The State of the Cetacean Environment Report 2016

316 REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE, ANNEX K Appendix 3 STATE OF THE CETACEAN ENVIRONMENT REPORT (SOCER) 2016 Editors: M. Stachowitsch*, E.C.M. Parsons+ and N.A. Rose@ INTRODUCTION Several resolutions of the International Whaling Commission, including Resolutions 1997-7 (IWC, 1998) to provide regular updates on environmental matters that the concept of the State of the Cetacean Environment Report (SOCER) and requested the annual submission of this report et al., 2003) was submitted in 2003 and subsequent editions initiated and continued a cycle of focusing on the following regions: Mediterranean and Black Seas, Atlantic Ocean, Each SOCER also includes a Global section addressing the newest information that applies generally to the cetacean environment. The 2016 SOCER focuses on the polar oceans (Arctic and Antarctic), summarising key papers and articles published from ca 2014 through 2016 to date. POLAR OCEANS General RAPID RETREAT OF EAST ANTARCTIC GLACIER A CAUSE FOR CONCERN A study of the history of the advances and retreats of Totten Glacier in East Antarctica, coupled with an analysis of its underlying geology, predicted that if climate change continues at the current rate, within the next century the glacier may retreat to a threshold (100-150km from the coast) where the underlying geology is unstable. Further loss unstoppable (causing it to withdraw 300+ km from the coast). The contribution to sea level rise from the retreat of this glacier alone would be 0.9-2.0m. (SOURCE: Aitken, A.R.A., Roberts, J.L., van Ommen, T.D., Young, D.A., Golledge, N.R., Greenbaum, J.S., Blankenship, D.D. and Siegert, M.J. 2016. Repeated large-scale retreat and advance of Totten Glacier indicated by inland bed erosion. Nature 533: 385-389). MARINE MAMMALS AND COD AS COMPETITORS IN THE BARENTS SEA Cod, harp seals and minke whales are the top three main predators in the Barents Sea and compete for resources. During the last decade, cod abundance increased considerably, seal abundance declined, and the whale population remained stable. The success of cod was attributed to a greater availability of prey (mostly capelin) and a wider range of prey species than for the two mammals. A closer examination of body condition, however, revealed important details. Smaller cod fared better than larger cod, and the body condition (blubber thickness) declined in minke whales and even more so in seals, the latter species being more dependent on the ice edge. The authors underlined the importance of more routinely collecting condition data from mammals. They also called for improving multispecies models, which currently deliver contradictory results, to (SOURCE: Bogstad, B., Gjosaeter, H., Haug, T., and Lindstrom, U. 2015. A review of the battle for food in the Barents Sea: Cod vs marine mammals. Front. Ecol. Evol. 3: 1-17. doi:10.3389/fevo.2015.00029). BOWHEAD WHALE BODY CONDITION IMPROVES IN THE PACIFIC ARCTIC Over the past 2.5 decades, bowhead whale body condition, as measured by an index based on girth, has improved in the Beaufort Sea. This development is attributed to a series of physical changes in the Arctic. These include an overall reduction of sea ice, increased duration of open water, and favourable upwelling conditions. The duration of the melt season and the later date of freeze-up have also played a role. Together, these factors may have increased the productivity for whales. The authors provided a conceptual model of how condition. This study underlines the importance of holistic approaches for better understanding and predicting changes in Arctic cetacean habitats. (SOURCE: George, J.C., Druckenmiller, M.L., Laidre, K.L., Suydam, R., and Person, B. 2015. Bowhead whale body conditions and links to summer sea ice and upwelling in the Beaufort Sea. Prog. Oceanog. 136: 250-262, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2015.05.001). CETACEAN BODY CONDITION IN THE BEAUFORT SEA IS CHANGING Beaufort Sea over the past 20-40 years show changes that been improving, whereas condition has declined in beluga whales (predators). The direct causes of these opposing tends are unknown, but the former might be attributed to increased productivity (larger plankton populations) of this water body as sea ice cover declines, and the latter to a decline in the availability of preferred prey species (cod). The authors therefore called for studies that include multiple marine vertebrate species in order to establish baselines and to identify critical habitats of the respective species. These studies should be coordinated with oceanographic sampling at appropriate spatial and temporal scales to better explain the trends. (SOURCE: Harwood, L.A., Smith, T.G., George, J.C., Sandstrom, S.J., Walkusz, W., and Divoky, G.J. 2015. Change in the Beaufort Sea marine vertebrate species. Prog. Oceanog. 136: 263-273, http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.pocean.2015.05.003). FIRST GLOBAL INTEGRATED MARINE ASSESSMENT: ARCTIC OCEAN and shifts in advection patterns show that oceans within warmed at more than twice the global rate, and sea-ice loss is of the algal blooms that form the base of the food chain. Arctic warming and sea-ice loss will facilitate the invasion of new species, hosts, harmful microorganisms and diseases. The retreating ice will also promote the introduction of shipping, *Department of Limnology and Bio-Oceanography, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Austria. +University Marine Biological Station Millport (University of London), Great Cumbrae, Scotland and Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, USA. @Animal Welfare Institute, Washington, DC, USA. J. CETACEAN RES. MANAGE. 18 (SUPPL.), 2017 For marine mammals, these combined developments increase the risks of direct mortality, displacement from critical habitats, noise disturbance, and increased exposure (SOURCE: Inniss, L. and Simcock, A. (joint coordinators); Rice, J. assessment: World ocean assessment I. United Nations, Chapter 36G: 47pp, http:/www.un.org/Depts/los/woa). FIRST GLOBAL INTEGRATED MARINE ASSESSMENT: SOUTHERN OCEAN oceans. Fifty percent is covered by ice in winter, decreasing to 10% in summer. Overall, the Antarctic ice cover has been increasing, but modelling predicts a reduction of 33% by the end of the century. This general trend masks dramatic regional trends, e.g. declines in the Bellingshausen Sea and increases in the Ross Sea. The Southern Ocean is critical habitat for several baleen whale species that depend on a direct plankton food chain (diatoms-krill-vertebrates). functioning of the ecosystem. For whales, populations of their main prey, krill, appear to have declined considerably and partially been replaced by salps. Moreover, the Southern oceans, and the hatching rates of krill eggs are known to be the end of the century. Overall, the expected changes from a marine assessment: World ocean assessment I. United Nations, Chapter 36H: 41pp, http://www.un.org/Depts/los/woa). ANTARCTIC WATERS UNDER THREAT OF INCREASED USE AND LESS PROTECTION 317 weeks in the Barents Sea). Arctic marine mammals serve as biological indicators and are important for ecosystem health and traditional subsistence. The authors called for the following conservation measures: Improve co-management by local, federal and international partners; recognise spatial and temporal variability in subpopulation responses to climate change; implement monitoring programs with clear goals; mitigate cumulative impacts of human activity; and recognise limits of current protected species legislation. (SOURCE: Laidre, K.L., Stern, H., Kovacs, K.M., Lowry, L., Moore, S.E., Regehr, E.V., Ferguson, S.H., Wiig, Ø., Boveng, P., Angliss, R.P., Born, E.W., Litovka, D., Quakenbush, L., Lydersen, C. Vongraven, D., and Ugarte, F. 2015. Arctic marine mammal population status, sea ice habitat loss, and conservation recommendations for the 21st century. Conserv. Biol. 29: 724-737. doi: 10.1111/cobi12474). SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH IN THE PACIFIC ARCTIC The Synthesis of Arctic Research (SOAR) project was Arctic region. These changes are recognised as extreme, SOAR conceptually outlines the past benthic-dominated, as opposed to future pelagic-dominated, system associated with the loss of sea ice. In cetaceans, such an ecosystem shift timing or abundance hotspots) and intrinsic (e.g. altered diet, body condition) responses. In bowhead whales, this may actually lead to improved body condition (increased girth) due to improved feeding opportunities. The authors introduced a new conceptual model (Arctic marine pulses model or AMP) that would help integrate the available and key processes. Cetaceans play an important role in these and cultural keystones for Arctic residents, and icons of the Arctic region for non-residents. (SOURCE: Moore, S.E. and Stabeno, P.J. 2015. Synthesis of Arctic Prog. Oceanog. 136: 1-11, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2015.05.017). CCAMLR is the legal doctrine presiding over the exploitation of marine life in the waters around Antarctica. It prioritises Habitat degradation General is included in the Convention, has been interpreted by some of the 24 member states to imply an unconditional The retreat of Arctic sea ice due to climate change will make greater parts of the Arctic Ocean available to shipping protected areas (MPAs) in the Southern Ocean. The latter also pertains to the Ross Sea, perhaps the healthiest large intact marine ecosystem left on the planet. The CCAMLR negotiation process even failed in its attempt to use the This raises concerns over potential environmental impacts. This paper presents a framework for a quick and accurate environmental accounting for Arctic shipping. It is based on cetacean populations, such interpretations of international environmental law should be viewed with concern and may from ship registers, can provide crucial information on two key impacts - black carbon emissions (operational pollution) and carried fuel oil amounts (oil spill potential). This can be further expanded to include other ship-related pollution sources and combined with risk assessments, providing decision-makers with the best possible basis for better managing the impacts of Arctic shipping. ARCTIC SHIPPING IN A CHANGING ENVIRONMENT parallel levels of protection for cetaceans here and elsewhere. (SOURCES: Jacquet, J., Blood-Patterson, E., Brooks, C., and Ainley, Mar. Pol. 63: 28-34; News. 2015. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 101: 3). STATUS OF ARCTIC MARINE MAMMAL POPULATIONS AND CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS This paper summarised the available information on the abundance and trends for 78 Arctic marine mammal subpopulations (11 species). Importantly, because many of these species are closely associated with sea ice, the authors related this information to trends in sea ice habitat except the Bering Sea, the duration of the summer period (the period with less ice) has increased by 5-10 weeks (>20 (SOURCE: Mjelde, A., Martinsen, K., Eide, M., and Endresen, Ø. 2014. Environmental accounting for Arctic shipping - A framework building on ship tracking data from satellites. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 87: 22-28). Chemical pollution SKIN OF SUBANTARCTIC DOLPHINS USEFUL IN BIOMONITORING MERCURY from the shores of Tierra del Fuego showed that the mercury content in skin biopsies serve as good indicators of levels in internal organs (e.g. liver). Mercury is of particular 318 REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE, ANNEX K concern because it is harmful to wildlife and humans at very low concentrations and bioaccumulates, with highest values in top predators (such as dolphins). Mercury values ranged from 1.3-45 g g-1, which is considerably lower than the 10-5,000 g g-1 in Mediterranean odontocetes and is among the lowest values for other dolphins from the South non-lethal approach that allows screening of a large number in subantarctic waters, which are poorly studied regarding mercury levels, sources and processes. (SOURCE: Cáceres-Saez, I., Goodall, R.N.P., Dellabianca, N.A., dolphins (Cephalorhynchus commersonii) as a biomonitor of mercury and selenium in subantarctic waters. Chemosphere 138: 535-743, http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.07.026). PFASS FOUND IN GREENLAND KILLER WHALES PFASs were measured in killer whales from East Greenland (2012-13). A total of 17 PFASs were detected, including in a mother and calf, which suggests that PFASs can cross the placenta into a foetus. The mean level of total PFASs was 269ng.g-1 (±90SE). The ratio of contaminants suggested that killer whales lack the metabolic ability to degrade some of these toxic compounds, compared to other marine mammal cetacean health are unknown, but this study documents a broad suite of this type of contaminant in Arctic cetaceans. (SOURCE: Gebbink, W.A., Bossi, R., Rigét, F.F., Rosing-Asvid, A., Sonne, C. and Dietz, R. 2016. Observation of emerging per- and Chemosphere 144: 2,384-2,391). (RELATIVELY LOW) CONCENTRATIONS OF PESTICIDES IN ARCTIC GRAY WHALES REFLECT GLOBAL PESTICIDE BACKGROUND HCH and DDT are not present naturally in any ecosystem any amount detected has anthropogenic origins. Compared to other regions, western Bering Sea gray whales had higher HCH values than DDT. This is probably due to a more active use of lindane and technical HCH in agriculture in the Russian Far East. Overall, concentrations of organochlorine pesticides in the tissues of western Bering Sea gray whales are relatively low compared to cetaceans from other regions, consistent with the area having little industry. Toxic substances found in the Arctic mostly originate further south. The authors concluded that detection of organochlorine global footprint. (Maximum contaminant levels (µg.g-1 (SOURCE: Tsygankov, V.Yu., Boyarova, M.D., and Lukyanova, O.N. 2015. Bioaccumulation of persistent organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) by Mar. Pollut. Bull. 99: 235-239). WASTEWATER PRODUCED BY OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION IDENTIFIED AS A PROBLEM IN THE ARCTIC oil and gas production is composed of formation water, re-injected water and treatment chemicals, and contains petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals and toxic treatment chemicals. Tens of millions of barrels of such wastewater are produced worldwide every day and the volumes are steadily increasing. However, the number of available and emerging management technologies to address produced water is (SOURCE: Zheng, J., Chen, B., Thanyamanta, W., Hawboldt, K., review of current practice and challenges in harsh/Arctic environments. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 104: 7-19). Disease and mortality events Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) TOXIC ALGAE IN ARCTIC MARINE MAMMALS HABs are predicted to increase in the Arctic as temperatures increase and sea ice declines due to climate change. Two of the most common neurotoxins produced in the region by toxic algae are domoic acid (DA) and saxitoxin (STX). cause severe illness and death in humans, including amnesic They have also been shown to impair memory and cause developmental and behavioural abnormalities in marine mammals, and are linked to baleen whale mortalities. The authors examined data from 905 Alaskan marine mammals from 13 species. DA was detected in all species and had the highest prevalence in humpback whales (68%). STX was detected in 10 species, with the highest prevalence in humpback and bowhead whales. Moreover, foetuses from a beluga whale and a harbour porpoise contained detectable levels of DA; this means DA can be transferred from mothers to calves. The authors concluded that HAB toxins have the Arctic marine environment, both directly and indirectly (e.g. through potential increases in ship strikes on large cetaceans), as well as the health of humans that consume cetaceans in aboriginal hunts. (SOURCE: Lefebvre, K.A., Quakenbush, L., Frame, E., Burek Ziel, H., Goldstein, T., Snyder, J.A., Gelatt, T., Gulland, F., Dickerson, B., and Gill, V. 2016. Prevalence of algal toxins in Alaskan marine mammals foraging in a changing arctic and subarctic environment. Harmful Algae 55: 13-24, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hal.2016.01.007). Climate change INVADING PREDATORS PREDICTED TO RADICALLY RESTRUCTURE ANTARCTIC PENINSULA ECOSYSTEM The Antarctic Peninsula is one of the most rapidly warming places on Earth. This warming is predicted to allow large predatory king crabs, now restricted to depths below 800m, to move from their deep-sea habitat upward into shallow shelf waters. This would have catastrophic consequences evolved to withstand such predators. In shallower waters, in open Antarctic waters, the habitat for many cetacean species. (SOURCES: Aronson, R.B., Smith, K.E., Vos, S.C., McClintock, J.B., Amsler, M.O., Moksnes, P.-O., Ellis, D.S., Kaeili, J. et al. PNAS 112: 12997-13002; News. 2015. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 100: 2). HISTORICAL RECORDS SHOW THAT HUMPBACK WHALE CONDITION WAS LINKED TO SEA ICE EXTENT assessed by examining historical records of humpback whale oil yields (1947-63) and annual estimates of sea ice extent, which was used to estimate krill abundance in humpback whale foraging grounds. Whale oil yield, and hence body be more vulnerable to this type of pollution. The fact that extent, i.e. levels of krill. The authors concluded that if sea Arctic, and that this region is critical habitat for numerous cetacean species, is therefore a cause for concern. climate change scenarios, whale food will decline and, in turn, J. CETACEAN RES. MANAGE. 18 (SUPPL.), 2017 319 ice and concomitant changes in krill abundance have longterm implications for [whale] condition and reproductive (SOURCES: Feldmann, J. and Levermann, A. 2015. Collapse of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet after local destabilization of the Amundsen Basin. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 112: 14,191-14,196; Fudge, T.J., Markle, B.R., be the result of recent low Antarctic sea ice coverage. H. and Koutnik, M. 2016. Variable relationship between accumulation and temperature in West Antarctica for the past 31,000 years. Geophys. Res. Ltrs. 43: 3,795-3,803). (SOURCE: Braithwaite, J., Meeuwig, J.J., Letessier, T.B., Jenner, K.C.S., and Brierley, A.S. 2015. From sea ice to blubber: Linking whale condition to krill abundance using historical whaling records. Polar Biol. 38: 1,195-1,202). SEA LEVEL RISE COULD BE TWICE THAT PREVIOUSLY ESTIMATED DUE TO INCREASED ANTARCTIC ICE MELTING New models that account for how glaciers melt have predicted that sea level rise could be twice what was previously estimated, if current greenhouse gas emission rates continue. Large and irreversible sea level rise could occur by 2100, leading to major impacts for coastal environments. The models predict 1 m of sea level rise from Antarctica alone by the end of the century, for a total of nearly 2m, instead of the previously estimated ~1m rise. By 2500, Antarctic ice melt could contribute to 15m of sea level rise. The new models forecast a much higher rate of ice melting in Greenland and Antarctica than earlier models. One of the worst case emission scenarios saw the entire Larsen C ice shelf collapse by 2055, and the collapse of the entire West Antarctic ice sheet within 250 years. Such changes would have massive (SOURCE: DeConto, R.M. and Pollard, D. 2016. Contribution of Antarctica to past and future sea level rise. Nature 531: 591-597). CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF BALEEN PROVIDES INSIGHTS INTO WHALE MIGRATIONS, SEA ICE AND ARCTIC CLIMATE A comparison of the stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen in the baleen of western Arctic bowhead whales and their with sea ice concentration. The isotope values varied along sea ice determines habitat accessibility for these whales and that baleen may also record historical sea ice concentrations and the Arctic climate, which would be especially valuable for periods earlier than the available sea ice records. ANOMALOUS AREAS OF HIGH PRODUCTIVITY IN THE ARCTIC Anomalously high productivity (measured via chlorophyll-a levels) was found in multiple areas in the Arctic during the southwest of Greenland, the Laptev Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk, the Labrador Sea and Fram Strait. The trend of productivity measured since 2003 has been increasing, especially in the Barents, Greenland and Laptev Seas and the eastern Arctic. The changing patterns of productivity in the Arctic include some areas of important cetacean habitat, and the shift in ecosystem productivity could have important ecological (SOURCE: Frey, K.E., Comiso, J.C., Cooper, L.W., Gradinger, R.R., Grebmeier, J.M. and Tremblay, J.É. 2015. Arctic Ocean primary productivity, http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/reportcard/ocean_primary_ productivity.html). MELTING ICE AND STRATIFICATION OF THE OCEANS COULD LEAD TO GREATER CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS THAN PREVIOUSLY PREDICTED Researchers used numerical climate simulations, paleoclimate data, and modern observations to study the pool of cold freshwater on the ocean surface, over a warmer ice sheets that sit below sea level, causing the sheets to melt could lead to the shutdown of overturning circulation in the weakening circulation and upwelling in the Southern Ocean. These changes could have catastrophic impacts on marine ecosystems. Changes in circulation would lead to a cooling of the North Atlantic, while temperature would increase in (SOURCE: deHart, P.A.P. and Picco, C.M. 2015. Stable oxygen and hydrogen isotope analysis of bowhead whale baleen as biochemical recorders of migration and arctic environmental change. Polar Science 9: 235-248, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016j.polar.2015.03.002). the two regions would drive more intense mid-latitude storms and hurricanes/cyclones. There may also be a greater sea level rise than predicted by the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), as previous models did not account SEA LEVEL RISE OF 3M FROM THE MELTING OF THE WEST ANTARCTIC ICE SHEET MAY BE INEVITABLE The authors noted that their modelling predicts outcomes Accelerating ice melt in Antarctica, coupled with measured instability of the west Antarctic ice sheet, have led to predictions of a major loss of Antarctic shelf ice. An analysis of glacier melting coupled with Antarctic topography authors predicted that after 60 years of ice melting at the current rate, West Antarctica will become so unstable topographic features will not be able to halt or hinder this that increases in sea level rise resulting from Antarctic glacier melting might be counteracted by heavier snowfall of snow and ice deposition suggested that increased snowfall impacts on global coastal and Antarctic ecosystems. and they concluded that 2°C of warming above preindustrial levels could be dangerous. (SOURCE: Hansen, J., Sato, M., Hearty, P., Ruedy, R., Kelley, M., Masson-Delmotte, V., Russell, G., Tselioudis, G., Cao, J., Rignot, E., Velicogna, I., Tormey, B., Donovan, B., Kandiano, E., von Schuckmann, K., Kharecha, P., Legrande, A. N., Bauer, M., and Lo, K.-W. 2006. Ice melt, sea level rise and superstorms: Evidence from paleoclimate data, climate modeling, and modern observations that 2°C global warming could be dangerous. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16: 3,761-3,812). LOW ARCTIC ICE COVERAGE AND RECORD AIR TEMPERATURES IN 2015 The average annual sea ice extent in the Arctic during 2015 was 4.25 million square miles, the sixth smallest annual value since 1979. December sea ice coverage was the fourth lowest since 1979, at 300,000 square miles. This is 6% below the 1981-2010 Arctic sea ice average. Maximum Arctic sea ice extent (on 25 February 2015) occurred 15 days earlier than average and it was the lowest maximum value since 1979. In Alaska, 2015 tied with 2002 as the warmest years since record- 320 REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE, ANNEX K keeping began in 1929. The average air temperature over Arctic land areas (October 2014-September 2015) was 1.3°C above average - the highest since records began in 1900. More broadly, air temperatures over the Arctic were 3°C higher than at the beginning of the 20th century. Finally, there was melting on more than 50% of the surface of the Greenland ice sheet, with an observed increase in ice velocity and decrease in total mass of Greenland glaciers emptying into the sea. (SOURCES: NOAA. 2016. Global Summary Information - December 2015, https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/summary-info/global/201512; NOAA. 2016. Warmer air and sea, declining ice continue to trigger Arctic change, http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2015/121515-arctic-reportcard-warmer-air-and-sea-declining-ice-continue-to-trigger-arctic-change. html; NOAA. 2016. Arctic Report Card: Update for 2015, http://www.arctic. noaa.gov/reportcard/). SHIFTS IN WHALE POPULATIONS IN THE NORWEGIAN SEA POINT TO HIGH ECOLOGICAL PLASTICITY The Norwegian Sea has been characterised by elevated average sea surface temperatures and reduced zooplankton cetacean abundances and distributions. For example, toothed whales show higher densities, which is interpreted as their improve predation success. Baleen whales, in turn, are less adapted to utilising low-biomass zooplankton densities and have apparently shifted their diet and/or their distribution; minke whales have shifted to herring and to more northern to a capelin diet further north. Humpback whales are less frequently observed than previously, indicating a shift in habitat preference. Combined, these results point to high ecological plasticity, i.e. relatively rapid responses of cetaceans to changing prey densities and distributions and to elevated sea-surface temperatures. (SOURCE: Nottestad, L., Kraft, B.A., Anthonypillai, V., Bernasconi, M., Langard, L., Mork, H.L., and Fernö, A. 2015. Recent changes in distribution and relative abundance of cetaceans in the Norwegian Sea and their relationship with potential prey. Front. Ecol. Evol. 2: 1-11. doi:10.3389/fevo.2015.00083). ICELANDIC WATERS: CHANGES IN ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS, CHANGES IN BALEEN WHALES Pronounced oceanographic changes, including a rise in water, have occurred in Icelandic waters since the mid1990s. This has apparently caused a northward shift in southern and western Iceland. These developments, in turn, whale abundance, a decrease in minke whales, and a northward shift of blue whales. For example, the blue whale the decreased abundance of sandeel and capelin in two to explain or data are lacking, prompting the authors to call for continued monitoring of cetacean distribution and abundance and for studies on their feeding ecology. (SOURCE: Víkingsson, G.A., Pike, D.G., Valdimarsson, H., Schleimer, A., Gunnlaugsson, T., Silva, T., Elvarsson, B.Þ, Mikkelsen, B. Øien, N., Desportes, G., Bogason, V., and Hammond, P.S. 2015. Distribution, abundance, and feeding ecology of baleen whales in Icelandic waters: Have Front. Ecol. Evol. 3: 1-18. doi:10.3389/fevo.2015.00006). Noise impacts SPECIFIC LEVELS OF SEISMIC SURVEY NOISE CAUSE BOWHEAD WHALES TO STOP CALLING Bowhead whales decrease their calling rates when exposed to seismic survey sounds, but there has been little information on the exact level needed to cause this reaction. A study in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea found that initially, when seismic sounds were detected, bowhead calling rates minutes) received sound exposure level of approximately 94 dB re 1 Pa2/s. Bowhead calls started to decrease when the cumulative sound exposure level exceeded 127 dB re 1 Pa2/s and calls ceased entirely above 160 dB re 1 Pa2/s. These results give clear guidance on the level of seismic survey sound that can cause impacts on biologically important behaviours for these Arctic whales. (SOURCE: Blackwell, S.B., Nations, C.S., McDonald, T.L., Thode, A.M., Mathias, D., Kim, K.H., Greene, C.R., and Macrander, A.M. 2015. behavioral thresholds. PLoS ONE 10(6): e0125720). LARGE ICE ENTRAPMENTS OF NARWHALS COINCIDE WITH SEISMIC SURVEYS IN THE ARCTIC There is increasing interest in exploring Arctic waters for oil and gas deposits, which require seismic surveys. An iconic Arctic species, the narwhal, has not been studied vis-à-vis seismic survey impacts. Three recent, large (1000, 30-100 and 50-100 narwhals, in 2008, 2009 and 2010, respectively) ice entrapments were coincident with seismic became trapped in ice, which led to their deaths. While it is not clear if the seismic surveys prevented these narwhals extreme caution should be taken by companies and agencies involved in planning and conducting marine seismic surveys in or in close proximity to narwhal summering grounds and (SOURCE: Heide-Jørgensen, M.P., Hansen, R.G., Westdal, K., Reeves, R.R. and Mosbech, A. 2015. Narwhals and seismic exploration: Is seismic noise increasing the risk of ice entrapments? Biolog. Conserv. 158: 50-54). NOISE FROM A DRILLSHIP SHEDS LIGHT ON A NEW THREAT TO ARCTIC MARINE MAMMALS Underwater noise in polar regions is of particular concern because the hydrographic conditions promote longdistance transmission of sound and the relatively pristine environment has little anthropogenic noise. Importantly, marine mammal densities are also high here. Marine mammals critically depend on sound for communication, orientation and feeding. The noise emitted by a drillship (maintenance work - 190 dB re 1 P a; drilling - 184 dB re 1 Pa) corresponded to the highest values for vessels such as icebreakers and tankers. Received levels were above background 16-38 miles away. Drillships are presumed to be the noisiest method of ocean drilling. The authors called for better describing other relevant noise sources and for examining overlapping exposures and cumulative impacts when evaluating potential new projects involving drillships in the Arctic. (SOURCE: Kyhn, L.A., Sveegaard, S., and Tougaard, J. 2014. Underwater noise emissions from a drillship in the Arctic. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 86: 424-433, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.037). PROLONGED EXPOSURE TO SOUND REDUCES BELUGA WHALE AUDITORY RESPONSES An experimental study on a beluga whale found that prolonged exposure to a series of short and longer (1500 seconds) sounds led to a reduced auditory response in animals over time, although a response never entirely disappeared. The man-made noises) produce adaptation to higher sound continuous sounds may result in cetaceans not responding J. CETACEAN RES. MANAGE. 18 (SUPPL.), 2017 to quieter sources of biologically important sounds. The authors also suggested that prolonged sound exposure may dangerous for animals in cases where aversive behaviour might prevent, for example, a collision with a boat. (SOURCE: Popov, V.V., Sysueva, E.V., Nechaev, D.I., Rozhnov,V.V. and Supin, A.Y. 2016. Auditory evoked potentials in the auditory system of a beluga whale Delphinapterus leucas to prolonged sound stimuli. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 139(3): 1,101-1,109). GLOBAL General ONLY A THIRD OF GLOBAL FISHERIES ARE BIOLOGICALLY HEALTHY economic) condition. The authors noted that the average survival. However, the authors also reported that if modern 321 CURRENT MARINE PROTECTED AREAS POORLY REPRESENT BIODIVERSITY This study assessed the overlap between the ranges of more than 17,000 marine species and MPAs. The results show that more than 97% of the species have less than 10% of their ranges represented in stricter MPA conservation classes. Marine mammals, for example, are by far the most poorly represented - more than 80% of the species have an overlap of less than 2% with MPAs. This stands in strong contrast to the minimum of 10% to which marine conservation plans aspire. The authors underlined the importance of EEZs and the role that individual countries could play in improving this situation - almost all of the very poorly represented species are found in EEZs. MPAs are an accepted, fundamental strategy for protecting marine biodiversity. The shortfalls presented in this paper are an additional incentive to pursue the agreed goal (within the Convention on Biological Diversity) of protecting more than 10% of the marine environment by 2020. (SOURCES: Klein, C.J., Brown, C.J., Halpern, B.S., Segan, D.B., McGowan, J., Beger, M., and Watson, J.E.M. 2015. Shortfalls in the global protected area network at representing marine biodiversity. Scient. Rep. 5: 1-7. doi:10.1038/srep17539; News, Mar. Pollut. Bull. 102: 6). CETACEANS HELP DETERMINE THE ‘STATE OF THE CETACEAN ENVIRONMENT’ could be healthy and, moreover, there would be a 64% In examining the state of the cetacean environment, the (SOURCE: Costelloa, C., Ovandoa, D., Clavellea, T., Strauss, C.K., Hilborn, R., Melnychuk, M.C., Branch, T.A., Gainesa, S.D., Szuwalskia, the marine environment is sometimes overlooked. This paper refers to whales as ecosystem engineers because prospects under contrasting management regimes. PNAS: in press doi:10.1073/pnas.1520420113). function of the oceans, global carbon storage and the health WHALE DIET RESPONDS TO, AND WHALE SKIN REFLECTS, VARIABLE OCEAN CONDITIONS Whales can serve as sentinel species for ecosystem processes and climate-related changes. Some cetaceans in some regions, such as humpback whales, exhibit plasticity in their diet and can adapt their foraging behaviour to the available prey. The diet of humpback whales in the California Current System, for example, switched from a krill-dominated diet surface temperatures and upwelling conditions, i.e. overall ecosystem dynamics. Importantly, this diet-related response to ecosystem shifts was detected non-lethally by analysing the isotopic signatures in the tissues of the predator, which support to the notion that changes in environmental higher trophic levels based on non-linear responses. (SOURCE: Fleming, A.H., Clark, C.T., Calambokidis, J., and Barlow, J. 2016. Humpback whale diets respond to variance in ocean climate and ecosystem conditions in the California Current. Global Change Biol. 22: 1214-1224, doi:10.1111/gcb.13171). SPERM WHALES REDUCE FORAGING AND TIME AT SURFACE IN RESPONSE TO RESEARCH ‘TAGGING’ VESSEL A study on tagged sperm whales in Norway analysing tagrecorded data found that sperm whales spent 34% less time at the sea surface and 60% more time in a non-foraging state in the presence of the research boat from which the tagging was being conducted. This study not only shows a reduction in biologically important foraging activity in the presence of a single vessel, but also shows that research vessels could have an impact on cetaceans by disturbing biologically important behaviours. The reduction in surface time has implications for sighting surveys and also visual mitigation surveys. (SOURCE: Isojunno, S. and Miller, P.J.O. 2015. Sperm whale response to tag boat presence: Biologically informed hidden state models quantify lost feeding opportunities. Ecosphere 6: 1-46). as predators and as prey. Whales also transfer nutrients (as faecal material) from the depths to the surface, where they promote plankton growth, and long-distance from feeding The authors went beyond outlining these roles in ecosystem function and listed a series of ecosystem services provided by whales. They concluded that the recovery of whales ecosystems from destabilising stresses and could lead to higher rates of productivity in locations where whales (SOURCES: Roman, J., Estes, J.A., Morisette, L., Smith, C., Costa, D., McCarthy, J., Nation, J.B., Nicol, S., Pershing, A., and Smetacek, V. 2014. Whales as marine ecosystem engineers. Front. Ecol. Environ. 12: 377-385, doi:10.1890/130220; News, Mar. Pollut. Bull. 85:4). DISTURBANCE DURING PREGNANCY COULD LEAD TO LOSS OF GRAY WHALE CALVES hard to quantify, but there has been some progress with estimating the bioenergetic impacts of such disturbances. A model was created for a female gray whale over a twoyear reproductive cycle with three disturbance scenarios. The authors reported that a 4% energetic loss during the year of pregnancy would result in the female not producing a calf. During lactation if the female experienced a 37% energetic loss, the female would wean the calf early, with the calf having a lower-than-average body mass. If the female experienced a 30-35% energy loss pre-pregnancy, she would be unable to become pregnant, and a 40-42% energy loss could lead to female mortality. The study found that energy loss due to disturbance could lower reproductive success and even cause mortality, with reduced reproductive rates after just a small energy loss (4%) during the year of 322 REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE, ANNEX K pregnancy. In short, 10 days of lost foraging opportunities, could result in an unsuccessful pregnancy/loss of a calf. (SOURCE; Villegas-Amtmann, S., Schwartz, L.K., Sumich, J.L. and Costa, D.P. 2015. A bioenergetics model to evaluate demographic consequences of disturbance in marine mammals applied to gray whales. Ecosphere 6: 1-19). Habitat degradation Fisheries interactions ENTANGLEMENT IN FISHING GEAR IS A CAUSE OF MORTALITY AND SEVERE INJURY FOR SEVERAL WHALE SPECIES along the east coast of the USA and Canada (from 1994 to 0.80 to 39.63kN, with a mean of 11.64kN. The average rope diameter was 9.5mm. The breaking strength of ropes can absorb onto their surfaces and the fact that the smallest fragments can be incorporated in the cells of marine coined to describe the microscopic life thriving on such tiny debris. DNA sequencing shows that Plastisphere bacteria number of papers written on microplastics is increasing or indirectly in almost all marine organisms, including cetaceans. (SOURCES: Barboza, L.G.A and Giminez, B.C.G. 2016. Microplastics in the marine environment: Current trends and future perspectives. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 97: 5-12; Amaral-Zettler, L.A., Zettler, E.R., Slikas, B., Boyd, G.D., Melvin, D.W., Morrall, C.E., Proskurowski, G., and Mincer, T.J. 2015. The biogeography of the Plastisphere: Implications for policy. Front. Ecol. Environ. 13: 541-546. doi:10.1890/150017). MICROPLASTICS FOUND IN THE INTESTINES OF A HUMPBACK WHALE higher than those entangling minke whales. In addition, ropes entangling adults were stronger than ropes entangling juveniles. The authors suggested that an increase in injuries in right whales was due to increasing breaking strength of gear (an increase that occurred during the mid-1990s). Large pieces of plastic (macroplastic) are known to be ingested by baleen whales; however, a new study reported substantive amounts of microplastic in the intestines of a humpback whale. Several varieties of plastic polymer (polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, PET and nylon) were found, ranging in size from 1mm to 17cm. Despite these of life-threatening entanglements for large whales by at least lower than in other baleen whales, as humpbacks are lunge feeders rather than skimmers. (SOURCE; Knowlton, A.R., Robbins, J., Landry, S., McKenna, H.A., severity of large whale entanglements. Conserv. Biol. 30: 318-328). NEW INSIGHTS INTO FISHING GEAR ENTANGLEMENT OF CETACEANS Beyond immediate drowning and severe injury, a key concern in whale entanglements worldwide is the longer- (SOURCE: Besseling, E., Foekema, E.M., Van Franeker, J.A., Leopold, M.F., Kühn, S. Rebolledo, E.L.B., Heße, E., Mielke, L., IJzer, feeder: Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 95: 248-252). MORE PLASTIC THAN FISH IN THE WORLD’S OCEANS IN THE NEAR FUTURE The use of plastic has increased 20-fold in the last halfcentury and is predicted to double again in the next 20 years. gear behind them, often across great distances. This study, systems. Millions of tons enter the sea every year. A report traps) collected from past right whale entanglements. The experimental results show that entanglement increases drag by an average of 1.5 times compared with a non-entangled causes entangled animals to spend twice as much energy to swim. Importantly, reducing the length of the trailing line by 75% decreases the drag by 85%, supporting the These new results are important in gauging the seriousness of injury and in supporting the decision-making process of disentanglement teams. (SOURCES: van der Hoop, J.M., Corkeron, P., Kenney, J., Landry, entangling North Atlantic right whales. Mar. Mamm. Sci. 32: 619-642. doi:10.1111/mms.12292; News, Mar. Pollut. Bull. 102: 4). Marine debris MICROPLASTICS: A NEW HOT TOPIC IN MARINE RESEARCH Plastics in the ocean have long been recognised as a severe threat to marine organisms, but the amount of, and hazards posed by, microplastics has only been recognised relatively less than 5mm in diameter and include two categories: original plastic items (e.g. the plastic pellets used in the plastics industry) and fragments of larger items. Whereas larger plastic items pose an ingestion and entanglement threat to marine life, including cetaceans, microplastics usual scenario, the ocean is expected to contain one tonne ecological issue, marine litter has become a socio-economic problem, prompting a detailed report commissioned by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and conducted by the Institute for European Environmental Policy. Finally, more than 150 countries in the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) have adopted a resolution on marine plastic debris and microplastics, and called for joining the Global Partnership on Marine Litter (http://www.unep.org/gpa/gpml) and the online marine litter network (http://www.marinelitternetwork.org). (SOURCES: The New Plastics Economy: Rethinking the Future of Plastics. 2016. World Economic Forum and the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 36 pp.; Watkins, E., Brink, P., Withana, S., Mutafoglu, K. Schweitzer, J-P., Russi, D., and Kettunen, M. 2015. Marine litter: Socioeconomic study. Scoping Report. London, Brussels. May 2015; UNEP, Resolution UN/EA-1/6). Ship strikes WATER LAYERING IN THE SUMMER INCREASES COLLISION RISK FROM SHIPPING IN SPERM WHALES modelling exercise examined noise level exposure of sperm whales to an approaching merchant vessel (15 knots) and a fast ferry (37 knots) in Mediterranean waters. The model found that received levels of noise generally were low, but J. CETACEAN RES. MANAGE. 18 (SUPPL.), 2017 323 increased dramatically when vessels were in close proximity, and this was exacerbated in summer months when waters Georgia/Florida), designed to improve mariner awareness of ship strikes. In their analysis, the authors evaluated more than 26,000 messages over the 15-year history of these MSRs. (due to the sudden increase in sound level), making the ability to conduct an avoidance manoeuvre unlikely (70 seconds in winter). For a merchant vessel, the possible response time was 175 seconds in winter and 70 seconds in summer. To decrease collision likelihood, the authors recommended that good and vessel speeds have decreased (a requirement as limitation in whale high density areas remains an obvious provided an important function in notifying a broad although better information about reporting requirements is one of the recommended improvements. Finally, the threat of collisions may have also been reduced by the global use of fewer but larger ships). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 95: 283-288). THE DIVING BEHAVIOUR OF BLUE WHALES IN RESPONSE TO SHIPPING INCREASES THE RISK OF SHIP STRIKES Tagged blue whale behaviour and ship movements were blue whales engaged in shallow dives when in the path of on-coming ships, but they did not try to avoid ships horizontally. They also did not appear to avoid areas of whales are in a busy shipping lane they may be particularly vulnerable because, after responding to one ship, they spend an extended period near the surface, and may be more likely to be hit by a following vessel. Their lack of horizontal avoidance also keeps the whales within the busy shipping lanes, again increasing collision risk. (SOURCE: McKenna, M.F., Calambokidis, J., Oleson, E.M., Laist, D.W. and Goldbogen, J.A. 2015. Simultaneous tracking of blue whales and large ships demonstrates limited behavioral responses for avoiding collision. Endang. Species Res. 27: 219-232). REAL TIME ALERTS FOR MARINERS MIGHT BE A FEASIBLE WAY TO AVOID WHALE COLLISIONS A survey was administered to mariners to determine their attitudes to endangered whales and determined that approximately three-quarters were interested in receiving information on whales and conservation measures. The preferred method (84%) for receiving information was via their navigational telex (NAVTEX), as this was generally considered not to be disruptive to their activities (72%). A (SOURCE: Silber, G.K., Adams, J.D., Asaro, M.J., Cole, T.V.N., Moore, K.S., Ward-Geiger, L.I., and Zoodsma, B.J. 2015. The right whale mandatory ship reporting system: A retrospective. PeerJ 3:e866; DOI 10.7717/peerj.886). Chemical pollution FLAME RETARDANTS FOUND IN DOLPHIN BRAIN TISSUE AT HIGHER LEVELS THAN EXPECTED both the brain and blubber. Flame retardants were found in the brain, showing that they can cross the blood-brain barrier. Moreover, some compounds, such as HBB, were found in higher concentrations in brain than in blubber. This has major toxicological implications, as these halogenated hydrocarbons could be potentially more neurotoxic than previously assumed. P., Castillo, J.J., Fernández-Maldonado, C., de Stephanis, R., Vetter, W., Eljarrat, E., and Barcelo, D. 2015. Halogenated natural products in dolphins: Brain-blubber distribution and comparison with halogenated Environ. Sci. Technol. 49: 9,073-9,083). DETERMINING CONTAMINANT LEVELS THAT IMPAIR MARINE MAMMAL IMMUNE SYSTEMS for immune system responses of marine mammals to a variety of contaminants. Across all the marine mammals investigated, levels of contaminants that inhibit lymphocyte (white blood cell) proliferation were between 0.001-10 ppm for PCBs, 0.002-1.3ppm for mercury, 0.009-0.06ppm for methyl mercury and 0.1-2.4ppm for cadmium. Similarly, pathogens by white blood cells) were 0.6-1.4ppm and 0.08for cetaceans, the threshold level at which lymphocyte proliferation impairment began was 5.42ppm±2.15 for PCBs Systems (AIS), which was suggested by 72%, although this would be slightly more disruptive to routine operations. In summary, the authors considered that mariners were (50% at 0.36ppm±0.2) for mercury, 0.016ppm±0.0049 (50% at 0.039ppm±0.0059) for methyl mercury and 0.21ppm±0.45 (50% at 5.64ppm±5.05) for cadmium. The phagocytosis threshold for cetaceans was 1.1ppm±0.7 (50% underway. Real time alerts for whales and mitigation actions at 10.42ppm±10.00) for mercury. This provides important to whales by bringing current and updated information on cetacean immune systems and therefore increase their vulnerability to, and mortality risk from, disease. (SOURCE: Reimer, J., Gravel, C., Brown, M.W. and Taggart, C.T. 2016. Mitigating vessel strikes: The problem of the peripatetic whales and Mar. Pol. 68: 91-99). (SOURCE: Desforges, J.P.W., Sonne, C., Levin, M., Siebert, U., De pollutants in marine mammals. Environ. Inter. 86: 126-139). MANDATORY SHIP REPORTING SYSTEM FOR ATLANTIC RIGHT WHALES DEEMED SUCCESSFUL HEAVY METAL POLLUTION MAY PROMOTE SKIN FUNGUS IN CETACEANS endangered cetacean species, with ship strikes posing their most serious threat. In 1998, the USA, in cooperation with the IMO, created two Mandatory Ship Reporting (MSR) systems in two key right whale habitats (New England and Cetaceans, positioned at the top of the food chain, typically accumulate the highest level of toxic pollutants such as heavy metals. The most widely used non-invasive method to test cetaceans is to analyse skin samples. The authors used skin biopsies from 40 false killer whales mass-stranded on 324 REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE, ANNEX K the occurrence of fungus (128 species in 22 skin samples) and higher aluminium:selenium and aluminium:zinc ratios. The conclusion is that elevated levels of some toxic metals such as aluminium can compromise the immune response of cetaceans, rendering them susceptible to fungal invaders. This supports the approach of using cetacean skin to monitor the bioaccumulation of trace elements and provide an indication of animal and ecosystem health. (SOURCE: Mouton, M., Przybylowicz, W., Postma, F., Thornton, M., Archer, E., and Botha, A. 2015. Linking the occurrence of cutaneous opportunistic fungal invaders with elemental concentrations in false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens) skin. Environ. Microbiol. Rep. 7: 728-737, doi:10.1111/1758-2229.12302). RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION FROM FUKUSHIMA DISASTER DETECTED IN JAPANESE CETACEANS Radiocaesium levels (134Cs and 137Cs) were analysed in the muscle of stranded cetaceans on the coast of Hokkaido, Japan, after the Fukushima nuclear power plant accident (in March 2011). Radiocaesium was mainly detected in cetaceans found between live and dead dolphins. This suggests that some dolphin populations might have a genetic resistance based mechanism of resistance to brevetoxins in bottlenose also show genetic resistance or susceptibility. (SOURCE: Cammen, K.M., Schultz, T.F., Rosel, P.E. and Wells, R.S. 2015. Genomewide investigation of adaptation to harmful algal blooms in common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Molec. Ecol. 24: 4,6974,710). ELEVATED SOUTHERN RIGHT WHALE CALF MORTALITY OVER LAST DECADE PROBABLY DUE TO HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS Beginning in the year 2005, the number of southern right whale deaths at Península Valdés, Argentina, jumped more than 10-fold, i.e. from less than 10 to 65 per year. This Ninety percent of these deaths in this important nursery ground were very young calves. New research results point to a correlation between these mortalities and concentrations June and October 2011. Contaminated cetacean species a potent neurotoxin; blooms were associated with higher mortalities, whereas lower algal densities were associated with lower mortalities. Such HABs force the closure of porpoise. 137C was also found in pygmy sperm whales. The highest level of radioactive contamination was found in a common minke whale (134Cs: 14.39 Bq kg ; 137Cs: 19.88 Bq kg ). The authors suggested that contamination was from exposure to contaminated sea water rather than ingesting contaminated prey. In addition, two red meat samples from largest creatures in the ocean are vulnerable. Moreover, the frequency of HABs has been linked to eutrophication, and HABs are also expected to increase with climate change. program were obtained from retail stores in June and October 2011, and were analysed. The samples were contaminated with 137Cs (1.05 and 2.87 Bq kg respectively). (SOURCE: Nakamura, T., Kimura, O., Matsuda, A., Matsuishi, T., Kobayashi, M. and Endo, T. 2015. Radiocesium contamination of cetaceans stranded along the coast of Hokkaido, Japan, and an estimation of their travel routes. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 535: 1-9). MARINE MAMMAL TOXICOLOGY ENTERING A NEW ERA A special journal issue has been devoted to marine mammal toxicology. Marine mammals are exposed to a wide variety of pollutants and, due to bioaccumulation and toxic substances. The practical, legal and ethical constraints on toxicological research call for new and innovative approaches to gauging the risks to the health of these organisms and, indirectly, to their habitats. The authors - guest editors for the special issue - argued for a more Fire, S.E., Santenelli, N.H., Ovejero, D., and 10 others. 2016. Southern right whale (Eubalaena australis) calf mortality at Península Valdés, Argentina: Are harmful algal blooms to blame? Mar. Mamm. Sci. 32: 423-451; News. 2015, Mar. Pollut. Bull. 101: 1). Oil spills HIGH CALF MORTALITY ASSOCIATED WITH DEEPWATER HORIZON OIL SPILL The high level of dolphin mortality associated with the Deepwater Horizon oil spill was notable for the large proportion of perinatal (just before or after birth) mortalities. A comparison of stranding data with adjacent areas and an analysis of histological samples determined that dolphin calves exposed to the Deepwater Horizon spill were more likely to have died in utero or very soon after birth and to have pneumonia (not associated with lungworm infection). There was also a high proportion of calves with Brucella to oil spill-associated contaminants and immune system perturbations could have potentially led to an increase in non-Brucella research. This is a major challenge considering the ever- in live and dead, non-perinatal dolphins during the [mass pollutants, and the rapid introduction of novel and emerging compounds. Streamlined conservation and management programmes will increasingly require a combination of site- pregnancy losses or poor post-partum survival of [these calves] may be directly related to the poor health of dolphin dams following the [Deepwater Horizon risk assessments and to identify causal relationships. (SOURCE: Weijs, L. and Zaccaroni, A. 2016. Toxicology of marine mammals: New developments and opportunities. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 70: 1-8, doi:10.1007/s00244-015-1233-9). Disease and mortality events Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) DO SOME BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS HAVE A GENETIC RESISTANCE TO HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOM TOXINS? bottlenose dolphins along the eastern US Atlantic that (SOURCE: Colegrove, K.M., Venn-Watson, S., Litz, J., Kinsel, M.J.,Terio, K.A., Fougeres, E., Ewing, R., Pabst, D.A., McLellan, W.A., Raverty, S., Saliki, J., Fire, S., Rappucci, G., Bowen-Stevens, S., Noble, L., Costidis, A., Barbieri, M., Field, C., Smith, S., Carmichael, R.H., Chevis, C., Hatchett, W., Shannon, D., Tumlin, M., Lovewell, G., McFee, W. and Rowles, T.K. 2016. Fetal distress and in utero pneumonia in perinatal dolphins during the Northern Gulf of Mexico unusual mortality event. Dis. Aquat. Org. 119: 1-16). INCREASED MORTALITY AND REDUCED CALVING RATES IN DOLPHINS AFTER DEEPWATER HORIZON OIL SPILL After 47 months of monitoring 10 pregnant bottlenose dolphins exposed to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, only 20% had produced calves (as compared to 83% in a comparison population). This lower calving rate was J. CETACEAN RES. MANAGE. 18 (SUPPL.), 2017 325 females that did not produce a calf showed signs of moderate LONGER ICE-FREE SEASONS INCREASE NUMBER OF GRAY WHALE CALVES AND EL NIÑO INFLUENCES BREEDING LOCATION was lower (86.8%) than the survival rates in comparable populations (e.g. 95.1% and 96.2%). The authors concluded on the distribution and migration of gray whales. A recent survival is being impacted by chronic disease, indicating Deepwater Horizon] oil spill have (SOURCE: Lane, S.M., Smith, C.R., Mitchell, J., Balmer, B.C., Barry, K.P., McDonald, T., Mori, C.S., Rosel, P.E., Rowles, T.K., Speakman, T.R., Townsend, F.I., Tumlin, M.C., Wells, R.S., Zolman, E.S. and Schwacke, L.H. 2015. Reproductive outcome and survival of common bottlenose dolphins sampled in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, USA, following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Proc. R. Soc. B 282: 20151944, 1-9). BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN MORTALITIES AS A RESULT OF THE DEEPWATER HORIZON OIL SPILL The US Government declared a UME due to an unusually high number of cetacean mortalities after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Histological samples from common bottlenose dolphins stranding before and after the oil spill were compared and the results show that animals after the pneumonia (22% vs 2%) and a thin adrenal cortex (33% vs 7%) than animals before the UME. For 70% of the dolphins that had bacterial pneumonia, it was a major factor in their death. The lesions found were similar to those described from other petroleum-related exposures. The causes of death were likely due to increased susceptibility to pneumonia due to impaired life-threatening adrenal problems due to oil-related adrenal damage during stressful events such as pregnancy, disease or dolphins to elevated petroleum compounds present in coastal [Gulf of Mexico] waters during and after the [Deepwater Horizon] oil spill is proposed as a cause of adrenal and lung clearly shows that oil spills are a threat to cetaceans. (SOURCE: Venn-Watson, S., Colegrove, K.M., Litz, J., Kinsel, M., Terio, K., Saliki, J., Fire, S., Carmichael, R., Chevis, C., Hatchett, W., Pitchford, J., Tumlin, M., Field, C., Smith, S., Ewing, R., Fauquier, D., Lovewell, G., Whitehead, H., Rotstein, D., McFee, W., Fougeres, E. and Rowles, T. 2015. Adrenal gland and lung lesions in Gulf of Mexico common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) found dead following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. PLoS ONE 10(5): e0126538. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0126538). Climate change FAILURE TO ADAPT FISHERIES MANAGEMENT TO CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS LED TO FISH STOCK COLLAPSE For the past decade, Gulf of Maine water temperatures have increased more rapidly than 99% of other areas. This led to increased mortality, and reduced recruitment, of cod in this need to incorporate environmental factors into resource are important for the management of all marine living resources - rapid management responses to climate change (SOURCE: Pershing, A.J., Alexander, M.A., Hernandez, C.M., Kerr, L.A., Le Bris, A., Mills, K.E., Nye, J.A., Record, N.R., Scannell, H.A., Scott, J.D., Sherwood, G.D., and Thomas, A.C. 2015. Slow adaptation in Science 305: 809-812). gray whale feeding grounds and on numbers of mother-calf pairs in breeding lagoons in Mexico, and whether the El Niño/ mother-calf pairs in breeding lagoons. The results indicate that the number of calves increased after an extended icefree summer, with fewer calves during a shorter ice-free mother-calf pairs, with whales preferring southern breeding areas during years with colder sea temperatures (La Niña) and more northern breeding areas during warmer periods (El Niño), perhaps to reduce thermal-stress for new-born calves and their mothers. The southern-most breeding area it is possible that this ENSO-related shift could be used to predict periods of high anthropogenic impact. Accordingly, during La Niña years, animals may be exposed to more whale-watching vessels. This study is particularly important because it illustrates the ability for climate change to directly (SOURCE: Salvadeo, C.J., Gómez-Gallardo, A., Nájera-Caballero, variability on gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus) within their wintering areas. PLoS ONE 10(8): e0134655). PREDICTED IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MARINE VERTEBRATES Various shifts in marine food webs are predicted as the result of climate change. For example, a decline in copepods in are their primary prey species), but also Atlantic herring and sandeel (which prey upon copepods). These latter two are important prey species for species such as common minke whales. In the California Current system, Humboldt squid are predicted to increase, which will lead to a decrease Changes in timing of life events (e.g. breeding) will change (SOURCE: Sydeman, W.J., Poloczanska, E., Reed, T.E. and Thompson, S.A. 2015. Climate change and marine vertebrates. Science 350: 772-777). Noise impacts THE STRATEGIES OF WHALES FOR COPING WITH NOISIER HABITAT MAY NOT WORK WITH ANTHROPOGENIC SOUND SOURCES In this study, the response of humpback whales to increasing noise varied according to whether the noise source was natural (wind) or anthropogenic (vessels). None of the examined strategies for coping with an increasingly noisy environment (e.g. changing the volume of vocalisations or the type of communication signals) were observed when the whales were exposed to vessel noise, but some were observed in response to wind noise. This suggests that humpbacks may not be able to cope with louder anthropogenic sound sources in the same way they cope with louder natural sources. While humpbacks may have multiple strategies to cope with increases in natural noise, these strategies may whale, Megaptera novaeangliae, communication behaviour. Anim. Behav. 111: 13-21). 326 REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE, ANNEX K HARBOUR PORPOISES ARE AFFECTED BY SHIPPING MORE THAN PREVIOUSLY PREDICTED It is often assumed that harbour porpoises, given that they have poor low frequency hearing, will have minimal reactions to shipping noise. However, a study examining porpoises in a sea pen determined that low levels of midto high frequency noise (0.25-63kHz) produced by passing ships were enough to elicit a response. Received sound levels eliciting a response were 113-133 dB re 1 Pa (rms). Levels that caused reactions would be expected at distances of 1 km or more from the source. The authors noted that reactions occurred 50% of the time at 123 dB re 1 Pa (rms) averaged over 30s, and this would be a better level for mitigating harbour porpoise impact then the levels currently about, underwater noise are rapidly increasing, so too is degradation of ocean habitats because of underwater noise. Moreover, managers need to anticipate impacts better before they occur (e.g. noise due to oil and gas exploration in the (SOURCES: Erbe, C., Reichmuth, C., Cunningham, K., Lucke, K. and Dooling, R. 2016. Communication masking in marine mammals: A review and research strategy. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 103: 15-38; Dolman, S.J. and Jasny, M. 2015. Evolution of marine noise pollution management. Aquat. Mamm. 41: 357-374; Williams, R., Wright, A.J., Ashe, E., Blight, K.L. et al. 2015. Impacts of anthropogenic noise on marine life: Publication patterns, new discoveries, and future directions in research and management. Ocean Coast. Manag. 115: 17-24). largely overlooked, but substantial source of disturbance in shallow water areas with high densities of both porpoises THE FULL IMPACT OF SEISMIC SURVEY SOUNDS IN SHALLOW WATERS MAY NOT BE ADDRESSED BY PRESENT MITIGATION MEASURES Madsen, P.T. 2015. Harbour porpoises react to low levels of high frequency vessel noise. Scien. Repts. 5: 11083, 1-9). cetaceans. Few studies, however, have investigated seismic surveys in shallow waters, where complex submarine topography and layering of the water column may lead A ‘RAMP-UP’ OR ‘SOFT START’ OF SEISMIC SURVEY ARRAYS MAY BE AN EFFECTIVE MITIGATION METHOD A slow increase in source level of seismic survey air guns, also that is frequently used to reduce impacts on cetaceans, but deeper waters. Three types of seismic airgun were assessed; component within the hearing range of cetaceans, even harbour porpoises, which are high frequency specialists. of humpback whale responses to a seismic source using control vessel simply dragging a seismic survey array, were compared. Whales moved away from the seismic survey vessel regardless of whether the air guns were in use or not, but avoidance was more substantive when air guns were superior for triggering whales to move away from the source the sounds start at lower levels, reducing the intensity of sound exposure the whales experience, especially when an animal is near to an array when operations begin. The authors concluded during a ramp-up sequence, and by doing so would be exposed (SOURCE: Dunlop, R.A., Noad, M.J., McCauley, R.D., Kniest, E., Slade, R., Paton, D., and Cato, D.H. 2016. Response of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) to ramp-up of a small experimental air gun array. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 103: 72-83). REVIEWS ON UNDERWATER NOISE IMPACTS Several reviews on underwater noise impacts have been produced in the past year. One addresses masking, i.e. important acoustic behaviour and calls. A second addresses the evolution of underwater noise management in the USA and Europe. It also summarises data needs for conservation, beyond which received sound levels are assumed to have no impact. This study shows that, in shallow waters, sound levels could cause behavioural impacts that potentially extend a kilometre or more beyond this zone. (SOURCE: Hermannsen, L., Tougaard, J., Beedholm, K., Nabe-Nielsen, J. and Madsen, P.T. 2015. Characteristics and propagation of airgun pulses PLoS ONE 10(7): e0133436. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0133436). VOCALISING LOUDER IN NOISIER ENVIRONMENTS MAY RESULT IN HIGHER ENERGETIC COSTS Several studies have found that cetaceans in areas with high levels of anthropogenic noise increase the amplitude of their vocalisations. It has been hypothesised that this consumption when vocalising. Albeit with a small sample size, this study suggests this hypothesis is correct; there is an energetic cost for cetaceans that vocalise louder in noisier habitat. (SOURCE: Holt, M.M., Noren, D.P., Dunkin, R.C. and Williams, T.M. animals communicating in noisy environments. J. Exper. Biol. 218: 1,6471,654). VESSEL THREATS TO CETACEANS: SPEED = NOISE Standing Working Group on Environmental Concerns. This cetacean reproduction, health and survival. The third review conducted a bibliometric analysis on underwater noise publications. There has been an increase in publications on underwater noise in an increasing range of journals on an increasing range of species. There has also been an evolution in research on impacts of underwater noise, beyond injury (such as temporary and permanent threshold shifts) toward evolution of ocean management with respect to noise. The characteristics of small vessels and noise levels received by an endangered whale species or population. The authors measured the noise levels received by acoustically tagged southern resident killer whales (population estimated at ca 80 individuals) in Washington State and British Columbia waters. Results showed that vessel speed was the only vessel speed in the vicinity of killer whales would reduce their noise exposure. Moreover, reducing speed is known to approach would have multiple advantages. J. CETACEAN RES. MANAGE. 18 (SUPPL.), 2017 327 (SOURCES: Houghton, J., Holt, M.M., Giles, D.A., Hanson, M.B., Emmons, C.K., Hogan, J.T., Branch, T.A., and VanBlaricom, G.R. 2015. SUBSTANTIAL BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES OF NORTHERN BOTTLENOSE WHALES TO MID-FREQUENCY NAVAL SONAR EVEN AT LOW LEVELS whales (Orcinus orca). PLOS One 10: e0140119. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0140119; News, Mar. Pollut. Bull. 102: 4). Northern bottlenose whales were one of the most heavily hunted beaked whales, yet relatively little is known about the species. This study found that mid-frequency active sonar, at received levels of 107 dB re 1 Pa (1-2kHz), caused a SPERM WHALES STOP FEEDING WHEN EXPOSED TO LOW FREQUENCY ACTIVE SONAR Acoustic tags were attached to sperm whales and the behaviour of the animals was monitored in response to exposure to low frequency (1-2 kHz, 214 dB re 1 Pa m-1 source level) and mid-frequency (6-7 kHz; 199 re 1 Pa m-1) active sonar, as well as playbacks of killer whale calls. The frequency sonar, but the whales did stop foraging when exposed to low frequency sonar, as well as when exposed to killer whale calls. The authors concluded that cessation of course and then [to make] a near 180° turn away from the source, and [perform] the longest and deepest dive (94min, 7 hours after exposure and at a distance of 33-36km from the sound source, when the tag monitoring the animal fell clicks for this period, indicating that it had ceased foraging changes persisted over longer or repeated exposures to either exposure suggests other whales in the area responded on sperm whales. Moreover, the loss of energy from reduced feeding could have an impact on sperm whale health, and potentially reproduction, if exposure is sustained. heavily impacted, ceasing biologically important behaviours for long periods of time, after receiving only relatively low levels of mid-frequency active sonar. (SOURCE: Isojunno, S., Curé, C., Helgevold, P., Lam, F.P.A., Tyack, P.L., Wensveen, P.J. and Miller, P.J.O. 2016. Sperm whales reduce foraging Ecol. Appl. 26: 77-93). IMPACT OF SEAL SCARERS ON PORPOISES sites and concerns have been raised about their impact on acoustically sensitive species such as porpoises. Two brands of seal scarers (with source SPLs of 189 and 193 dB re 1 Pa at 1 m (rms)) were tested on harbour porpoises; there was no behavioural response at a received SP level of 77-91 dB re 1 Pa (depending on brand). However, at 117-121 dB re 1 Pa, porpoises altered their behaviour slightly, whereas, at 139 and 151 dB re 1 Pa, porpoises actively swam away displacement of porpoises and indicates the levels at which this can occur. (SOURCE: Kastelein, R.A., Hoek, L., Gransier, R., de Jong, C.A.F., Terhune, J.M. and Jennings, N. 2015. Hearing thresholds of a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) for playbacks of seal scarer signals, and Hydrobiologia 756: 89-103). PINGERS COULD DISPLACE HARBOUR PORPOISES FROM THEIR HABITAT porpoise by-catch. Nonetheless, few studies are available on decreased porpoise detection rates (measured acoustically) by 56% when pingers were active. If there was periodic exposure to pingers, detection rates increased slightly with time, suggesting there might be some habituation. However, if pingers operated continuously, there was no increase in detection rate. Even two months after the cessation of pinger activity, porpoise detection rates were 30% below pre-exposure levels. Three control areas (2.5, 3 and 5km away from pingers) showed no change in detection rates, pingers (especially if producing sound continuously) has the potential to displace porpoises from their habitat. (SOURCE: Kyhn, L.A., Jørgensen, P.B., Carstensen1, J., Bech, N.I., Tougaard, J., Dabelsteen, T. and Teilmann, J. 2015. Pingers cause temporary habitat displacement in the harbour porpoise, Phocoena phocoena. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 526: 253-265). (SOURCE: Miller, P.J.O., Kvadsheim, P.H., Lam, F.P.A., Tyack, P.L., Curé, C., DeRuiter, S.L., Kleivane, L., Sivle, L.D., van IJsselmuide, S.P., Visser, F.,Wensveen, P.J., von Benda-Beckmann, A.M., Martín López, L.M.,Narazaki, T. and Hooker, S.K..2015. First indications that northern bottlenose whales are sensitive to behavioural disturbance from anthropogenic noise. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2: 140484, 1-11). PROPOSAL FOR ANTHROPOGENIC NOISE TO BE ADDRESSED THROUGH MARPOL OR A NEW CONVENTION re 1 Pa (rms)) to investigate submarine geological features for oil and gas deposits, and there is concern about the impacts of this noise source on cetaceans. A recent review of seismic survey management determined that environmental impact assessments are rarely done in a way that can accurately assess, appropriate spatial or temporal scales. Exposure levels that are deemed safe for marine mammals do not account for the latest science on sound impacts or cumulative exposures and be addressed through the revision of the existing MARPOL Convention or negotiation of a new convention that more (SOURCE: Nowacek, D.P., Clark, C.W., Mann, D., Miller, P.J.O., Rosenbaum, H.C., Golden, J.S., Jasny, M., Kraska, J. and Southall, B.L. 2015. Marine seismic surveys and ocean noise: Time for coordinated and prudent planning. Front. Ecol. Environ. 13: 378-386). PROTOTYPE ALARMS TO PREVENT WHALE ENTANGLEMENT PROVE INEFFECTIVE Acoustic alarms have been suggested as mitigation to avoid entanglement. However, behavioural observations of Australian humpback whales after exposure to two test alarms (a 2 kHz swept tone, and a 5 kHz tone with a duration and inter-tone interval of 1.5 and 8 seconds and 0.4 and 5 seconds, respectively) found no behavioural response from the whales for either alarm. The authors concluded that to reduce entanglement of northward migrating Australian (SOURCE: Pirotta, V., Slip, D., Jonsen, I.D., Peddemors, V.M., Cato, D.H., Ross, G. and Harcourt, R. 2016. Migrating humpback whales show Endang. Spec. Res. 29: 201-209). 328 REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE, ANNEX K JET-PROPELLED CRAFT ARE QUIETER THAN PROPELLER CRAFT - IMPLICATIONS FOR WHALES Appendix 1 An experimental study investigated the acoustic footprint of a large (117m) high-speed (>37 knots) jet-propelled ship. The sound source level was 10-20dB lower than an equivalent propeller-driven vessel (with peak frequencies below 100Hz). Although quieter propulsion would decrease the overall amount of noise energy entering the ocean, there GLOSSARY for a whale to detect, especially a vessel travelling at high speed. This would reduce the response time for the whale and increase the likelihood of a fatal collision if the whale could not avoid the vessel in time. (SOURCE: Rudd, A.B., Richlen, M.F., Stimpert, A.K. and Au, W.W.L. 2015. Underwater sound measurements of a high-speed jet-propelled marine craft: Implications for large whales. Pac. Sci. 69: 155-164). PORPOISES AFFECTED BY NOISE AT LOWER LEVELS THAN PREDICTED A review of noise exposure experiments determined that than previously predicted (largely based on extrapolations from bottlenose dolphin studies). The behavioural reaction and likelihood of temporary threshold shifts (TTS) varies with the frequency of the sound; behavioural reactions occur occurs at 100dB above. Predicting the impact of a sound and the hearing capability of a porpoise at that frequency. The review found that porpoises tend to show avoidance behaviour towards low frequency pile driving noise 20km responses will occur below the levels of exposure required (SOURCE: Tougaard,J., Wright, A.J., and Madsen, P.T. 2015. Cetacean noise criteria revisited in the light of proposed exposure limits for harbour porpoises. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 90: 196-208). SEISMIC SURVEY MITIGATION GUIDELINES ARE STILL INSUFFICIENT (JNCC) developed guidelines to mitigate the impacts of seismic surveys. These mitigation measures have largely become the industry standard, but have been heavily criticised in 2010; however, a review of these updated guidelines found that changes were minor and have not kept pace with recent science. The authors reiterated many recommendations made in previous critiques that have still not been incorporated. These include establishing safety zones that are biologically relevant, accounting for the sound level of the seismic source and the sound propagation characteristics of the area. (SOURCE: Wright, A.J. and Cosentino, A.M. 2015. JNCC guidelines for minimising the risk of injury and disturbance to marine mammals from seismic surveys: We can do better. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 100: 231-239). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The editors once again thank David Janiger for providing his database of recently published marine mammal papers Sue Moore, Gisli Víkingsson, Tore Haug, Leigh Torres, and Giancarlo Lauriano submitted entries for inclusion. The editors are especially grateful to the Government of Austria and the Animal Welfare Institute for providing support for SOCER preparation, as requested by Resolution 2000-7 (IWC, 2001). We also thank the IWC Secretariat for allotting funds for preparing SOCER 2016. Species glossary Beluga whale Blue whale Bowhead whale Delphinapterus leucas Balaenoptera musculus Balaena mysticetus Cephalorhynchus commersonii Common bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus Common minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata Phocoenoides dalli Fin whale Balaenoptera physalus Gray whale Eschrichtius robustus Harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae Killer whale Orcinus orca Narwhal Monodon monoceros North Atlantic right whale Eubalaena glacialis Northern bottlenose whale Hyperoodon ampullatus Lagenorhynchus obliquidens Pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps Southern right whale Eubalaena australis Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus Atlantic herring Clupeus harengus Capelin Mallotus villosus Cod Gadus morhua Harp seal Pagophilus groenlandicus Humboldt squid Dosidicus gigas King crab Paralomis birsteini Krill Euphausia spp. Sandeels Family Ammodytidae Glossary of terms Benthic: Of or related to the bottom level of the ocean, Benthic-pelagic coupling: The cycling of nutrients between bottom sediments and the overlying water column. Bioaccumulation: Increase in concentration of a pollutant within an organism compared to background levels in its diet. organisms in a food chain. Pollutant levels in top predators are highest. Brevetoxin: A class of dangerous neurotoxins produced during blooms (red tides) of certain algae. Brucella: Various species of bacteria that cause the disease brucellosis. Bq: Becquerel, the International System of Units unit of radioactivity, equal to one nuclear decay or other nuclear transformation per second. CCAMLR: Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources dB: Decibel - a logarithmic measure of sound pressure level. DDD: The organochlorine dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane, a breakdown product of the pesticide DDT. DDE: The organochlorine dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, a breakdown product of the pesticide DDT. DDT: The organochlorine pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, which tends to accumulate in the ecosystem and in the blubber and certain internal organs of cetaceans. 329 J. CETACEAN RES. MANAGE. 18 (SUPPL.), 2017 Diatom: Common type of phytoplankton, a one-celled alga encased in a silica cell wall. The species Pseudonitzschia australis produces domoic acid, which poisons mammals, causing paralysis and reproductive failure. to the phytoplankton. Domoic acid: See diatom - also responsible for amnesic EEZ: Exclusive Economic Zone. ENSO: El Niño/Southern Oscillation. Euphausiid: Of the family Euphausiidae, to which krill belong (may also include the single species found in the family Bentheuphausiidae). Eutrophication: Input of nutrients into an aquatic system, typically associated with excessive plant growth and oxygen depletion. Gyre: Large system of rotating ocean currents. HCH: Hexachlorocyclohexane, a polyhalogenated compound. Hz: Hertz, a measure of sound frequency (pitch), in wave cycles per second (kHz = 1000 Hertz). IMO: International Maritime Organisation. In utero: In the womb; before birth. kN: A kilonewton. The newton is the International System of Units unit of force. One thousand newtons is a kilonewton. Lindane: Also known as gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane, organochlorine chemical variant of HCH, which has been used both as an agricultural insecticide and as a pharmaceutical treatment for lice and scabies. Lipid weight: A basis of measurement whereby concentrations of a substance are compared to the lipid (fat) content of a material. Microplastics: Plastic particles 0.3-5 mm in diameter, often the result of larger plastic pieces breaking down over time. MPA: Marine Protected Area. OCP: Organochlorine pesticide. Organochlorine: Organic compounds that contain chlorine. Many are toxic and used as pesticides. Most of these compounds persist in the environment (are not biodegradable) and also tend to accumulate in fatty tissue (e.g. blubber) of cetaceans and other marine organisms. PBDE: Polybrominated diphenyl ether. PCB: Polychlorinated biphenyls. manufacturing and industrial applications because they are Pelagic: Of or related to the open ocean. PET: Polyethylene terephthalate, a plastic. Polyethylene, polypropylene: Plastics. POPs: Persistent organic pollutants, organic compounds that are resistant to degradation and thus persist in the environment. ppm: Parts per million. PVC: Polyvinyl chloride, a plastic. rms: Root-mean-square. A measurement of sound pressure. openings, known as siphons, through which they draw in and expel water) with a transparent, barrel-shaped body. SOAR: Synthesis of Arctic Research project. SPL: Sound pressure level. surface. UME: Unusual mortality event, any set of related strandings that involves a greater number of animals than is typical for a certain time period. Wet weight: A basis of measurement whereby concentrations of a substance are calculated without the water being removed from the respective organism or sediment. REFERENCES Ninth Annual Meeting. Appendix 7. IWC Resolution 1997-7. Resolution on environmental change and cetaceans. Rep. int. Whal. Commn 48: 48-49. Annual Meeting. Appendix 6. IWC Resolution 1998-5. Resolution on environmental changes and cetaceans. Ann. Rep. Int. Whal. Comm. 1998: 43-44. Second Annual Meeting. Appendix 1. Resolutions adopted during the 52nd annual meeting. IWC Resolution 2000-7. Resolution on environmental change and cetaceans. Ann. Rep. int. Whal. Commn 2000: 56-57. Stachowitsch, M., Rose, N.A. and Parsons, E.C.M. 2003. State of the cetacean environment report (SOCER) 2003: Second draft. Paper