Research Insights

1 Introduction Social science “research is for, about, and conducted by people” (Neuman, 1997, p. 16). This suggests that research is an integral part of human activity (Neuman). “Human nature is not a given – and this significantly complicates the issue of just what it is” (Howe, 1992, p. 244). By nature, human beings are daedal. The complexities of human interactions make precise predictions of human behavior almost impossible (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003). Thus, formulating theories and generating data about human behavior is arduous. The explanation of phenomena and the accrual of understanding is the ultimate goal of all scientific inquiry (Gall et al., 2003; Howe, 2004). In order to produce sound and generalizable educational research, perhaps the combination of qualitative and quantitative methodologies is the best procedure for today’s educational research complexities. Rationalism versus empiricism Quantitative and qualitative methodologies are far from being incompatible (Gall et al.,2003; Howe, 1988; Punch, 1998). Contrary to this belief, Creswell (2008) argued that qualitative and quantitative research approaches “have dissimilar characteristics” (p. 51). conversely, Punch (1998) noted that the two approaches share many similarities and Howe (1988) asserted “that all research ultimately has a qualitative grounding” (p.12). With this debate in mind, when regards is given to the underlying philosophical epistemology and ontology of educational research, Howe’s (1988) aforesaid statement is more befitting to present-day research methodology then Creswell’s assertion. Nonetheless, Creswell (2008) reminded researchers that differences between qualitative and quantitative research should be viewed on a continuum rather than as a dichotomy. As this compatibility debate continues, Howe’s (1988) 2 view on this matter has potential to become dogma as modern-day research theory and practice continues to unfold. Howe (2003) defined ontology as “that part of philosophy that concerns itself with the kinds of entities that exist and the features they possess” (p. 71). Moser (as cited in Howe, 2003) defined epistemology as “the study of the nature of knowledge and justification” (p. 97). Quantitative and qualitative disputes stem from variances within epistemological and ontological paradigms. Variances within these paradigms are linked to the researcher’s interests and judgments. Such variances may prompt suspicion within consumers of research seeing that these paradigms impact the axioms of educational research methodologies and designs (Howe, 1988). Be that as it may, the ontological and epistemological assumptions about the world are supported on a philosophical belief system that is loosely associated with either rationalism or empiricism. Rationalism Rationalism, also known as postpositivism or interpretivist methodology, capitalizes on the innate knowledge that individuals are born with (Rosiek, 2003). The ontological philosophy of realism suggests that reality or truth is deduced from the reflective scrutiny of one’s mindset (Rosiek). Its epistemological insights propose an empathetic understanding of social realities (Creswell, 1994). Educational researchers that subscribe to this type of research employ the postpositivist view of inquiry. Postpositivist methodologies. “Interpretivists share a constructivist epistemology” (Howe, 1998, p. 14). In other words, the knowledge derived from educational research is believed to be actively constructed. It is believed that methodology that incorporates postpositivist principles closely mirror constructivism because the generation of new concepts is valued more “than the testing of 3 existing ones” (Neuman, 1997, p. 328). Postpositivist seek to actively construct knowledge by going inside the natural setting being investigated (Neuman, 1997). Using detailed descriptions to describe phenomena as it is, postpostivists use narrative, statistics, or prose to focus their investigations (Gall et al.,2003; Rosiek, 2003). The analysis techniques endorsed by interpretivist methodologies view data as “intrinsically meaningful” (Neuman, 1997, p. 328). This might mean that educational researchers, who also serve as instruments within studies, assign values and meanings to phenomenological inquiries. Gall et al. (2003, p. 17) also claimed that postpositivist researchers typically “describe their personal experiences and reactions in the field, and how their approach to data collection affected the types of findings that resulted”. This aspect of postpositivist inquiry causes many educational researchers to fret, seeing that this type of reflexivity is a step closer to the past qualitative worldviews which used mythology, symbolism, and religion to explain human events (Gall et al.). The context is critical to interpretivist designs. A great deal of time is spent interpreting what is within the context (Neuman, 1997). The disadvantage of this is the fact that any theory drawing from the social meaning and significance of the investigated phenomena rests on the context. In essence, the research findings are virtually useless and can be distorted when the context is removed from the inquiry. Despite the disadvantages of the postpositivist epistemological views, the call for interpretivism in educational research has increased, leading to the current state of qualitative research as we now know it. In contrast, empiricism or positivist methodologies suggest that reality is based on what the senses perceive and experience (Rosiek, 2003). An educational researcher utilizing a research 4 design that subscribes to the empirical philosophy of research is in essence employing positivist views. Empiricists argue that experimental designs mediate interfering innate human knowledge, hence eliminating the effects of the researcher’s culture, history, and personal interests upon the inquiry (Rosiek). Empiricism Empiricism, or positivist methodology, builds on experience (Rosiek, 2003). “Originally, empiricism – … also known as experientialism – referred to the idea that all knowledge was based on sense data” (Rosiek, 2003, p. 167). Hence, the ontological and epistemological philosophy of empiricism holds that reality is objective and quantifiable while knowledge and truth is external to the knower and objective (Creswell, 1994; Rosiek, 2003). Educational researchers that support this type of research employ the positivist view of social science research. Positivist methodologies. Positivists share a behavioral epistemology otherwise known as methodological behaviorism (Howe, 1992; Howe, 2003). Positivists believe that by focusing on observable behaviors for the basis of building scientific knowledge, “we can learn about people” (Gall et al., 2003; Neuman, 1997, p.64). These empirical researchers use statistical descriptions to depict the phenomena as it is using “correlations between independent changes and dependent effects” on behavior (Rosiek, 2003, p. 167). The aim of positivist inquiry is to determine causal relationships. By using quantitative stances, positivist methodological approaches and research designs measure behavioral change. The conventional positivist position holds that science is value free (Punch, 1998). This means that science has no role in making value judgments, “nor do value judgments have any 5 place in scientific inquiry” (Punch, 1998, p. 50). Howe (2003) implied that this notion of valuefree scientific inquiry is a fallacy. Perhaps, Howe’s assertion suggests that the axiological assumption upon which positivism sits is weak, given that there are a couple of ways in which values can enter into scientific inquiry. One way being that “different researchers make different epistemological assumptions about the nature of causality, and these assumptions affect their approach to the study of cause-and –effect relationships among educational phenomena” (Gall et al., 2003, p. 22). Furthermore, Howe (2003) argued “that there is little or no disagreement that values unavoidably frame scientific research, of all kinds” (p. 49). Therefore, one can conclude that regardless of the amount of experimental controls empirical researchers put into place for the investigation, the outcomes of the inquiry will not be value free and unbiased. Positivist approaches attempt use precise quantitative data (Neuman, 1997). Most, if not all of this data is acquired through experiments, surveys, and statistics (or meta-data). The underlying notion of this approach to educational inquiry is the belief that reality is fixed, stable, observable, and measurable (Neuman). In terms of research design, positivist approaches are more restrictive and the analysis techniques endorsed by positivist research is classic experimentalism (Howe, 2004). Seeing that human behavior cannot be generalized, interpretivist researchers assert that considerable doubt should be cast on any educational research that is modeled on natural scientific research (Howe, 2004). Such research can easily decay as a result of time and technological innovations (Howe, 2004). In sum, the aforementioned assumptions associated with positivist views and postpositivist views have lead to the present day formation of qualitative and quantitative research design and methodology. Quantitative research 6 When the researcher seeks to make an explanation, a prediction, and/or control phenomena, he or she is conducting quantitative research. Quantitative research designs take on many forms such as descriptive designs, causal designs, correlational designs, and experimental designs. Most of the design formations mimic the scientific methods of natural science. Since quantitative designs are meticulously contrived, the findings are usually generalizable with a high degree of certainty (Gay, 1996). Empirical findings that allude to be definite, because of the delimitations of the research design, have consumers of research to inferring that quantitative research is stronger in design and methodology. Strengths of quantitative research Experimentalism has its place within social science and educational research. By quantifying human behavior, social scientists are more capable of measuring behavioral change. Controlled experiments isolate variables, better enabling the researcher to deduce that the behavioral change is attributable to the experimental stimulus (Babbie, 1992). The role of the researcher “is independent from that being researched” (Creswell, 1994, p. 5). What is more, the researcher uses a deductive process based on set theories and definitions in order to enhance the validity and reliability of the investigation (Creswell, 1994). It should be noted that quantitative research can be replicated. Replication of educational studies strengthens confidence in the validity, reliability, and generalizability of the findings (Babbie, 1992). Therefore, validity and reliability are easily established in quantitative research studies because replication is possible. In addition to being replicable, quantitative research tends to be more economical than qualitative research (Gay, 1996). Depending upon the research design, time and money can be saved because the researcher does not have to be immersed into the context of the phenomena being investigated. 7 Quantitative research proponents argue that empirical research designs are more powerful than qualitative research designs because the researcher is not apart of the phenomena. In their stead is an instrument. The data acquired from the empirical designs are analyzed using a set of statistical calculations, thereby concluding unbiased findings in what is believed to be a more objective reality. Weaknesses of quantitative research Because quantitative research has numerous controls in place, the findings can be deemed somewhat artificial because the context has been removed from the setting, converting the environment into a laboratory style setting (Babbie, 1992). In addition to the artificiality of the research context, the standardization of research instruments often times “seems to result in the fitting of round pegs into square holes” (Babbie, 1992, p. 279). Many of the standardized instruments appear trivial for measuring the complex social phenomena and some of the standardized instruments used in quantitative research require self-reported data by the subjects within the study (Babbie, 1992; Gall et al., 2003). This very fact causes many of the quantitative instruments being used to be weak in validity and strong in reliability. Unlike quantitative designs, qualitative designs welcome self-reported data within an uncontrolled environment. In other words, qualitative studies are not as stringent as empirical designs hence, the weaknesses of quantitative methodologies can be enhanced with qualitative approaches. Qualitative research Social science research that is conducted in a qualitative fashion relies heavily on interpretivist approaches (Neuman, 1997). Rabinow and Sullivan (as cited in Howe, 1998) coined the expression “interpretive turn” to highlight the “epistemological shift” away from positivism (p. 13). This shift provided the researcher with a comprehensive perspective of the 8 phenomena being studied and the context that it is being studied in. This changeover also made way for qualitative research designs within social science research to “reveal things that would not otherwise be apparent” (Babbie, 1992, p. 286). Qualitative research is open ended; therefore it is especially useful for studying attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors within various social circumstances (Creswell, 2008). The approaches of qualitative research include grounded theory, ethnographic research, historical research, and case study methods. When a researcher attempts to make an explanation, gain insight and an understanding of phenomena, he or she is employing a qualitative approach. Creswell (1994) noted that qualitative researchers are more concerned with the process of the study and the meaning gained from the study then the outcomes or products. For that reason, qualitative research requires a precise recording of large amounts of information over a period of time (Gay, 1996). Instead of using an instrument to collect the data, the qualitative researcher is the instrument through which data is amassed. This type of research is inductive and descriptive as it seeks to engage the naturalist position (Creswell, 1994; Gall et al., 2003; Rosiek, 2003). Naturalism is strongly associated with rationalistic approaches to research (Rosiek, 2003). Rosiek (2003) defined the naturalist position as a methodology that attempts to “describe things as they are” (p.167). Thus, qualitative researchers are committed to detailed descriptions of things being studied as they are without changing the context (Rosiek). Strengths of qualitative research Qualitative research is appropriate for examining social attitudes and behaviors (Babbie, 1992). If the variables within an environment are unclear, qualitative research allows for exploration. This exploration turns up specific variables for a better view into the central 9 phenomenon. Observing the phenomena allows the inquiry to gain insight into the nature of the context while forming a basis for further research (Babbie). The researcher has firsthand experience with the participants inside the context of the study. Any aspects contributing to the context of the inquiry that is noticed is recorded as it occurs (Creswell, 1994). This approach permits methodological flexibility to get at the depth of understanding. While some forms of qualitative research are relatively inexpensive, other forms can be quite costly in time, energy, and resources. Weaknesses of qualitative research Those who oppose qualitative research do so because they purport that its findings are often regarded as implicative rather than definitive (Creswell, 1994). This opposition is related to problems of validity, reliability, and generalizability (Babbie, 1992). Most often in qualitative research, the results are toilsome to analyze because of the extensive amount of narrative that has to be siphoned. What is more, people change over time and this causes the devised generalizations from qualitative inquiry (and quantitative research for that matter) has potential to decay (Howe, 2004), eventually becoming a part of historical research. Although qualitative designs are not as stringent as quantitative designs, the weaknesses of qualitative designs can be sustained with quantitative approaches. Mixed Methodological Designs Contemporary research is not at all disturbed by the combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods. Interestingly enough, the compatibility theory of qualitative and quantitative methods is being more accepted by traditional empirical researchers (Howe, 1988). “Indeed, such combination is not only encouraged, but often required” (Howe, 1988, p. 10). In the past, mixed methodological research practices were also known as triangulation. 10 Conventional research used triangulation to “help eliminate biases that might result from relying exclusively on any one data-collection method, source, analyst, or theory” (Gall et al., 2003, p. 464) Triangulation or mixed methods designs was also used for cross-checking methodological findings. As a matter of fact, the act of triangulation birthed the triangulation mixed method design. This particular design gives equal priority to qualitative and quantitative data (Creswell, 2008). The triangulation mixed method design combines the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research designs and outcomes providing contextual information and generalizability (Creswell, 2008). There are also subsequent mixed methods designs to the triangulation mixed methods design. One being mixed-methods experimentalism designs (also known as the explanatory design) and the other being mixed-methods interpretivism designs (also known as the exploratory design) (Creswell, 2008). Howe (2004) equated the first of these two mixed methods designs as neo-classical experimentalism. Howe (2004) argued that explanatory designs are “less congenial to qualitative methods” (p. 53). Howe asserted that in exploratory mixed methods designs quantitative and qualitative methods serve as auxiliaries to one another, contained by a dominating interpretivist framework (Howe, 2004). No matter which mixed method design an educational researcher subscribes to, mixed methodologies offer more vigor to qualitative and quantitative inquiries. Amplified strengths There are essentially five purposes for combining methods within a single research study. They are as follows: (1) triangulation purposes, (2) complimentary facets of the phenomenon may emerge, (3) the first research approach is used sequentially to inform the second method, (4) contradictions and fresh perspectives emerge to initiate an additional study, (5) adding scope and 11 breadth to a study (Creswell, 1994). Each of these purposes certainly amplifies any educational research inquiry. Alleviated weaknesses It is advantageous for the inquiry to combine quantitative and qualitative methods to better understand the phenomena being studied, tested, or explored (Creswell, 1994). Biddle and Anderson (as cited in Gall et al., 2003) agreed that there is a place for the usage of both research approaches. Put plainly, “the two perspectives have complementary goals. We need them both” (Biddle & Anderson as cited in Gall et al., 2003, p. 24). The following illustrates a triangulation mixed methods research design. Mixed Methodological Research Design Problem statement It is not known how and to what extent the critical thinking strategy of concept mapping enhances the retention of concepts for middle school eighth grade students at Plum Point Middle School. Research Purpose The purpose of this study is to determine whether there is a difference in student performance on assessments as a result of using the critical thinking strategy, concept mapping. Research Questions What is the impact of a critical thinking strategy, such as concept mapping, on concept retention in middle school students at Plum Point Middle School? How does a critical thinking strategy impact concept retention in middle school students at Plum Point Middle School? Population 12 One hundred twenty seven eighth-grade middle-class adolescents of mixed cultural backgrounds at Plum Point Middle School in Calvert, Maryland. Variables Independent. Critical thinking strategy of concept mapping Dependent. Post-test scores of the students Hypothesis. There is no difference in student performance on tests at Plum Point Middle School, as a result of using the critical thinking strategy of concept mapping. Data Collection Strategy Priority will be given to both qualitative and quantitative research designs. Therefore, quantitative data will be collected first via pre- and post-tests, followed by qualitative data. Students will be asked to record how critical thinking strategies, such as concept mapping, helps them or does not help them to retain concepts over time. Data Analysis Student responses will be coded using a system to sort their answers. The results of the findings will be used to create themes. These themes will then be used to generate theory abou the results on the post-test. An independent samples t-test will be used to evaluate the differences in the mean scores of the pre- and post- test. An independent-samples t-test is used to compare the means of two different samples (George & Mallery, 2007). This t-test will help to decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis. 13 Introduction 14 References Babbie, E. (1992). The practice of Social Research (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative & quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.. Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P., & Borg, W. R. (2003). Educational Research: An introduction (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Gay, L. R. (1996). Educational Research: Competencies for anaylsis and application (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.. George, D., & Mallery, P. (2007). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference 14.0 update (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Howe, K. R. (1988). Against the quantitative-qualitative incompatibility thesis or dogmas die hard. Educational Researcher, 17(8), 10-16. Howe, K. R. (1998). The interpretive turn and the new debate in education. Educational Researcher, 27(8), 13-20. Howe, K. R. (2003). Closing Methodological Divides. Secaucus, NJ: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Howe, K. R. (2004). A critique of experimentalism. Qualitative Inquiry, 10(4), 42-61. Neuman, W. L. (1997). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (3rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. 15 Punch, K. F. (1998). Introduction to social research: Quantitative & qualitative approaches. London: Sage Publications. Rosiek, J. (2003). A qualitative research methodology psychology can call its own: Dewey's call for qualitative experimentalism. Educational Psychology, 38(3), 165-175.