:died). dnw a otpara<lon line be",,«n ...... widr dill'eren, ",t.n;.; tlUljoriria. """"PI' .... rnritory inaidc .... line, and ...... Ｍｾ＠ populariono. ｾ＠ "On.:., ,he ｾ＠ • oompiorc, .. ｾ＠ .. lmic:o ill cwto:rd)I ...... Ix mood '""""'" ..... ｾ＠ bn<. At .... same ' ........ 1iioencIy ｾｦｴｩ｡＠ who ""'" '" ｾ＠ from bqonnd that line - .... """" IikoIy; art> ｾ＠ by .... oppooi" ..... _ ""'" Ix ..... rled" (1996: ＹｾＷＩＮ＠ Thon ....... an: ""'" """" Ii-ip................. _ ooh>tionI Ix"" IO<trefuIy """""-d: a ""- opinor the _" policy 0( """"tint divirrlono -run rival "ciYiIiuOono- (o<op<riaIIy "Confurian- ..... hlamio:) (tluntinprn 1m: ｾＹＩ［＠ rapod on<! ｾ＠ ..... 01 military "'= apiruo.." ｾ＠ ........ (\Ian C-.:kll99l : 198); or a""""" mt:nt:diry of walIine: "", ....... penditrt: onarcI>y (K..pan ＱＹＴｾ＠ It it -'I worth "";"8 tIr.at <rf tho: COIIItbr..,.. '" thirr """rD<, tho: moo, aplicio call tOr anrtuopoiopu to ｾ＠ ""'....."'" in policy iorueo """"" !rom "" iIl...,....,ionaI ,..ta.;."" .......... Yolo ｾＮ＠ I ｾ＠ witlr him (thougb not bo:eo._ .,l cllU11ayoo11)'). Ceruinl)l ...... will _tin ... 10 Ix a I"':a1 many aitwr""'" ....... nd the ...,.!d w .......... hropoIocua wiD be.:alled on 10"';'" >ali ..... th< ..... oppruoion 0( IoeoI pr:opIcs. ... ｍｾｹ｢ｵｴＭ ......... h... er"lOO<lraged us all '" do. 8u. it ...... our ruponsil>iJi..,. ' 0 "'Ip develop """" allemalM WII)'! of ocdns ond <blin! wilh tho: terrible W:>Ier>ce 10 <OmmOI11y bI=king ,.,,, betwttn diff.""" ｾＢＧ＠ .. ""'. a nd <iirn<,;"" of a _ • . Wha, can :ullhropologio" ...,.,at.... """,rot COtl itibnre1 ＢＬ＠ and .. hnici..,. in .. la,;" .. '" W..... apply our u",!c ..... "eting <rf ｯｾｩｴ ronfli.cL I, io <om""", 10 ..ad .ron·""d,,,,,,,,,,,*,,,, opeaking of Ill.,.. as fIXed and bounded. Cul,u .. and ethnic divi.iono ... i""''''nlly fluid - ron ....«I, .. lee,..., alwa)'! an in •• rpretation. They ..it< in "'..""' •• net ",riat"", .. 1iL: j=, '. Jean J '<OlOn h.. "'88"'.«1 aboul <uitu'" A> Maybwy-I.cwio ohallcng<> u.. ..,th",. p<>Iofy an and oIrould mak i, do.,. !O " ...... " ... orn.r ><hoIan, poIq makert, and anyon •• Ior: ".. can .. ach, .trar adrunJ ilil&:n=n<a and idcotitioet ...., 0>01 by na""" =II";"'" al,lroo.r#r ,hoy <<ftaillly on .., ｷ｡ｾ＠ Our pooition ....... Ix nuanced. St",re. dMo;" ....... of cui ...... "". wed '"' _af""" in ..,.,.. of the coafIic" dcxriIl<tl in Ihirr 1>ooL 8u, propI< ......, .... k jul. ｾ＠ tOr ,..al ｾ＠ 0100 opptal to Io<aJ me>njnp &nd idcntitio<o mobiIi.. "'f'PO". Srrug\<> lOr ....... an: ;ru".,.""r!y confli<tM, and coollic, ｾ＠ bound>.ry b-m .. o:rn. Sdmo IO<t .,l "" ....... divioion io built ;"10 "'" proc:ea Bu, th. <an Ix clone in diflerenl WO)", ...... ....tica!Iy di!Ce.-.n. ｾ＠ ... PoIitiea! and military ｾ＠ .... br ....... ....0.:.. and ""'"" ....oe 'kl' '0 ...;,.hIe ............... irr a dr:u-cul, pr:.....t .......". • ＠ｾ That io """"'" ",""nre of ｾ＠ｾ＠ rom< in - oonj"""t; "I' dulOoic arItutaI othen tIr.at n«d 10 br ｾＮ＠ Tho, ;. when: tho: reaJ ""'rq:nneurt """" ...... Vio/mr '"'!f/KI oNi ""'''''' Y c"" ､｡ｮｾｲ＠ I;'" too.)\ and ,..1><", kuk ""thropo>logM:aI ｾｲｮＢ＠ bo: .pplioed. W. oooid ",,1;""ly Jl"'>I"O'< II>< ide. of a world OOInmuniry wrucl> reopoo:t.I no! only huma" right$, 00t oloo cultural dille",,,,,,,,. Il<action 10 ""Y claim of ••<If· itl<ntif...t p«>pk lOr ｩｲＢ＼ｮＮｴｾ＠ """'S"ition oc I>< .. in,!: """Id I>< link<! ｣ｸｰｉｩｾｹ＠ to • rom"'''",.n, to ""f"'Ct rultul'lll cliff."' ...... One propI<', righto <1>.1 wlM:", onotl>er _""., ｾ＠ I><po.. The roocrpt oould aloo I>< !>roup' in", po&,. con.oO:le.....",. B<caU1< of th< dispano'" l>a.or.. of ,ul'I"'" lOr idrn",_ group<, aI"rn.tiv< group IOrm.tion. may I>< poooibic. If one ｰｯｬｾ［ｷ＠ r..:.ioo. _b to ｭｯ｢ｾ［ＧＢ＠ <Xp'<!io:nccd h.rtlohip and pctuMd di>reopect by ｾｮＡ＠ .. "",OtJVCtCd '''''my ",hr.r, diIf.",nt Ie.... " " "'y I>< ahk ' 0 build a comp<tin! mo...""""t I,\, brihsi"ll togotl><r a diJfer=t oonsteUat;"" of ident;t;'" in. mor< corutructi.... , «><>perativ< potb toward rcdr .... For outoi<.lc pawt" ..... p<Thapo ,I>< moot pr<><IuctM path 10 • p<acdiJl ,."..Jd order m.y be; '" ""nlif)\ ＮｮｯＺＬｾ＠ｾｮ､＠ if ...".j be to proI<Ct in«rru.l poli'icaI """"""""'" whlch und<....... d and addrtoo local nee<h and valo .. in a non_violent ｷ｡ｾ＠ (Wh<n th< h"'ory of tI>< ""'""'" ,...,. io written. on< of 1M pel Icoooru from i, willI>< bow little WlU doD< to ouppo<O ooch domatic """"",,",nl> ｬｄ＼ｭｪｾ＠ 2000: 3$-31).) ａｨ･ｭｯｾＬ＠ dToru 10 r«:Orutru<. a mono civil """i<ty ojIn coIIc<:tiv< violence could be; """" tA"octiv< if ,hop«! by bel"" undc...t.ndh'5 I>f whal kind> of p«>pI< ｾ＠ in th< hard an, and whal k..nds ""'''' drown in later, ""d 00 might b< mor< ewy "p<eIod uIT" ｾ＠ could oloo <lIpand our n>k '" ".,..,....,..Itural ｴｲｾ＠ " Anthropologioto do !hia alJ"ady when they .how bow p«>pI< irM>M:d in viole""" ..., the world or<>UJ>d them . Rut ryp;c..u)l our ",..Iero ""'" I><cn otha- Il<adcmieJ 0< ooIic,l!< Ｂｵ､ｲＮｮｬｾ＠ One an imagin< &J>O<h<r roo", wi""" , _ all,hropologisu ....".t;,,8 tog<ll><r ｾ＠ to ＢＧｾｴ＠ the ｾ＠ I>f ｾｒｧ＠ group<, 10 e""h un bel,", ｾ＠ emotioru and reut.. Thio """""'" I>< """" unde .... ond tI>< other·, ｰ＼ｲｴｩｯｮ prodoctiw if inlOr:mcd by 00;'; CODC<p1> of conIl;c, ruoiution, os in Ury (1 999) 0< lIopmann ＨｮＮ､Ｎｾ＠ It coold be done bcI'on: viole""" occun, ｐＢＧｾ＠ or ofte .. wardo. Tho"" ,",'ho advoca'e "",.",,;"n os a ooIulion for ethnic viole""" do '" bttaUJ< they bel ...... reconciliation aflCr ,och bIoo<hhro ;, imp=iblc. Ｌｾ＠ os "ide"""..,,," """""'''''''<0 01""': W.mon oboerv.:o, the "",,",ic,h ""ntury ｴｨｾ＠ " ...tag<m .... "'" nordy ｩｭｾ＠ ..bIy at ..... with "ach h""""""c firmly t!to.t oppooition ;, oorutnx'od at a tri-= _ T i l . Soolh Mrica, Gu",<m.aJa ond Arg<ntina haw cluted comrniniom to «tahli>h "troth ond rttOOCil .. tion" among t...... "r,,",rly at (oJtI>oo.Igh It.::", bodies oloo ""moru""" tho dilf>cultics in ",aching cith<r goal) (AVTlICh . nd Vej . ......" 2001; War... n :.!QOO, 2J2 233). Soch bod;';. could in ,I>< fllIu", include an,hropologisu ooeking ' 0 J>f'<'><f'I ｾ＠ culturol interpr<la';"". in ｾ＠ way migh' lOo'er better mutoW undemanding. "'''''h« fundam<ntal COt"""P< of ＮｮＧｾｉｕｊ＾ｏｯ［＠ holiom, which in on< .."" mean. that .oocictic.1hoYld bo: approached .. oom?l<x integrated oy>!enl1. In the anthropology of WM, ｨｾＢ＠ theu h .. !>Nn a Iot'g>"'nding di""'" betWH" _ who .uk <lI]>l:mation in the material ba>eo of ooci.aJ life, or in the "Y'nboh • "d unde"tonding> of local cul,u",. In my view. boIh of lh_ po>iliom bovc OCIW advanced, ""pomdy. 10 lIw: wile", ",aI oynthaio is possible - OJ I ""* 'h, P""" 1 IN ,,,,,, .1 "'11"" r<ganlin8 ｹｾ［＠ wa,fa", (Ferpooo ＲｏＱｾ＠ 80th the ne.od lOr: and !he f"""'bility of _h oyntheoa .... even mor< _ n , in ｾｮｴ＠ identiry-linkro viole,..,.. i\o th< ourn .... f)' which bepn the prt:Yioou. ocction indicat... unda.... ndin,!: ouch conIli.:t cn'a.ib IooIcing at .u O>J><Cto of • """iocultural >yoIe"" fmm the moot e.......ro ...ＮｴＬｾ＠ '" the moot pr",,1ic;d exigencieo of malting a lmng. Thia volum< doe. not exhatl$l wha, ne<:do 10 be br<>«gh' in. 10 doeo not addtao the entin: ..."" of ｾ＠ in ",latioo to> .,.;.,Ienc<, which 00 .o:hieYed policy promiIl<tlC< under tt.:: btl< of "envirorum:ntal occurity" (l-Iome .. O;""" 1999; ｈＢＬＭｾ＠ anti ｒｬｾＬ＠ＱＹＸｾＢ＠ Al:to in th< tmt;tion of t.oliom, under_ "antI;'>f; require> a.. ention '" roetors ..". .... ing fium ,I>< moot gJ.ob,al to ,he moot Iocallevrio, and the ,"",""Ooru b<tw.oen ,I><m.. ａｮｾ＠ t.oliom Un offer ... altcr ... ,;", to "",pic: ｾｮ､＠ inlOCCurale ltIOI><>"auoal "".........,.,.. ';.ua,;"'; the ",aliry ol ",""",unal >'iok""" along """'" c...> dim<nsiom of oymboilO "'I .... renee and locoJ 10 global Dtw:loping a of io"""lalro, impon... t facton, ouch .. _ outlio<d in .hi> Introduction, and applying;' '0 .ny ｾｮ＠ oaoe would be laboriou!.. lko, i, ｾ＠ I ｉ＾＼ｾ＠ offer a cle .... " """"" """"""e under:! ... nding of h...... viokn' conflict "",ually """"" aI"",-, &I illu",.te<! by Ill< R .... ndan '-"or. I,...,,,,,, ......... pnc_ ticaIIy illun, .... ting lOr: ",aI .ituatiom ｴｾ＠ olalisOCal approact.::. _ling '" identify common denorn .... ton of violence. And lOr: ito rornpl<K, multi.factorial ..... ure, i, offe .. """" boo" and path ....Y' to tl<n.illooomotive> of destruction. Anthropology eon join in .utUdioc¥in....,. .. udy .,.,d "'-.onG<ptuali<at;"" of ",he ,"'e," aboul wkich oor own and othen' ＧｾｦＩ＠ io mudl Ie .. oophioticatro th.n it io "" ethnicity. .!be Ieooooo n"m political oclo""" about "'ifYing the "at<. OS empJwt'-l by ｾ＠ Fef8UlO". fll .... Uwith ,I>< ""'" p"""'n.ro I><n:, wh;';h high_ light th" """""'" variation in both the inotinl1ional 'Y'I<:m. ｾｮ､＠ n'tiono! <ontrot ol olata. ｈｾＮ＠ fOe ... on "tt.:: ..."," ;, "ill in onIo:r, Ii""" ｾ＠ ill control of gov<Tnm<nto·within-bO<tk .. Iha! ia ... ually the oo;.:cli"" of ""'''e.. a''" in -'<>lent the otruggIa, and ,he conttpt of "oludow "...," offe .. new -Y' '0 ｾ＠ ... .... A. pr<:Viously noted, the tcalia< pr<e<tiption iO< =ent ,urmoil io '" build up centnl a ",botity. But i\ is primorily It.:: """" a uthoril1rian !]O"em"",,", of ,I>< USSR thOI ha", ""I",n.:n«:<! 1M ""a,.,t in",rnat viole""" in recenl l"''''' (.o.kl.aev n.d.; Motyl 1997), and ;, has be<1> the I><:wy handed policy of Indian !]O"ernrn<"" wh.ich hos gene ..",d the proIractro rebeU;"" in KaoIuni, (G.nguly 1997; 230)."" i\o noocd a< the ,Ur< of th;. in,<"O<fu<tioo, ... ｴｨｾ＠ .. h>"" r"" h>,l<\lmowk:dge of "'","1 oulTeriRg unOo:r a dnrn ....ting 8"""'rnrn<nt can bring We ｾＮｯ＠ lha. point, loud and clear, in ",!at;.,., to the fu",,,, of -w. . k·' or "coUol"i"ll" ".t<O. ·The <q>O<' ol the ｣Ｎｲｾ＠ C<>mm"'ion on Pr=nting [)e;odly Coofl;c, e<>ncludeo (1997: Ct."",.. 4) lha, ultim:otely ",truc.ur:o.l pt=en· ,;""" requm >wtainat.it tlevelotxnent, relJlKl lOt human righto, "",,-violen' diopu« raol",ion, ",aI democracy, .nd oocial juuicc (oee . 1.., i!"""" ond de ,.long< Qu.dru, 1997). Thia is ",,""I .... ht'Clpt'logi<aI and other peON tnean:hc .. refer to 1U ""p<>!itiv< pe"",,; a nd 'he "",cl;,;"", ""hieh C"""gic identif..... oontributi", to tl<adly conIl.,t . '" "llnx.ul'lll >'>ole"",,- (Sponsel 1994). If ｾ＠ rom.... rno_. ｾＲ＠ II. &- lio/iol ' " "'" "",,,", of Ib""'" /ioroo.- hiMo.y .. ....,. ",id.. MNO\u .... ",,*=,.,. will "'" Ii< .....Ｂｾ＠ ..,ry. I..,a""""" rdaliono theoriot Wend, ( 1999: 171 -,n) Ia)a> of """,.. ioM*eo C\d'uroi ｾ＠ loy t-ty oaln1W """"'" b <on,raI ｾ＠ """"it< """ r=<n' .M. "._jo,,,., ....... _ s-nunen....... pa-., mum,nc ｾ＠ ohotold It... "iJtI' ...... _ no,....,.,;.... and many type> 01 """"""'" YioIo::rn. If sIoIMIiom ;, ,.......... " ...'" Iooundorieo in many wayo, they "'" ..;II funolon>rnt.ol «IR>IinMiv< <kmcnu cl P' : lit! cl in...·..'" vioItnoo. G.8.... ｾ＠ q( authtJoiry buod on ｾ＠ 01 ,..,., rotbcr ,hon ....,.;."n.I conoml - .. '"'" Ii>< <iU< ,hroo..:gh much q( humankind', 1'*"" be ....., R<p away &om ｾＬ＠ and fully ,ho """Mine b(Iriz(In'" q( px..Jisrn. sunor, of ｾ＠ Sua" (1998: 118-219) ,... conoitI<OT obviou, ｾｭｰｬ｡Ｇ＠ ne'''''''' .. ' ....... .. n 'I)' '0 100. bo.cIE or try to Iool ,.., ,n. vi<w io ..rio<aIy hozy in both dire<tiono. II io ｦｾｲ＠ ""'" de" how ul<rul it ｾ＠ to <ti& in lite .",ad;'n mi". cl ,o. _ ... and political oorutructiono oh.o, cw."" bdo,,, tho F... ..",.&n in' I'<"i';""." W<U then _ IooIE ., the po<:l<n'_ rot <l«.deo - and 'rw .. '" ""'" "railed otat"'" boon .. sp«tod in in'ern"""'" "'" ..... <bou, o"y oWiry dcl,,,,, to their rropk: "")" of ,he n.. int<ma.ionaJ commu · .. ru..:.... and ...,..mito .....,;.'.d ..... 'b ｾｮｭ｣ＧＮ＠ nity'. exduti"" (!XU, 0<1 " ... """,'nmenu proltibits .....ｨｩｾｬＡ＠ moderating ",bborulUpo will, 011"" poIitl<oi mtitito 01 ,ub-ot.o.•• ｰ･＼＾ｉｾ＠ and mayocto.<aIly mm;,ww, th<m. It impooeo major limilatiooo fOr &f'!"<*'h",« poIitiW violence ... ｾ＠ pn>bImJ l.... Ilabo! 1\197). A, Ill< .......ime. th< world o:xL>.y io full of poIiIio:>J ＢＧｕｾ＠ .. hl<h It.... a "1J!<Oi'I ....,,,. oIn:a<Iy (lbl$ldo:: the IW"""'" ｾ＠ q( what .... ｾ＠ ohould be. Pumo IU<o, the r .... AJoociat«l S..... (... ;, ill tiIIod in Spaniob) """ born....., """ more \hort half. o:mury (lee ｾ＠ｉ｟ｾ＠ boo i - t>«OI'I"Ic _ . And Eurnp.... oountrito. of rourw, on: oIo..whins oK ODe vital chanc ... iot ... oIltOtthood ofkr """""". I. ill "'" • ｾ＠ of .-.:wn"'c '" Ii>< ｾｴｩｯ［｡ｉ＠ .. ruo ..... of .... eo.rlO:r <p<>d>.it "'" W<I'O ....... ｾ＠ As oqordo !Iw: "".' • • the,,, ..., ido::2I alrrady out !Iw:<. ..midt ............. dooot, thon ."" icIea of ........ how ＬｴｮＺｾ＠ ,,",cs wio;".,.." ｾ＠ hounan rich ..... 0«11 in KakIor'. (I99'Jjoo t:.lk',( 19!I!>. 2000) nils '" pobaI inotiI....."" '" <.... t ....... and 01-. or Gonticb.. (1993) ......... ,... nooiono" ｾ＠ to n:eogn .... II<W poIitl<oi "'........ ri<tie> q( ｾ＠ and <""" "'- '0 0<1' oe\ """"'* poi"" ......... .:00""', the _Nity """ in ........ ＢＭｾ＠ Iocd, ｾ＠ and _""' " .....Ioptd poIiciod ...........a 0... poiD' """ ---.,....;...br ... ' I ,.tion;, the p:rn-=- <5:ctJ 01 ｾ＠ｾ＠ 1nio ;, ....., ..... Iinb&< ｴＮ｣ＺｮＭｾ＠ tho< tllrn:a' in............ .,...,.., 11>< - . aI 10 .,..t£m ......... bo: ｾ＠ ""'" tbo: io.., ....,;".w is 01 (.OIIUflOft a""",,,,ioN. To iptoro: that cuIrure;, to "'PI"'"' .... .wuo ""'" ........... hao ill alkd b ...... - he _ - io • "<I<sip .,.;.,nl1lion. " 0....." Ioir.e tltio 100 w. Antl\ropolt>ly"""'" III that n<"W p;oGbcoi b _ "'" "'" (;IEdy to fOllow ."Y precono<M<l plan - thq ,..;0 .,..,.... in pnctic<, u hwnan hiolory. Vet pIanniot« can moiu: • ..,01 ｾ＠ '" they ' - " Ｇｨｾ＠ tIw: dftcUono. '""""''' ｾＮＬ＠ widt th< Bow " R<aI..,.liom" ...... 1tOibiIioioro "" Iookin& .. tIw: IMIiIin 01 p.boi <bckJpo,oeo .......... ')'II<mt. ｾ＠ . , . - . . .nd <thnit ..... aoha identity-linkd fX)(Joim, 10 i<ItnUY eoio::ulatcd anm can ｾ＠ｾ＠ proceu. '" VoDoloo! (1998: 6-1) """'"" rqordins ｾ＠ Afric>., _ mip: thinII 01 "'"'" rim< in ....... of ''''' ....... tioNofy thoor)o 01 p ..,,,........,,! oquilibo-ia, ..nrn. wIw nnetI'" - . !Iw: nex' rew ,.,.... d JU\I<tUR" poIiIicoIl"""""' b <it>coo<Io "'<om<. Thill io iooopecoolly impofunI ...... ... pin .........".....,.;..:.and '" try ... IErqt an opt1I onind. T"","","- ;, ｾ＠ ............ point> 00It. ChanDdo of """"".... and .... ruponotion will be "w"t1 ..... """"""'" aI ..... I<vrl, and rUD<tiono JUdt,., the ..... cl puotpOnI .... o<iII be pc"""""! -..cwht:.., bo:ca_ p«>pI< I)<ed ........ <It",«,- A<coonmodationo wiI be ｾ＠ f'toIIl -..ill bniId ...ro.d "ruc""u, if oIlowcd to. lJ". oil oh.o, "(I be dont: ｾｴ＠ • <.".121 ｾ＠ｾｯｩ＠ controt ""'" it> tWm<d """""" rr in 11M: ru,,,,,, ...... kopod indwtrial naoiono Ih<mot)...,. "o",fOrmin! in", new \:indo .n<! """,. of """,,"'m -.,.. =!"iffi:! '" <leaJ witlt . _ Ite, of diff..."t 'YI'<' of politico. !hot ;..., rt:uon to panic. Wt:: hOY< bd:n ",.,. befu< •. It.oot:d ａｮｾ＠ C<II>Id join t.hoot oln:lIdy q.....ioning the " th< """,";, the 1UncIarncfo.... ｾ＠ Ioc>J peo«: ond ,be in..",..;."w otd<t (David ＱＹＸＺｾ［＠ 110M 1996: 2Ot). The unMnaI """ of_;, a wrin"" "" pbneo.. !\<ale> and "",,_ fl<IIitlaoI 'l"'''''''' b.oM: bo::<:n inrimal<iy """oeocd ...... <ht ｾ＠ of Eunlpan <"P ........... and ;...- liDo< th< ｾ＠ 0I . .1a (1'<:'11"""" and v,'hi ..h<ad 200000; Wolf 1982). N", ｾ＠ can ｾ＠ boo ｾ＠ aNI ooopentioII t.c:n-a diIkrftI, kinds 01 pobtits. bu, ｾ＠ th< ",rribI< COOIJ the hole 01 and ｾ＠ .,..,- oome __ un" """ n Not ... h."" M""o(_ ........... dio<_ 0' 0 .. ...,.,oftlt< 1\191 ｍｾｯｦｴＢ＠ A.m<t"rin N"1rnIpoIoci<aI 8o<i<ty", 1)(:. ".,.,.,. .... '" ,labo<ti<d, compo..,.!, . ... dio<:uoI<d'" ｾ＠ ' ok<!"Th< SWe Ubdt, sq."", April HIM - ｾ＠ tit< ...,. d.>.yo ... ''''' .... ｾ＠ ... in Rwondo _ at .... """ y"" Ao:odo:m)' of Scio; ...... and tit< Ruu",h io< tit< Scudy of Man. -n.. -">hop ..... rW>Ol<d .,. tit< w.:n--(lmt ｾＮＩＰＱ＠ｾＱＮＬ＼＠ .... Eosd p«O<fltcd " _ , "" T..pkiow< .. b<>th , .......... ..t.idt ｾ＠ _ be in<k>d«I ""'" du< ., !Po otbcr ｾ＠ ........... KaroUoicl<tot ..... _ in .... MA ""'"'" t..t;o;.><d '" in Now YotI. "_ _ of ,!rio """""""" .... ...:I .-..-. .. F<ltnt0l}" ｾ＠ ... "'" ｾＧＢ＠ｾ＠ "" I\oii<i<aI 1'0"• ...:I I'tacc .. tb< e:-"'''4AA_, \\IoIId. .. "'" c.-. lor GIoItoI ...:I C o",,, R.q<en- 1'0""'""""". In""_ ,._*d '999 ., • v-. '="_t.-: a...... ,I i I - . 1 ..... lOoMnIt....,..._ioI aJI- 1 ""'" _p:ntt<! ..,., .... I .. ｾ＠ｾＮＬＭ｟ｴｨ･Ｇ 1b- ........ "' .... _ ... ｟ｾＮｷ _ _ o( _ _ _ ｯｉ｟ｾ｡ｦＢＧＭ -,OOOO1or ..... ....... !P"< ."..:>o! tbMb ........... ＨＮｵｬｬ｟ｾ＠ _ ｟ｗｾ＠ , 'fbc ｾ＠ "" tltoo",,- ｾ＠ be _ ..,. _ _ ............ To " , , - ..... dw. Ｐｉｴ｜ＧｾＢ＠ it Itoo ...... _ ... IWMa H..... (l99'l), """,..-.. 10 .. 0 p<>IiIoI_ ..... ;".p.drd ........ｾ＠ do. ｾ＠ 0( "" ""'" """"""''''''' Or OIl M..... ..... '-< .... ;, _...-- of hio . . . - , 0( "" I 44 """""""!ftic' <1Ii-,,", of ..... ,.... ＱｉＮｾｎｯｰ＠ ............. the <YJI<m t<II beawe ",10""", of prodo<<ion I<od booomt r.,t<N en the thr "1'1' ........ 1ors<"""'I' 01 ..." """""'" (GuWlkri d __ 19l1li; U.bon ond SI......" 1991; W...... 19930). 12 A""", t>.ampk of thio ;, Vankanrn (1 _ 181- II19)...too ....... tlw .....,. .... Dono!. triboI. nociaI, .......... htopiool<. cuI ...."J, or 'o","'."w ..... "",... no. <n><w cb.o.-act<riotic 01 olI ....... I" <Wmr, • ,... """""""...'" ｾ＠ .-. ""''''y "ia!«I «I eodt ""'"' tiw> '" the _ .... ool:o<r _ . tIwo lhry olI ."", b< pm:e;..d .. c>"...!<d kin p>up _ . , io tIwo • ＬＰＱｾ＠ ..ru.-.""] ""JH'<Mion of _ _human ｟ｾ＠ to m&Unio< ｾ｢ｶ＼＠ h><.... ｯｦｾＮ＠ "'' ' ' ' '...,..»'''''''1'' the P'-"« of ".n b< pouen' "';Ih<>u, • !, IhoWd b< ""'-«I tlw Coopn- (1m) «>n<:Iud<o tlw ;. ;, _ ""opt>nO .... If _. '*_ -..do....,. of the tlw I..d , '6 . . ."' • . I. ,aim ", • ....... ,.d. Coopn- aIoo "'f'pIy; ...rn .. ,..." wh<n: """ oi<Ie ;, Ｌｾ .wn.. ｾｯｲｹ＠Ｌｬｏｉ＠ｾＢ［ＮＬｵｬ＼､＠ on<l jl<llKy ｾ＠ ;., Mml by - . .....-1 .".,... ."""t 13 CoI!ieT &n<l 11_1100II) fuod th.o, "'Y h;p rthtoic ｾ＠ 10 ..".,..""elI .... h. """ Hl«hlKood 0( <onIIk' ｢＼ｾＢ＠ _ no. ｾ＠ IiUlihooO ｾ＠ ...toe. > popIli.tion ;, -.d""o juot "'" ｾ＠ _, 1+ It .. otte. ｟ｾ＠ that da>I "oaIy1io "" be<ft Irf\ b<hftI by the .,,,,,,,,,, ....... rcDC<.· ｌＬｾ＠ thio ... oIF«ed by ｾ＠ ..,. ｳＮｾ＠ rum", ....,,..] ""''''"''I - "''''fuvntOnuC>: • ｾｴｉｏ＼ﾭ "'-'>_ . ..... 0< """"""., . . . . . . ...,;00, ｾＮ＠ Ift,d, I ')""';"" of !<on. In<! oyrnbob _n' Ruooio. o/fr", _ " ' conIlk ... ...., """"""'"' Jfl<""'C'" undorlrinl thrm Ihuw up f'<l'<"edIy .. ht<T ...... abo - . 110>, "h;le «toni< ｾ＠ """<I' .. _ . n""""'" I' I ｉｾ＠ ,n... .... ""- """" nom. _ ｾＢ＠ 1<><;,] _101 " ""N'tl (... """, ... <1<,) _ <an "",,,,",,,f< '" pOblKol .....x.iliution " - ｾ＠ • If<" tIeaI 01 "",.lion in -....,.. "",W ..",..,...",. '''''''"'' boo, th< .. ""'" I<od bul< _ie:aoion .,.;,h "".. " to ,10< ｾ＠ of vinIon, otrugI< d<",ibed lor.. I)tnki.... nd ScOoc1 ＱＹＧｾＺ＠ 119, ｾＱ＼ａ､｡ｭＬＧＢ＠ 19'16, ｾ＠ 1_76). Al""""h """" ｾ＠ de.,.1y """" 10< oriented I ｾ＠ ""'.. of ]lOI>'"iu bioioopti< »Titin,p oboo, on ｾ｟ＢＧ＠ I' Bee..... 01. ｾ＠ male ｾ＠ 01 ...... vioIt_ '" <Dlom« and .."..oo..tt;... dwoceo (0,1'. W"",,, .00 Doly I9!]S). ｾ＠ ohouId be - . d th.o' .n ",,101 I""""-' """ <rt>tc<J< of occiolIy IUp<rlIwIoo _ Ihins _ lou "" >n>loIu< "' ....,. ,t-;,u' ｾ＠ 01 the <YOiu.x....y """""'m<ntl of thr h ...... """'''', !Ix .... "'" ","<f n : _ ｾ＠ 20(111.10'); ｾ＠ .. ]>n>V<O'I. 'hio oIoooJl<l _ be mioto.t<n ..... y kind of Ｎｾ＠ '*' "ad,,", ",it..... 01 ｾＮＬ＠ wit"" ""'- .... <boo, ok.d',. ....... ...a mOfkeu; "'" • """"I _ MotAiot """"'""" """"fC< "",,]'<tiIioon Ioo.J. ., diIJ=ntW po>IicicaI "'"" ]MaOOn """ thr role of ,Ioe """- Thry ooncloodr that <ith<, ..,..... of I'aIioooI <Mice tIoe<o<y, boot <tp<eWIy the IO<mrr, ｾ＠ 0<And opWt <to< .... nif... 01 , ...... "', r<!;sion. ond .....,;puiatc<l ........... llowe....... tIWO)' . - . ;, ;, otiII ....,. <k.. tlw ,"',," «IOIIlirt io .datod .. ""'" ｾＮ＠ "'l" to ""'" Ibrm of rthnk ｯｴｮＮｕｾ＠ ,ocir,''''' on"""" Ｑｾ＠ Thry ""'" ...., ＢＧｾＮ［Ｌｷ＠ -rn cram... ."".,.._ .. til. """" - _tva!""" "" ＨＱＹＧｬ til., r.. """" _-All - S ..... ［Ｎｾ＠ .... m ;., ｾＬ＠ .a<orth hao n..n th.o, oooo.;wn ..... ....no .,." .... obat> do:>ncd the _ody of ...... (n "PJlOO<d '" Modrinc mild..,. ¥n<li<lIl (Goodwin ｮＬ､ｾ＠ ..., now aI the odf< of <xpWn... bow """,n, ""odo ;. P>i>.];...;.", ..... ＮＬｾ＠ fo< ...,. wart &n<l inolabibty wilhin ｾｉｯｰ＼､＠ C.,...",;., ＨｾｉＧ＠ II<rd.>I and Malone 20(10-. CoIll<r :!OOO: o..Ri<ld 2000). c.,.,""l to d... <Iu< ....... _ n w oun:;';".,.. _ ' " ' ... OOIlIlOc, (Home .. o.- 1999-. 1100"" 0.- anO 8Iit< 1008). in tho..;.w;,;, p«<ioely"" - . of ;"tunal"-lly ""'IIh' .,,""'<OS tlw 1\><10 ]>f"XI">oCl<d vd<nct ldo< s.y,. 2000). n."., ...................... tIooeIy ""'" the <OA«pl of • _ _ ......... ｾ＠ 10..... tbio ｉｮＧｾ＠ 6 1Ur;"'1An«; on .""""", _orth 1""i«I. ｾ｣｡＠ m::.m .00 fu...!<d by the h;p.. US _,,,,,,,ntal "'-'<10, liMo dooo" ., .... _ ....... ., be .... of the ba, p«<Iie"'" of .... ｗｉｴ＾ｾ＠ｾ＠ dcpcn<k<q ｯｮｉｹ＾＼ｾ＠ --r..d< "P<"'- .... _ _ .. ,II< <o<aI vokoe 01 ......,.... pIuo _ .. . pe.un<,«" of a "","'ry"o GDP" (Ow, .. __ n,d.: S. 26). TImIty,.. ... "«"> • low value of ' ,,'rm;.] . . . aUgh' im]>O<l.... _ &n<l ool:o<r «-....l< pollin<l«d " - ..1lo<1<d a ｦＢＧ＼ｉｬｕＬｾ＠ c;",. but by the .... 19600 II - . 1itr1\' .. ....,I, 01 ..,.j intunatiun;.] ｾ＠ .... , .. ,nc.ion 01 f""'<I'nm<n, 01 .. , """" ｾＬＮ＠ _uolns"'partiol d< __ the ｾ＠ of .,....IV< _,,; .. <ion ...... "",iWtY ", ... t>d._ 1 Onr .... ... tualIy piopoull the IhifI ....y f""" • ....,,,", b.otrtdo· to ＢｮｵＮｾ＠ Itod<n· '" the Clin"", ..m.niotn.lion. F.... ,II< N. r..l T_ · Ilalbn G'"*'· (<<Iiu>tioI),' M",h 1m. WK14; -11 .......... No« f'4ws in ｾＬ＠ SJ-h: 26 M>tdt 1m. AI2;"CIin"", st.rn.. MiIoo<v>; No< "'"" fat 8Ioodoh.d,. 14 May 1m, A11; "'Comins to T« .... "'''' KoocM>.,"OId. IlooM." ｻｲｯｉｵｮｶｴｾ＠ 12 j.m< 1999,AI4, "'" ｾ＠ to ｾ＠ .-..,., ｲｾ＠ _ '"'" '" Ih6r 8 Many ＢＧｾ＠ ,,-,,, .nd o><b<, ＢＬｾ＠ Y>shlly """""",' pouo .. <=Id be ",-..I< "",,", ."' ..... ",,10 "" thr", ｾ＠ no ""j>ur<. «Ion". wuJo., .. """" ..... """ <>««10 bot_n .. "",", -'0. ,.... , <!Ion" _todariro ｰ＼ｾ＠ ... be an: Ioio«>ricaIIy , ,,,,......, .. d and mollr>bIt, ",1on;', <An be at hipr' IDol lowe, ＢＧＭ＼ｾ＠ of Kl<k............ ,,'" ,II< on-<h<-JtOUtOd "'Ility of <110"" ｾ［｟＠ .. -..lJy ",n" lOt", of or eli... ...c... tiw> . ohorp breok. 9 COJIturaliol a«<oun .. "1<nq>IaIo why ｾ＠ """"" only .. p.,.., ..... ,..,.. an. ｾ＠ and """' ..... .. oudt tit ... ..:od JlLo«>. only ...... 1"'..-0, ｾ＠ '" it. c..Itu,,'] "",,,,,tuOIiu,..... at <II.... vioIt<>c<, ｾＬ＠ >'ivid, .rc "'" the"""""" cxplo.n<o';"'" of it· (Bru/>.w .. od J..;tin 1!I9tl, 17). 10 n... oh.>uld. "'" bo """'''''''''' .. ｾＢＮ＠ own ｃＮｲｴ｡ｩｮｬｾ＠ • .- tI.q>o of n.p.dm "" ......... 01 > <."""",1 f""'IoK'. uvI ｾ＠ .. _ .. ",,,10,,,_ h>fturt and mu,..,ioon, ｾ＾ｴｬ｣､Ｌ＠ _ ><runty ochoI.. n.. ｾ＠ th.o, the ""Am<rican ...y of .....; ""'" ...... ""'. io _ ""hn "'" tIt><noctioc than ,!oat af """ <>Ih<, W... o:rn ...... (Mead 1999(2000). II ",rib.r h .. VCfY tIiIlm.t ""'''''' ....... '" N"ric. "'" North AnI<';"'. · <thn'o;; "",Il>:t" ... ＢＧｾ＠ in dilI<"n ' pIa.xo. The "«toni< <o"llic," "' .. p«>pl< <"""nlly - ' Y .00.... ;, .... oIy ... thr Old "",,\d, In l.atin Anl<nc... ""'AIIIr< ......""... ｲｴｨＢｾｩｃｊ＠ cyp;c.!Iy ........., , ............," ,.....""" of ｾ＠ p<o]M1lO Ｎｾ＠ ct<>OI j' ,"rwy """"""""...... "'.. l><J< ＾ｏ＼ｾ＠ .-.rn ""'" dilf-, iatrcly """......... ond _ lite","", ;, ..Ｂｵｾ＠ .. utlo<oiwian _ built r."", the IIf"'II'd "" in the.,.. ＼ｉｷＺｾ＠ oocir<",11 Th.. do<, "'" itroj>Iy, """-<" the top ｾ＠ of - . ... ion _iatrd with the ｾ＠ _ of "'""'" "' . - n ""';',ko, who" eodo J>H*'" m.y h..., . . ."" ... .u. at ........., "";.., <len,.", (... Simonr 19'11). In !roo <octOpi« >Dcie<iro, i<!entibeo m>.y b< <ornpOIlIl,! "'" _ill 1I'. . ..iIy Ｌｯｉｴﾫｾ＠ _ "-J • .n thr .................... n of .... cia.o of"y lfibe of ...• "p,.., 18 no. I""""'Y "'"' 01 It""' .. ' d· .. """, ;, """ 01 ,10< ｾ＠ dIa, ｭ｡ｾ＠ __ '" ､ｮＧｾ＠ ..... fat"" .. v'de"" r.... <ndKoonoI ｟ｾ＠ "hido _ ｾ＠Ｌｾ＠ in thr 01 a "",c. ｾ＠ .. ｭｾｩｴ｡＼ｹ＠ "*,,,ioN ..... _ "' .. > """" .. fined oem< of poIi<ocoi Ioc<n ky in ohop;,.. 6e<\oiono ｾ＠ ..... by .... """"" ｾ＠ .... "'y (Blod 19'181>). 19 Jooqoh 1 ..... ,,' and I ＢＧｾ＠ •• '''''' • ronfrrmc< "" "F.nvironmc",.1 of Col'u"" Conllio;,," I"'T*" ＱＹＧｉｾＮ＠ 0( "hkh ,,01 """,fully in. voIum<- "'t....... r",ur< arIf·.,,,.... "". thr"""" _or Dime",.,... _o(_ . . . _. . . rroolml...ylirl-.i_,,"'''''' i 7 20 r..... fuIy ....hio It.. ,..,;" PUO<ficm. """"'" """'*I be Iakt. ' - """"'" ap<ri. . - in Mica. no. 0;".... odminiou";'" pnMckd """"-':I military "'PP"" .. .,,,.....,_1'1<1. ; ?! in war MIllo obeir ............. _ ..... _ol ........... _ ........... _ ; " 110< .....,.". . AIoo, _ ｾＮＭＬ＠ - c.a;,. .... 11_ ｾ＠ ___ ... ol-......-.Afri<.- ........ " " ' _ .. O(.u;.. ....... ｟ｾＮ＠ (\" . . IlOCn III!(wo,d I """"" • podhoi;_ ........ 0( dato _ _ _ P""'t., ........ _ .........,-s" hood ｾ＠ｾ＠ ....... , ,.... lot' ', ｾ＠_ <O\IIIIJy polk;, b..L" _ _ "IAJ.. _ -"""Y: ,ow t 1000 __ - ..... .. mii...,. .,.,.....,. .. bocII ............. _oncI ....... ' _ ｾ＠ "fI1- )HI'> '-<; 0.-... '"" eM be __ ＬＮ｟ｾ＠ <oIIr _ _ ............ rioIt vi ............... ",... .. ......,. ｾ＠ __ • ...,. ..... , IT, .... poIi<y .. _ _ _ bJ,· n g ..... .. -.. .... ........, _ -n.o. "., .otly . . . . ._ ....... of ...... ...,w' ·_..,....._4It-br_ .w_ . * ......... -.so. 21 ., """" be ......... tho< ｾ＠ . . . - "II ...... - . - S ., 'ii' -.,u.- ..... of .. . _001 ｾＮＢ＠ La __ (1m: IS)), "" ｾＭＮ＠ｾ｟＠ ............. _ ; , • ..., ._ --...r....-.. ｾ＠ QvJI< ｾ＠ .... _ _ 1rIOdo",,_ .. .. _oripoI). _ _ . t.. fact. ohio io .......... ..-pIo at . i I ' """""'" 10< ｾ＠ _ .. , . , _ ... ., ......... _ " ' ....... ｾｯｬＭＮ［Ｌｩ｟＠ .......... .. r..l _ ........ 0( ....,;,."w ｾ＠ Of _ . . ... ｾ＠ _ in - .. 'n., io _ hard .. _ . v.. ｾｉ､＠ (19111, 1):1) io ol i<. c-... wid> ItmOorioI bonItn, ......... _ . . - in ｾ＠ oocieU<t. io """" cJo.r", ... ioo:io: of ..... ｾｊ＠ｾ＠ 0<01 _ .... oil 01 ""'" th<_ :m: 1 - , ""* -... m-"".I'. . . ,I). • n.. AI>duIW., Ibrah .. (19'98) 'II"'" h 'h ｴｯｾＬ＠ Qrisin ..... Chat"""" of <be ｾ＠ Un'"d r"",./Si..", ;""",,' no:J->-l " ,II..... ¥>- _ 36c 2!l1_211. Abramo, l'h'", (1968) 'N"", ｾｉＬ＠ 811. on the m/f......ty 0( Studying tilt .'!to"," """""''' Ｑｾ＠ "<!wyo, """""" (19ge) 'fl<rnd An.",Ily: Thrd Wo.td ｬｾＮｲｯ＠ｉｮｾ｡ｴｩｯ＾ｬ＠ .Ii ... tho: Cold W...• I":.. ,. '1I<WiMt ..J ... 1liN '""", SItphaNo O. N, ....... Ｈｴ､Ｎｾ＠ pp. 1»-211. Neoo Yed: Man;., " ' ｾ＠ Airat 11992) -W....... Social su. ....... their EIIOc .. "" the ｎＮｾ＠ ill the u&.S.R." In c;;.,. ... _ndo ｫ＼ｌｾ＠ 1",/1Ial" ｾ＠ .. ｾ＠ l\q>ubLi< of San M""""" c-cr lot ﾫｉｩｯ＼Ｚｾ＠ W-Ndl "" Soaal pp. ＱＹＭＲｾＮ＠ la-d .) of EW.k lui of ｾ＠ oro.. s.. rn .. -c:a..- """ _ no..;. s..-. .... eo..n.o.: o...w- _ .r ",""II" 1_ _ " R.porr JIITP'I'"O'IIot "'" Can.,!", c....u.-... "" .............. IbJIy CoooILl<I, ea."",", ｃｯｾ＠ of New Yod. hnp: II_<q>dc.<qIph ....../ • .ｾＢ＠ ......-. ...... Mario (19')1) ｾｉＧＢ＠ oJ Spou. r"",""" ｾ＠ _ Ii>nna<ion, , "*"'" ｾＭ｟ｴｦａ S.,;.,-- - ..... ｾ｟ - - . MMy Ｉ＠ "' .... (1996J ｍＮＬｾｾ｟＠ no '"' _ _ ....., c. Sot/-<,.. Ｎ＠ｾ＠ＭｾｾＮ＠ 1 IVn,-. ___ C (I'") ｻｉＹｯｊ MMnotJ .. '-ｾｉ｟＠ cw....I _ 0. _ . ｾ＠ of n 1 f ＱＹＷＩＧｾ＠ c..n- I...... ill the Soudy of c.,.Aa ..... 1I..,.....;..n.n 1nI<...... 'oo, ..... ｾｩｯｮ＠ J:)aWI no.- Ｈ＼､Ｎｾ＠ｾＮｊＺ＠ GW.oI C lor ｾ＠ r"'..... ｾ＠ R<"udI." 10 V-.. ..J l.-l a..p..t& of San M.rrioo: o.n.... lor ｉ｟ｾ＠ IIr<o<ao<h "" SocMi ｳＮＱｕｾ＠ of _"'-pp.217- m . """ -....;.r- (2001 ) -n...t. ..... _ ｾ＠ A A....m. ｾ＠ｾｦ｟ＢＧｾｯｰ｢ｹＮＢ｟ｾｕ＠ 1 r:x,-,..J _ ...... 'l:U loa. """"" _ _ {I'mi 1M 11ItM _ .r..-.t f' ,. . - ......... "-«. __ ,.,...,. ｾ｟Ｂ＠ _ __ Ｈｉｾ＠｟ｾ＠ＢｉＢｾｇＮｎ＼ＭﾫＴｉＬＧ＠ f io_-.. G;..p Auoondo, Ncwv.:.l:s.. W..... '. "'-r. IIoiLq\ ｾｇＮ＠ (1969) """",,,," ｾ＠Ｍｾ＠ a..fioId, ｾ＠ ,,-54.s.-t A n.-.. (199f) """""",," lot _ _1""_, ｳＮＧｲ｡ＺｾＱ＠ｾＨｉＹＶｊＭ｡Ｎ＠ <01 g """' ......... 'til n..I_. ｾ＠ A I ; IV tf _ _ N<w - s-._ .. ec-..J Alia. - Ii_-,-, __ {<dol (2O(q 0-1 . . ｾ＠ 8<nIaL Id>IO ..... Dov;d M. M _ 00i/ ...... _ 4 - < ........... Bbrl,Jtmay (1!I'J&I'IO'hy w..,. Modo 1-.n-;,_"" ＡｉｴＮｾ＠ TWo! - Cio/OroroI - p,.,.. E . - ...,...., .. ,I. ＱｷｉｰＺｾＮ｟＠ . _ ( 19!I&» ｾ＠ ..... H<HA Now Yed: New Vod ｾ＠ p,.,.. 8lio:k.J<tI"<y 119M) -0._",", Wotfato .. Tlibal s...;...,. . . . '_ ｯｦｾ＠ ..... b>doo<od c..I .... Coodli<'. - M_:I:I: MH1O. s.....-LL, 'I«.yond WillWn ou.o. (199O! -u.",n<kI>cy """ ｾ＠ A C.......r;","", .. Anatytio." . - . . ｓｯ＼ｾ＠ _ ,,, i »-4S9. iI<rotmo-GhaIi, 1.0'"'''' ＨｉＡｭｬＭｕｯｾ＠ Mok the UN.'. H.vdJob Il..-d<r." n. ...... Ii..t T_" roAupot.A29. R. II!I96) ''The Myth oJ Gk>bid EdIno< Con/b<t." Jw" ff ｾｊ＠ J{tl: _.john , I• . Hrown, Mkh.d R. (1997) '"Tho c. .... of In" " w Coo,"".. - In Mi<IIa<l E. 1Wwn, 0..". R. CW.1 •., $0.,. M. l.ynn,Jona .,.! s.a..n MOil<r ｛ﾫｉｯｾ＠ｾ＠ ... flJoW. ｾ＠ｾ＠ M": Mrr ...... ,1'1' ＢＧｬｾＮ＠ _ , M ....... , I!. _ CIwow doJor. 0udtaM (1997) -,,, .... 0.01 ConIIkt .,.! In ........ .-..l Aetiotl: M 0...-.-" In M_ Fo Sro.m, 0.",. R. c."." J r., Sean M . Lynn-jon<o """ M;o., (ocIo), J I - ' . . J ｾ＠ｴＢＮﾥﾫｾＬ＠ MI.: Mrr ...... 1'1' 2'>-26i. - . M ;u..,! t: ..... Edo.oWo ft, ......... (1991 ) ｾ＠ , .-..,., n. ｾ＠ u..,;.,."" _ . - . . . . ilm<l<y: Ｑｉｾ＠ of CoIiIot>o .. " ' ｾ＠ Rof<' ..... J>..'>d n Laioio>(Iige) -ru-:""! N _ V"""",,,-"'｟ｴｦｾＲ＠ t 2:1-4JJ ＬＢＺＬＯｾＮｷ｡ｯ｣＠ -s .-f.odo_ B.....,Lny(I99I)......,.._ . . I"i.f ......ｾ｟＠ • ' ..... ...... CoM .... F.... _ e<tirioa. _ Ll"' .... k.tnnc< _ ＨｉｾＢ＠ I ... ﾷＤｰ＼ｴｮ｟ｕｩｉｬＧＱｲ｣ｯＦｾｍ､ﾷ＠ｾ＠ G. _(od..). ... _ _ n-;, ...... N<>< Vod: !It. w.n .... "'- r. 113-2" ｾ＠ 1)uoioI ..... Soefh<a ...... " - ｻｉｾＢｉｏＬＮ＠ Thr:y H.............. do. a..-of u....,..ClonIkt.' .r..-.t"";"1. ' -)0. s.-n n.'_. Cooo_..., '"'SIr" I R. Dr-. mp- '"' c...&d.I. - . L. (1986) "£.oIw>ir., ItqDuJ. _ _ _ ............... A.... In "- S-.. riri ... M. _ (00:10). no ｾ＠ RoIifooo. . . .!lIoo,- I\oIOou: iii' -. .. - - s,....c.- s,..- U --, ""- W - "!1M) ｾ＠ 1)-103. io er;,,;,.' 1IoJ..P. l>iprd Ｈ･､Ｎ SocioI ｾ＠ """" ｾ＠ .. ".. .... ｾ＠ ... CNXl" PI' 1_199. Cormod, _ _ M. (<<ll (Hlee) II...... " _ TIw M..,. ｾ＠ Ou.t. Norman: u..........,. ai' tJUaho;rno " ' CO'''''';' Coonn.-;.., "" I'm<=n<inc Dtody (1991) ｾ＠ -no. ---. -no. ｾ＠ U ... ｾ＠ ..... Ｌ｟ｾ＠ V_, "-II) ｾ Na. v_ Carntl'" htlJ<ll ........ «J>d<-"'5"pobo CAn.: .... - . . (19711) '" 'n-.y O£ .... ore;. ....... s.-.' 10_ 169 133-1311. O"".Pwu>, ｾ＠ ..... n..- /lall (1993) "'Co:w.ponos ｾ＠ c pes ＮｄＮｮｾｴｩｯ＠ iI,poct • _ _ lr ' In_lI!I6. c...,......_ ｃｯｉ＾ｭＮ｟ A d ＨＧＹＱＸﾷｾ＠ '&1 1, , _. j ... Soy.., Io<Ino ('IOOOj c...o AI< Chi Won 0...... br ｾ＠ .. ｾＬ＠ In u.... a...s.a ..,., o-;d l>L MMon. \<00I0oI. 0...1 _ ｾ＠ｾ＠ ....... CW __ .........", 4'nn< I&nnco-. "'" 113-1". do W.... lob (1m) c:.-ioIol s.-: H"", ｾ＠ ......... 0riP>0 0( .... • ' Final SoIu!d' in It.- .' no T_ " lJ : , ,-""",..... . do Wuol. Aloo ..... ......,.. 0....... (1\19;1) "Som.lio: Addit .. Ｇｈｾ＠ L" .......,..,..· to "'" us. An<nooL' c...... "'.... .., -1-11, S:l-M, Dooffidd. M>rl< (2OXI) "Cw..ti",ioo ｔｾ＠ T,aok, and w... £c<oo,onoioa." ho ｊＮ｢ｾ＠ 8ua.l and Dwor.d M. M ....... ﾫ､Ｎｾ＠ GoooM - I a--.. & - ｾ＠ ;, a.iI _ on Ｎ＠｟Ｔｮ＼ｾＢＧ＠ _ _ _ ＢｾﾷＧＭ｟Ｂ＠ _ 01 ｾＮ＠ ...... 1. ..=' ｅＱｾｎ＠ -, f..w.n. n-...-. .. ｾ｟＠ I.. oDd I'ouI C. Sotm (....) (1_) .oI>ooq: Gc.don '" ""'..... , _ ｾ Co<opn, N6I (19\191 "'Tho Az ... T,""" ond Miliuriz,r,d Act...,;" ' 0"' ...... CoaIti<t." J. 1":0" ｂＮｒｩ､Ｎｉ･､Ｎｾ＠ W_ .. _ _ _. New""", So. M..... ·,I'mo,W ＱＱＭｾＱＮ＠ｾｉＢＬ＠ " - l and S.WR. d< A. ｳＭＮｾ＠ (199 1) ·'"trod"".;.", _ E<o..oa,i< 1.lun<noooN ... I'.thnioc n....y &tid Evi<lrnc<." In S.W.R. do " . San..,... ..,.0.. ..... Il=I CooJhW> 1«10), ｾ＠ I.Iiooo<-. " U - c..,w _ Yon: So. ｍＲＮｴ［ｮｾ＠ " ' - PI' I-I) . (200 1) -uo.. br UN. '" Out Tn& io Anno M_ . ltrhoIl' no_5ri T_l 0Ju!l< M. t::WanI ｾ＠ｾ＠ (199t) ""EdIak ｾ＠ llo", New _ o..J..l'" 'ｾＢｾｉｾＢＬＭｬＮｯＯｗｏ＠ a.,.... .... ｾ＠ ... ¥ C 4) l)ao, V<en.o l.... )1 199OI_ { V _ c Vorl< o.rorn ｕｾ＠ 1>....... Stt-.o:n R. II998) ｾ＠ b o _ ｾ＠ ll_ 101 . /Iwb _ _ • " ..-.c-. ｔｾ - NM;o", u_.,. rr-...,........." ! _ Ｍ a...- ｟ｪＮｲｯｮｬＱ｣＼｢ｾｾ＠ ...,. In Doutoo.' ...... ＨｉＹＸＶｬ｡ＮＢＧ｟＠ＢＧｾＺ＠ N.... Ｍ - ｯｩｲＩ＼ｾｊ｟［＠ II __ :ob. YQdo _fWiIiu,/r....... F I • ... ｟ｦｬＭＮｾＧｃ＠ p"",..,.. "'0«1'" A ' ; I lit ｲＮＬｾ＠ 1- 3. I ＢｉＧｕｾ＠ I.,. ........ , onoI _ ｾ＠ - . . £dooa,." Ia o-;d PIn - ' I'lo<II lIon>cr Iodo). no k' • IV " _ - I " - ' .. I _ . . . _ ... 50.,,10 tboS<y. MA: aapo""" ｾ＠ "'" 141_ 1'>9. ｬｾ＠ "BIoo>d ,. Ihc Lcvio%Oa: - . . c-... onoI io .............. " ...... ( I'M) _ w..w. r_ ＷＭ "- ｾＩＮ＠ｾＺａ 119951» ＢＨｍｾＩｕｴ＾､･ｲｳｷｯｩＺ＠ Cont<ntporot)' CorOIW: .. ,· A 11997) --r..... Tr'obol ｏｲｾ • • I _ no,..". " J - •• ｾ＠ s'" c.n ,,""" (I\I68ol'1k(19l18lo)(l..,T_! ｬｬｾ＠ _ rrr... QoW - . . . " ) 'Ijol_ ""-'- Ci'oiap U..;.......,. of ＠ｾ "'R. ]Irian (cd.) 1196i) ｾＮ＠ 00Irw0. . . F...a..-. Orlanol<> "-<adrm;,; _EIIOOIPt 17, ｾ Im",no] W..." In &,pIw1it. G 1'1........., (<<I.), ｯｉ＠ I......, N.., \\.>n. 80, ｍＮＬＬＮｾ＠ w0 I ...... ｾ＠ｬｬ｜ＱＹｉＩＧＢ＠ _ _ . Af:oo, ｾ＠ ..I .... " - Coo>Oin; " ｉ｢ｾ＠ ""'" lMidt.. In .......,.,.,. .5</Ift>loeI ..... Iloro<sb ,........ «dol. ...... - I . ｾＢ＠ II . _ boo. • 'il , .1<_, - I boo. • roo ""... N<w ""'" 1lot lIoooiord _ ｾ＠ｾＮ＠ pr<>O. "no<.........,,. J'l.o.:7 _ ... Ｌ＠ --- {_n.._"..... ｾ＠ If. _ ｾＢ \'-' ｬ｟ｾ＠ ...... a.. Di«ri</o P. mI"""'. c....ruc•. us. _ .. IL c.ubo .... . C..b'" U........,;,y " ' F:>Jo. lUd.anI A. (1995) Go _ 0 - - -r..-I. _ IL, .. )' "... _. er-..... - . . • _ _ L>o.dooo: /M. _ Sooo9_"''''''''.. ';, c-....a; Joho t orn""."..... lnOOn. ...: "N...... ｾ＠ __ ｬｯｮｰＺｉＱｗＹｊＭ｟ｉｾＷ＠ L ... Gc.don ....xh,pp.2<l3-21ti. ｾ＠ L. ..... J<- ............. /tdIj (199!I) CiIiI #-C""'- ｾｯｉｃｨ｣Ｂ＠ [M I:........ 8enoonI (1'1!iI) .. "«< s....f<GI, /IootIw.... ..... - !'oIoooiti!1 _ }' ll yDaM 1199;1) II<oulo;I<oc I'lo 10 " ' - . , ..... ...d .... ｟ＢＧｾｩｯ＠ IoJolo<> I.. c.-.".w and "".,. C. s..." .I.., Moboor _ ｾ＠ c...... "" ｽＩﾷ (1'lB'J) - . - . U..........,,. - - {I!I"l ')\!] .......... AI<'" tIoo M-...., All .... _ _ AI< ｾＬＮ＠ _ oJ ｾ＠ .. N.......... w.....' ho Loio """ I_ ..... ｾ＠ｍｾＮＬｪ＠ Tutpin (<dol. no _ _ ｾ＠ _ . Nrw Yoo.: New v..1. U........,. " ' - 1'1'- .... DMd lot. M.Ione (...... G.I . . ｾ＠ u-- dfoo'or .. (W 1lIooo. ｾ＠ I..r- 11.;"""< pp- 9 1-1 1. ｾＢ＠ｾ＠ mol AnI.< Il...m.. (1!l98) "00 ｾ＠ C..- ... eM! \Yor." ｾ＠ .&-oooi< "..., W; :\65-,\14, htlp;ll .... ｢ＧＬｾＢ｟＠ (n.<I.) "Rtponol Mill<ary ｾＮ＠ r.p.. ｾ＠ .. .... Global a....andGo:o.n....... ｾ＠ U........", N<-d, Apri2O(l1 , ＨｉＮＬ s.-. _ s..-., .. _ E<oIo><. Cyndo" 119!lO! ＱＮｬｦｲｯ＼ｾＡＰ＠ c.a.., ...... (7(I(q-n..... __ 01 Woo: All h--o: 1\' .......1.0.- 1. w.../ImW ｣Ｎｯｭｲｪｴ＾ｮｉ ......- u-:. 'v ｯＮｦ＼ｉＺｾ｟｟ｾＬ＠ｾ＠ｾ＠ Riomo= Scuci<y or:d Cult",," [);ff'''n« in d I l(l ........ _ N!;>O'<mbo:r. ' 7 ＧｬＢ＠ Thomao _Id l.... ), ._fio-:r of ＮＱＧｉＭＷＵＢｬｴｩＮ＠ (1'199) "l'\ 1'.t0<lp0 '" . . N.- R .. "': Sd>ooIof""""""'" Ｈ･､ｯｪＬｾ｟＠ S<oocIf,. w., ..... lItoo:rty' ;. Koort R-a...to .... .. . _ _ _ _ c..n.. '" H<knot Soudi<o Md 1I..-nI ｕｾＢＧｉＭｾ＠ｾ＠ I - ｾ＠ＡｦＧｾｊｲｬｩｬｦｬｾＡｉﾷｲ｛＠ ! ｾ•••••••• ､ＡｊＧＮｴｯｨｬＬ＠＠ｩ｡ＮＬｊＺｭＡｾｲｰｅＧｦ｛ｴ ! ' -I 'I ﾷｲｉｊｾ［ｴｬＡｦﾷｲＭ＠ _.•. - . ,. liif ｉｴｾｬｩ＠ lijli;ZltiIJli'iIIJ1 !IJi!I!!1 Ｇｾｉ＠ • I'f' . f' ＡＧｾｴ＠ "'fl f f ｨＬｴｾｬ＠Ｎｾｈ＠ｾｈｲｴｪ＠ l-l .. l ｭｬｾｔｩＧ＠ " f ."r H f ｾｈ､ｩＱｲ＠ i ＡＬｾ＠ｾＡｲＬ＠ im"iHf !. Bf '[rmj 1 i fl [I ｾ＠ r ＡＧｾｉ＠ !p f ｾＡ＠ 'L[ •• , !. '< • i J HIflVH ..ＱＬＺｦｨｈｪＧｭＡｾｴ＠Ｌｾ - _ i1_ - Il j - -- 1 ;;- -ｾ＠Ｎ＠ＧＮｾｊｬｦＡｉＱ＠ 11 • · ｾＡＮＬｲＬｾＮｲｬ＠ • p ｊｾｈｦｕ＠ r - ... ' ... Ｌｾ＠ =.118 l ﾷｬｦＮｾ＠ｉ｛ｾＡ＠ r! I •• I.' ＼ｾｬｦＢ｛ｮｩ＠ｵ Hr,!f"!J Ｎｾｾ＠ ,,' f Ｍｾ＠ 'II ｉｾ＠ｴｾ I ;> !;Sf. 'I , II ｲｩＱｾ＠ ,"" .Ii. f ｾＧＮＧ＠ if lJ ｾ＠ 0 ,I". <:I lo '.! > r: ｛ｾｲ＠ＮｉＮｾＢＡＧｲ＠ fli'1 ＱｾＧｉｦＭＢ " •• ".!I It ｾｉＧ＠I J ;.1 . I ｾ＠ "'t ('. l!!- ｲｾ＠ｾ＠ｾ＠ｉｦｊｾＺｬ＠ " f! • ＱｴｏＭ］ｾ＠ ' I • :E J" c:. r;fJ ｾｦ＠ r'f Ａｾｴｦ＠ . r - I Ii r J••rｾｦｌ＠ｾ＠ . ﾷＭ .. ll.rr ｲｾ＠ ! ! ＮｉＡｲｬｾ＠ tH ｾ＠ 1 Ｌｾ＠ i r• l rl 1<. ;, II! f • Jj • r rl ' I· rlr . 11 I" I I ｾ＠ｬ I I ' l ! '",. • i: I ｾ＠ t' ! If "rf· I1 'f' r! I I 1, " • 't l' .1 -#><-- II .......... Hdrn M. (19'1'11 "LpIoOo" do. 1994 ( ' _ .. ｾＮ＠ 1lo:Jw-J" 51, 241-2111i Ii;,,-, - . . I...al>ouo (19980) "Whir ();d V"" KMn.. c....booIioa G..ucid.-' .... 0.... SOk<Jl foot .... _ . 1loJ-..J" ｾＮＭ 1 7: fl 1:12. ＨｉｾＢ＠ 1_ ' " ... tro: -...;" .., c...-.. o..-..Ir... _ _ Ei../. .... ＺＯＩ＼ＬｾｊＭＱＮ＠ ... " . . . . . EJ. (I9H).-.J .... · ＭＮｬｮｃＬｾｉｊ＠ ....... KIt ........ ....-. ｕＮＬｯｬｾＱＧｲＭ＠ .... Do...rI onoI DonoI<I _ ｟ｎＮｷＬＨ＼､ .......... H .... ....,.... . . . . . . . . ./01' I ｾ＠ no. '.. .J - - (I99f) ..ｮＢＧ K........ s-n ｣ＮＭｾﾷ＠ W'""_ ...c-.............. '-I'mo. Nco. ......... 51. Ｎ＠｟ｾＱＶＭｾ＠ u.... 101_ ""'" ｾ＠ io 0w<0.1l. c-.j.. s.:..M. 4---"-' .J ｾ＠ c.,.... f".. ｾＮ＠ MIl: .\lIT 1'1<-, PI' 169- 199. ｾＮｲ＠ ....... Chaim (1996) "1"""""'..... ;" r..t.n;" and 1docIop:" Civil w"'" Why 0... Can lit Doooo: .... doe 0Ih<r Can·,." s....;,,-.-. ＶＨＱｾ＠ 62 100. - - (1!!!I7) "1'bo.;t,I" .nd Impoo>itJI< ｾ＠ '" r,k ... CMI Wan" In Micha<! F.. 11, ........ 0...,. R. C«<.J" So,,,, M. I.y,,,,.joo<o ... od s, .... " ro. Mill<. ｬｯ､ｾ＠ ,,--... . . F.IJw< ｾ＠ Camhridg<. MA: MIT Pr..., ｾＮ＠ｾＺＱＰＴＮ＠ｾ＠ .)roWｇ＠ M. IotA: orye-... j Ｚｾ＠ ."r.. W- 0( ｾ＠ S<udioo _ , - _,pp.1HI. ..... • a.w ｾ＠ nt ｵｾ＠ s on<! .J WiDIrro ,_ _ _ " f_ -, I I I I "''' <too: I'riroce",,, !ojar\aD,)oIoo (1!I9CI)'-.J a... !¥< ..... IWo " ｾ＠ｾＭ ,.,. M.otmo (1 997) "SpnIO,. 10 EtbAo< \00'... &GaO..·.Ciwi Yo,.." I. Mi<ho.d Eo ond - . . £. Mill.. (..t.). }I r• .. ｾ＠ｾ＠ s.... M ...-,. ........ ,. IJ-..JI: 11+" . M,Nuk)<, Md (1 m.) "Th< MiIitariz ....... <Jl f".dor>icioy """ III< ｾ＠ 01 Ｂｾ［Ｌ＠ IIwondo, 1 _ ' - bI hW B. IUcIo Ｈｯ､Ｎｾ＠ ............. _ . N... y""", St. ｍｴｩｮｾ＠ I'r-. pp. 81 .. 102. 11999b) "Th< ｾｯＨ＠ｾ＠ lmpbo:ooI.ikvobiM '" ｾＢ＠ .. n. J-00I1/ :.w.r.,v;.-SIt.Iiooll: ｾｬＭＸＲＮ＠ M.Ju.-!. CynH,;' "'1'f'I<"I (1996) ｾＮｦｯ＼ＧＢ＠ＬｾＺ＠ """ SiM MiIr... ｾＮ＠ＱＧｨｾｰｩＮ＾Ｌ＠ UnMnity of ｾＢＬｪｨｯｮｩ｡＠ Po... M...m..i, Mohm<w;od (2001) ｾ＠ ' " - ... _ Ai/o..: C I roo, J;-..J0I0 c-. <1M. Ito-. U.........,,1'r-. M-. Mi<ho.djl'lllll) - . 1<Io-.J CI I·.· _ _ io _ s.../op. N... V""'" B.o.iI . - , . J __ I . J ｾ＠ M<-. 0..,.. sm.y T ....... .-I 000rI00 T1Iy ( 19II6)""1"0 Map C A-..I_" - c-. ..... c..,... ｾ＠ 0..... R. 12>1 .... t.tI.- 1tI..J 010 M.... c...-.. N.... lpotiolt Mi<ho.d (1\191) 1lo Vorl<: II""" II'" and ｾ＠ j<nluno.j. c. ... V>d 1(.0.. Schock (199"l]"GiobaI Struo:,., ...... 1I>l00<01 I'ro<, ...... doe StO{!yolOomettitl'tolibc>lConruct.· ｾ＠ｉｾ＠ＱＶＱＭＸｾＮ＠ Kohl. Colin (1998) Ｂｾ＠ G......-d>. F..r.ironrn<",,", o.JI"odotion. .... s..",. .'lpoo\>or<d VooIo:-. - />Jt>..-o/ s-..g. Ｒｾ＠ 111).119. 1takIo<. Mory lll/99) 1'I<to.J O/J ....... 00J-00I _ •• cw.r II- C-..bo . . .. - , . 1I;.opf«oN. """" (1988) ｾＢＮｉＨｲｯｏＺ＠ｾ＠ • ＮｳＬｾｊＢＧＭｾ＠ Robm D. (I'mj __ ｾａｊｯＭＢＬｉｬﾥ a.-. l.ooaoit, Dooo G. (19!r.II """"""'" "'" IJ"'· P i !;ummn-: _ t H_, r, Civil Wat"l"mNnatioll. " CW """ I: 121 .. "2. Li<Ik<, (Ai (1!I9'J) _ . J _ 10. E...-'- " ｾ＠ Plriloddphio: 01 r-..,tv..... Po... ｾ＠ r ' - " ' (199I!) "RW>P<Io: a.- _ _ - I. t - d a A. ｾ＠ I'WIip A. 11_«<111. 7lt"'""" ...... ｾｊＭＺ＠ _ G- r..iot-...-. 1 ' - ' & , , _ 51. M ......·• ",-"", 2.,.."l!iof H-. R¥* lOW POOl) ｾ＠ en... 01 ...."....., a.:.Io <Jl """ , .... ;" """'"'- III< CiYi War.· 1'Pj. 110 . - . s-...J P (I'I'JJ) -no. GIub 01 ｾ＠ ....... ｾ＠ _ MOod C-brir:\r< ｕｾ＠ "'Uo:Udor. 1I.,,-11991!) '"Eorfy 11< ..... "" _ "" ollh< _Th<c.-""""'\t: ｾ＠ m , .....,., f".nhqu<. H""".I<>I- ot>dJoorloh R. GlJoeid. «Io.1 199t) "", . . !ot-., ...... lIMe> " IoIooO!>. 1'Itil.ddphio' Temple U.... "..., I'ruo. 1-<mu.:Iw>d. IVn< 119941 _ ｾ＠ .. ｾ＠ .J _ _ ｾＺ＠ """'It....... .. I. koIx" Ii _ _ .-I Fred II.<no «do), - . " ' _WI ( 1997) ooc-..... I\w: n.. o.;p..-I MrI"l'r-.W 132-1 • o...iod Ｈｉｾｊ＠ a - . J R.., ｾＮｊ＠ -9W (I ....... , 01 c..liI"ornio. " ' la.po.<><. Rld>ud(200I) 7ltc-.ofO I f'.' ｉｾＮｊ c--......... "'" ｾ＠ｾＢ＠ u.n, ＱｬｯｾＮ＠ - . II .... 0.... ｾ＠ - - ; . . - . . Nt.. V<d: II.... Ilio>.hart .... w_.... Ii""" II;J.II996) n..-; I<lo; .J .... S-II 1<10-. N.... Von: C-.... U.u..r.iIy I'T-. 1I"""' .. u;..... Thomu (1999) .... ｾ＠Ｎ｟ｾ＠ .J _ . _ : """"",,too ｕｾ＠ ..... .....,. rr. ... ｈ＼＾ｭ｣ｾＮｮｯｖ､ｬＢｩ｡ｂｉ｟Ｉﾷ＠ I ,:I..ioU"- tl ＮｾＮ＠ .... .J s-..g.. o.bd: ｾ＠ """ Utti<6<14. 1\oponMoo. ｾ＠ T.........,. (a.d.1 Ｇｵ［Ｎｾ＠ _ . Cor".,," ,he ｾ＠ ..... ol 0....,.. ｾ＠ doe c.m.p ｾ＠ New Von. o:pd<.orVpooIaI...t0:106."'1-..., o.....Id Ｈｉｾ＠ tJ-. Go.o!o< • ｾ＠ｾ＠ U-..ry <Jl CaI*>noio - 0( t.t..;,. V"oHooI '""""' - ' _ " ... ""'" ｾＳ＠ｾ＠ Ik.tdry: Dao ar>d M ..prt Lo<k !<dol (1997) _ '-..I<- onoI.'It<- E.. 101_ (<<101. )' ｾＭ IkocWI.':' "'....... ＨｉｾｊＸＩ＠ｉＮＭｒｯ｢ｭｾﾷＬ＠ v..... !oj ..... Wall« _ ｍｾｊｯ､ＵＮＨＱＧｬＹｉｾ＠ JI.l><••" Ohio U""-' "Th<J .. , 'OW", TndiIioo.." 7lt ._ _ loB: Ｈｉ｟ＮｳｯｊＧＭＺＢＱ＾＠ 9 _ . J _ C I l"ft· ..... n..J IOWI."'-..... ｾ＠ v.o-.;,., I'r-. ｍｯ＼ｰＮＧ｟ｉｉＮＬＨＱＹＢＩｾＢ＠ ....... ｾ＠ I'{I. TheCOc><l<lI'mo. -.... - . . Il. ond CamI ｾ＠ M""u..I«I<lIIW2) - . . _ _ n..;>. N<w II .......: Vole u -..ity " ' 1'1".,.., AI<>IoncI.,j. ＨｉＡｉｔﾷｾ＠ｾ＠ ond Rdo< .. ｔＬｾＧ＠ m""'ｾ＠ JIkun<I<r M<:>CJl .nd!lor;' Sho. Ｈｴ､ｯｾ＠ J;_ io T.- 1997, cw ｾ＠ 0.-...;0 ... M_ .. E.Jl CahI &of< .J 010 J;...j)o ｾＬ＠ SWu. New ｾｫｉＮ＠ to{/' Tn"""'.,,. l'uhH",,",.. pp. 11_21 . &nd..., \o\\wId s,..= In=- Nqd.Joanne ODd Ｘｾ＠ Whorton (1'192) "E!hn" Conf\k, "",.",oJ c-petilioo in lnoq (1 96 1-1991) and Ar.p. ＨｉＹＷｾ＠ "" M;&,:, ｾ＠ 2(l, 1-3.S N.up>< C..".. (19901) -Vook""" T,,..,.•• <Xl ,.., C,.;,;, 0( tho ,{...",....,,2J: 109-136. ｈＧｬｊｉ CoIIo<'" V......... T _ C.",b<idfj<: ｃＮｭｾ＠ UnMnOry rr-. RDAd,J>lob (1997) Ｂｎｾ＠ ....J Etb"""",, E/hn", N..x....w.., .00 tIw: R<""I""'n of E<hnio: CJnffi.;t.· In D..;.J TurtOO (td.), W., ... ｾ＠ GIoI.aI ｾＮｯｊ＠ /Mal ｾ＠ RrpubOc 0( ｾ＠ M.rinoo C<n1« "" ｉｮｾ＠ｾ＠ ". Social SU"";Uru..n;,y 0( Roch<sIo< J'<oen. PI' ＱＴｾＶＲＮ＠ Rll-.w", ｾ＠ (2001) ｾＮ＠ ,he ShUM Fook_, ot>d tIw: Ecuodoria. St.t< .• _ ... ｾｒ＠ ... $ou 19: ＲＨ［ｾＱＧＹＳ＠ Rumn. hn><t' R.. Ghani, WoIIiom Malq; Ahmed 1Uoh<l....J 0IMr< Roo- (2001 ) Ｂｍｾ＠ II.eoonJoructio .,,(1 ｨｯ｣＼ｾ＠ .. , R<JiorW Fromewo<t-· KOFT ha<ebuiIoIin!I; Rq>oru 1/200 I, 1Iu", C<nttr for h""'boUIdiq/ Swiso Inc<: ""'ndobon. ｾｵ｢ｩｯＬ＠ &"'' ''' R . ....J Jock Snyd<o- (.0.) (1998) ｾ＠ f't,/it;u,I two.: ｾ＠ .oJ SI4II &0",. '{-.o/ - . . . " -n.. _ .. Noro.lrnm, IAro/yn ondJoAnn M.ortioI (<do) (1992) D T..- . B.<I<d.y; Ck U.u..r ..... of CAIibruo fu .. NO<dnrom, Camlyn ond Antoruu. C .CM. ROOb<n (<<h) (l99lJ ｾ＠ em 4. js...."I _ _ s....... ｉ＼ＬｾＨＧＮａＺｕＢ Riche>, [hy;d (<<1.)(1966) n. A.... j ''D of 1-l0l00<.. N"", VorIo: !I.uiI BIao;kw.IL Rqbbrn. No"";"" C.G. M ...0 ).I>r<:do M. s.,,,,,,,.orn.oo (<do) (2000) ｾ＠ __ $iIp.' J-..!" ｾＧ＠ ,;,. Rm.-,'- . . . """' .. Pre" ［ｾＮＬｯｦ｣Ｏ｢Ｂ＠ ""'"f N)'OtII'oo" Jull.. £.. .no:! ｔｾ＠ M. Sh.", (1996') "Tho Mnc.., s.,« in Ihe c ........ Eoonomic In Looo •...oo A. \1"011>100 &nd Philip A. Huxtobk (<do), Ｑｬｯｾ＠ｓｩｯｾ＠ " ' . CM.o/ ｊＮｾ＠ _ ＢＧｾＮ＠ BouId<r. Lynn< JUo,.....,-, PI'- 27.... 2 Ortn<o; Sht....,. (1911) "On Kry SymboI&.. Ｌｦ｟ｾ＠ 7S: 11:l8--1346. OIt<me'on, KQth (1973) 11>< of ""to" ｉｦＢｾｮ＠ｉＢＬｾ＠ 11-";; If .'iM...! oM ou-I ＬｦＮｾ＠ｃｨｾ＠ Rand ｾＱ＼ｎ＾ｉｹ＠ c..cq. 1'ubIioI."", Pf' Coo",,,." DiRo'"' ' ' ""',ol'<Jl'Oloa ｾＮ＠ 'nJo:>t>. Ｂｾ＠ "Pmd of Exp<ru" (2001)"1Itpoxt of th< Pond of Export> on th< w.pl ｾ＠ of Notunol Rtoou.a:o ond 0tI= Fon'" of Wealih of tho Demoo;"";'; Rtpublk of th< Con!r>-" N... YooIo 'Th<: United Nation>. http,II .........ＬｵｮＮｾＯｎ＼＾ｯｉ､ｨ＠ ...... / """'""""'!I""'" ivai. Vokr'oe &nO l1>ornM f/"""",Dtxon (l9'9lJ "1'""""""",",0] J I I ..,.,0.1 Rocrr:holil. (td.)(I'I99) _ , 1IOt: ａｾｯｉ＠ｾＮ＠ .. _ _ _. N, .. 'loo.: St. MMtio'. hoi (1996) ficIomolJ.< dot IUio "'''''' W.... """""""th, Nil: 1I<<><ro,"o. r..,., ... R.-- .. .ＮＬｾ＠ rr-. Ｎ＠ Ro ... n, Bruce (1990) ｾＮ＠ n. _ C.mbridS' " H."",<d ｵｾＬ［ｯｹ＠ Pr"., Sapiro>, V.pni.a (1993') Ｂｾｃｯ､ｲｵｮｉ＠ Rin¥ T'" If CoJJo...I rr-/wto; n. w..",.,,;., rm.. PI" :!6-!of • "-'_ " }{"'-'. ｾ＠ｾ＠ Dilf"""""",' I. .-&0. .. Sr;hnDdt, s.bon< (l99O) '"Cooffi« ....J V"*"'« .. ｾｬ＠ｾ｟＠ Y"",,!! « d.), Modo",": Un ..... ,o. r:o....s Woo, iI 'I I d "''Y n. of Local [.,..(.: A Wodd-S"",,,, 1'mpo:<;tiY<," ＿ｾＢ＠ｾ＠ＱＱｾ＠ J-l!2, &:h.,bel. Alhrecb, and R.medo Tl-..kur (.0.) (2000) " ' - _ ... o..Jltv< rf ｾ＠ ..... ｾ＠ SM_!ooo!i ,,; .1< ....... _ ｾ＠ N"... y"",, n.. ｕｾ＠ N • ..,... fu •• Ｆｾ＠ I'tt<r J ＨＱｾＩ＠ "F,on<, ond tIw: C_ G>m< .. Afric.->." c..m", HisI<Q % {M.y);206-21 1. Stg<ll. G;"n (199'11 "Worl.onliIrn otId ｔＬｾ＠ r""" Sootlw:... Aaia to SubSaha= ｍｾﾷ＠ In P.wI Rido (0<1.), _ ;. _ _ RIIrriou. New Vorl<: $<. M.,..;,,', Pro ... PI" 38---51 . (1967) "f.IIo"'" Ma!ioIiz>.tion....J tIw: S«d. of w.n.... Shlo" R. I'>.ul an<l Vuwo An E",,,,iooary h""",tM." ｾ＠ So.i/it, """"" 11, ｾＡ＠ I. Sh<arer, DavKJ (2OOOj Ｎｾ＠ '" ｾＧ＠ｈｾ＠ ,\.<1 ond I.. & _ RIlle in C<viI w..-." In M.o. BHdaI .. ..-I D.vid).l . ).1-" (<<b). GMrI ... r _, u ｾ＠ .. CiooI W..., . IlouIoIrr Lyru;< ｾＮＭ･Ｂ＠ PI" 1_ _ . Sirnoru., Ann> (1997) "lkmoo;raO"t .... and Eohnlc Co<onrt n.. Kiro Coon<ctio<o." ,c.u..... H".., ｾＮ＠ , '! ｾ "M,,, ｾ＠ o..JJ.""-'*_ c.,n,,, (",- c.-.... n-6/!. I _0.,......_.1, 1'h< Ca>< of R_nd.: ｗｾＬ＠ｾＧＢ＠ on ＦＬＭｩｴｾ＠ Am<ri<." ""'""' .. ,.", 1<>0- ,I>< Adv..K,n><nt of so...o. I\>oen, !!any II.. ｉｬ｜ＹｾＩ＠ -no. So<urity w.mm. and I'.thruo Oonili<o,· _ _ Ｑｾ＠ 27 ..... 7. II.. (1991) "fh< IIlt.m• ..,...b....,., of EIhnic Cen/lict s"..,., 'lJ-1Premd.., ｾ＠ ical ExpIoratio<Jo." In ILM. do sav.. .... RJ- Mar (odo), ｾ＠ t! £JIt,W ｾＬ＠ Now Yoo.: St. MOrtin. Pr..., PI" Ｑ｛＾ＢＲｾＬ＠ PnuOO. ｾ＠ＨｉｾＩ＠ no _ OW, ｾ＠ rf. N"" 'loo.: CoIwnbi.o ｕＢｾｐＬ＠ ... ＭＨｉｾＩｊ＠ "Th<c",ot ｾ｣ＮｷＧ＠ a.....'I/"*'7%{Moy): 19l-199. RaddaJe..Brown, "'-R- 11'140) "Pn"",,", 10 M. _ .00 E.E.. E...... Pntchud (<do). ｾ＠ --'01 ｾＮ＠ L<mdon: o.furd Uo ..... ....,. rr-, PI" >ci---..... R<jali. Dan", M. (1996) F,""";"!uWp<> 0( ｾ＠ V_,," I. r.o.. Ann 1.0.=""" otIdj<nnif"Tury>in (<do), n.. wo... ... W... _ . N<w V..., N<w Vorl; Un;"'",,)" Pr..., PI" ｾＭＳＲＮ＠ ""00, WUli.u. ＨｉｾＩ＠ c..",.... ... Slot. ｾ＠ .. s;.-", I - . N,w 'lor" C""'bridg< UnMntly Prou. - - ＨＱｾＩ＠ "I'rivatizulJ War ill S"". !.<one." eo.96 (l.by): 221-23(1. - - (1996) _ """"' ... ｾ＠ SkId. BouId.<: Lym>< R;.""",. (:IOIIII)"S/adow SI>'".oo tIw: Pr:>h<ocaJ Eoonomy 0( Civil W""," 1.).1... 8ert\.U otId 14vid M . Malon< (.0.). G...i ... ",",-,.- &-K ｾ＠ .. G.il ｾＧＢ＠ pp. Rryn.o. s.r .00 R.E. J:Inwno «<I» (199{) Langh<;o-ne. P",- G«doo & ｾＬ＠ • • d,. Rmooltdr<- ｾＬＢ＠ ... """" Relatiooa." 119-IH. eo....--. N", Bru"...;.± T.-ru.n. Rommel, RudnIpIoJ (19910) _ _ (1997b) Sro .., f/ ｾ｟Ｌ＠ｍＢＬｾＧ＠ 1900. GharlottoviJk, VA, N&<ionaI s.wriIy. S<h<ooI of La ..., ｵｾ＠ 0( V"!inia. _ (1991<)".,.,., KiIlI: ｾＮＬ＠ M_ 1f N New Hrumwick; T ",__ and V"",,", Sd"n« uxI 1n",,,,• o.,.n"" I Ｆｾ＠ New V""" Rubioso<iro, Rob<n A. ond MAry I.oC:too fuater (.0.) (1988) n. _ ｾ＠ rf-' ... ｾｏｯｉｴｷ＼［Ｇ｟ＭＢＮＦｵｬ､＼ｲ［ＢｐｯＮ＠ｒｵ､･ｮ｡ｫｾ＠ Nikolai (1992) "w..- ... F><to< 0( illInic Oonfflc, otId Somility .. the USSR .. " In Gioqjo Auo<nda (td.). Ef!«'''f W.. ｾＮ＠ !I.<puN;" of S- M ...... , Cent<, o-Intnili><;piioary Rc><arch "" So<w su-..., VI'- ＱＸＭｾＮ＠ｒｾＬｊｯｨｮ＠ a..-anI (19'iJ) wr,,..,....w"Y an<l iI<)ood: 1'rnIok-m..;.q Mod<Tnny in .If_ _ .lf"; - ｦ｟ｾＬＲＱｾＸＧｊ＠ (1'199) "'Moo- B.d "',(,., Fot .... • A ... ＬＯｾＮ＠ A......,...,& ｉｾＧｯ｡＠ I' f' __ (1m) " 8<yond SJPRJ (2001) "Major Armo:i Oonrucoo-- SO><khoIm In .... -..... """"" Ra<>ni. I"";" tutt.. ｨＢＬＧｉｾＯｯｮｩ＼Ｚｵ､ｹｍＪＢＬ＠ _ _..,.,tlieu.html aDd """,II ......""....... /<10< • ._ S&oq.oI, n...t. ＨＱＹｍＩＧｾＡｨ＼＠ s.- &<k In: ｾ＠ c..-...., R. .. ..clL" In p"..,. B. E"...,., Di<IridI ｾ＠ ODd 11Irdt. SI;oq>oI 1....1. 1I0oI "'- ｾ＠ U.........,."""" PI' .1-57. SI ...... ,j<ffiry "'- (<<I.I (2OOOa) ｾＮＡＧｰｍＺ＠ n. A. ) 'V of ' - T_. Phioddpl..." U,.;...,icy of PI:nnJyIw.nia " ' - - (2OO(lo) So.,. T..",.. ... ａｮｾＧ＠ lnjefl'rcy st..u (cd.), ｾ＠ s,.t: n ...... : 1....., PI' ' ....), ＢｾＢ＠ Un""""" of Ptn.,.,+ lIDl< r.huIeo (.... ) "In_, I, I ｾａｮＮＬＨＱＹｉｌＩｮＮｅＺｄ＼｟ｾｬｊＬＢＧＭ of Ide.. ' E. M;a,. s...... "'-PI' ｟ｾＺ＠ｾ (1986) · F.... ni<: ｾＬｊＢ＠ u...." ,oJobnF s...:k (od.), .. _ ｾ＠ｬｍｾＺ Stu<J;n.. In - . : The PrimonIiaI ｾ＠ｾＢ｣ＭＬ＠ ....} _ N<w' V,,': (:""''''<><Id P<-. PI' 1-11. St..., Orin (1!/!I7) War and Coun ................ in ...... ｾ＠ _ - In RieIw<I G. b ..... 0.;" Siam ＨＢｾ＠ _ ｾ＠ . . ｾ＠ CioIIoooII'MIoa'- -V...,... .. "'''''' .w...I_ .. NJ ｒｵｴｾ＠ｕｾ＠ P-,PI' nJ.-l4'l ＵｴｩＡｉｾＬ＠ )'<,. ｾ＠ led) (1 m) M.., ｾＺ＠ n. m. _ _ .. _ ·H_ _ Unrohe N\I: Uoml'1io:y 01 Ntb.... b rr-. s..........., An<kw (2InlI " I", tho __ Go Doom," [" IL _ mw-- ond Nd 1ｎｲｷｾ＠ " .... T.wI q.... .. I ,. , . - , ｾ＠ Fe; !kl>ooI of ｾ＠ R<oe.n;h ｾ＠ pp. S<tobo (20001 "Th< Crioio in Arfica: LoWIYu ond ｾ＠ WI",<I•.,d (. .ｾ＠ T.-. ｰｲｩｮｾ＠ s.m. J-wll J, ｢ｴ＼ｰＺ Tunbioh, SunI.y _ ｉｾ ........ 1IIojiPo, _ m-m. Ni<:1 Poaoo." _ Ｎｾﾫ＾ｉ＼ｳＭｏｭＯＮＢ｟Ｇ＠ I'l:Wzri u>d Sw.t.y JＢｾＬＴＮ［＠ __ "'.IM, ｾ＠ .... f'r<tIi;, .........: U-..;,y 0( T.... ｾ＠ fo.- IItJthb>ChoptI. pp. 1---'. - - (Ism)-" ｾＦｉｰｯＬ＠ - . . ｾ＠ v;,;.,. ,,&. 1__ ｾ＠ o,ic.oso ＨＱＹＶＳＩＢｾＢ＠ In Rtmo Ou;d;eri. ｵｾ｟＠ _ . (1996) t--., 00.6, ｾ＠ __ ｾｬｯｴｉ｟ＺﾥＧ＠ ,·t ,. fN c..,6d.ｾ＠ t:.a..- fWoog • .- A.oo. 11< .... "'" Uru.....;,y nf CaI;ro.,,;. ""'.. ........... ｍｾ＠ (1981) • '. C I "_, ｾ＠ oW otIif M.· A ｾ＠ " .",.,.. ｾ＠ H.... CI"Ii<a(o: U.........., of Chitac<> "'nyb-, Chri>topl>cr C. (1999) Sfc[/iu It 1"...: 1lt R_ c-Jt of 199-1. New VO<It: ｾＮ＠ Tlo,luo-,o;.....(l'l91) l' Ii .. Ｎ｣ﾷｾｉｦ f>lr". NC: I)U« Un;....;,y " ' Toyb-. 1'<1<, J (199*) "Th< So ..... ｾ＠ Syotrm," I\<op<r. 11- ｾ＠ 1$, ｛ｽＱＭＶｾ o...m.m. T ,.•• ｾｇｯｍＭｾＢ＠｜Ｂｾ＠ T,,",oRolity;" <he Moo..n _ Ｎ＠ _. U..........,. I'rin<. - : ｾＬ＠ｾＬＮｾ＠ ..... Ｎ＠ｾ＠ Ut.I V-., &pubIW: Soc""' Strt./UnM.-.Oy 0( _(1'1911» " I n _: W.. and ｅｴｨｮｾＢ＠ [" D..-id T_ Ｈ･､Ｎｾ＠ _ ｾＺ＠ GWoI ｾ｟＠ｾ＠ I...J !Wow.. ｒｴｾ＠ 0( $an M,';"',' Ccn<e< b- In",,-,;;,a. pimory R<oe..-.;h "" s...-tU.........,. 0( Rbtt.... ... """" pp.1-f) , 1 _ , G.qandJod Sh<= 1«1<) (1 ' I 9 1 ) _ ' - . J J.a..j" WoioA ...... , ..... ,in: 0( Auotin ""' ... U.-,; WoIWn 11009) ｾＢｉ｟＠ f<Wt, - ' ito '" _ s..:w ＺｊＭＮｉＢＧ＠ 1- :16. S...:k,Joh" n.. UN Ope,"""" ｾＭＬ＠ 'if!" -. ......__• ｾｌＮＬｒｸｮｯ｣＼ｗ＠ M-_ of "'-' - . .. n..t..Jb n._" It"""'" c.:.o..J',. n. ＨｉｾＩ＠ """""- IJ........... " ' Thr .. ,. r •..J R. and Dmd ｐｩｾ＠ (1'18'1) I lIP of _ Ii""- ¥ ｾ＠ MAo Ik<y Rnc",," on 'v,,'- __ (1'JII:l)-n-w.., ... : " . Nrw Vooto ...:1 ... .,;..- ｾ＠ Sor<l<o'. Ja<k and ｾ＠ - . ..... (1 997) ·N...,...... ..... Ih< ｍｾ＠ In M",,'-' E. Brown, o...", R. s.... M. 4'no-Jo-o ond (<dol,}' t ' .. _oM EMtc...fot. ｾ＠ MIT 61-96. s....'h ... ,!Udon (191U) '"Tho Jlluoiuo. of 1Mb<.' J-M1 If .u- .. ¥-o _ _ (19HI_For_ .. AbD.- _ _ rf,W; Ｇｖｓ［ｊｾ !\pooo<I. L..oti< F- ( IWi) -n.. M ....... ｒ＼ｾ＠ of AmhropoIocJ ..... _ I" .... E. Sponod ..... n...m... G..p (<do), n. ｾＮＧ＠ ; Intrnu«". ... I",,<t<"-;<oriolity." M--. x... .... t ,;"". n. N...,.., - /IrooPv""- .. ........ ｉＢ＼･ｾ＠ 19: I-I), n.w... Rom<oh 1199*) "r-.. ""ocdttpiAc!AI ＠ｾ F.nb ... "",,,,, ;" Som.Iia." 7ltJ--l lf ｟ｾｓｉｯｩｵｮＺ＠ 5111.... 1o, TIWut, Rom<oh ond E.dwa<d _ (rdt) (20001 IIu.../""-,, ｾ＠ｾ＠ｾ＠ New y ",," n.. Uniood of.......,.. .. ".." eoown.", ＢＱＯ｟ｾ＠ ! f , U.......,. c..... .. _: T-IP_ N... ｖＢｾ＠ Vo.iI.1.<..,,- (ed.) (I9$')) n. c...;., ¥' Californ" ""- T"""'- it ........ ｾ＠ 1I<ru:i<r' IJm...,;.y 0( T-;w- " _ . N.... VM.=lbe r"", "'- VonC....!d, Manio. (I 99I)1lo< Von ". . s..v><. ""'.. L. (0<1.) (1900) _ Pmo 0( (]ojo..do. Von d<t Den ..... .Johon "'-0. (1m) w.do: 0riJin IWtou ｾ no. ｾ＠Ｎ＠ Ni_. CO: <r- "'- P;" . . and Nancr L..c """"" (1m) Ｍｲｾ＠ and s....e - . in Thahnd." ｮＮ［ｾＲＴＺ＠ JM-426, """"" \'>0 E_ .'it<ph<" 119'14) " Hyp<><><t "" /'I,.;",w;..,. ond w... • ｾ＠ＱｉＨＴｾ＠ 26---«1. _ _ 11991) "Hl"I""h<- "" Notionoliom and w..-." In Mrl>a<1 £. IIrown, 0..." R. Cot• •J •.. Sn" M. Lrnn.p... ,nJ.sw..... ｍｏｉｬ｣＾Ｍ＼､ｯｾ＠ ......... ｾ＠ f:JIa.< Co¢irt, ｖｾＬ＠ Carnbridc<. Mk MIT rr- pp. ＲｬｾＲＶｴＮ＠ VonI>anrn, T.m 11m)·Edm.>; ConIh<to ond E<lmi< N."..;.m." 1"Jui»<> M.G. ...n dtr Dcnnen. 0 ...... Stn;u;., and 0.';'1 R. W...,., Ｈ＼ｉｾ＠ n. ｾ＠ II..... Mil s..w;. ""v, ",-",. CT: ｾＬｰｴｌ＠ 111_ 1'19. V""",,, lLononIo .... (1998) "Th< ｾ＠ <he £nd of d>< ｾｮＬｩ＼ｴｨ＠ ........ <e<, 0( <t>C CriOc>I)J"" ...... • 10 I.e<o<w-do .... VIIIoIon and Philip .... II., ,,bIt ＨＢＧｾ＠ 1lt """"" 5100< ... ｾ＠ｾ＠ＢＬｾ＠ Sut." c.o"'rr- o.M:r--, _ ｾ＠ Lynn. PJto",,,.pp. 3--2). !._ .. fl.,,,.... ... (<do) (1998) n. """"" $10> • • c.;,;,.j VobIon, '-""'" A. ond Phillip .... 1--.- &iot_ p, .... .J ＬＧｊｩｾ＠ _ l ynn. RlN> .... ｖＢＬｾｪｯＦｮ＠ (19901 A.... ; I " ｾ＠ f'o/iau' I-"-'; T - . ｾ＠ｔｾＬ＠ Thaon: IJ.....· "'Y of ANon. """'.......""=. """'" and ｍｾ＠ SoIonbc" (l'I9I) "A.mod Co>nI\icu, c",1Ii« T..m .... Don.oo """'" ｾＢＧｮ＼＾Ｌ＠ 1 _" J--ooI <I rwu _ 34 : ＢｾＭＧＡＭＸＬ＠ --- -- ｾ＠ 1'_ :."",:.: _ l=993. 1 ,w". ｾＮ＠ fit WiIAio, CoIroml ... I'oAt.4I .. ...;.w "'-__ (j (l(llb) "IntroO""'"",' Rro",ohnS Conffic .. _ _ Col,",,, onO ｾＧｬｮ＠ Ka w"""" ｻｯ､Ｎｾ＠ fit f'ioIoo« _ , (:0'"-1 . . . I'WWI ｾ＠ .. ｾ＠ "*"-'. BouId<r. _ py,,"'P!'- 1- 2l. _ _ (2000) -C""",,"""'" o.oth So.wuIo .00 W.... CompOoriboo: Di\emm.u fm- Ih< AllII>ropoIocy 0( VooI<n=· In Jdfr<y .... SM. (<<l), f)",JIo ｾ＠ n. ａｾ＠ </ so.. T..,... Ｂｩ､ｰｨｾ＠ Un ... ,.;..,. 0( l'Hmoylvania I'r<oo, PI' 2:16-2i7. w..,.., r ... (19904) "Blowback &u... the Afghu> Bottkfodd_· n. "'"' ""' T_ M.,...." 13 M>n::h, S2- )S. W,m...;.,., J<rnny M. (2000) 'l'Jric.o' 'Scnmble for M";';" , I"""", of • Contin<ntal 1'0'..... ＱｏｍｩｽｬＬｾ＠ J-'* 11. ｨｴｰＬＧｉｗ＼ｨｬ｟ｾＮﾫ＾ｭｦＢｗｷｯｲｴｨ＠ """,,,10., !\I<" • ....,. (1'199) s..>.I n.., t/ rw;,n ｣ＮｭｾＺ＠ C"",bo'odg< }(.Ms. """.-...J U"",,<1i1l' P..... "'IIik. R. (199lll "WoM-1>I'''= R<p.n.I ;., l.<><al l.<vd th< i:th"""aphie 11"';""'_· ｄｯｾ＠ｾ＠ >nd CooIIi<b", ｾｦｯ＾＠ .. C.....uy [mp!;.., od ｾ＠ [ I, 11 1_ lJJ . WlIlia ... , Bnclttt< F. (I'lli'll .... cu.SS ACT, Antlau,."I"" aM the R"", to NoIion """" EII\n"'T<rT.m." A..-lFW-of A"",! "V 18: 101--444 Wolton, Edwud O. (19'J9) ｾ＠ fit U"",,, ｾ＠ New Yor\: Vm""C"- Wobon, M..... and 1>1'- D.l-; ｉｬｾＩ＠ -.:;0"'1'••;".......". , Ri>Ic·To.Lio& >nd ｖｾ＠ n,., Y",,"« Mol< Syndrome." &Ioo4v .... s.. ' tv 6, S9-ll. Wolf. F..,., (19$2) &nf< .... '" ｾＮＭ 1m...,. _J..r, U .......... ,.,. '" Cabl"n,;, ! ' I: I, I ,I '!I I" , I " ,I I I I ｾＮ＠ Y"",,&. C",wford (<<I.) (199:1.) fit /Moot TO« " Co/ooool _ _ . fit.v....s- ., &J' M . dioo<'I: ｕｮｾ＠ of ｗｾ＠ "'-__ (l993b) '111< o;.te<tia of Cultur.1 l'Iurol;"": ｾ＠ and Rtabty." In er...f""d Yowl, (<<I.). 11< ｾ＠ To/, of ｾＺ＠ 1:\0 )(.M.s.", oj &vi M>o<lOO<>, U...... ...,. of W""""rin PTe'" W !-3S. • Z ..""",,. I Wdham (<d.) ＨＱＡＱｾＱＮＩ＠ c./..... ;:,.,." Tiro ｾＢＧ＠ k"",'" of ｾ＠ • . _ ｾＮ＠ IIouIdroc Lynn< R;.n .... __ (1995b) ·'In_';"'" ｉＧ｢ｯｾ＠ ..... l'mbi<rn of Com.opo<." In I. WUli>m sw. Zartm>n (0<1.1 ｣ＮＯｾ＠ SI.tI<J, 110 Boulder Lynr>< R>:nJIC'. Wi- II. ｯ［Ｌｵｾ＠ _ _ " I.<to_ ....""'!> Part I Conunentaries

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