AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 132:381–394 (2007)
Continuity or Discontinuity of the Life-Style in Central
Italy During the Roman Imperial Age-Early Middle
Ages Transition: Diet, Health, and Behavior
Giovanna Belcastro,* Elisa Rastelli, Valentina Mariotti, Chiara Consiglio, Fiorenzo Facchini,
and Benedetta Bonfiglioli
Laboratory of Bioarchaeology and Forensic Osteology, Department of Experimental Evolutionary Biology,
University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
KEY WORDS
dental pathologies; skeletal health markers; diet
ABSTRACT
Dento-alveolar pathologies and alterations (dental wear, caries, abscesses, ante mortem tooth
loss (AMTL), calculus, hypoplastic defects, and chipping)
and skeletal markers of health (cribra orbitalia and periostitis) were analyzed in two skeletal samples from the necropolises of Quadrella (I–IV c. AD) and Vicenne-Campochiaro
(VII c. AD) in the Molise region of central Italy. The aim
was to determine if the Roman Imperial Age-Early Middle
Ages transition characterized by political, socioeconomic,
and cultural transformations affected the biology of these
populations, particularly their alimentation and health status. The frequencies of caries and AMTL, similar in the
two samples, suggest a high consumption of carbohydrates.
The higher levels of heavy wear, calculus, and interproximal chipping in the Vicenne population indicate a greater
use of fibrous foods (both meat and others), in line with the
dietary model of Germanic peoples. Health conditions do
not appear to have been good in either period, as shown by
the high frequencies of linear hypoplasia and the presence
of cribra orbitalia and periostitis. The diet of the individuals buried with horses of the Vicenne population did not
differ from that of the rest of the population, whereas there
were evident differences in the use of the teeth for nonmasticatory activities among these individuals. Therefore, from
the point of view of alimentation and health status, the
profound socioeconomic and cultural transformations during the Late Antiquity-Early Middle Ages transition do not
seem to have been translated into a true discontinuity of
the two Molisan populations. Am J Phys Anthropol 132:
381–394, 2007. V 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The Late Antiquity-Early Middle Ages transition in
Europe was a period of profound cultural, political, social,
and economic transformations after the fall of the western
Roman Empire (dated at 476 AD). The first two centuries
of the Roman Imperial Age were characterized by general
peace and economic prosperity, but during the III c. AD the
socioeconomic and political situation worsened, in line with
the general conditions of the Roman State that suffered
from political instability, heavier taxes, collapse of trade
and agriculture, etc. (Righini, 1976). The following centuries saw the spread of epidemic diseases (plague, smallpox,
tuberculosis, leprosy, malaria), famine, and undernourishment, due also to increased contacts with other populations
following the wars and barbarian invasions (Kiple, 1999).
Although archaeological, historical, and demographic data
testify to this process of transformation—for example, the
Italian population was halved from eight million (III c. AD)
to four million (second half VI–second half IX c. AD) (Del
Panta et al., 1996)—there have been few osteoarchaeological and epidemiological studies of these transitional phases
and their possible effects on population biology.
The purpose of this paper is to document and interpret
dental and osseous markers of health in two skeletal series from the Sannio area of Molise, central Italy: one
from the Roman Imperial period (Quadrella, Isernia, I–IV
c. AD) and the other from the Early Middle Ages
(Vicenne-Campochiaro, Campobasso, VII c. AD) (Fig. 1).
Specifically, we test the hypothesis that alimentary patterns changed and health status declined, reflecting profound socioeconomic and cultural transformations during
the Late Antiquity-Early Middle Ages transition.
THE NECROPOLISES
C 2006
V
WILEY-LISS, INC.
C
The Roman necropolis of Quadrella (QDR), consisting
of over 110 graves, was an extra-urban area of Aesernia,
a Roman colony since 263 BC. As soon as Aesernia
became a municipium (self-governing centre of the
Roman Empire), there was a strong influx of people from
Latium, which contributed to the prosperity of the small
city. Most graves are of the \cappuccina" type (burial covered with tiles in a double pitch roof) and the few grave
goods are uniform and repetitive, indicating \a rather undifferentiated social extraction of the occupants" (Terzani,
1991; Terzani and Matteini Chiari, 1997). Inscriptions on
tombstones refer to liberti (freed slaves) (Terzani, 1991).
The early medieval necropolis of Vicenne-Campochiaro
(VCN), consisting of 167 graves, is situated between
Sepino, Bojano, and Isernia and is dated to the Lombard
Grant sponsor: Italian Ministry of University and Research
(MIUR)–Cofin.
*Correspondence to: Giovanna Belcastro, Laboratory of Bioarchaeology and Forensic Osteology, Department of Experimental Evolutionary Biology, University of Bologna, Via Selmi 3, 40126 Bologna,
Italy. E-mail: maria.belcastro@unibo.it
Received 28 March 2006; accepted 10 October 2006
DOI 10.1002/ajpa.20530
Published online 11 December 2006 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com).
382
M.G. BELCASTRO ET AL.
nomadic populations of the Iron Age and persists in the
Age of Migrations (IV–X c. AD) (Kurylev et al., 1989). For
the community of Vicenne, therefore, we can talk of a multicultural and perhaps multiethnic context with \Asian,"
Germanic, and local components (Genito, 1991; Belcastro
and Facchini, 2001; Belcastro et al., 2001a,b, 2003).
DIETARY PATTERNS IN THE ROMAN IMPERIAL
PERIOD AND EARLY MIDDLE AGES
Fig. 1. The map refers to the Italian territory during the
Lombard-Byzantine period.
period (VI–VIII c.). The necropolis refers to a community
located in the areas described by the Lombard historian
Paolo Diacono, in his History of the Lombards, as extensive uninhabited areas in the plain between Sepino,
Bojano, and Isernia (book V, 29) used to control the borders of the Duchy of Spoleto and Benevento. With the current archaeological and historical data, it is not possible to
refer the necropolis to a certain town and the graves may
have been related to nomadic settlements (De Benedittis,
1988; Ceglia and Genito, 1991). One of the most important elements of the necropolis is the multiethnic context,
observed by the archaeologists and historians who studied the materials and the types of burials. In fact, Lombard, local, and Avar materials (jewels, stirrups) were
found (Ceglia and Genito, 1991; Genito, 1991). Moreover,
the discovery of 12 graves of horse and man, i.e., the contextual burial with a horse equipped with typically Avar
harness and stirrups, is the first documentation of this
type of burial in Europe (Genito, 1991). It is also important
to underline that stirrups have not been found in any
other European necropolis dated to before this period. Stirrups revolutionized the military strategies of fighting,
since without them a warrior could not fight while riding a
horse. These graves, with a human skeleton and a horse
skeleton buried together in the same pit, are considered
high-status graves, because of the inferred sacrifice of the
horse on the death of the master (Ceglia, 2000). This is
known elsewhere in Italy only in grave 43 of the Lombard
necropolis of San Mauro at Cividale del Friuli (Silva,
2000). This type of burial is not reported for Europe: from
protohistoric times until the Alemannic cemeteries, horses
were buried separately from humans. The type of burial at
Vicenne is quite similar to the numerous ones in Eurasian
The typical Roman meal of the lower classes consisted
of bread (rich in bran and impurities), wine, vegetables—
onions, garlic, and chick peas were typical of the lower
classes (Dosi and Schnell, 1990)—lard, some fruit, and
olives. In fact, Cato informs us that olives and bread were
the basic foods of farmers and the working class (Brothwell and Brothwell, 1969). Vegetables were probably the
most frequent accompaniment to bread but they could
alternate with other poor dishes like fish and cheese.
Meat was generally a luxury, but some types were available to the less well-to-do classes, like sausages, ham, or
poultry, which could form part of the diet of urban populations (Neri, 1985). Hunting provided game, while domestic animal breeding was related to the rite of sacrifice: the
idea of meat as an offering to the divinity was so strong
that to kill an animal only to eat its meat was equivalent
to squandering it (Dupont, 1997). In the countryside, the
consumption of meat was rarer and generally related to
festive occasions. Puls—a porridge of cereals mixed with
water, salt, and a little oil (Neri, 1985)—and dairy products were an alternative source of protein, especially in
the sylvo-pastoral economy of hilly and mountainous
regions, like the Sannio area of Molise. The historical literary sources indicate that the most important products
of the region were wheat, olives, wine (Silius Italicus),
and figs (Pliny) (White, 1970). However, the principal activity of this region was sheep husbandry, with the consequent production of wool, milk, and cheese, and probably
meat. Cheese was eaten freshly made or preserved and
was an important ingredient of Roman bread and cakes
(Brothwell and Brothwell, 1969).
After the fall of the western Roman Empire, the different alimentary traditions were quite evident: the Mediterranean dietary pattern (bread, oil, and wine) characterized the Roman world, while hunting, cattle breeding,
and fishing were typical of the Germanic peoples. Among
the Lombards, many pacts were ratified on the basis of
livestock exchanges, and the numerous remains of ritual
meals discovered in the graves attest to the breeding of
cattle, pigs, and sheep (Bóna, 1990), as also observed in
the necropolis of VCN. Around the V–VI century, however, there was a coming together of the two cultures and
a mutual integration in the following centuries (Montanari, 1993). For the Early Middle Ages, the historical-historiographic sources emphasize the importance of both
cereals (albeit inferior grains following the collapse of
wheat production) and the vegetable and animal products
typical of uncultivated areas (game, fish and livestock
raised in clearings or in the woods). In most of the population, meat was boiled—roasts were exclusive to the warrior nobility—to attenuate the taste of salt with which
the meat was preserved, to tenderize it, and to exploit the
nutritious juices dissolved in the broth, which was then
reutilized to prepare other dishes (Rösener, 1996; Montanari, 1997). The meal for most populations consisted of a
stew cooked with beans, vegetables, a small amount of
fresh or salted meat, small pieces of stale bread and flour,
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
383
ROMAN IMPERIAL AGE-EARLY MIDDLE AGES TRANSITION
TABLE 1. Distribution of adult individuals and teeth in Quadrella (QDR) and Vicenne (VCN) samples
Individuals
Males
Females
n.i.a
Adult young
Adulte middle
Adult old
Adult
Total
a
Teeth
QDR
VCN
Individuals of VCN
buried with horses
26
28
13
19
9
24
15
67
45
40
3
41
14
21
12
88
12
–
–
5
2
3
2
12
QDR
VCN
Individuals of VCN
buried with horses
514
514
176
487
163
419
135
1204
1033
679
42
966
311
334
143
1754
276
–
–
140
43
68
25
276
n.i., not identified.
followed by bread and wine; the composition of the dish
changed with the seasons. Hence, a certain amount of
animal products seems to have formed part of the diet of
the poor classes in this period; this is an anomalous occurrence in the history of alimentation, which previously
and subsequently was characterized by the prevalence of
cereals (Montanari, 1997).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data concerning oral health for the Quadrella sample
(QDR) have already been published (Bonfiglioli et al.,
2003), whereas the data for Vicenne (VCN) are unpublished, except for preliminary data on chipping (Bonfiglioli et al., 2004). The composition of the skeletal samples has already been reported (Brasili and Belcastro,
1998; Belcastro and Facchini, 2001). Table 1 presents the
adult sample analyzed. The dental features examined
were recorded according to the criteria reported in Belcastro et al. (2004). Dental wear on the occlusal surface
was scored according to Smith (1984) and the degrees of
wear were grouped into mild (degrees 1 and 2), intermediate (degrees 3 and 4), and heavy (degrees 5–8). Here we
present the results for heavy wear. Caries were recorded
according to Powell (1985): \only those cavities that
would admit the tip of a dental explorer were scored as
actual caries to eliminate false scoring of discolored but
intact enamel." In addition, we calculated the \caries correction factor" (Lukacs, 1992, 1995), which estimates
caries in a more appropriate way by relating ante mortem
tooth loss (AMTL) to exposure of the pulp cavity due to
caries or wear. Abscesses were recorded only in the case
of a perforating fistula (Brothwell, 1981) and AMTL was
evaluated according to Lukacs (1989). Because calculus
can easily be removed during the phases of excavation
and restoration, we only scored its presence–absence.
Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) was scored according to
the criteria of the Fédération Dentaire International
(1992). We used a three-grade scale to score chipping
(Bonfiglioli et al., 2004). A few, but clear, indications help
to distinguish ante mortem chipping from post mortem
damage. In accordance with Milner and Larsen (1991),
\the smoothing of the sharp edges of fractured enamel
through continued attrition and the staining characteristic of adjacent broken and intact surfaces will help
researchers identify when the damage occurred." Cribra
orbitalia were detected macroscopically in individuals
with at least one orbital roof preserved. The degree of severity was scored according to the Stuart-Macadam
(1982) scale. Periostitis was scored as absent or present
when new superficial bone and fine striae were observable on the femur and tibia (Fig. 2). In particular, we only
Fig. 2. Presence of periostitis (the slightest grade). [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
www.interscience.wiley.com.]
scored the complete bone, although some small fragments
and the proximal and distal ends may have been absent.
Side and bilateral presence and, for the tibia, medial and/
or lateral position were recorded. Bones with clear signs
of fracture associated with periostitis were excluded.
The frequencies of the dental features were calculated
both per individual (number of affected individuals/number of observations) and per tooth (number of affected
teeth/number of observations), taking into account the
jaw and side. For the per individual frequencies of caries,
abscesses, AMTL, calculus, and chipping, subjects were
eliminated from the analysis if it was not possible to
observe at least one complete quadrant of their dentition.
For the per individual frequencies of LEH, the subjects
were considered \with" or \without hypoplastic defects"
only if it was possible to observe at least four teeth (maxillary incisors and mandibular canines), according to
Goodman and Rose (1990).
Interpopulation and, in some cases, intrapopulation differences were analyzed with the Chi-squared (v2) test,
using StatSoft, Inc., 1992–1999, with the level of significance set at P < 0.05.
RESULTS
Dental features
Heavy wear. Heavy wear (Table 2) is more frequent in
the Early Middle Ages (VCN) sample than in the Roman
Imperial one (QDR) and these differences are particularly
evident in the females. In the middle and old adult age-
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
384
–
–
0.0007
–
–
62.2
(694)
58.3
(825)
93.4
(603)
38.2
(916)
60.1
(1519)
0.0013
–
–
–
–
0.0138
0.0000
0.0000
0.0272
0.0000
0.0000
–
Old adult
Middle adult
Total
Posterior
Anterior
Total sample ¼ males + females + n.i.; Values in parentheses indicate absolute values; AMTL, ante mortem tooth loss; LEH, linear enamel hypoplasia.
Values in parentheses indicate percentages.
0.0000
–
–
0.0001
0.0000
0.0052
–
–
–
Mandible
Young adult
b
0.0002
–
–
–
–
–
–
42.4
(512)
57.4
(666)
51.4
(422)
50.5
(756)
50.8
(1178)
–
11.6
(724)
14.8
(977)
5.9
(660)
18.3
(1041)
13.5
(1701)
4.1
(807)
12.5
(385)
31.0
(458)
11.1
(569)
13.5
(791)
6.5
(522)
16.2
(838)
12.5
(1360)
2.3
(429)
14.9
(228)
20.6
(579)
0.0000
6.4
(546)
3.1
(765)
2.4
(453)
5.6
(858)
4.5
(1311)
1.7
(601)
4.9
(326)
9.2
(359)
0.6
(487)
1.8
(676)
0.2
(425)
1.9
(738)
1.3
(1163)
0.6
(351)
1.5
(133)
1.8
(546)
15.1
(794)
15.0
(919)
6.1
(658)
20.7
(1055)
15.1
(1713)
10.1
(950)
16.5
(298)
29.6
(331)
25.1
(793)
20.0
(895)
27.1
(653)
19.4
(1035)
22.4
(1688)
01.5
(946)
35.0
(283)
70.4
(317)
Per tooth
Maxilla
11.5
(496)
18.6
(655)
24.4
(426)
10.3
(725)
15.6
(1151)
03.2
(468)
17.2
(163)
30.5
(387)
0.0000
16.2
(512)
14.0
(665)
2.8
(427)
21.9
(750)
15.0
(1177)
12.4
(476)
11.6
(164)
19.4
(402)
–
83.6
(67)
60.0
(60)
0.0009
48.3
(60)
20.3
(64)
–
79.5
(88)
71.6
(67)
–
58.1
(86)
63.5
(63)b
Per individual
a
0.0021
0.0000
0.0000
–
60.8
(441)
57.2
(502)
86.9
(359)
41.6
(584)
58.9
(943)
0.0000
–
–
66.7
(69)
59.0
(780)
61.9
(896)
64.8
(648)
57.9
(1028)
60.6
(1676)
P
VCN
100.0
(83)
95.2
(62)
VCN
QDR
P
VCN
100.0
(83)
Calculus
Caries
VCN
VCN
Wear
P
QDR
Abscesses
P
QDR
QDR
P
AMTL
VCN (%)
0.0001
classes, the frequencies are twice as high in VCN as in
QDR. In contrast, the teeth of the young adults are more
heavily worn in QDR than in VCN (especially in the
males).
QDR
TABLE 2. Frequencies of the dento-alveolar lesions in the total sample of Quadrella (QDR) and Vicenne (VCN)a
P
QDR
LEH
M.G. BELCASTRO ET AL.
Caries. The frequencies of caries (Table 2) are the same
in both samples (about 15%). This situation remains the
same even after application of the caries correction factor:
the frequencies of caries are 24.7% in QDR (10.0% for the
anterior teeth and 33.2% for the posterior ones) and
24.6% in VCN (10.6% for the anterior teeth and 32.5% for
the posterior ones). The anterior teeth, especially, the
upper ones, are significantly more carious in the Early
Middle Ages sample than in the Roman Imperial one,
whereas the posterior ones show more decay in the
Roman Imperial males (Table 3). Females do not show
significant differences with age (Table 4), while young
adult men are more affected in QDR and old men in VCN.
Concerning the location and severity of carious lesions
(Table 5), the frequency of occlusal caries is higher in
QDR, whereas the frequencies of cervical and root caries
are higher in VCN. The distribution of the types of caries
is similar between the sexes, except for the significantly
higher frequencies of cervical caries in the VCN males. In
the old adults of both samples, occlusal caries are less
numerous while cervical ones are more frequent.
Abscesses. The frequencies of abscesses (Table 2) are
higher in the Early Middle Ages sample. Because of the
relationship between abscesses and pulp cavity exposure
due to severe wear or caries (Lukacs, 1989), we counted
the alveoli with both abscesses and caries: 73.3% (11/15)
of the abscesses in QDR and 69.5% (41/59) in VCN are related to carious teeth. In particular, 53.8% (7/13) of the
abscesses in QDR and 59.5% (28/47) in VCN are associated
with cavity exposure caries, while, respectively, 14.3%
(7/49) and 36.8% (28/76) of the total number of teeth with
cavity exposure are associated with abscesses, the latter
difference being significant (P ¼ 0.0047). In only one case
in QDR and in two cases in VCN, the abscesses are related
to pulp exposure due to severe wear. With age, the number
of abscesses increases, especially in the male skeletons
from VCN (Table 3).
Ante mortem tooth loss. AMTL shows similar overall
frequencies in the two necropolises (Table 2). However,
the teeth of the Early Middle Ages females are more
affected by AMTL than the teeth of the Roman Imperial
ones, the difference being more evident for the posterior
alveoli, whereas the opposite occurs for the teeth of males
(Tables 3 and 4). The incidence of AMTL increases with
age, but more so in VCN than in QDR.
Calculus. Calculus is more frequent in the Early Middle
Ages sample (Table 2), both per individual and per tooth,
especially in the males (Table 3). For the anterior teeth,
the differences between the two samples are significant
for both sexes, while for the posterior teeth only for
males. Interestingly, while there are few sex differences
in QDR, the VCN men have higher values (P ¼ 0.0522)
than the VCN women (Tables 3 and 4).
Linear enamel hypoplasia. The per individual and per
tooth frequencies of this feature are similar in the total
samples (and in the males and females) of both necropolises (Tables 2–4). The anterior teeth are much more
affected than the posterior ones. Moreover, the anterior
teeth of the Early Middle Ages sample are significantly
more affected than those of the Roman Imperial one.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
TABLE 3. Frequencies of dento-alveolar lesions in the males of Quadrella (QDR) and Vicenne (VCN) samplesa
Wear
Per individual
Per tooth
Maxilla
Mandible
Total
Young adult
Middle adult
Old adult
a
b
Abscesses
AMTL
Calculus
LEH
VCN
P
QDR
VCN
P
QDR
VCN
P
QDR
VCN
P
QDR
VCN
P
QDR
VCN
P
68.0
(25)b
60.5
(43)
–
84.6
(26)
71.1
(45)
–
26.9
(26)
48.6
(35)
–
68.0
(25)
55.3
(38)
–
88.5
(26)
100.0
(44)
0.0475
91.3
(23)
100.0
(44)
–
9.1
(220)
20.7
(270)
22.2
(176)
11.8
(314)
15.5
(490)
5.2
(211)
28.8
(66)
25.5
(188)
26.2
(481)
15.9
(508)
25.2
(381)
18.3
(608)
31.0
(989)
1.8
(599)
41.7
(163)
71.3
(171)
0.0000
19.7
(229)
17.4
(282)
4.4
(182)
26.1
(329)
18.4
(511)
15.0
(214)
9.0
(67)
24.5
(204)
14.5
(475)
14.5
(530)
7.8
(385)
18.7
(620)
14.5
(1005)
8.8
(599)
17.1
(170)
34.3
(181)
–
7.0
(343)
3.5
(455)
2.8
(283)
6.2
(515)
5.0
(798)
1.6
(386)
4.8
(188)
12.0
(209)
0.0003
13.1
(282)
13.1
(352)
7.1
(240)
16.8
(384)
13.1
(634)
2.3
(213)
19.4
(103)
19.5
(282)
9.6
(471)
11.1
(599)
2.7
(402)
15.3
(628)
10.4
(1030)
4.0
(519)
11.9
(226)
23.0
(252)
–
43.1
(225)
55.0
(271)
55.7
(176)
46.3
(320)
49.6
(496)
0.0000
61.6
(203)
53.8
(212)
86.2
(152)
41.1
(263)
57.6
(415)
–
–
0.0112
0.0126
0.0095
0.0457
0.0000
–
–
0.0078
–
0.0122
–
0.0234
0.8
(245)
1.6
(309)
0.5
(201)
1.7
(353)
1.3
(554)
1.1
(182)
0.0
(32)
1.6
(314)
–
0.0574
0.0014
0.0002
–
–
0.0000
–
0.0050
–
–
61.1
(470)
64.8
(512)
65.9
(381)
61.2
(601)
63.0
(982)
0.0070
0.0207
0.0000
0.0000
63.9
(427)
53.8
(480)
92.3
(352)
37.1
(555)
58.5
(907)
–
–
0.0310
–
–
0.0012
0.0424
–
Values in parentheses indicate absolute values; AMTL, ante mortem tooth loss; LEH, linear enamel hypoplasia.
Values in parentheses indicate percentages.
Wear
Per Individual
Per tooth
Maxilla
Mandible
Anterior
Posterior
Total
Young Adult
Middle Adult
Old Adult
1
Caries
Abscesses
AMTL
Calculus
LEH
QDR
VCN
P
QDR
VCN
P
QDR
VCN
P
QDR
VCN
P
QDR
VCN
P
QDR
VCN
P
53.8
(26)
55.0
(40)
–
71.4
(28)
87.5
(40)
–
14.3
(28)
48.0
(25)
0.0084
60.0
(25)
80.0
(30)
–
82.1
(28)
100.0
(36)
0.0129
100.0
(26)
100.0
(37)
–
8.7
(206)
13.4
(292)
17.1
(181)
8.2
(317)
22.2
(297)
25.4
(362)
30.0
(257)
20.1
(402)
0.0001
16.4
(207)
12.2
(288)
2.3
(176)
20.4
(319)
16.4
(304)
16.0
(363)
3.9
(258)
24.0
(409)
9.0
(223)
14.7
(361)
6.2
(226)
16.5
(358)
15.4
(253)
20.8
(400)
11.1
(252)
23.4
(401)
0.0225
40.9
(215)
60.9
(297)
49.5
(182)
54.2
(330)
56.9
(295)
59.3
(359)
63.6
(253)
54.9
(401)
11.4
(498)
24.0
(659)
0.0000
13.9
(495)
16.2
(667)
52.5
(512)
58.3
(654)
1.9
(211)
9.3
(97)
24.8
(141)
0.9
(329)
25.8
(120)
67.8
(146)
–
12.2
(213)
13.4
(97)
16.7
(138)
12.3
(332)
16.4
(128)
24.0
(150)
0.0001
0.0014
0.0000
0.0013
0.0000
–
0.5
(188)
1.0
(297)
0.0
(176)
1.3
(309)
5.4
(203)
2.6
(306)
1.8
(170)
4.7
(339)
0.0042
–
0.8
(485)
3.7
(509)
0.0023
12.5
(584)
18.7
(653)
–
0.0
(154)
2.0
(101)
1.2
(171)
1.9
(212)
5.1
(138)
5.3
(150)
–
2.6
(195)
11.2
(125)
24.4
(221)
4.4
(272)
13.2
(159)
40.8
(206)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
0.0118
–
0.0330
0.0291
0.0405
0.0170
0.0029
0.0154
–
0.0022
–
–
61.2
(178)
63.3
(226)
86.6
(157)
47.0
(247)
60.1
(253)
65.5
(325)
95.3
(236)
40.9
(342)
62.4
(404)
63.1
(578)
–
–
0.0020
–
–
–
–
0.0003
Values given in parentheses indicate absolute values; AMTL ¼ ante mortem tooth loss, LEH ¼ linear enamel hypoplasia.
385
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
TABLE 4. Frequencies of dento-alveolar lesions in the females of Quadrella (QDR) and Vicenne (VCN) samples1
ROMAN IMPERIAL AGE-EARLY MIDDLE AGES TRANSITION
Anterior
Posterior
Caries
QDR
386
Total
QDR
Occlusal
Total
Anterior
Posterior
Young adult
Middle adult
Old adult
Coronal
Total
Anterior
Posterior
Young adult
Middle adult
Old adult
Cervical
Total
Anterior
Posterior
Young adult
Middle adult
Old adult
Root
Total
Anterior
Posterior
Young adult
Middle adult
Old adult
Destructive
Total
Anterior
Posterior
Young adult
Middle adult
Old adult
a
Males
VCN
QDR
Females
VCN
QDR
VCN
N
n
%
N
n
%
P
N
n
%
N
n
%
P
N
n
%
N
n
%
P
176
12
164
59
19
78
33
0
33
22
2
6
18.8
0.0
20.1
37.3
10.5
7.7
258
40
218
96
50
98
35
0
35
24
6
3
13.6
0.0
16.1
25.0
12.0
3.1
–
–
–
–
–
–
94
8
86
32
6
50
16
0
16
11
0
4
17.0
0.0
18.6
34.4
0.0
8.0
146
30
116
53
29
62
15
0
15
12
2
0
10.3
0.0
12.9
22.6
6.9
0.0
–
–
–
–
–
0.0371
69
4
65
26
13
23
15
0
15
11
2
2
21.7
0.0
23.1
42.3
15.4
8.7
108
10
98
41
21
36
19
0
19
12
4
3
17.6
0.0
19.4
29.3
19.0
8.3
–
–
–
–
–
–
176
12
164
59
19
78
22
5
17
8
3
7
12.5
41.7
10.4
13.6
15.8
9.0
258
40
218
96
50
98
48
5
43
31
7
7
18.6
12.5
19.7
32.3
14.0
7.1
–
0.0246
0.0087
0.0066
–
–
94
8
86
32
6
50
13
3
10
5
2
5
13.8
37.5
11.6
15.6
33.3
10.0
146
30
116
53
29
62
23
3
20
14
4
5
15.8
10.0
17.2
26.4
13.8
8.1
–
–
–
–
–
–
69
4
65
26
13
23
8
2
6
3
1
2
11.6
50.0
9.2
11.5
7.7
8.7
108
10
98
41
21
36
24
2
22
16
3
2
22.2
20.0
22.4
39.0
14.3
5.6
–
–
0.0216
0.0134
–
–
176
12
164
59
19
78
40
2
38
8
7
29
22.7
16.7
23.2
13.6
36.8
37.2
258
40
218
96
50
98
92
18
72
17
16
54
35.7
45.0
33.0
17.7
32.0
55.1
0.0026
0.0399
0.0227
0.0002
–
0.0132
94
8
86
32
6
50
22
1
21
0
1
19
23.4
12.5
24.4
0.0
16.0
38.0
146
30
116
53
29
62
59
17
42
11
12
35
40.4
56.7
36.2
20.8
41.4
56.5
0.0045
0.0311
–
0.0036
–
0.0396
69
4
65
26
13
23
14
1
13
0
3
8
20.3
25.0
20.0
0.0
23.1
34.8
108
10
98
41
21
36
33
3
30
6
4
19
30.6
30.0
30.6
14.6
19.0
52.8
–
–
–
0.0451
–
–
176
12
164
59
19
78
1
0
1
0
0
1
0.6
0.0
0.6
0.0
0.0
1.3
258
40
218
96
50
98
15
3
12
2
4
7
5.8
7.5
5.5
2.1
8.0
7.1
0.0025
–
0.0066
–
–
–
94
8
86
32
6
50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
146
30
116
53
29
62
7
1
6
2
2
3
4.8
3.3
5.2
3.8
6.9
4.8
0.0291
–
0.0339
–
–
–
69
4
65
26
13
23
1
0
1
0
0
1
1.4
0.0
1.5
0.0
0.0
4.3
108
10
98
41
21
36
7
2
5
0
2
4
6.5
20.0
5.1
0.0
9.5
11.1
–
–
–
–
–
–
176
12
164
59
19
78
44
5
39
19
4
27
25.0
41.7
23.8
32.2
21.1
34.6
258
40
218
96
50
98
55
11
44
18
13
23
21.3
37.5
20.2
18.8
26.0
23.5
–
–
–
0.0443
–
–
94
8
86
32
6
50
25
4
21
4
2
17
26.6
50.0
24.4
12.5
33.3
34.0
146
30
116
53
29
62
33
8
25
11
7
15
22.6
26.7
21.6
20.8
24.1
24.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
69
4
65
26
13
23
16
1
15
6
2
7
23.2
25.0
23.1
23.1
15.4
30.4
108
10
98
41
21
36
21
3
18
6
6
8
19.4
30.0
18.4
14.6
28.6
22.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
Total ¼ males + females + n.i.; N ¼ total number of the teeth observed; n ¼ total number number of the teeth affected.
M.G. BELCASTRO ET AL.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
TABLE 5. Per tooth frequencies of location and severity of caries in the Quadrella (QDR) and Vicenne (VCN) samplesa
0.0396
0.0432
0.0059
–
0.0068
0.0366
0.0068
–
39.2
35.7
45.8
32.0
37.3
27.1
43.9
54.5
111
119
109
121
230
89
47
67
283
333
238
378
616
329
107
123
47.7
43.9
59.5
37.1
45.5
35.7
62.8
53.5
Total ¼ males + females + n.i.; N ¼ total number of the teeth observed; n ¼ total number number of the teeth affected.
a
197
262
173
286
459
199
86
129
0.0058
0.0004
–
0.0000
0.0000
0.0388
0.0240
–
43.9
37.0
57.3
29.7
40.2
30.1
50.7
66.4
190
184
203
171
374
175
77
97
433
497
354
576
930
582
152
146
55.5
50.9
65.2
46.1
53.0
37.9
67.3
68.9
117
119
105
131
236
77
37
111
211
234
161
284
445
203
55
161
0.0011
0.0003
0.0031
0.0000
0.0000
0.0094
0.0014
–
42.3
36.1
51.8
30.9
38.9
28.4
47.9
61.0
309
307
314
302
616
264
124
164
731
851
606
976
1582
928
259
269
51.9
45.6
61.3
40.8
48.4
35.3
64.5
61.9
247
263
241
269
510
159
91
205
476
577
393
660
1053
450
141
331
387
Chipping. Chipping is present in practically all individuals of both necropolises (Table 6). However, the total
frequencies of chipping are significantly higher in the
Roman Imperial teeth than in the Early Middle Ages
ones, even when the sexes and age-classes are considered separately. The frequencies increase from young to
middle to old adults. Regarding intrapopulation differences, the anterior teeth are always more chipped
than the posterior ones in both necropolises (QDR, P ¼
0.0000; VCN, P ¼ 0.0000), and the males are more affected than the females, with significant differences only
in QDR (P ¼ 0.0241). The frequencies of lingual and multiple chipping (a tooth with several chips in different positions) are higher in the Roman Imperial sample, whereas
interproximal chipping is more frequent in the Early Middle Ages one, especially in the females (Table 7). Significant
sex differences only occur in the Early Middle Ages sample:
for buccal chipping (more frequent in males) and interproximal chipping (more frequent in females) (P ¼ 0.0099).
Grade 1 (small) chipping is more frequent in VCN and
Grade 2 in QDR. There is no difference in the distribution
of large chips (Grade 3).
94
115
103
106
209
71
54
69
–
97.3
36
37
100.0
26
44
25
64
Per individual
Per tooth
Maxilla
Mandible
Anterior
Posterior
Total
Young adult
Middle adult
Old adult
64
100.0
84
82
97.6
–
25
100.0
44
100.0
–
26
n
N
n
N
P
%
n
N
%
n
N
N
n
%
N
n
%
P
VCN
Males
QDR
VCN
Total
QDR
TABLE 6. Frequencies of chipping in Quadrella (QDR) and Vicenne (VCN) samplesa
QDR
%
Females
VCN
%
P
ROMAN IMPERIAL AGE-EARLY MIDDLE AGES TRANSITION
Bone features
Cribra orbitalia. Unfortunately, the data on cribra orbitalia refer to small samples (QDR: 8/35; VCN: 9/48) and
interpopulation differences are not significant. However,
in both necropolises, we only observed cases of cribra
orbitalia corresponding to the first degree of the StuartMacadam scale.
Periostitis. The Early Middle Ages sample shows a
higher prevalence of femoral periostitis (Table 8), also in
the bilateral condition (total: P ¼ 0.0084; males: P ¼
0.0450). The tibia is more frequently affected than the femur, the medial side more than the lateral, and the periostitis is usually bilateral in both samples. There are no significant differences between the frequencies of the subjects
that present both cribra orbitalia and LEH.
Individuals buried with horses
Table 9 reports the per tooth frequencies of dento-alveolar pathologies in the individuals buried with horses versus the males of VCN and versus the males of QDR. The
teeth of the individuals buried with horses are significantly more worn and more affected by LEH than those
of the men of both necropolises; the higher frequencies of
calculus and abscesses than in the QDR males reflect the
differences between the VCN and QDR men. The frequency of chipping is significantly higher in the individuals buried with horses than in the VCN males, especially,
for the anterior teeth, the buccal position, and Grade 3
(Table 9). They also present more buccal chipping than
the QDR men.
It was possible to examine cribra orbitalia and periostitis in only a few of these individuals: cribra orbitalia are
absent in all six of the skeletons examined (individuals
buried with horses: 0/6 vs. males: 5/23). Since the surface
of many lower limb bones of the individuals buried with
horses are decorticated due to post mortem degradation,
we can only comment briefly on periostitis. Of six femora
observed from five individuals, only one presents periostitis. For the tibia, our observations refer to five bones from
five individuals and only one shows periostitis.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
388
Total
QDR
Buccal
Total
Young
Middle
Old
Lingual
Total
Young
Middle
Old
Interproximal
Total
Young
Middle
Old
Multiple
Total
Young
Middle
Old
Grade 1
Total
Young
Middle
Old
Grade 2
Total
Young
Middle
Old
Grade 3
Total
Young
Middle
Old
a
Males
VCN
QDR
VCN
Females
VCN
QDR
N
n
%
N
n
%
P
N
n
%
N
n
%
P
N
n
%
N
n
%
P
510
159
91
205
235
91
39
90
46.1
57.2
42.9
43.9
616
264
124
164
311
150
58
85
50.5
56.8
46.8
51.8
–
–
–
–
236
77
37
111
110
49
13
45
46.6
63.6
35.1
40.5
374
175
77
97
202
103
41
55
54.0
58.9
53.2
56.7
–
–
–
0.0142
209
71
54
69
96
34
26
35
45.9
47.9
48.1
50.7
230
89
47
67
108
47
17
30
47.0
52.8
36.2
44.8
–
–
–
–
510
159
91
205
87
26
19
30
17.1
16.4
20.9
14.6
616
264
124
164
75
26
16
25
12.2
9.9
12.9
15.2
0.0201
0.0356
–
–
236
77
37
111
38
14
11
10
16.1
18.2
29.7
9.0
374
175
77
97
48
19
9
13
12.8
10.9
11.7
13.4
–
–
0.0195
–
209
71
54
69
36
11
8
12
17.2
15.5
14.8
17.4
230
89
47
67
26
7
7
12
11.3
7.9
14.9
17.9
–
–
–
–
510
159
91
205
112
13
13
41
22.0
8.2
14.3
20.0
616
264
124
164
186
71
41
40
30.2
26.9
33.1
24.4
0.0110
0.0000
0.0012
–
236
77
37
111
46
13
5
24
19.5
16.9
13.5
21.6
374
175
77
97
95
44
20
19
25.4
25.1
26.0
19.6
–
–
–
–
209
71
54
69
47
21
8
11
22.5
29.6
14.8
15.9
230
89
47
67
81
27
21
21
35.2
30.3
44.7
31.3
0.0023
–
0.0009
–
510
159
91
205
76
4
20
44
14.9
2.5
22.0
21.5
616
264
124
164
44
17
9
14
7.1
6.4
7.3
8.5
0.0000
–
0.0018
0.0005
236
77
37
111
42
1
8
32
17.8
1.3
21.6
28.8
374
175
77
97
29
9
7
10
7.8
5.1
9.1
10.3
0.0002
–
–
0.0007
209
71
54
69
30
5
12
11
14.4
7.0
22.2
15.9
230
89
47
67
15
8
2
4
6.5
9.0
4.3
6.0
0.0053
–
0.0067
–
510
159
91
205
210
73
32
77
41.2
45.9
35.2
37.6
616
264
124
164
325
160
55
77
52.8
60.6
44.4
47.0
0.0001
0.0022
–
0.0000
236
77
37
111
84
33
16
33
35.6
42.9
43.2
29.7
374
175
77
97
195
104
35
44
52.1
59.4
45.5
45.4
0.0001
–
–
–
209
71
54
69
93
37
16
31
44.5
52.1
29.6
44.9
230
89
47
67
123
56
20
33
53.5
62.9
42.6
49.3
0.0371
–
–
–
510
159
91
205
182
64
31
69
35.7
40.3
34.1
33.7
616
264
124
164
160
62
31
44
26.0
23.5
25.0
26.8
0.0004
0.0002
–
–
236
77
37
111
88
33
11
40
37.3
42.9
29.7
36.0
374
175
77
97
90
43
18
21
24.1
24.6
23.4
21.6
0.0002
0.0032
–
0.0165
209
71
54
69
72
24
20
24
34.4
33.8
37.0
34.8
230
89
47
67
67
19
13
23
29.1
21.3
27.7
34.3
–
–
–
–
510
159
91
205
118
22
28
59
23.1
13.8
30.8
28.8
616
264
124
164
131
42
38
43
21.3
15.9
30.6
26.2
–
–
–
–
236
77
37
111
64
11
10
38
27.1
14.3
27.0
34.2
374
175
77
97
89
28
24
32
23.8
16.0
31.2
33.0
–
–
–
–
209
71
54
69
44
10
18
14
21.1
14.1
33.3
20.3
230
89
47
67
40
14
14
11
17.4
15.7
29.8
16.4
–
–
–
–
Total ¼ males + females + n.i.; N ¼ total number of the teeth observed; n ¼ total number number of the teeth affected.
M.G. BELCASTRO ET AL.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
TABLE 7. Per tooth frequencies of position and grade of chipping in Quadrella (QDR) and Vicenne (VCN) samplesa
–
–
–
–
a
N ¼ total number of the teeth observed; n ¼ total number number of the teeth affected; FP, femoral periostitis; TP, tibial periostitis; CO, cribra orbitalia; CO + LEH, individuals
with both cribra orbitalia and linear enamel hypoplasia.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
52.2
35.0
10.0
10.0
75.0
0.0
22.2
11
9
1
1
5
1
3
48
35
35
35
26
26
48
26
19
2
5
13
1
7
41
28
26
28
26
26
30
63.4
67.9
7.9
17.9
50.0
3.8
23.3
25
15
2
2
17
2
10
52.1
42.9
5.7
5.7
65.4
7.7
20.8
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
22
22
22
22
14
14
15
14
9
2
4
7
0
4
63.6
40.1
9.1
18.2
50.0
0.0
26.7
26
16
16
16
15
15
30
15
8
0
2
8
2
6
57.7
50.0
0.0
12.5
53.3
13.3
20.0
–
–
18
17
17
17
11
11
13
61.1
52.9
5.9
5.9
45.4
9.1
23.1
23
20
20
20
12
12
18
12
7
2
2
9
0
4
–
–
–
–
21.7
18.8
0.0
0.0
0
0
0
0
51
34
34
34
4
1
0
2
FP
Per individual
Bilateral
Right femur
Left femur
TP
Per individual
Bilateral
Right tibia
Left tibia
Mediale surface
Lateral surface
CO + LEH
47
34
34
34
8.5
2.9
0.0
5.9
13
10
0
1
25.5
29.4
0.0
2.9
0.0266
0.0084
–
–
24
18
18
18
4
1
0
2
16.7
5.6
0.0
11.1
26
18
18
18
8
7
0
1
30.8
38.9
0.0
5.6
0.0422
0.0450
–
–
20
15
15
15
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
23
16
16
16
5
3
0
0
P
%
n
n
N
N
N
n
%
n
%
P
N
N
%
N
n
%
P
QDR
VCN
Males
QDR
VCN
Total
QDR
TABLE 8. Frequencies of periostitis in the total, males and females of Quadrella (QDR) and Vicenne (VCN) samplesa
%
N
Females
VCN
ROMAN IMPERIAL AGE-EARLY MIDDLE AGES TRANSITION
389
DISCUSSION
Dental features
Wear. The higher frequency of heavy wear in the Early
Middle Ages sample, particularly in the posterior teeth,
suggests a higher consumption of hard fibrous food
requiring vigorous mastication. However, the differences
between the two populations could also be explained by
the different cleaning and preparation of certain foods
(especially vegetables) to soften them and to remove abrasive elements, as hypothesized for the Roman Imperial
sample (Bonfiglioli et al., 2003). The heavier wear on the
anterior teeth of the VCN females than the QDR ones
could be related to the higher frequency of AMTL in the
posterior teeth of the VCN women, which shifts the masticatory load anteriorly.
Caries. The lack of differences between the two samples
in the frequencies of caries suggests similar alimentary
habits, with abundant carbohydrates. The caries frequencies on the posterior teeth suggest that the VCN men had
a diet less rich in carbohydrates than the VCN women and
perhaps than the QDR men. However, some authors
(Maat and Van der Velde, 1987; Kerr et al., 1990; Hillson,
2001) have reported a negative correlation between dental
wear and caries following \cancellation" of the sulci and
fossae related to the natural morphology of the tooth or to
removal of the carious tissue. The posterior teeth of the
Early Middle Ages males are much more worn than those
of the Roman Imperial males and this could explain the
lower frequency of caries, which may have been removed
by the wear. The number of caries increases with age in
both samples, but there are higher frequencies in the older
adults of the Early Middle Ages sample and this difference
could be related to a greater increase of cervical caries.
This may have been due to more severe retraction of the
alveolar border, exposing the cement enamel junction and
part of the root to the action of caries. In fact, the frequencies of severe alveolar bone loss (>4.00 mm) are significantly higher in VCN (69.7%, 23/33) than in QDR (38.1%,
8/21) (P ¼ 0.0223). In turn, this retraction could be related
to the greater calculus accumulation in VCN, which may
have led to inflammation, and to greater continuous eruption of the teeth in VCN, probably related to higher wear
and thus greater mechanical stress on the teeth. However, significant differences in different age-classes are
not observed in the females: it is possible that the higher
incidence of AMTL in the teeth of the Early Middle Ages
women eliminated the carious teeth, thus leveling possible differences in caries between the women of the two
necropolises.
Abscesses. The abscesses presented by the two samples
appear to be related to the presence of caries with pulp
cavity exposure. The significant differences between the
two necropolises in the per tooth frequencies in both sexes
and the absence of significance in the per individual frequencies in males could be related to the fact that many
VCN males (41.2%, 7/17) present more than two abscesses.
The higher number of abscesses in VCN does not reflect a
similar distribution of caries, whose frequencies are similar in the two populations. Yet, in VCN there is a higher
number of caries with pulp exposure that led to abscesses,
even though the frequencies of caries with pulp exposure
are similar in the two samples. Therefore, it is possible
that in VCN the inflammation spread more easily along
the pulp canal, causing long-term chronic periapical
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
390
M.G. BELCASTRO ET AL.
TABLE 9. Per tooth frequencies of dento-alveolar lesions in the individuals buried with horses and in the males of Vicenne
(VCN) and Quadrella (QDR)a
Individuals buried
with horses
Heavy wear
Caries
Abscesses
AMTL
Calculus
LEH
Total chipping
Anterior
Posterior
Buccal
Lingual
Interproximal
Multiple
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
VCN males
QDR males
N
n
%
N
n
%
P (Ibh/VCNm)
N
n
%
P (Ibh/QDRm)
260
259
221
285
245
216
231
96
135
109
109
109
109
109
109
109
73
41
10
30
153
152
109
64
45
71
10
21
7
46
30
33
28.1
15.8
4.5
10.5
62.4
70.4
47.2
66.7
33.3
65.1
9.2
19.3
6.4
42.2
27.5
30.3
729
746
577
745
737
668
699
258
441
265
265
265
265
265
265
265
134
105
30
74
466
367
265
139
126
131
38
74
22
149
60
56
18.4
14.1
5.2
9.9
63.2
54.9
37.9
53.9
28.6
49.4
14.3
27.9
8.3
56.2
22.6
21.1
0.0001
–
–
–
–
0.0000
0.0127
0.0000
–
0.0038
–
–
–
0.0093
–
0.0412
490
511
554
634
496
415
445
161
284
236
236
236
236
236
236
236
79
94
7
83
246
239
236
105
131
110
38
46
42
84
88
64
16.1
18.4
1.3
13.1
49.6
57.6
53.0
65.2
46.1
46.6
16.1
19.5
17.8
35.6
37.3
27.1
0.0001
–
0.0051
–
0.0010
0.0006
–
–
0.0085
0.0010
–
–
0.0027
–
0.0479
–
a
N ¼ total number of the teeth observed; n ¼ total number of the teeth affected; AMTL, ante mortem tooth loss, LEH, linear enamel
hypoplasia; Ibh, Individuals buried with horse; VCNm, Vicenne males; QDRm, Quadrella males.
inflammation, apparently the only type that leads to loss
of bone material (Hillson, 2001).
Ante mortem tooth loss. The exact cause of AMTL cannot be precisely determined, since it is a nonspecific indicator of pathologies resulting from numerous factors
(Lukacs, 1989; Clarke, 1990; Hillson, 2001). Periodontal
disease and calculus are closely correlated with ante mortem tooth loss but it is not always possible to identify
either the type of periodontopathy (or its aetiology) by
examination of the dry bone (Molnar and Molnar, 1985)
or the actual relationship with calculus because of problems of underestimation of this character. In both samples, the distribution of AMTL conforms rather well to
the pattern of caries, even though the differences are significant for AMTL but not for caries in the females. In the
Early Middle Ages women, severely carious teeth, with
substantial pulp exposure, may have been extracted, thus
increasing the frequencies of AMTL and decreasing those
of caries. Indeed, methods of tooth extraction are described
in medical texts from both periods (Micheloni, 1976). The
increasing frequencies of caries and AMTL in the different
age-classes can be explained by the greater time of exposure to cariogenic factors, with consequent aggravation
and multiplication of the lesions and subsequent tooth
loss. However, the considerable masticatory stress on the
teeth of the elderly VCN individuals, shown by the higher
frequencies of heavy wear, could be an additional cause of
AMTL, since by destabilizing the tooth it could have increased its mobility and the likelihood of its loss.
Calculus. The consumption of high-protein foods contributes to increased alkalinity in the mouth, favoring precipitation of minerals in the oral fluids. However, poor oral
hygiene and the consumption of carbohydrates are other
important aspects of calculus formation, since the initiation of mineralization is related to the amount of plaque
and thus to factors that increase its accumulation
(Ånerud et al., 1991; Hillson, 1996). In addition, the microorganisms in dental plaque act by destroying the
inhibitors of mineralization (Scheie, 1989). The high frequencies of caries and calculus in QDR suggest that carbohydrates formed a large part of the diet of the Roman
Imperial population (Bonfiglioli et al., 2003) and also indi-
cate a lack of regular oral hygiene. Nevertheless, in the
Early Middle Ages sample from QDR, the higher frequencies of calculus, which do not correspond to higher frequencies of caries, may indicate a greater consumption of
high-protein foods, as well as poor oral hygiene. This may
also have been true for males with respect to females,
suggesting some dietary differences within the population. The higher protein consumption could be related to
a greater consumption of meat: in the Lombard era, cattle, pig, and sheep breeding was the fundamental wealth
of Germanic peoples. Indeed, the presence of bony
remains of meals is documented in graves of Lombard
necropolises (Bóna, 1990). This practice is also known for
several graves in the VCN necropolis in which Ovis bones
were found (5 graves of horsemen and 12 other graves).
Linear enamel hypoplasia. Enamel defects related to
disturbances during the secretory phase of amelogenesis
(Sarnat and Schour, 1941; Goodman et al., 1980) may be
the result of an interrelationship between malnutrition
and infectious diseases (Solomons and Keusch, 1981). The
high frequencies of LEH in both samples suggest the
presence of strong metabolic stresses during early childhood. According to Reid and Dean (2000), hypoplastic
enamel defects occur after the first year of life on the surfaces of all anterior tooth types. This period corresponds
to the time of weaning in Roman and Early Middle Ages
societies, as indicated by historical literary sources.
According to Soranus (98–117 AD), an infant should be
fed only with breast milk until the age of 6 months, after
which solid food (for example bread and milk, cereal,
moist porridge) could be gradually introduced into the
diet. Galen (130–200 AD) believed that solid food (bread,
vegetables, meat, milk) could be given to an infant when
he had cut his first tooth, and complete weaning occurred
at about 3 years of age. The foods and times of weaning
were similar in the following centuries because Early
Middle Ages medical literature on infant feeding reflected
the ideas of Soranus and Galen (Fildes, 1986). In our
samples, nutritional deficits and serious diseases, related
to the introduction of a solid diet deficient in protein content and perhaps not very sanitary, could have led to
strong disturbances of amelogenesis. Nevertheless, in the
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
ROMAN IMPERIAL AGE-EARLY MIDDLE AGES TRANSITION
391
Fig. 3. Chipping in the posterior teeth of an individual
(T. 27B, old male) of the Quadrella necropolis. [Color figure can be
viewed in the online issue, which is available at www.interscience.
wiley.com.]
Fig. 4. Buccal chipping in the anterior teeth of an individual
buried with horses (T. 66, young adult male) of the Vicenne necropolis. [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is
available at www.interscience.wiley.com.]
Early Middle Ages sample, the higher frequencies of LEH
in the anterior teeth appear to reflect worse living conditions, especially during infancy and early childhood. Poor
living conditions are also indicated by the infant mortality:
about 27% and 25% for QDR and VCN, respectively (Brasili and Belcastro, 1998; Belcastro and Facchini, 2001; Belcastro et al., 2003). This agrees with other reports for Italy
and Europe in that period (Del Panta et al., 1996).
groups, in which the dentition is used in stone tool making
to sharpen the cutting edge by biting off small flakes
(Gould, 1968) or to manipulate certain rudimentary tools
with the teeth (Lous, 1970; Molnar, 1972).
Chipping. Chipping can be related to both masticatory
and nonmasticatory activities (Turner and Cadien, 1969;
Molnar, 1972; Milner and Larsen, 1991). It can result from
the presence of contaminants (particularly grains of sand)
in foods like roots and tubers (Robinson, 1963) or other
hard resistant foods, but it can also be due to paramasticatory (breaking hard shells, shattering bones to extract the
marrow, chewing of roots or leaves, etc.), nonmasticatory,
and work activities (Iannetti et al., 1984) or accidental
events. The presence of chipping in almost all individuals
of the two necropolises and the high per tooth frequencies
seem to indicate that the teeth were subjected to repeated
traumas, especially the anterior ones. The higher frequencies of teeth with chipping and with multiple chips in the
Roman Imperial individuals could be related to more frequent and/or more severe contacts with hard objects or to
masticatory traumas (Fig. 3). The more frequent lingual
chipping in the Roman Imperial sample seems to be due to
masticatory traumas. The higher frequencies of interproximal chipping in the Early Middle Ages sample, especially
in the posterior teeth, suggest the presence of contaminants in the diet. However, in VCN the fact that buccal
chipping is more frequent in men and interproximal chipping in women may reflect greater nonmasticatory use of
the teeth by males and higher masticatory stress in
females, perhaps due to harder foods, as indicated by the
higher values of wear and AMTL. Thus, the diet of the
Early Middle Ages population may have contained extraneous elements associated with hard fibrous foods, whose
consumption is supported by the higher frequencies of
heavy wear. The high frequencies of buccal chipping in
both samples and of multiple chipping in QDR suggest
that the teeth were used as tools in daily activities, particularly by the men. This is documented in other human
Bone features
Cribra orbitalia. The aetiology of cribra orbitalia could
be due to several causes. In our series, the absence of
severe cribra orbitalia lesions and the relatively uniform
distribution of the lesions in the two populations suggest
substantially similar dietary and hygienic-sanitary habits.
Periostitis. Many aetiological factors can be considered
possible causes of periostitis (cf. Larsen, 1997, 2002). We
found a higher frequency of femoral periostitis and of its
bilateral condition in VCN, especially in the male sample.
In our samples, the tibia is more affected by periostitis
than the femur, but there are no significant interpopulation differences. Although it is difficult to assess the aetiology of this feature, the bilaterality of the tibial periostitis can be considered a pathognomonic marker of specific
infection. In VCN, the bilaterality of the tibial lesions and
the presence of facial lesions allowed us to diagnose leprosy in three individuals (Belcastro et al., 2005).
Individuals buried with horses
The 12 contextual graves of man and horse and some
burial goods suggest a special role of these individuals in
the Early Middle Ages community (Ceglia and Genito,
1991; Arslan, 2000). They and the other males of VCN
present similar frequencies of some dento-alveolar pathologies and alterations (caries, abscesses, AMTL, calculus),
probably indicating a homogeneous diet. Nevertheless, the
differences in heavy wear (particularly in the anterior
teeth) and chipping (more frequent in the individuals buried with horses even though 5/11 of them are young
adults) suggest nonmasticatory uses of the teeth (leather
softening, tool making, repairing, etc.). It is possible that
the rank and activities of these subjects, probably also
involved in fighting, resulted in repeated traumas. The
most affected teeth are the anterior ones, which are more
exposed to bumps and blows; the buccal chipping and the
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
392
M.G. BELCASTRO ET AL.
TABLE 10. Per tooth and per individual frequencies of Quadrella, Vicenne, and other Roman Imperial
and Early Middle Ages necropolisesa
Wear (%)
Isola Sacra (I–III c. AD)
Lucus Feroniae (II–IV c. AD)
Rimini (II–IV. AD)
Ravenna (I–IV c. AD)
Quadrella (I–IV c. AD)
Vicenne (VII c. AD)
La Selvicciola (VII c. AD)
a
15.6
22.4
Caries (%)
Abscesses (%)
Per tooth
AMTL (%)
Calculus (%)
LEH (%)
4.0
6.1
0.2
0.6
6.8
12.4
33.9
26.9
35.5
46.0
15.0
15.1
12.6
1.3
4.5
0.8
12.5
13.5
18.2
50.9
60.6
27.1
58.9
60.0
23.1
Per individuals
Cribra orbitalia (%)
19.4
30.8
59.3
22.8
18.7
23.5
AMTL, ante mortem tooth loss; LEH, linear enamel hypoplasia.
severe (degree 3) type are the most frequent conditions
(Fig. 4). In three of six cases, anomalous wear matches the
\lingual surface attrition masticatory anterior teeth"
lesion described in the literature (Turner and Cheuiche
Machado, 1983; Irish and Turner, 1987, 1997; Comuzzie
and Steele, 1988); therefore, our cases can be attributed to
nonmasticatory activities (Belcastro et al., 2001a, 2003).
The poor preservation of the bones of many of the individuals buried with horses prevents us from commenting on
the total and almost total absence of cribra orbitalia and
periostitis, respectively.
COMPARISON WITH OTHER ROMAN IMPERIAL
AND EARLY MIDDLE AGES ITALIAN SAMPLES
Our results were compared with those of other series
from Roman Imperial and Early Middle Ages necropolises
near Rome: Isola Sacra and Lucus Feroniae (I–III c. AD)
and the medieval sample of La Selvicciola (VII c. AD)
(Manzi et al., 1999; Salvadei et al., 2001). These are the
largest samples from Italy for those periods and they provide useful indications about how the transition occurred
on the Tyrrhenian coast. It is interesting that the frequencies of caries, calculus, and LEH are more similar
between the two series from Molise than between either
of the Molise series and the coeval ones from Latium
(Table 10). In particular, the caries (and AMTL) indicate
similar widespread carbohydrate consumption and we
can hypothesize that an unbalanced diet and relatively
poor nutrition and health were present during both the
Roman and medieval periods in central Italy. This is also
suggested by the higher frequencies of LEH in Quadrella
and Vicenne than in the other samples. Our data suggest
that protein consumption was higher in Vicenne than in
both the Roman Latium samples and the medieval one,
probably reflecting group-specific cultural characteristics
and dietary habits.
Regarding the cribra orbitalia, we did not observe any
significant differences between our data and those for
Lucus Feroniae and La Selvicciola.
In Molise, ecological factors seem to have conditioned
the economic models more than the cultural, social, and
economic changes following the fall of the western Roman
Empire and contacts with new ethnic groups. Molise is a
mountainous region, characterized even in pre-Roman
times by an economy based on agriculture, practiced in
inframontane basins fed by temporary fluctuating
streams (since the mountains do not reach the limit of perennial snow, there are no rivers), and above all on the
transhumance of sheep. In contrast, the supply of primary foodstuffs was probably not a problem for the
Roman populations of Latium. Portus Romae, which contained the Isola Sacra necropolis, was an important port
for trade with Mediterranean countries, while Lucus Feroniae was a somewhat poorer rural centre, inhabited
mainly by war veterans, slaves, and liberti (free slaves),
whose geographic proximity to Rome attenuated possible
food shortages and moments of crisis (Manzi et al., 1999).
We compared the data of cribra orbitalia with those
from the north-eastern Adriatic area—Ravenna (I–IV c.
AD) and Rimini (II–IV c. AD)—recorded with the same
methods used in the present study (Facchini et al., 2004)
(Table 10). The Adriatic series have higher frequencies of
cribra orbitalia than QDR and VCN. In particular, the
Ravenna series has the highest values and the differences
with respect to QDR and VCN are significant (P <
0.0000). These differences could be explained by a different sociogeographic environment due to the marshland
surrounding those Adriatic regions (Uggeri, 1975) and
consequently a worse health status, probably also due to
the wider diffusion of malaria. Therefore, the different climatic and territorial conditions in the north-eastern Adriatic region, resulting in poorer hygienic-sanitary conditions, probably produced biological differences between
those populations and the ones of the Sannio area.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of our study indicate that there was substantial continuity of the dietary habits and probably of
the ways of exploiting the territorial resources (high production and consumption of carbohydrates) in Molise
from the I to the VII century. However, there was a
higher protein intake (probably due to greater consumption of meat) in the Early Middle Ages, perhaps related to
the strong exploitation of sylvo-pastoral resources typical
of the Germanic peoples. According to the demographic
data and the indicators examined in our study, the general health status of the populations of the Sannio area
was precarious and they had poor living conditions already in the Roman Imperial era, and these conditions
persisted in the following centuries. A further decline is
shown by the presence of infectious diseases like leprosy
in the Vicenne population. In the populations of Latium,
there seems to have been a clear discontinuity from the
biological point of view, with an evident worsening of living conditions in the medieval period. However, the profound social and economic transformations, which were
translated into a true cultural discontinuity, during the
passage from Antiquity to the Middle Ages do not seem to
have affected the biology of the Molise populations under
study. The differences with respect to the Roman populations living around Rome, which probably enjoyed good
living conditions, show that the transition occurred at different times and in different ways in Italy.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology—DOI 10.1002/ajpa
ROMAN IMPERIAL AGE-EARLY MIDDLE AGES TRANSITION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are extremely grateful to the Editor of the Journal
and three anonymous reviewers for the valuable comments and suggestions, which allowed us to improve the
paper.
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