Levant
The Journal of the Council for British Research in the Levant
ISSN: 0075-8914 (Print) 1756-3801 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ylev20
Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal
mountains of northern Lebanon during the
Epipalaeolithic
Yvonne Edwards, Andrew Garrard & Corine Yazbeck
To cite this article: Yvonne Edwards, Andrew Garrard & Corine Yazbeck (2017) Hunting and
trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic, Levant,
49:3, 237-258, DOI: 10.1080/00758914.2017.1408217
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00758914.2017.1408217
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Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal
mountains of northern Lebanon during the
Epipalaeolithic
Yvonne Edwards1, Andrew Garrard1 and Corine Yazbeck2
Relative to other regions of the Levant, our knowledge of the adaptations of Epipalaeolithic huntergatherers to the late Pleistocene environments of the coastal mountains of the central and northern
Levant are extremely limited. However, recently excavations at two adjacent caves at Moghr elAhwal in the Qadisha Valley of northern Lebanon have provided a rich record, particularly of
hunting and trapping strategies from the period following the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) until
the Bølling/Allerød interstadial. The dominant prey species, which varied in proportions through
time, included: wild goat; roe, red and fallow deer; as well as fox, hare, squirrel and partridge.
These document the exploitation of a wide spectrum of habitats, and demonstrate the expansion
of forest cover through this period. Comparisons are made with food procurement strategies
through the Epipalaeolithic in the wider region.
Keywords hunting strategies, Moghr el-Ahwal, Lebanon, Levant, Epipalaeolithic, Natufian
Introduction
The coastal mountains of northern Lebanon rise
steeply from the narrow Mediterranean shoreline
and, as a result of high winter rainfall, have extensive
woodland and forest cover on the slopes, dissected by
deep craggy ravines with perennial streams. From the
last glacial maximum through to the early Holocene,
these areas supported diverse wildlife that was
exploited by bands of Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic
hunter-gatherers. However, systematic excavation
aimed at exploring the everyday lives of these communities has been limited, not least due to the conflict in
Lebanon between 1975 and 1990. The majority of our
knowledge of the Epipalaeolithic stems from excavations in the 1960s and 1970s in Early
Epipalaeolithic Kebaran levels at Ksar Akil and Jiita
II (Hours 1973; 1992; Tixier 1970; Tixier and Inizan
1981; Yazbeck 2004) and from the analysis of previously excavated material from Early and Middle
1
Institute of Archaeology, University College London, UK;
University, Beirut, Lebanon
2
Lebanese
Andrew Garrard (corresponding author), Institute of Archaeology,
University College London, 31–34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY,
UK: Email: a.garrard@ucl.ac.uk
© Council for British Research in the Levant 2017
DOI 10.1080/00758914.2017.1408217
Epipalaeolithic Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran
phases at Abri Bergy (Copeland and Waechter
1968). Each of these sites is located just north of
Beirut (Figs 1 and 2). Records of the Late
Epipalaeolithic Natufian in Lebanon derive largely
from excavations at Saaidé II on the western flanks
of the Bekaa Valley (Copeland 1991; Garrard and
Yazbeck 2013; Schroeder 1991).
In 2003 a major prehistoric field project was initiated
in the Qadisha Valley, which cuts the highest sector of
Mount Lebanon in the north-west of the country.
Extensive survey identified a number of Palaeolithic
and Neolithic sites in caves and rock shelters, as well
as in open-air localities in the lower mountain belt
between the Qadisha Valley and Nahr Asfour (500–
800 m). Most notable amongst these was a group of
three adjacent caves near to the village of Moghr elAhwal (MEA), where subsequent excavations yielded
evidence of occupation from the Epipalaeolithic and
Neolithic, including rich assemblages of stone and
bone tools, shell beads, animal bones and human
burials (Garrard and Yazbeck 2004; 2008; 2013).
The focus of the present paper considers the wild
fauna hunted and trapped at the Moghr el-Ahwal
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Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Figure 1. Map of Levant showing location of Moghr el-Ahwal and other Epipalaeolithic sites referred to in the text.
cave sites through various stages of the
Epipalaeolithic, and is aimed at assessing the changing
prey diversity, association with climate/landscape
change and reflection of human cultural and economic
selectivity. This study represents a significant addition
to our understanding since early faunal assemblages
from sites in Lebanon are scantily recorded, with the
exception of studies made by Hooijer (1961) and
Kersten (1987; 1989; 1991; 1992) at Ksar ‘Akil,
Clutton Brock ( pers. comm.) at Jiita II and
Churcher (1994) at Saaidé.
The Moghr el-Ahwal Caves
The Qadisha Valley is drained by the Nahr Qadisha
river, which runs for 35 km from the highest reaches
of Mount Lebanon (over 3000 m) to the
238
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Mediterranean. Annual rainfall currently varies
between c. 900 mm on the coast, to more than
1500 mm near the summits. Vegetation differs with
altitude, ranging from evergreen oak, to deciduous
oak woodland, to coniferous forest, to sub-alpine
shrub cover (Garrard and Yazbeck 2013). A survey
of the valley identified a cluster of three caves associated with a karstic limestone outcrop known as the
Timsah rock. This c. 80 m long rock formation is
located at c. 620 m elevation, on mountain slopes
overlooking the Qadisha ravine, and lies c. 400 m
east of Moghr el-Ahwal village. The layout of this
site has been described in detail by Garrard and
Yazbeck (2004; 2008) and is summarized in brief
here. Cave 1, at the western end, is, in effect, a
natural arch and was not available for excavation as
Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Figure 2. Location of Moghr el-Ahwal and other key Epipalaeolithic and Pre-Pottery Neolithic sites in Lebanon and adjacent
areas. 1: Moghr el-Ahwal (EP, PPN); 2: Nebaa el Mghara (EP); 3: Jiita II, III (EP); 4: Ksar Akil (EP), Abri Bergy (EP),
Antelias (EP), Dik el Mehdi (PPN); 5: Borj Barajne (EP, PPN), Tell aux Haches (PPN), Tell aux Scies (PPN); 6: Kroum
el Jabal (EP); 7: Nachcharini (EP, PPN); 8: Tell Labwé (PPN); 9: Baalbek (PPN); 10 Saaidé I, II (EP, PPN); 11: Yabrud
III (EP); 12: Baaz Cave (EP, PPN); 13: Ghoraifé (PPN); 14: Tell Aswad (PPN); 15: Tell Ramad (PPN); 16: Mallaha (EP),
Beisamoun (PPN). Note that EP = Epipalaeolithic; PPN = Pre-Pottery Neolithic.
the floor has been cemented over, however, two other
caves were accessible and subject to archaeological
investigation during 2004–05 and 2008. The smaller
Cave 2 comprises a south-facing rock shelter, with a
fairly low ceiling, leading to a small inner chamber.
Excavation here revealed Geometric Kebaran occupation cut into by Natufian and Neolithic features,
all of which overlie earlier deposits that remain
undated. Eighteen metres to the east, the larger Cave
3 cuts obliquely through the rock, with a substantial
chamber at the south-eastern end leading into a
fissured area open to the sky, and to a small entrance
on the northern side. Four areas of the cave were
explored but only Area C, in the eastern sector and
close to the main entrance, had a well-preserved
stratigraphic record with radiocarbon dates ranging
from the Kebaran, Geometric Kebaran and
Natufian time periods. The dominant occupational
material appeared to be Geometric Kebaran, with
material from earlier and later periods being more
limited in the excavated area (Garrard and Yazbeck
2008; 2013).
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Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Table 1. Radiocarbon dates from prehistoric levels at Moghr el-Ahwal Caves 2 and 3. Note that the phase lettering system used
for each cave is independent.
Cave & phase
CAVE 2
Phase B
Phase B
Phase B
Phase D
CAVE 3
Phase C1
Phase D
Phase E
Phase F
Cal. date — 2σ
Lab code
18
18
18
30
U
T
U
Y
Charcoal
Human bone
Human bone
Charcoal
Wk 20841
OxA 18862
OxA 18863
Wk 20843
7,610 ± 42 BP
8,517 ± 39 BP
8,710 ± 45 BP
12,664 ± 63 BP
15,090–14,800 BP
8,520–8,340 BP
9,595–9,524 BP
9,871–9,598 BP
15,250–14,600 BP
442
456
462
461
Cd
Cb
C
C
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal
OxA 20551
OxA 20673
OxA 20552
OxA 20674
12,230 ± 75 BP
13,585 ± 55 BP
15,750 ± 75 BP
17,220 ± 70 BP
14,190–13,989 BP
16,357–15,969 BP
19,019–18,896 BP
20,447–20,232 BP
14,463–13,859 BP
16,578–15,799 BP
19,123–18,827 BP
20,577–20,091 BP
Area C covered 13.5 sq m and was excavated to a
depth of 1.3 metres. Six phases of occupation
(Phases F to A) were revealed comprising 64 loci in
all. The three lowest phases provided calibrated
AMS dates from charcoal which in order of depth
were: Phase F — 20,577–20,091 cal BP, contemporary
with the mid-Kebaran (locus 461); Phase E — 19,123–
18,827 BP, contemporary with late Kebaran (locus
462); and Phase D — 16,578–15,799 BP, midGeometric Kebaran (locus 456) (Table 1). These
early levels were overlain by various features which
appeared to be Natufian in date (Phase C). They
included a shallow pit containing an upturned
mortar (locus 442) from which an early Natufian
date of 14,463–13,859 cal BP was obtained, which in
turn overlay an ovoid bin with a stone slab surround
and lime plaster base (Garrard and Yazbeck 2013).
Neolithic strata were not encountered in this part of
the cave, although possible Bronze Age and more
recent pits appeared in subsequent levels (Phase B,
Phase A). Based on the lithic assemblages, by far the
most prolific occupation was that relating to the
Geometric Kebaran; artefacts from this phase had
penetrated earlier levels and were also found in the
Natufian features that cut into this occupation phase.
Cave 2
A 30 m2 area was excavated in Cave 2, which was also
made up of six phases (Phases F to A) from which 43
separate loci were uncovered. The sediments were
shallow (only 50 cm) but ‘locked in’ by a rock sill
across the front of the cave. The earliest deposits,
Phases F — ‘red complex’ and E — ‘grey complex’,
survived in isolated pockets in the cave floor, but
unfortunately no C14 dates were obtained and the
lithic assemblages were sparse. Phase D was best represented at the eastern side of the cave where there
2017
Cal. date — 1σ
Material
Cave 3
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C Date
Square
Stratigraphy, phasing and dating
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8,430–8,375 BP
was a burial pit containing a partial human skeleton
with a Geometric Kebaran industry in association
(locus 30). A charcoal date of 15,250–14,600 cal BP
was obtained which would place it in the late
Geometric Kebaran (Table 1). In contrast, Phase C
was best preserved in a burial pit at the western side
of the cave and several of the artefacts, including a
portion of a bone sickle haft (Garrard and Yazbeck
2013: fig. 4), appeared to be Natufian, although they
were mixed with earlier Geometric Kebaran material.
Cutting into the earlier deposits across the centre and
west of the cave were a series of burial pits recorded as
Phase B, contained therein were disarticulated human
remains, these bones gave two dates, 9,595–9,524 cal
BP and 9,871–9,598 cal BP (locus 18), indicating a
mid–late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B phase. As in Cave
3, there was evidence of later prehistoric activity and
also a series of Medieval and later pits cutting earlier
levels (Phase A), but the dominant phase of early prehistoric occupation appears to have been Geometric
Kebaran; material from this period was found in
later burial features cut into these levels.
It is important to note that no direct links could be
made between the phasing at the two caves, whose
entrances were 18 m apart. However, in both caves
Phase D relates to Geometric Kebaran occupation
and Phase C to Natufian features cut into Geometric
Kebaran levels. In some analyses, referred to in subsequent sections, data from Phases D and C at the
two caves are combined. Table 2 lists the loci encompassing the faunal remains from both sites.
Recovery of bones from Moghr el-Ahwal Caves
Bones were recovered from sediments coarse-sieved
through 5 mm mesh, with the residues dry- or wetsieved through 2 mm mesh. These bones were identified using reference collections at the Institute of
Archaeology, University College London and the
Natural History Museum Bird Reference Collection
at Tring in the UK. Faunal specimens identifiable to
Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Table 2. Phases and loci at Caves 2 and 3 from which faunal
remains were analyzed.
Cave &
phase
CAVE 2
Phase C
Phase D/C
Phase D
Phase E
Phase F
CAVE 3
Phase C1
Phase C2
Phase D/C
Phase D
Phase E/D
Phase E
Phase F
Cal. BP
date—2σ
Loci
analysed
Litres
sediment
15,520–14,600
9, 15
37, 40
30, 41
5, 34, 35, 36, 39
19, 20, 24, 38
149
305
230
260
246
440, 442, 443
447, 451
441
454, 456, 457
445, 458
448, 462, 463
461, 464
218
20
193
168
383
210
450
14,463–13,859
16,578–15,799
19,123–18,827
20,577–20,091
taxa were measured to the nearest mm; weight, fusion
status and degree of intactness were recorded.
Attributes resulting from taphonomic processes
including weathering, surface condition, gnawing
and burning were also recorded. A high proportion
of bones from Cave 3, Phases C to F, were coated in
a calcite-rich breccia and although this was largely
removed by 4 hours immersion in 10–12% glacial
acetic acid, occasional remnant coating made weight
estimation uncertain. The encrustation meant that
dry-sieving was practised much more extensively in
Cave 3 than in Cave 2, where the majority of material
was wet-sieved. This may account, in part, for the
higher proportion of microfauna recovered from
Cave 2.
Animal bone abundance was assessed using
Number of Identified Specimens (NISP), while skeletal element representation was calculated using
Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) (as described
by Grayson 1984). NISP values for tortoise were determined using a method described in a previous publication by one of the authors (Edwards and Martin
2007). Morphometric data were collected for goat,
roe deer, red deer and wild boar (following von den
Driesch 1976).
Faunal diversity and inter-cave variation
The Moghr el-Ahwal animal remains, their identification, relative abundance and varied spatial distribution, throw light, not only on the procurement
strategies and subsistence economy employed by
people living in the caves, but also raise questions
about their social organization. The greatest attention
is given to fauna from Cave 3 since the stratification in
area C was clear and appeared relatively undisturbed.
The fauna from Cave 2 is described in more summary
form, as the deposits were much shallower and may
have been subject to disturbance during the excavation
of successive prehistoric burial pits across the front of
the cave.
Cave 3 Fauna
Table 3 shows the range and relative abundance of
fauna recovered from Cave 3. This comprised 13,266
bone fragments, weighing 28.63 kg, of which 797
(6.0%) were identifiable to species/genus. Large ungulates were dominated by caprines, of which a good
number could be firmly identified as wild goat,
Capra aegagrus, (Boessneck 1969; Prummel and
Frisch 1986). Although closely checked, no definite
evidence of wild sheep, Ovis orientalis, was found in
either cave. Wild goat would have been at home in
the adjacent crags, and the nearby woodland would
have provided short-term cover for females giving
birth (Harrison and Bates 1991). It is notable that in
this assemblage caprines comprised between 65–78%
of total hunted/trapped fauna across Phases F to D/
C, but by Phase C numbers dropped to around 37%.
Amongst the other large mammals, red, (Cervus
elephas), fallow (Dama mesopotamica) and roe deer
(Capreolus capreolus) accounted for 9–15% of all
animals killed in the earliest phases (F to D) of occupation, but in Phase C the figure rose sharply to 44%.
It is notable that the relative proportions of these three
deer species varied over time. Red deer were present in
low numbers through all earlier phases but absent in
Phase C, while fallow deer increased between Phases
D and C. Roe deer numbers accounted for around
3–4% of hunted prey throughout the early phases,
but in Phase C a striking change occurred with
numbers increasing to 31%, almost the same abundance as caprines. In terms of behavioural ecology,
fallow and roe deer prefer well-wooded areas during
the day but emerge into open areas for feeding at
dawn and dusk, while red deer is likely to have been
more frequent in the open terrain at higher altitudes,
at least in summer, although with access to woodland
(Chapman and Chapman 1975; Kiabi et al. 2004;
Lovari et al. 2008). The variation seen in relative abundance of these different deer species may, therefore,
reflect temporal, environmental changes and, in particular, the expansion of forest/woodland habitats
through the period. However the changes could also
arise from selective behaviour of the local huntergatherers.
In addition to these relatively abundant taxa a wide
variety of less frequent prey were also encountered.
During the earliest phase of Cave 3 occupation small
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Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Table 3. Cave 3. Fauna are divided by phases and expressed as Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) and percentage NISP.
Bones not identified to family/genera are also detailed.
Phases F & E
Cave 3
Hunted/trapped taxa
Bos primigenius
Ursus arctos
Cervus elaphus
Dama mesopotamica
Capreolus capreolus
Cervidae
Capra aegagrus
Caprinae
Sus scrofa
Lepus capensis
Vulpes vulpes
Canidae
Felidae
Mustela sp.
Sciurus sp.
Testudo graeca
Corvidae
Alectoris chuckar
Columba livia
Perdix perdix
Buteo buteo
Aquila chrysaetos
Aquila sp.
Phase E/D
Phase D
Phase D/C
Phase C
NISP NISP % NISP NISP % NISP NISP % NISP NISP % NISP NISP %
Auroch
Brown bear
Red deer
Fallow deer
Roe deer
Large cervid
Small cervid
Goat
Caprine
Boar
Hare
Fox
Large canid
Medium canid
Medium felid
Small felid
Mustelid
Medium carnivore
Small carnivore
Squirrel
Tortoise*
Corvid
Rock partridge
Rock dove
European partridge
Buzzard
Golden eagle
Eagle
2
1
7
9
8
1
2
19
195
11
5
5
0.6
0.3
2.3
2.9
2.6
0.3
0.7
6.2
63.7
3.6
1.6
1.6
12
129
4
3
2
1.7
1.7
4.5
0.6
0.0
6.7
72.5
2.2
1.7
1.1
3
1.0
1
0.6
1
0.3
1
0.6
1
0.8
1
6
2
1
23
1
0.3
2.0
0.7
0.3
7.5
0.3
1
1
0.6
0.6
1
2
1
0.8
1.7
0.8
8
4.5
9
7.6
1
0.8
1
2
0.3
0.7
306
3
3
8
1
1
2
10
4
1.69
8.47
3.39
1
8
71
2
2
2
1
0.85
6.78
60.17
1.69
1.7
1.7
0.8
4
12
2
5.5
16.4
2.7
2
50
1
1
2.7
68.5
1.4
1.4
1
1.4
14
34
2
12.7
30.9
1.8
7
34
6.4
30.9
5
1
4.5
0.9
1
1
1
1
1
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
5
1
4.5
0.9
2
1.8
0.6
178
118
73
110
Other taxa
Fish
Frog
Snake
Common agamid
Lizard
Reptile
Agama agama
1
5
14.3
71.4
1
1
100
1
50
1
1
100
100
14.3
1
2
7
50
1
1
Unidentified: grouped by size
NS
NS %
NS
NS %
NS
NS %
Large artiodactyl
Medium artiodactyl
Small artiodactyl
Cattle-size
Medium goat to medium cattle
Goat-size
Hare to small fox size
Large bird
Medium bird
Small bird
Indeterminate
5
109
54
17
56
2670
272
1
96
25
1637
4942
0.1
2.2
1.1
0.3
1.1
54.0
5.5
0.0
1.9
0.5
33.1
9
217
45
14
287
1669
238
0.3
7.4
1.5
0.5
9.8
57.0
8.1
4
50
5
18
136
731
184
0.2
2.9
0.3
1.1
8.0
42.8
10.8
34
9
404
2926
1.2
0.3
13.8
10
4
567
1709
0.6
0.2
33.2
NS
1
NS %
NS
NS %
2
23
12
11
0.1
1.4
0.7
0.7
2
28
19
1
0.2
2.3
1.6
0.1
1529
52
90.8
3.1
615
164
50.9
13.6
4
0.2
19
1.6
51
1684
3.0
360
1208
29.8
Note: Tortoise* = carapace/plastron fragments (scutes) divided by 60 and added to number of long bones.
numbers of auroch (Bos primigenius; phalanx and
humerus) were present, likely encouraged by nearby
woodland cover. The wetland undergrowth alongside
the river in the adjacent ravine is likely to have
attracted wild boar (Sus scrofa) which was present in
all phases apart from Phase C. Several large and
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small canid bones were encountered, the latter likely
representing jackal which, along with wild boar, still
lives in the area today. Finds of small numbers of
fox (Vulpes vulpes), hare (Lepus capensis) and squirrel
(Sciurus sp.) bones, record the capture of smaller
mammals, presumably for their meat and fur. A
Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
metacarpal from a brown bear (Ursus arctos), recovered from Phases F and E, may signal a collected
item, hunting success or, perhaps, the death of a hibernating animal using the cave in the hunter’s absence.
A range of bird bones were recovered from Cave 3 and
included those from large raptors, partridges, dove and
crow: the rock partridge (Alectoris chuckar) and
occasional European partridge (Perdix perdix) were
numerous and provided dietary diversity in Phases F to
D. Remains of large birds of prey were also recovered
from these earliest phases of cave occupation, and
include an eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), identified from posterior phalanx IV, mandible and carpometacarpus, and a
buzzard (Buteo buteo) identified by a tibio-tarsus. Cave
interiors are unlikely habitats for large raptors, it is,
therefore, likely that these remains represent birds
hunted in open country for their feathers and talons, as
was described for an Epipalaeolithic site in eastern
Jordan by Martin et al. (2013).
A small scatter of bones originating from tiny vertebrates, including lizards, small fish and frogs, were
deposited in the earliest phases and likely represent
the activities of owls and other small/medium predators using the cave when the seasonal hunter-gatherers
were absent.
Survival of goat and deer elements and
taphonomy in Cave 3
Caprines
Table 4 shows a diverse and roughly equable distribution of wild goat body parts appearing in all occupation phases, which suggests that whole carcasses
were carried back and butchered on site. Long bones
were always fragmented and only small relatively
robust bones, such as astragali, calcanei and phalanges,
occasionally survived intact. Scapulae were largely represented by the glenoid area and pelvii by the acetabulum. Predictably phalanges survived in largest numbers.
The proportional survival of body elements was
estimated in relation to a maximal MNI derived from
using the proximal metacarpal as standard (MNI=13)
and in view of the relatively low numbers and
Table 4. Cave 3. Caprine elements are shown as NISP and NISP %. Numbers of burnt specimens are also indicated.
Caprines
element
Horn core
Atlas
Axis
Mandible ± teeth
Maxilla ± teeth
Hyoid
Sternum
Costal cartilage
Scapula
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Metacarpal
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Os malleolare
Astragalus
Calcaneus
Metatarsal
Metapodial
First phalanx
Second phalanx
Third phalanx
Sub-total
Sesamoid
Carpals
Tarsals
Loose teeth
Teeth frags
Sub-total
Total
Burning
Phase F & E
NISP
NISP %
3
1
1
14
2
1.6
0.5
0.5
7.4
1.1
4
11
5
9
2.1
5.8
2.6
4.7
6
4
4
3.2
2.1
2.1
3
2
4
4
4
15
46
32
16
190
1.6
1.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
7.9
24.2
16.8
8.4
6
1
16
1
24
214
54
25.2%
Phase D/E
NISP
NISP %
4
3.3
17
4
3
1
4
13.9
3.3
2.5
0.8
3.3
4
4
1
5
5
2
3.3
3.3
0.8
4.1
4.1
1.6
2
1.6
2
3
7
42
8
4
122
1.6
2.5
5.7
34.4
6.6
3.3
Phase D
NISP
NISP %
Phase D/C
Phase C
NISP
NISP %
3
6.8
NISP
NISP %
9
12.2
6
13.6
4
11.8
4
5.4
1
2.3
1
1
2.9
2.9
5
2
2
1
4
6.8
2.7
2.7
1.4
5.4
2
4.5
1
2.9
1
2.9
1
1.4
1
2.3
1
2.9
1
3
28
10
4
74
1.4
4.1
37.8
13.5
5.4
2
5
15
6
2
44
4.5
11.4
34.1
13.6
4.5
1
4
8
7
5
34
2.9
11.8
23.5
20.6
14.7
3
2
1
13
4
19
141
40
5
79
24
1
2.3
1
1
4
3
8
52
8
4
2
7
41
13
1
28.4%
30.4%
15.4%
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Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Figure 3. Cave 3 (all phases). Proportional representation of caprine body parts in relation to maximal MNI derived from using
proximal metacarpal as standard. The numbers of phalanges are divided by two. Mandible and maxillae fragments are
not included.
insignificant variation, data from all periods were
pooled. Long bone fragments were divided into proximal or distal parts; phalange numbers were halved in
order to make them comparable to long bones.
Figure 3 shows the patterns of survival and indicates
that long bones and girdle elements survived moderately
well, but with poor representation of ulnae, proximal
humeri, distal radii and femora. Bone density values,
as determined by Lyman (1994) for sheep, were used
to plot bone survival against density (Fig. 4). The resulting correlation coefficient (r = 0.46) indicates that 21%
of the variance (r2 = 0.2116) is attributable to bone
density. Deliberate smashing/burning of bones by the
cave occupants seems likely to account for the deficit.
Across all periods of occupation there is evidence of
discard or deliberate placement of goat bones in and
around hearths, resulting in 15% to 31% of bones
showing burnt surfaces (Table 4). Traces of burnt
floor areas and charcoal fragments characteristic of
in situ activity areas were identified in Phases F, E,
D/E and D (Garrard and Yazbeck 2008). Direct evidence of butchery was slight but, included amongst
the 214 caprine bones from Phases F and E, two
second phalanges and a calcaneum appeared to have
been split vertically, an os malleolare showed evidence
of chopping and a phalanx 1 had faint cut marks at its
distal end. Cut marks on a calcaneum shaft from
Phase E/D (Fig. 5E) and a metatarsal from Phase D
were also noted. Vertical splitting of first and second
phalanges was occasionally encountered in Phases
E/D, D, D/C and C, presumably reflecting marrow
recovery.
Figure 4. Cave 3 (all phases). Relationship between % survival and bone density for caprines. Correlation is moderate with
Pearson’s r = 0.46 and 21% of the variance accounted for by bone density.
244
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Figure 5. Cave 3. Examples of bones from Phases F to D, with identification numbers shown in brackets. Bones A, B, D and E are
from goat. A: two unfused vertebral central epiphyses held in position by calcareous deposit. B: tibia distal epiphysis
and astragalus held in position by calcareous deposit. C: deer size phalanx 1 with drilled hole. D: calcaneum and
astragalus held in position by calcareous deposit. E: calcaneum intact with cut marks on shaft. F: squirrel
mandible with teeth.
As mentioned previously removal of calcareous
deposits was achieved to a limited extent. Amongst
finds from Phases F, E and E/D to D the ‘artificial’
fusion through brecciation provided insights into
butchery practise, in particular demonstrating that
hind limbs were often not disarticulated prior to
discard (Figs 5B and D). Occasional finds of paired
vertebral epiphyses (Fig. 5A) confirms that the same
was true for spinal columns.
Cervids
Deer remains were much less common than those of
caprines, but long bones and girdle fragments were
identified in each phase of occupation, with greatest
numbers and diversity in Phase C (Table 5). Antler
fragments from fallow deer occurred in almost all
phases, while roe deer antlers appeared only in Phase
C where two were identified by refitting six fragments.
Overall estimates of burning ranged from 11% to 35%
across periods, similar to levels found amongst caprine
remains, perhaps reflecting a generalized attitude
towards animal bone discard. Only three deer bones,
two second phalanges and an astragalus, displayed
signs of butchery. In the proximal end of a deer-sized
phalanx 1, a hole had been drilled through the shaft
suggesting that this was intended as an ornament
(Fig. 5C). This find aligns with those made at other
archaeological sites, dating from the Palaeolithic
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Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Table 5. Cave 3. Cervid elements are shown as NISP and NISP %. Numbers of burnt specimens are indicated as a percentage of
all deer species combined.
Phase F & E
Cervids
element
Phase D/E
Antler
Mandible ± teeth
Maxilla ± teeth
Scapula
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Metacarpal
Pelvis
Femur
Tibia
Os malleolare
Metatarsal
Astragalus
Calcaneus
Metapodial
Phalanx 1
Phalanx 2
Phalanx 3
Sub-total
Sesamoid
Carpals
Tarsals
Loose teeth
Teeth frags
Sub-total
Total
Burning
Combined deer sp: burning
1
1
2
1
1
2
Phase C
VOL.
49
6
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
2
9
1
1
3
9
1
7
1
1
2
1
7
2
2
1
3
6
3
4
1
0
9
5
0
9
3
32%
0
7
0
1
8
1
NO.
3
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
6
9
6
35%
0
3
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
Turning to the smaller cave, Cave 2, excavation led to
the recovery of c. 25,500 bone fragments weighing c.
90 kg, of which 5.3% were identified to species/
genus. As noted earlier, only three reliable radiocarbon
dates, one from charcoal and two from human bone,
are available for this cave (Table 1). The largest
animal bone assemblage derives from the easternmost
side of the cave, where the ceiling is too low for habitation and where material may have accumulated
without disturbance from trampling (loci 37, 40).
Unfortunately it was impossible to differentiate a
boundary between Phases D and C in this area, but
it seems likely from the lithics that most is
Geometric Kebaran.
Despite these drawbacks, a number of significant
observations can be made relating to Cave 2. For
example, comparison of the faunal make-up of Cave
2 and Cave 3 reveals notable differences that cannot
be attributed to any potential disturbance (compare
2017
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1
Cave 2 Fauna
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3
onwards, which have yielded evidence for making
ornaments and beads from bone (e.g. Bar-Yosef
1991; Goring-Morris 1989; Kuhn et al. 2001; Talbot
1983).
246
Phase D
Roe Fallow Red Roe Fallow Red Roe Fallow Red Roe Fallow Red Roe Fallow Red
0
4
2
2
4
0
30%
1
2
1
2
3
1
11
1
1
2
3
2
3
1
30
1
0
2
1
0
2
0
1
12
2
11.10%
1
4
1
2
1
13
0
1
1
4
1
4
0
4
34
8
1
14
7
31%
0
0
0
Tables 3 and 6). The faunal assemblages comprise
more or less the same species, but their proportional
distribution is strikingly different. Most notably there
are fewer caprines in Phases F to C of Cave 2 where
total NISPs vary amongst periods from 4–44%, compared with 37.3–78% amongst periods F to C in
Cave 3. In addition, smaller mammals, including
fox, hare, martens, mustelids, porcupines and squirrels, are relatively more numerous in Cave 2 than
Cave 3, with squirrel remains outnumbering those of
caprines in Phases E and F. It is notable in Cave 2
that bird bones are scarce or absent in phases with
small overall bone samples; this is also the case in
Cave 3. It is also of interest that the presence of
equid, absent from the Cave 3 assemblage, was signalled in Phase D/C, a context described above.
Another notable feature of the Cave 2 fauna is the
relatively high frequency in Phase E deposits of deer
bones, especially roe deer (39.6% total NISP), compared to goats (Table 6). These are made up almost
entirely from deer skull components i.e. mandibles,
teeth, tooth fragments (n=45), which may indicate
deliberate removal and discard of heads in Cave 2,
prior to transporting the remaining carcass/body
parts to another location for consumption. There is
Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Table 6. Cave 2. Fauna are divided by phases and expressed as Minimum Number of Elements (MNE) and percentage NISP.
Bones not identified to family/genera are also detailed.
Phase F
Cave2
Hunted/trapped taxa
Bos primigenius
Equus sp.
Ursus arctos
Cervus elaphus
Dama mesopotamica
Capreolus capreolus
Cervidae
Capra aegagrus
Caprinae
Gazella sp.
Sus scrofa
Hystrix sp.
Procavia capensis
Lepus capensis
Vulpes vulpes
Hyaena sp.
Canidae
Phase E
Phase D
NISP % NISP NISP % NISP NISP % NISP
1
4.0
1
1.0
5
2.10
2
2
1
8.0
8.0
4.0
1
4.0
1
3
40
1
2
10
1.0
3.0
39.6
1.0
2.0
9.9
2
3
31
18
8
1
62
0.84
1.26
13.03
7.56
3.36
0.42
26.05
1
6
1
4.0
24.0
4.0
1
1
1.0
1.0
4
3
1.68
1.26
3
3
3.0
3.0
13
13
5.46
5.46
Felidae
Felis sylvestris
Martes sp.
Meles meles
Mustela sp.
Sciurus
Erinaceidae sp.
Auroch
Horse
Brown bear
Red deer
Fallow deer
Roe deer
Small/large cervid
Goat
Caprine
Gazelle
Boar
Porcupine
Rock hyrax
Hare
Fox
Hyena
Large canid
Small/medium
canid
Small/medium felid
Wild cat
Marten
Badger
Mustelid
Squirrel
Hedgehog
1
1.0
5
2
2.10
0.84
Testudo graeca
Alectoris chuckar
Columba columba
Perdix perdix
Charadrius sp.
Accipter sp.
Athya ferina
Tortoise*
Rock partridge
Rock dove
European Partridge
Plover
Hawk
Pochard
2
8.0
1
4.0
Phases D/C
NISP
1
3
5
14
20
19
2
5
110
1
8
0.25
0.75
1.25
3.49
4.99
4.74
0.50
1.25
27.43
0.25
2.00
1
1.69
7
1
10
16
11.86
1.69
16.95
27.12
2
3.39
1
38
38
1
1
3
0.25
9.48
9.48
0.25
0.25
0.75
5
3
8.47
5.08
3
0.75
2
3.39
10
2
3
82
3
2.49
0.50
0.75
20.45
0.75
9
15.25
6
18
1
1.50
4.49
0.25
1
1
1.69
1.69
3
0.75
1
1.69
3
12.0
1
1.0
1
2
4.0
8.0
1
25
1.0
24.8
1
36
3
0.42
15.13
1.26
1
4.0
6
5.9
4
12
4
4
2
2
1.68
5.04
1.68
1.68
0.84
0.84
1
101
1.0
13
2
4
26
45
28.9
4.4
8.9
57.8
17
22
29
85
153
11.1
14.4
19.0
55.6
31
34
107
96
268
11.57
12.69
39.93
35.82
2
3
0.1
0.1
0.02
0.12
0.04
1.6
0.1
0.04
363
102
16
11
1692
2228
16.3
4.6
0.7
0.5
76.0
0.43
0.30
0.03
0.43
0.43
0.03
0.03
0.20
13.61
12.36
1.87
1.84
129.55
2
16
1
35
2
1
13
9
1
13
13
1
1
6
414
376
57
56
3941
4901
4
43
11
10
7
608
371
109
33
11216
12430
0.03
0.32
0.08
0.08
0.05
4.59
2.80
0.82
0.25
84.76
25
238
Phase C
% NISP NISP % NISP
401
59
Other taxa
Agama agama
Fish
Frog/toad
Common agamid
Lizard
4
6
6
5
21
19.0
28.6
28.6
23.8
8
6
40.00
30.00
6
20
30.00
1
1
0.10
0.10
3
0.31
12
63
68
7
5
829
989
1.23
6.47
6.99
0.72
0.51
85.20
Unidentified: grouped by size
Medium carnivore
Small carnivore
Large carnivore
Large artiodactyl
Medium artiodactyl
Small artiodactyl
Cattle-size
Medium goat to medium cattle
Goat-size
Hare-size
Medium/large bird
Small bird
Indeterminate
7
6
2
0.5
0.4
0.1
236
23
7
2
1041
1324
17.2
1.7
0.5
0.1
75.1
Note: Tortoise* = carapace/plastron fragments (scutes) divided by 60 and added to number of long bones.
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Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
no indication of deer head removal as a singular
activity in any other period from either cave. It is
unfortunate that the age of the earliest occupation
Phases F and E of Cave 2 is uncertain. The sediment
from these two areas, a red-orange deposit in Phase
F and grey deposit in Phase E, are not found in
Cave 3 and both may predate the earliest Cave 3 levels.
Differential activities at the two caves
The differential distribution of goat, deer and small
prey bones between the two caves during Phases D
and C (cf. Tables 3 and 6) is significant and cannot
be explained by evoking interphase mixing. Various
alternative explanations are more likely. The distance
between the two cave entrances is only c. 18 metres
over gently rising ground, so it seems very possible
that both caves could have been occupied by one
group of people, who divided activities between the
two caves, thereby giving rise to the inter-cave variation in faunal profile. It is conceivable that the preparation and consumption of goat meat/marrow was
undertaken most frequently in Cave 3, while skinning/fur preparation of smaller mammals occurred
most frequently in Cave 2. It should be noted that
Cave 3 is considerably larger and has a much higher
ceiling than Cave 2, and it is possible that the latter
was used less for habitation.
Following on from the possibility that the same
group of people occupied both caves for certain
periods, particularly during Phases D, D/C and C,
the faunal data from these levels has been combined
in Table 7 (Phases F and E are omitted owing to uncertainty in date match between the caves). It is immediately striking that this combination shows goat
numbers staying relatively steady at NISP 35% to
40% across all three phases, rather than showing the
marked high levels (NISP 67–72%) seen in Phases D
and D/C of Cave 3. The combined data also show a
change in the numbers of deer, with the relative proportions of fallow deer diminished in Phase D/C but
a significant increase of roe deer in Phase C. It is
also striking that the relative numbers of fox, hare
Table 7. Caves 3 and 2. Data from Phases D, D/C and C combined and expressed as Minimum Number of Elements (NISP) and
percentage NISP. Bones not identified to family/genera are also detailed.
Caves 2 & 3 combined
Phase D
Taxa
Bos primigenius
Equus sp.
Ursus arctos
Cervus elaphus
Dama mesopotamica
Capreolus capreolus
Cervidae
Capra aegagrus
Caprinae
Gazella sp.
Sus scrofa
Hystrix sp.
Procavia capensis
Lepus lepus
Vulpes vulpes
Hyaena sp.
Canidae
Auroch
Horse
Brown bear
Red deer
Fallow deer
Roe deer
Small/large cervid
Goat
Caprine
Gazelle
Boar
Porcupine
Rock hyrax
Hare
Fox
Hyena
Large canid
Small/medium canid
Small/medium felid
Wild cat
Small/medium carnivore
Marten
Badger
Mustelid
Squirrel
Hedgehog
Tortoise*
Rock partridge
Rock dove
European partridge
Plover
Hawk
Felidae
Felis sylvestris
Martes sp.
Meles meles
Mustela sp.
Sciurus
Erinaceidae sp.
Testudo graeca
Alectoris chuckar
Columba columba
Perdix perdix
Charadrius sp.
Accipter sp.
Phase D/C
NISP%
NISP
NISP%
NISP
NISP%
5
1.40
0.59
0.56
1.40
11.52
6.18
2.53
2.53
37.36
14
41
3
17
50
8.24
24.12
1.76
10.00
29.41
6
3
1.69
0.84
0.21
0.63
1.05
3.80
6.75
4.43
0.42
1.48
33.76
0.21
1.90
1
2
5
41
22
9
9
133
1
3
5
18
32
21
2
7
160
1
9
2
1.18
15
15
4.21
4.21
5.88
2.35
0.28
6
2
1
1.69
0.56
0.28
0.21
8.23
8.02
0.21
0.21
0.63
0.63
10
4
1
1
39
38
1
1
3
3
1
4
0.59
2.35
1
0.59
10
2
3
82
3
7
18
1
2.11
0.42
0.63
17.30
0.63
1.48
3.80
0.21
1
1
14
0.59
0.59
8.24
2
3
1.18
1.76
3
474
0.63
1
170
0.59
1
38
3
5
21
4
5
2
2
356
0.28
10.67
0.84
1.40
5.90
1.12
1.40
0.56
0.56
Note: Tortoise* = carapace/plastron fragments (scutes) divided by 60 and added to number of long bones.
248
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Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
and squirrel, and other small prey, are greater than
those found for Cave 3 alone.
While this ‘two cave’ occupation scenario is appealing and logical, the possibility that separate groups of
people used these caves at various times of year in
order to exploit seasonal variation in food resources,
cannot be excluded. It is also possible that the structural differences between the two caves, both in size
and degree of exposure, may have resulted in occupation of one or the other at different times of the
year. There may also have been a time lapse between
the occupation of the two caves, as the single
Geometric Kebaran date from Phase D at each
locality, places the Geometric Kebaran occupation at
Cave 2 later than that for Cave 3 (Table 2).
1/Σ(ρi)2 are 2.04, 2.20 and 1.62. These higher indices
reflect an increased diversity of prey types in the
pooled data, which points towards more equal proportions of game types, especially during Phases D
and D/C. The index for Phase C is relatively low,
reflecting a period when significant numbers of roe
and fallow deer were combined with those of goat
(Table 7). These shifts in goat and roe deer
numbers in Phase C may be associated with diminishing numbers of goat, although not necessarily
from over-hunting, since other factors such as alterations in climatic conditions, resulting in environmental change, would prompt the revision of
subsistence strategies. These ideas are explored in a
later section.
Patterns of prey procurement
Age profiles and size of hunted caprines
The reciprocal of Simpson’s index, 1/Σ(ρi)2 (Grayson
1984) can be used to generate indices of prey diversity
and explore relative proportionality amongst prey
types. It was used here to examine all occupation
phases in both caves and consider the impact on prey
profile when Phases D, D/C and C from Cave 3 and
Cave 2 are combined. In all cases, prey were divided
into four categories: large mammals, trapped fastmoving smaller mammals, trapped birds and slow
moving prey. NISP was the unit of measure. (NB
equal proportionality of prey species is demonstrated
when 1/Σ(ρi)2 = 4).
Diversity indices for Cave 3 are shown in Table 8
(Upper) and show a narrow range from 1/Σ(ρi)2 =
1.06 to 1.42, which reflects the magnitude of the bias
towards large ungulates (>80% of prey) across all
occupation phases and shows no notable trends of
increasing diversity across periods. It is notable that
for all phases apart from Phase C, the low diversity
indices are due to the dominant presence of goat. In
Phase C deer, together with goat, comprise the dominant large prey. Changes in relative abundance over
time of the major prey from Cave 3 are shown in
Fig. 7 and demonstrate the apparent rapid rise of roe
deer and fast small mammals during Phase C, presumably in response to a marked decline in caprine
numbers.
Considering the data from Cave 2 (Table 8,
middle) it is notable that the indices for the very
early Phases F and E are high, due in part, to the
distinctive high levels of small prey. The more
recent Phases D, D/C and C phases also show diversity indices higher than the potentially contemporary
phases in Cave 3.
When Caves 3 and 2, Phases D, D/C and C data,
are combined (Table 8; Lower), the resultant indices
Intensive hunting of a major prey type is often
associated with increased numbers of younger
animals killed (Stiner et al. 1999; Stiner and Munro
2002; Stutz et al. 2009) and with this in mind we
have attempted to explore age profiles of caprines
from Cave 3 and Cave 2. Unfortunately numbers
of elements where fusion status could be assessed
were low, however, if all phases of both caves are
combined (Table 9) the data show that over the
entire time span very few animals less than 18
months old (7.4%) were killed. Of those between
18 and 30 months of age, 26.3% died pre-fusion,
while amongst those older than 30 months, 54.5%
died pre-fusion.
The possibility that goat kill patterns intensified
overtime was examined by considering metapodial
fusion amongst animals killed in the 18 to 30
month age group from Cave 3. Here metapodia
recovered from Phases F to D were made up of 13
shafts with distal fused ends, 8 distal epiphyses
(equivalent to 4 complete unfused shaft ends) and
2 other unfused shafts (each of which could have
been attached to two of the 8 epiphyses). In contrast,
metapodia from Phases D/C to C comprised 2 fused
shafts, 1 unfused shaft and 5 epiphyses (equivalent to
3 distal unfused shaft ends — of which two shafts are
absent). Both of these phase groupings provide data
on the hunting of young and older goats, but comparison is difficult given the small numbers of metapodia from Phase D/C to C. The relative frequency
of epiphyses from these most recent phases, in comparison to those from phases F to D, could suggest
intensification of goat kill, however the numbers
are unreliable.
Despite a very limited data pool due to the intense
fragmentation of bone, the relative sizes of caprine
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49
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3
249
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NO.
Cave 3
3
Species
Large mammals
Fast small mammals
Trapped birds
Gathered prey*
Totals
Phases F & E
NISP
p1
254
21
28
2
305
0.8328
0.0689
0.0918
0.0066
0.69356
0.00474
0.00843
0.00004
0.70677
Diversity index 1.42
Cave 2
Species
Large mammals
Fast small mammals
Trapped birds
Gathered prey*
Totals
Phases E/D
p21
NISP
p1
160
8
9
1
178
0.8989
0.0449
0.0506
0.0056
p1
8
16
0
1
25
0.3200
0.6400
0.0000
0.0400
NISP
p1
59
35
1
6
101
0.5842
0.3465
0.0099
0.0594
NISP
p1
Large mammals
Fast small mammals
Trapped birds
Gathered prey*
Totals
232
86
34
5
357
0.6499
0.2409
0.0952
0.0140
98
9
10
1
118
0.8305
0.0763
0.0847
0.0085
0.68974
0.00582
0.00718
0.00007
0.70282
Diversity index 1.42
NISP
p1
134
77
24
4
239
0.5607
0.3222
0.1004
0.0167
0.42232
0.05803
0.00907
0.00020
0.48962
Diversity index 2.04
NISP
p1
259
186
23
7
475
0.5453
0.3916
0.0484
0.0147
NISP
p1
71
1
0
1
73
0.9726
0.0137
0.0000
0.0137
Phase C
p21
NISP
p1
128
35
4
2
169
0.7574
0.2071
0.0237
0.0118
0.29731
0.15333
0.00234
0.00022
0.45321
Diversity index 2.20
Note: Tortoise* = carapace/plastron fragments (scutes) divided by 60 and added to number of long bones.
Phase C
p21
0.94596
0.00019
0.00000
0.00019
0.94633
Diversity index 1.06
NISP
p1
91
16
2
1
110
0.8273
0.1455
0.0182
0.0091
p21
0.57365
0.04289
0.00056
0.00014
0.61724
Diversity index 1.62
NISP
p1
188
185
23
6
402
0.4677
0.4602
0.0572
0.0149
p21
0.68438
0.02116
0.00033
0.00008
0.70595
Diversity index 1.42
Phases D/C
p21
0.31435
0.10380
0.01008
0.00028
0.42851
Diversity index 2.33
Phases D/C
p21
Phases D/C
p21
Phase D
p21
0.34124
0.12009
0.00010
0.00353
0.46495
Diversity index 2.15
Phase D
Species
p1
Phase E
p21
0.10240
0.40960
0
0.00160
0.51360
Diversity index 1.95
Cave 3 & 2
NISP
0.80798
0.00202
0.00256
0.00003
0.81259
Diversity index 1.23
Phase F
NISP
Phase D
p21
Phase C
p21
0.21871
0.21178
0.00327
0.00022
0.43399
Diversity index 2.30
NISP
p1
37
19
2
1
59
0.6271
0.3220
0.0339
0.0169
p21
0.39328
0.10371
0.00115
0.00029
0.49842
Diversity index 2.01
Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
250
Table 8. Diversity indices for Cave 3, Cave 2 and Caves 3 and 2 combined estimated using Simpson’s reciprocal: 1/Σ(ρi)2 (maximum possible = 4). Phases E and F are omitted from the
Cave 3/2 data as they appear to differ in age between caves. Hunted large mammals = auroch, equid, cervid, caprine, boar; trapped small mammals = canids, felids, mustelids,
squirrel, hare, fox; trapped birds = partridge, buzzard, eagle, dove, corvid; gathered prey = tortoise.
Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Table 9. Caves 3 and 2 combined. Caprine fusion data with
numbers adjusted to reflect standard numerical
weighting of elements. Fusion data was taken from
Silver 1969 and with reference to Noddle 1974 and
Zeder 2001.
Caves 2 and 3
Caprines
Scapula
Humerus distal
6–12 months
1st Phalanx
prox
2nd Phalanx
prox
12–18 months
tibia distal
Metapodia
distal
18–30 months
Calcaneus
Prox
Radius dist
Ulna prox
Femur prox
30–48 months
%
Fused
%
Unfused
100
0
7
1
9
92.6
7.4
28
1
10
1
73.7
26.3
1
0
3
5
2
1
2
6
45.5
54.5
Total
Fused
Unfused
7
5
12
56
7
5
12
53.5
0
0
0
2.5
38.5
34
4.5
94.5
8
30
87.5
7
21
38
2
3
1
5
11
astragali from Phases F–D at Cave 3 (n=4) were compared to those recovered from Kebaran levels at Ksar
Akil in central Lebanon (Kersten 1987; 1989). This
shows they fall into the same general size category
and cluster in two groups; presumably the larger representing males and the smaller females (Fig. 6).
Trends in prey profiles over the broader region
The Moghr el-Ahwal caves were inhabited by huntergatherers across several millennia: almost certainly not
continuously, but frequently enough to leave behind
Figure 6. Bivariate plot comparing goat astragalus size from
Moghr el-Ahwal Cave 3 (combined Phases F, E and
D: n = 4) and Kebaran levels at Ksar Akil (Kersten
1987; 1989). Bd = greatest distal breadth: GLI =
greatest lateral length.
substantial evidence of their activities. It is clear
from the kill data shown in Tables 3 and 6 that
hunting/trapping strategies, as at many other locations
of similar date, varied over time. How do these
changes equate to those seen at sites in the general
region and more distantly, are they consistent with
widespread shifts in human driven strategies and/or
climatic variation? In the following section these questions are explored by comparing the Moghr el-Ahwal
cave hunting/trapping profiles with those seen at five
other central and north Levantine sites and at three
located to the south in northern Israel, all of which
fall within the appropriate date range and show
varied environmental conditions.
Hunting patterns are presented as relative proportions of major prey groups (Fig. 7). Birds (B) are
omitted from the main figure as identification and
reporting is inconsistent, but numbers (some identified; others grouped as unidentified) are given in the
sub-text. Tortoise (T) numbers are also confined to
the sub-text since it is often unclear how NISP
values were derived. The Moghr el-Ahwal prey data
for each phase are shown for Cave 3 alone and in
the case of Phases D, D/C and C they are also
shown for the two caves combined.
Beginning with a period prior to the Epipalaeolithic
in the moist and mountainous northern Levant, faunal
remains from the site of Üçağizli Cave (Kuhn et al.
2009) are considered. This cave site lies on the steep,
rocky coastline of the Hatay region of south-central
Turkey, just a few kilometres south of the Orontes
river delta (Fig. 1). When occupied during the initial
Upper Palaeolithic and Ahmarian (at a period of
lower sea level) the cave would have been a little
further from the shore, but within easier reach of the
resources of the Orontes delta (Mentzer 2011). At
Üçağizli, wild goat and deer were equally dominant
during the initial Upper Palaeolithic but with a
notable presence of wild boar (in large ungulate category on Fig. 7). This faunal profile is commensurate
with crags and forests on hill slopes together with
wooded, well-watered, coastal/delta environments.
By the Ahmarian the prey profile had shifted such
that fallow deer were the principal hunted target.
Kuhn et al. (2009) have related this change in
hunting pattern to oscillating temperature variations
during the OIS 3 period, changes that would have
affected moisture, vegetation and woodland at all
elevations.
Turning to the Kebaran, the two sites of Jiita II and
Ksar Akil lie 45 km south of Moghr el-Ahwal in
central Lebanon (Figs 1, 2). Jiita II is a large rock
shelter currently located in a craggy, steep-sided,
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Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Figure 7. Relative proportions (% NISP) of faunal groups present at Moghr el-Ahwal Cave 3 and 3/2 combined (left) compared
with other sites in central and northern Levant (centre), and the southern Levant (right) (see text for details and
references). Large ungulates = auroch, equid and wild boar; slow/medium game = hystrix, badger, beaver,
hedgehog; fast/medium game = fox, hare, canids, felids, martens, squirrel. B = all birds; B* = only birds identified to
species reported; T = tortoise: all plastron, carapace and long bone/girdle fragments; T =tortoise present but not
counted.
wooded valley, c. 5 km inland from the narrow coastal
plain. Here, goats dominated the hunted assemblage,
with fallow deer accounting for c. 20% of the remainder (Clutton-Brock pers. comm.). This pattern is
similar to that found in Phases F–E/D and D–D/C
of Moghr el-Ahwal Cave 3 (radiocarbon dated to
Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran), although even in
these early phases fast small game formed a significant
component. A rather different scenario is seen at the
Kebaran site of Ksar Akil (Kersten 1989; 1991),
which is also situated in a steep-sided valley, but
close to its outlet on to the coastal plain. Here, the
faunal distribution is similar to that seen in the
Ahmarian levels at Üçağizli, with fallow and some
roe deer accounting for the majority of prey. Both
sites are significantly closer to the resources of the
coastal plain and at a slightly greater distance from
the craggy environments favoured by wild goat than
Jiita II and Moghr el-Ahwal.
The prey profiles at Moghr el-Ahwal Cave 2 during
Phase C (Natufian) demonstrate the continued importance of goat but emphasise the increasing significance
of small prey. This is also the case when data from
Caves 3 and 2 are combined for Phases D–D/C and
Phase C. A trend away from goats towards deer,
largely roe deer, seems to have taken place by Phase
252
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C and the presence of small/medium fast prey,
mostly hare, squirrel and small carnivores, is maintained. This latter trend is also apparent at the wellwatered site of Natufian Saaidé II, which lies on the
central-western flanks of the Bekaa Valley of
Lebanon at c. 1050 m altitude, overlooking land dividing the headwaters of the Orontes and Litani rivers
(Figs 1, 2); here, fast small prey are as abundant as
goats (Churcher 1994).
For comparison, the faunal assemblage from the
late Epipalaeolithic (cf. Natufian) levels of Direkli
Cave, which lies to the north of the Levantine
Corridor at 850 m in the Anti-Taurus mountains of
Turkey (Figs 1, 7), is included. Here, high peaks
around the cave were ideal for hunting wild goat,
which makes up the majority of prey recovered,
while the forests and valleys below the cave yielded
smaller numbers of deer and small/medium fast
game (Arbuckle and Erek 2010).
Although not included in Fig. 7, a preliminary
report on the fauna from Dederiyeh Cave, which is
located on a craggy hillside overlooking the broad
and fertile Afrin valley of north-west Syria, is of
some interest (Fig. 1). Excavation of Mousterian and
Natufian levels revealed faunal profiles that were
period specific. During the Mousterian goats made
Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
up c. 63% of hunted animals, cervids c. 23% while
small fast game were very infrequent. In contrast, by
the Natufian goats were largely replaced by red deer,
aurochs and wild boar, with significant small game
including foxes, wild cats, hares, hedgehogs and
many tortoises (Gourichon 2008; Griggo 2004).
It is also of interest to compare the Lebanese
localities with contemporary sites located in the
warmer, drier, hill country of Galilee and Mount
Carmel in the southern Levant (northern Israel);
where geographic and climatic conditions favoured
gazelle rather than goat as the major hunted species.
They include Hayonim Cave, located in a southfacing cliff overlooking the Wadi Meged which cuts
through the lower Galilee hills about 12 km east of
the present Mediterranean shoreline (Stiner 2005),
and Meged rockshelter which is located about 1 km
to the north-east (Kuhn et al. 2004). The third site
examined is el Wad Cave and Terrace which is
located at the western foot of Mount Carmel, 40 km
to the south-west of Hayonim, adjacent to the
coastal plain (Bar-Oz et al. 2004; Munro 2004)
(Fig. 1).
In the Kebaran period at Hayonim Cave and Meged
rockshelter, the overall hunting strategy was focussed
on the most numerous prey type, which in this case
was gazelle, supplemented with deer, small numbers
of large ungulates and small fast prey. However, the
Natufian period saw major changes in subsistence strategy. At Hayonim Cave, gazelle were reduced to 40–45%
of total hunted prey, while small fast prey (especially
hare), tortoise and birds increased dramatically (Stiner
2005). A similar strategy was represented in the faunal
spectrum from the Early Natufian at el Wad Cave
(Munro 2004). However, this contrasts with the assemblage from the Late Natufian at the adjacent el Wad
Terrace (Bar-Oz et al. 2004) where gazelle continued
to be the dominant prey (>80%).
In summary, it appears that factors relating to
location, habitat and climate played a very significant
role in the selection of prey through the Early and
Middle Epipalaeolithic. However, during the Late
Epipalaeolithic it has been argued that cultural developments relating to longer-term residence at certain
localities and possibly increased population levels,
may have led to greater use of smaller, faster game,
as well as other changes in the faunal spectrum
(Stiner et al. 2000; Stutz et al. 2009; Tchernov 1993;
Zeder 2012). The combined data from Moghr elAhwal Caves 2 and 3 shown in Fig. 7 might indicate
such an increase, however, caution is required given
the relatively low sample sizes and the nature of the
mountain forest environment of northern Lebanon,
which may have been unsuited to these demographic
trends.
Palaeoclimate and environment
The overall radiocarbon dated sequence at the Moghr
el-Ahwal caves extends from the Early Epipalaeolithic
through to the Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (c. 20.6–
9.5 ka cal BP), although the main occupational phase
appears to relate to the Geometric Kebaran which is
dated from 17.4–14.7 ka BP within the southern
Levant (Garrard and Byrd 2013: 350–72). Earlier occupation levels, as yet undated, were identified in both
caves and may extend back prior to the Last Glacial
Maximum or substantially earlier. Until recently, very
little investigation of palaeoclimate change had been
undertaken for these periods in Lebanon, but several
recent papers have been published.
The most significant in relation to the late
Pleistocene Epipalaeolithic time frame has come
from a 36 m core drilled in the Yammouneh basin
which is located at 1360 m on the inland east-facing
slopes of Mount Lebanon, about 22 km south-east
of Moghr el-Ahwal (Fig. 2) (Develle et al. 2010;
Gasse et al. 2011). Proxy data deriving from the sedimentation record, pollen samples and from the δ18O
analysis of carbonates from ostracods, has demonstrated harsh conditions at the Last Glacial
Maximum, perhaps extending as late as 16 ka BP.
The very low karstic groundwater circulation from c.
21–16 ka BP has been interpreted as relating to
water storage in glacial ice above 2000 m on Mount
Lebanon. Evidence for possible glacial moraines has
been found in the Upper Qadisha Valley, as well as
elsewhere in the mountain range (Moulin et al.
2011). After 16 ka BP there appears to have been a
rapid re-establishment of humid conditions in the
Yammouneh Basin with abrupt re-colonization of
oak woodland from around 13 ka BP.
The data from the later sequence at Yammouneh is
backed up by evidence from a pollen core from the
Aammiq wetland, which is located 55 km to the
south in the Bekaa Valley, where the re-establishment
of cedar and oak forest on the adjacent mountains is
documented from a period prior to 12.2 ka BP
(Hajar et al. 2008). Evidence for the spread of
Chenopodiaceae steppe is demonstrated in the
Aammiq core around the period of the Younger
Dryas, but during the early Holocene there was once
again a major expansion of oak forest. The δ18O and
δ13C isotope analysis of a stalagmite from Jeita Cave
(Jiita III) just north of Beirut has also found evidence
for an arid phase in the Younger Dryas and increased
humidity from c. 11.2 ka BP (Verheyden et al. 2008).
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Cave 2
Micro-mammal sp.
NO.
3
Phase F: total 149
Apodemus mystanicus
Microtus guentheri
Mesocricetus auratus
Sciurus anomalus
THI
Cumulative Index
Phase D: total 371
Apodemus mystanicus
Apodemus sylvaticus
Microtus guentheri
Crocidura sp.
Mus musculus
Mesocricetus auratus
Erinaceus concolor
Sciurus anomalus
THI
Cumulative Index
Phase D/C: total 380
Apodemus mystanicus
Apodemus flavicollis
Apodemus sylvaticus
Microtus guentheri
Crocidura sp.
Mus musculus
Cricetus migratorius
Mesocricetus auratus
Erinaceus concolor
Sciurus anomalus
THI
Cumulative Index
Waterside
habitats
Broad-toothed fieldmouse
Vole
Golden hamster
Squirrel
0.4
Note: Med. Oak = Mediterranean oak.
Med’ oak
parkland
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
Forest
0.4
0.10
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.6
0.9
0.23
0.3
0.2
0.2
1.2
0.15
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.25
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.75
0.08
1.3
0.13
0.2
0.6
1.3
0.16
0.3
0.5
0.2
Steppe
Rocky
hillsides
Human
habitation
0.4
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.65
0.16
0.25
0.06
0.45
0.11
0.00
0.1
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.7
0.18
0
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.8
0.23
0.4
0.4
0.05
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.25
0.1
0.25
0.2
1.25
0.16
0.45
0.06
0.65
0.08
0.3
0.3
0.04
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.6
1.8
0.18
Dry
scrub
0.2
0.25
0.65
0.08
Broad-toothed fieldmouse
Yellow-necked mouse
Woodmouse
Vole
Shrew
Mouse
Hamster
Golden hamster
Hedgehog
Squirrel
Deciduous
woodland
0.25
0.25
0.06
Broad-toothed fieldmouse
Woodmouse
Vole
Shrew
Mouse
Golden hamster
Hedgehog
Squirrel
Open
meadow
0.3
1.8
0.18
0.4
1
0.10
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.25
0.2
0.2
0.25
0.1
0.2
0.25
1.45
0.15
0.65
0.07
0.85
0.09
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.04
Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
254
Table 10. Estimation of taxonomic habitat indices (THI: Andrews 1990) using microfauna from Cave 2 phases F to D/C. The cumulative indices indicate the relative availability of various
habitats.
Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
Figure 8. Plot showing cumulative indices of various habitats occupied by microfauna (after Andrews 1990) estimated for
Moghr el-Ahwal Cave 2 Phases F, D and D/C. Steppe and wetland habitats were omitted as they show little or no
variation across these periods.
Further afield, a sediment and pollen core from the
Ghab Valley in north-west Syria, 150 km to the
north of Yammouneh, documents the expansion of
deciduous oak forest from around 14.5 ka BP
(Yasuda et al. 2000). It is argued that there is evidence
for the anthropogenic clearance of woodland from
about 10 ka BP in this area, contemporary with the
mid-Pre Pottery Neolithic B.
Faunal remains from the Moghr el-Ahwal caves are
valuable in providing evidence of environmental
change on the more humid coastal side of Mount
Lebanon through the Late Pleistocene. The presence
of a significant number of deer, particularly fallow
and roe, from the earliest dated levels at Cave 3
onwards (from 20.6–20.0 ka BP) testify to the survival
of woodland refugia, at least at low elevations, on the
mountain from that time: this is reinforced by the
faunal record from Kebaran levels at Ksar Akil and
Jiita II (Kersten 1987; 1989; Clutton Brock pers.
comm.). The overall macro-faunal record from the
Moghr el-Ahwal caves demonstrates hunting and trapping from a mosaic of environments: with a plentiful
supply of wild goat coming from the craggy valley
sides, deer, fox, mustelids and squirrels from local
woodland, as well as the presence of wild boar and
wild cat (Felis chaus) alongside plovers pointing to
dense thickets alongside the ravine.
The microfauna from the caves provide a potentially
more sensitive indicator of climatic, as well as possibly
anthropogenic changes to the landscape. During the
excavations of Cave 2, large-scale wet sieving (2 mm
mesh) was undertaken, leading to the recovery of
more than 1,500 identifiable microfaunal specimens.
The mammalian bones identified to species are
shown in Table 10. Mole rats, Spalax leucodon, were
not included because they burrow to considerable
depths, irrespective of occupation levels. Many of the
smallest mammals are likely to have died in the cave
either by chance, or were carried in by non-human predators such as small carnivores or owls.
Evidence of environmental change across the phases
of human occupation was looked for by estimating
taxonomic habitat indices (THI) for the microfauna
as described by Andrews (1990). This involved assessing the likely habitat preferences of each species
based on established analogues (Harrison and Bates
1991; Nowak 1991) and then determining the relative
proportions of species from each habitat for each
phase of the site. Only the assemblages from Phases
F (n=149), D (n=371) and D/C (n=280) at Cave 2
contained sufficient numbers of small mammals for
analysis (Table 10).
Cumulative indices (which derive from the taxonomic habitat indices divided by the micro-mammal
frequency) for these periods are shown in Fig. 8 and
indicate an increase in forest and woodland associated
with declines in meadow and oak parkland. The latter
were most widespread during Phase F, a period when
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Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
environments in the Near East are likely to have been
cold and dry, and it seems likely that the increased
woodland and forest indicates climate amelioration
with wetter, warmer conditions contemporaneous
with Phases D and D/C (the Geometric Kebaran
and early Natufian). This again fits with the data
from the Yammouneh basin pointing to more humid
conditions after c. 16 ka BP.
Conclusions
Our knowledge of the adaptations of Epipalaeolithic
and early Neolithic communities in the coastal and
mountain environments of the central and northern
Levant is extremely limited relative to other habitats
within the wider region. The Qadisha Valley
Prehistory Project was initiated in 2003 to partly
address this issue in one of the most mesic environments along the eastern Mediterranean seaboard.
The excavations undertaken at the Moghr el-Ahwal
caves have revealed an invaluable sequence extending
from the period following the last glacial maximum
through until the early Holocene, although with significant gaps. In both caves, the Geometric Kebaran
was the period of most prolific occupation with dates
from 16.6–14.6 ka cal BP (Table 1). However, there
was evidence for at least small-scale occupation from
the earlier Kebaran period, stretching back to 20.6–
20.0 ka BP, and also clear activities from the
Natufian and in the case of Cave 2 from the PrePottery Neolithic B, extending forward to 9.8–9.5 ka
BP. Systematic survey across the present olive terraces
outside the caves identified lithic scatters which may be
eroding from former outdoor activity and habitation
areas. Thus far, this has not been investigated
through excavation.
Detailed examination of the Cave 3 bone assemblages found variations in animal procurement strategies throughout the occupational sequence. Hunting
of wild goat was the prime activity during the earlier
phases (F–D) along with a range of other prey including various deer species, wild boar, hare, fox and birds.
This diverse spectrum of prey demonstrates that
hunting and trapping took place in all the accessible
surrounding ecosystems including river-side marshland thickets, crags, deciduous woodland and forest,
and open grassland and scrub in the higher mountains.
There was a slight rise in deer numbers through the
earliest phases, but this rose dramatically in the
Natufian (Phase C) during which roe deer was
equally common to goat. If this is considered alongside the albeit weak observation that during Cave 3
Phases D/C to C goat hunting was intensified with
the slaughter of younger animals, the combined data
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could indicate that the availability of goat gradually
decreased during these phases while deer, especially
roe deer, were increasing. It could also relate to
increasing humidity and forest expansion after c. 16
ka BP and potentially during the Bølling and
Allerød interstadials coinciding with the Early
Natufian.
Turning to Cave 2, it is striking that caprines were
notably fewer in those phases potentially contemporary with occupation in Cave 3, while deer and
smaller mammals, including fox and hare were more
abundant. It is also clear that when data from the
Geometric Kebaran and Natufian phases (D–C)
from both localities are combined, goat numbers are
much more even across these periods. If the caves
were simultaneously occupied by the same group of
people, it is possible that carcass preparation and
butchery of different prey types varied between the
two caves. The caves are certainly very different in
size and scale and may have served different functions.
Although the dates of the earlier Phases F–E at Cave 2
are uncertain, it was noted that skull fragments of deer
were much commoner than found at any other levels in
either of the two caves. This suggests that the removal
and discard of heads was undertaken in Cave 2 before
transporting remaining body parts elsewhere.
Evidence of differential ‘activity areas’ in cave occupations are well attested ethnographically (Galanidou
2000) and have been reconstructed archaeologically
at a number of hunter-gatherer sites using both
animal carcass preparation, and lithic manufacture
and use. For example, Edwards and Martin (2007)
noted that different areas of the large Late Natufian
and PPNA Iraq ed Dhubb cave were used to process
ungulate carcasses relative to hares and smaller carnivores; this may relate to pelt preparation. Similarly,
Nadel (1995; 2001) has noted differential activity
areas for flint knapping at Early Epipalaeolithic
Ohalo II (23 ka). An alternative possibility for the
Moghr el-Ahwal caves is that they may have been independently occupied at different times of the year,
perhaps selected on the basis of likely weather, wind
strength, rain and snow. It is also possible that occupation occurred at different time periods in the
Geometric Kebaran and Natufian without much
overlap.
The patterns of change in the proportions of prey
species hunted and trapped by the Epipalaeolithic
communities through time, fits well with the palaeoenvironmental changes predicted from a limited study of
the microfauna from the caves. Both indicate a gradual
climatic change favouring increasing woodland and
forest, with a reduction in oak parkland and
Edwards et al. Hunting and trapping strategies in the coastal mountains of northern Lebanon during the Epipalaeolithic
meadowland, most readily attributable to increased
rainfall. Goats may have been driven higher into the
mountains while the preferred habitats for roe deer,
and consequently their availability, would have
increased. It is possible that these environmental
changes may also have impacted on the auroch,
which favoured cool open grasslands and nearby
woodland, however the very low numbers mean it is
difficult to be certain. As mentioned above this fits
well with the broader palaeoenvironmental evidence
for increased humidity and an expansion of woodland/forest in the terminal Pleistocene.
The dramatic decline of traditionally favoured prey
species and the broadening resource base of the central
southern Levant in the Late Epipaleolithic have been
widely ascribed to demographic pressure (Stiner
et al. 2000). This envisages that increasing human
population size led to depletion of large game and
exploitation of smaller game (Stutz et al. 2009). The
data presented here show little indication of a significant population increase in the Phase C occupation
(Natufian) at the Moghr el-Ahwal Caves, nor is there
evidence from site surveys elsewhere in the coastal
mountains of northern Lebanon to support this view.
There is perhaps a slight suggestion from fusion
studies that intensive exploitation of goats may have
been initiated, but there is no strong evidence that
the decrease in goat numbers was due to population
expansion. Similarly, there is little indication of
increased sedentism or longer-term residence in the
later periods at Moghr el-Ahwal, as has been attributed to changes in animal exploitation patterns in
other areas (Tchernov 1993; Zeder 2012). Rather, the
body of environmental and faunal data presented in
this study supports the idea that changes in prey proportions, in particular the increase in deer and
decline in goats, was largely associated with changing
climatic/palaeoenvironmental conditions in this
region.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank colleagues at the
Institute of Archaeology at University College
London who have contributed thoughts and suggestions regarding the work described above. In addition
the Directors of the Field Project (AG, CY) are very
grateful to the Directorate of Antiquities in Lebanon
for permission to undertake the excavations and to
members of the excavation team and the local community for all their support. We also owe special thanks to
our funding bodies: the British Academy (SG-38007,
LRG-39884, LRG-42430), the Council for British
Research in the Levant, the Leakey Foundation, the
Seven Pillars of Wisdom Trust, the Society of
Antiquaries, and the University of London Central
Research Fund. We would also like to thank the staff
of the Natural History Museum at Tring UK for
access to their comparative collections, and Stuart
Laidlaw for help with the illustrations.
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