Quaternary International 209 (2009) 1–5
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Quaternary International
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Editorial
Recent developments and new frontiers in paleopedology
Paleosols are a fundamental source of evidence for environmental processes that took place in the past, and, as such, they
may also be used in models that aim on predicting future earth
system reactions to changing environmental conditions. Thus,
large numbers of papers on paleopedology are continuously being
published, summing up to at least 142 papers in 2006, 152 in 2007,
and 141 in 2008, if only the international journals listed in Scopus
are considered. Many more papers have been presented on the
web: 1510 papers in 2006, 1410 in 2007, and 1290 in 2008
(Google).
Most contributions to this special issue of Quaternary
International were presented in the paleopedology sessions held
during the INQUA congress in Cairns, Australia, 28th July–3rd
August 2007. They reflect several recent foci of paleopedological
research, which may be grouped as follows:
Use of soil characteristics as palaeo-climatic proxies
Rates of pedogenic processes
Periglacial sediments, loess and dust
Use of pedogenic carbonates as palaeo-archives in interdisciplinary studies, including impacts of environmental changes
on man
5. Concepts in paleopedology
6. Heritage soil documentation and protection
Magnetic susceptibility variations in Quaternary loess–paleosol
sequences in the Chinese Loess Plateau are commonly used to
reconstruct Quaternary palaeo-climatic cycles (Liu, 1985; An
et al., 1991), whereby increased susceptibility is generally attributed to the formation of pedogenic superparamagnetic grains
during soil development (Zhou et al., 1990; Maher and Thompson,
1991; Verosub et al., 1993). In recent years, attempts have been
made to extend the magnetic record to the TRC that underlies
the loess (Ding et al., 1998, 1999; Sun et al., 1998a,b; Guo et al.,
2002; Liu et al., 2003; Hao and Guo, 2007). Hu et al. report that
the TRC of the Lingtai section in the Chinese Loess Plateau is
generally more intensively weathered than the Quaternary paleosols in the overlying loess. However, magnetic susceptibility of the
TRC is significantly lower than that of the Quaternary paleosols.
The authors conclude that magnetic susceptibility cannot be
used as a palaeo-climatic proxy in the TRC. They interpret lower
contents of ferrimagnetic minerals and higher hematite and/or
goethite contents in the TRC as a result of the transformation of
ferrimagnetic minerals into hematite. Although the specific
processes that lead to low magnetic susceptibility in the highly
weathered TRC could not completely be identified, the paper
points to a very important issue, i.e. the need to understand the
processes behind magnetic susceptibility when using this parameter as a palaeo-climate proxy.
1. Use of soil characteristics as palaeo-climatic proxies
2. Rates of pedogenic processes
A central aim of paleopedology is reconstructing palaeo-climate
from paleosols. The first two papers of this volume (Pal et al.; Hu
et al.) deal with the suitability of some chemical, micromorphological and magnetic soil characteristics for palaeo-climatic interpretation. Pal et al. present a Vertisol climosequence in India, which
includes six pedons in a climatic range from warm humid (MAP:
3287 mm) to warm dry (MAP: 533 mm) conditions. Following the
actualistic principle, the authors identify specific macro- and
micromorphological features and chemical properties in the Vertisols, which they relate to different present climatic conditions in
the different study areas. These climate-related soil properties are
then used to reconstruct a Holocene transition from more humid
to drier conditions. The paper of Pal et al. contributes to the
important issue of determining the climatic ranges in which certain
pedogenic features may occur in order to draw proper conclusions
from these features when they occur in paleosols.
Hu et al. try to link the magnetic susceptibility of Tertiary Red
Clay (TRC) on the Chinese Loess Plateau to pedogenic processes.
Rates of pedogenic processes are commonly studied in soil chronosequences, which are usually established on sequences of river
terraces (e.g. Torrent, 1976; Arduino et al., 1984, 1986; Ajmone
Marsan et al., 1988; Bain et al., 1993; Engel et al., 1996; Leigh,
1996; Vidic and Lobnik, 1997; Shaw et al., 2003; Tsai et al., 2006),
marine terraces (e.g. Muhs, 1982; Aniku and Singer, 1990; Markewich and Pavich, 1991; Merrits et al., 1991;Moody and Graham,
1995; Scarciglia et al., 2006; Tsai et al., 2007; Wagner et al.,
2007), beach ridges (e.g. Protz et al., 1984, 1988; Nieuwenhhuyse
et al., 1993, 1994; Sauer et al., 2007), moraines (e.g. Alexander
and Burt, 1996; Evans, 1999; Righi et al., 1999; Egli et al., 2001),
or dunes of different ages (e.g. VandenBygaart and Protz, 1995;
Lichter, 1998; Stützer, 1998). Numerous soil chronosequence
studies have been carried out in the last decades, particularly on
the formation of Podzols (e.g. Barrett, 2001; Tonkin and Basher,
2001; Mokma et al., 2004; Sauer et al., 2008) and Mediterranean
soils (e.g. McFadden and Hendricks, 1985; Busacca, 1987; Diaz
and Torrent, 1989; Alonso et al., 1994; Dorronsoro, 1994; Bech
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1040-6182/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2009.08.005
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Editorial / Quaternary International 209 (2009) 1–5
et al., 1997; Garcia Marcos and Santos Frances, 1997; Costantini
et al., 2002).
Sauer et al. present in this volume the first chronosequence of
Albeluvisol formation, which has been established on Holocene
loamy marine sediments in the humid-temperate climate of
southern Norway. Preliminary results of the study have been published by Schülli et al. (2007). The authors report that in this area,
clay illuviation starts in less than 1650 years. E horizons become
lighter with age, but their lower boundary stays around 40 cm for
more than 10,000 years. Albeluvic tongues start to develop
between 4600 and 6200 years. Fed/Fet ratios of the soils show a clear
linear increase with soil age.
The following paper of Zielhofer et al. presents rates of soil
formation in a Holocene Mediterranean floodplain. The authors
previously reported palaeo-environmental reconstructions for the
area, based on paleosol–sediment sequences of floodplains
(Zielhofer et al., 2002, 2004, 2008; Faust et al., 2004; Zielhofer
and Faust, 2008). Their new paper focuses on the quantification
of soil development stages in this type of palaeo-archive. In particular, the authors demonstrate that the profile development index,
introduced by Harden (1982) and Harden and Taylor (1983),
modified by Birkeland (1999), correlates well (R2 ¼ 0.8) with the
independently determined duration of soil formation periods. The
overall aim of this approach is to make use of this correlation for
estimating the duration of soil formation periods from profile
development indices in cases, where no other chronological control
is provided. Knowledge on the duration of soil formation periods is
an important issue in the interpretation of alluvial archives,
because they indicate periods of decreased flooding and low sedimentation rates (Zielhofer et al., 2002).
3. Periglacial sediments, loess and dust
It is well known that paleosols on loess and other dust sediments are among the most favourable objects in paleopedological
research, because mobilization and sedimentation of dust are
strongly controlled by climatic factors and are often interrupted
by periods of stability and soil formation. Four papers of this
volume are related to loess–soil interaction in various regions: Terhorst et al. (Austria), Makeev (Russia), Cattle et al. (Australia) and
Costantini et al. (Italy). In spite of the fact that studied soils are
widely spread geographically and chronologically, the papers
have much in common, as they focus on surface and near surface
loess and/or periglacial sediments, influenced by pedogenesis
and morphodynamic processes. The following issues arise from
the nature of the materials: 1. Identification of loess sediments is
usually an important part of research, because they could be
considerably altered by pedogenesis, periglacial processes and/or
mixed with underlying or cover sediments by slope processes
and bioturbation; 2. The sources of dust material could be local,
distal, or mixed; 3. Dating of loess and related sediments is
required; 4. Reconstruction of initial dust sediment features and
thus the rate, degree and stages of their transformation by pedogenesis and slope processes is needed; 5. The role of sediment
and pedogenic features in slope stability, must be assessed; and,
based on this, 6. Forecasts of landscape stability in present environments and in the case of future climate changes can be
attempted.
The study of soil and loess features is an essential part of
research in the paper of Terhorst et al., revealing slope evolution
in conjunction with other geomorphic parameters, where phases
of erosion, redeposition, sedimentation, and soil formation
demonstrate stages of activity and stability under varying climatic
conditions. Pleistocene and Holocene sediments and processes are
differentiated, based on the concept of periglacial cover beds.
Distribution of periglacial cover beds, loess and modern soils
allows reconstruction of the original Pleistocene slope and sediments. Soil features, critical for assessment of slope movement,
such as soil mechanical stability criteria or signs of waterlogging,
are discussed and form the base for predicting slope movements
in the study area, especially with regard to intensive human
activities.
There was no problem of loess identification in the paper of
Makeev, because the area belongs to the Northern fringe of East
European loess belt with thick loess strata. The paper focuses on
reconstructing stages of final loess sedimentation during the Late
Pleistocene, partly within profiles of surface soils. Sequential sedimentation is not obvious in the homogeneous loess strata on the
main surfaces, but becomes clear in corresponding loess layers
within paleocryogenic depressions, where dust accumulation was
accompanied by slope and cryogenic processes and hydromorphic
pedogenesis. Comparing loess sediments within and outside of
depressions confirmed pedogenic alteration of primary dust sediments on the main surfaces under cold arid environments that
left no developed soil profiles. Transformation of loess within
depressions caused considerable degradation of initial features
(leaching of carbonates, partial loss of structure, hydromorphic
features).
The paper of Cattle et al. describes loess-derived (parna) soils
in south-eastern Australia, where red clayey calcareous dust
material was deeply transformed in the course of 10,000–50,000
years of pedogenesis. To confirm the aeolian nature of sediments,
the authors provide a model of aeolian mobilization and depositional cycles. To determine the pedogenic impact of initial windblown sediments and to link variable loessic soil features with
initial windblown sediments, the authors demonstrate a broad climosequence along the ‘‘wind tube’’, the main dust transport
route, with annual precipitation ranging from 443 to 654 mm
and elevation ranging from 125 to 635 m a.s.l. Research is supplemented by the study of two soil profiles within soil catena to
demonstrate the impact of local landscape processes on loessic
soil features. Special attention is given to the role of sediment
and pedogenic features in landscape stability, on the bases of
morphological, physico-chemical and structural stability attributes. Well-drained soils will have little impact on landscape
instability, whereas in the lower landscape positions degradation
of loessic features in the course of pedogenesis leads to transformation of structure, salinisation and/or sodification, increasing
the risk of erosion.
Recognition of Holocene loess sediments, never mentioned
before in central Italy, is the main focus of the paper of Costantini
et al. The problem of loess identification is explained by its spatial
distribution, small thickness (sometimes only an admixture of
separate aeolian grains), admixture of underlying sediments and
alteration by pedogenesis. Application of a set of morphological
(including light and electron microscopy), mineralogical, and
geochemical methods, supplemented by pollen analyses and age
estimation, allowed thorough characterization of loess horizons
in polycyclic profiles of the Elsa basin. Comparing the features of
loess with that of local sediments helped to exclude distant sources and confirmed that the prevalent source of dust was local,
with dust particles bearing signs of both aeolian and hydrodynamic transport. The stages of increased colluviation were established in older deposits and correlated with the Heinrich events.
The study of loess soil features and pollen spectrum allowed Costantini et al. to recognize aridization, caused both by climatic
change and increased human activity in the mid-Holocene.
Increased arid conditions in the course of climate change could
trigger a new cycle of slope denudation, wind erosion and loess
deposition.
Editorial / Quaternary International 209 (2009) 1–5
4. Use of pedogenic carbonates as palaeo-archives in
interdisciplinary studies, including impacts
of environmental changes on humans
Another issue of interdisciplinary studies in the last decades is
related to environmental changes during the Holocene, particularly
those having consequences on the history of humanity. A major aim
of these studies is improving the understanding of relationships
between climatic changes, environmental processes and human
adaptation and reaction. Links between soil processes and the
development and collapse of civilizations, as well as migration of
populations, have been known for a long time. These issues are of
utmost relevance today, as pressure of man on the natural
resources, in particular water, soil, and vegetation, increases.
However, there are still many uncertainties with regard to the resilience capacities of both, natural resources and human communities
operating on them (Blum et al., 2006). Moreover, earth system
feedbacks to climatic variations can be non-linear, but determined
by thresholds. Crossing such thresholds may lead to abrupt nonlinear changes, even if the causative climatic transitions are not
abrupt.
The work of Riehl et al. presented in this volume deals with
consequences of Holocene climatic changes on agriculture and
human occupation in the Fertile Crescent in the Near East. The
authors test the reconstruction of environmental changes obtained
from pedogenic carbonate coatings on stones with other palaeoenvironmental archives: i) plant macroremains from archaeological
sites, ii) stable carbon isotope composition of plant macroremains,
and iii) modelled Holocene precipitation and temperature changes.
Pedogenic carbonates are valuable indicators of palaeo-climate
and -environment. Their formation is part of the soil development
in semi-arid to sub-humid climates, and their isotopic composition
reflects the environmental conditions during the formation of the
paleosols in which they occur. Carbon isotope ratios in pedogenic
carbonates are governed primarily by that of soil CO2, oxygen
isotopes by that of atmospheric precipitation. Pustovoytov et al.
(2007) used pedogenic carbonate coatings on stones to reconstruct late Quaternary environmental changes in northern Mesopotamia. A similar approach enabled Bettis et al. (2009) to
document the environmental conditions at the time when Homo
erectus spread through Southeast Asia during the early Pleistocene. Kovda et al. (2009) found that carbonate morphologies and
distribution in paleosols of Russia reflect wet–dry and cold–
warm cycles. They observed several generations and multiphase
formation of carbonate pedofeatures in a loess–paleosol pedocomplex. Pedogenic carbonates have been extensively used as environmental and dating proxy in a number of other recent works on
Holocene paleosols (Khokhlova et al., 2001; Frank et al., 2006),
as well as Plio–Pleistocene (Levin et al., 2004), up to Permian
and Triassic paleosols (Tabor et al., 2004), which demonstrates
the potential of pedogenic carbonates as palaeo-archives. Further
development may include the development of quantitative models
of pedogenic carbonate formation under different environmental
conditions.
5. Concepts in paleopedology
The paper of Iriondo presented in this volume introduces a ‘‘Multisol’’ concept, to advance a three-dimensional approach in studies
of paleosols and associated sediments. A Multisol is defined as a soil
body that, maintaining an identifiable continuity, bifurcates in two
or more layers located at different levels of the sedimentary
column, and connotes a sedimentary body.
The general issue of studying paleosols as part of three-dimensional landscapes has received interest for several decades. In the
3
‘‘Conclusions of the working group on the origin and nature of
paleosols’’, adopted in Amsterdam in 1970, it was stated that
‘‘both partial and complete profiles should be traced laterally in
the landscape to determine their spatial variation’’ (Yaalon,
1971). Linking stratigraphic, geomorphic, and pedological observations has been a main element of the methodological approach of
many paleopedological studies (e.g. Blecker et al., 1997; Retallack,
1998; Scarciglia et al., 2005; Jacobs and Mason, 2007; Terhorst,
2007).
New possibilities in ‘‘Landscape Paleopedology’’ have recently
been opened up by the development of Geographical Information
Systems (GIS) and related software, which enables modeling of
the present and past topography and pedostratigraphic levels.
Modeling allows reconstruction of morphodynamic processes as
response to tectonic and climatic variability (Napoli et al., 2006;
Costantini et al., 2007b; Miller et al., 2009) as well as understanding
differences in pedogenesis as a result of mineralogical heterogeneity of the parent material (Delarue et al., 2009).
Further developments are expected by new interdisciplinary
approaches, integrating geographic, pedometric, pedological, and
geochemical methods, which may enable (e.g.) modeling of soilscape development over time. Some recent studies already point
in this direction, combining models of rock weathering with soil
formation and soil distribution in the landscape (Minasny et al.,
2008; Samouëlian and Cornu, 2008).
6. Heritage soil documentation and protection
Paleosols store information about the environmental conditions
during their genesis and thus reflect the natural and cultural heritage of the landscape. This particular nature of paleosols, referred to
as ‘‘soil memory’’ (Targulian and Goryachkin, 2004), makes them
particularly valuable among the various earth soil bodies. The
work of Costantini and L’Abate published in this volume points to
the ‘‘cultural or natural heritage’’ of soils. The growing interest in
this concept is reflected by the recent decision of the International
Union of Soil Sciences to set up a Working Group on Rare Soils and
Heritage Soils. The Council of the European Union considers preservation of soil as a part of natural heritage by the document ‘‘Council
Conclusions on Integrated Soil Protection’’ (Brussels, 18 July 2002)
and by the final document ‘‘Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection’’
submitted in September 2006. In addition, the protection of the
soil’s cultural heritage is closely linked with the European Landscape Convention of the Council of Europe which aims on
preserving historical landscape elements. Several local governments, organisations and scientists have started research on soil
heritage (see e.g. Costantini et al., 2007a; Towers et al., 2008;
Vancampenhout et al., 2008; Ibáñez et al., 2009).
During the last decades, however, the area of heritage soils in
Europe has dramatically decreased, mainly because land use planners and policy makers do not know about their existence and
because no tools to indicate the value of heritage soils are available.
A tool to evaluate and manage heritage soils is thus required to
enable protection of these soils in Europe. The paper by Costantini
and L’Abate presents a methodology to evaluate heritage soils of
Italy, and to establish a specific geodatabase, which may be used
also in other countries.
The issue of heritage soil preservation is closely related to that of
pedodiversity, which is defined as the variation of soils in an area
(Beckett and Bie, 1978; McBratney, 1992; Ibañez et al., 1995;
Phillips, 2001; Guo et al., 2003; Phillips and Marion, 2005; McBratney and Minasny, 2007). As demonstrated in the paper of Costantini
and L’Abate, paleosols form an important part of pedodiversity of
a country, which underlines the importance of making their existence public. It is therefore recommended that an international
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Editorial / Quaternary International 209 (2009) 1–5
scientific effort is made towards evaluation, documentation, awareness raising and protection of heritage soils and pedodiversity.
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E.A.C. Costantini*
CRA-ABP Research Institute for Agrobiology and Pedology,
Piazza M. D’Azeglio 30, 50121 Florence, Italy
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: edoardo.costantini@entecra.it (E.A.C. Costantini)
A. Makeev
MSU-RAS Soil Institute, Moscow University, Russia
D. Sauer
Institute of Soil Science, Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany
Available online 13 August 2009