Williams and Wagner: The Leitmotif from Valhalla to a Galaxy Far, Far Away Conor Power 15705111 Dissertation submitted to Maynooth University in fulfilment for MU318 Minor Dissertation / MU 368 Major Dissertation Department of Music Maynooth University 2018 Head of Department: Prof. Christopher Morris Supervisor: Prof. Christopher Morris ii Abstract A leitmotif is a representative compositional tool which aids in storytelling. This compositional device was adopted by Richard Wagner in The Ring which premiered in 1876. A century later the leitmotif is used by John Williams in his score for the first film in the Star Wars saga – A New Hope. Due to the scores extreme popularity, Williams would continue his musical relationship with the fantastical universe for the following thirty years. This dissertation examines the use of the leitmotif by Williams with reference to Wagner. Motifs are representative of character, place and emotion. Parallels of certain aspects of the mythic stories which they embody exist respectively between The Ring and Star Wars – can the same be said for leitmotifs written over a century apart? The employment and deployment of selected motifs will be studied in relation to how they change, how they are representative, and how they relate to each other. Informed by works by both music and film scholars, this dissertation will examine the effectiveness of the motifs, how they belong to the work and how their meaning is acquired and subsequently used. In essence, how is a German-romantic compositional device employed in a galaxy far, far way? iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Christopher Morris, for guiding me throughout this dissertation, pointing me in the right directions, providing a wealth of knowledge and helping me realise what I want to continue to do in my musical studies. I would also like to thank my dad and my uncle, both of whom created my interest in music and film from a very young age, through trips to the cinema and the concert hall. To all the lecturers in the Maynooth University Music Department for their wisdom on all things musical from Monteverdi to Messiaen, and from Michael Coleman to Miles Davis. Lastly, all my family and friends for putting up with me. iv Contents Introduction i Chapter 1: The Wagnerian Tradition 1 Chapter 2: Musical Meaning 15 Chapter 3: Visual Signification 27 Conclusion 36 Bibliography 39 Videography 43 Discography 45 Appendices 48 v Introduction: Aims: What does storytelling in film owe to the leitmotif? The music in a film such as Star Wars is not at the forefront of the mind of the viewer while undergoing the visual experience on screen. Rather, the leitmotif, popularised by Wagner, subconsciously reinforces what is happening on and off the screen - who is on screen, what are they feeling, or signifying place, character, and object. John Williams, when composing the Star Wars score, did not venture towards a musical equivalent to the science fiction settings and visuals. Instead, he used familiar, Wagnerian sounds – thereby bringing a focus to emotion and character, not to the spaceships, action and explosions. George Lucas, the creator of Star Wars, spoke of the music’s importance to the story in an interview, saying that: Star Wars films are basically silent movies. The music has a very large role in carrying the story, more than it would in a normal movie. In most movies, the story is carried by the dialogue – in Star Wars films, the music carries the story.1 Clearly, Lucas viewed the score as paramount to the film. Through Williams’s Wagnerianbased compositional style, the music has been successful. But is the music worthy of all its success, does it succinctly ‘carry the movie’ as Lucas puts it? That is in essence the basis of this dissertation. Coli Ma shall, “ee The Empire Strikes Back as a silent film – Precisely How George Lucas Imagined the Star Wa s Fil s , Open Culture (2016) <http://www.openculture.com/2016/01/see-the-empire-strikes-back-as-a-silent-film.html>, accessed 3 November, 2017. 1 vi Chapter Overview: In chapter 1, the links and patterns between use of the leitmotif in John Williams and Richard Wagner will be explored. The importance of myth and legend is evident in Der Ring des Nibelungen and Star Wars, as such motifs in Star Wars may be drawn from, or influenced by, The Ring. Leitmotifs may represent similar things in both the film and the opera cycle (heroes, villains, hope, love); but how these are used, how are they extended and continued throughout the rest of the work without becoming tedious, this creates a compositional convention for film scores. Wagner established a framework for a style of music that would become popular in the Classic Hollywood era, and later popularised again by Williams in the 1970s. Chapter 1 looks at this framework, how Wagner used it, how his motifs were related and how he influenced Williams 101 years later. Leading on from this, chapter 2 will contain an analysis of how themes attain musical meaning. The basis for motifs is a link between the aural and the visual: this is established through careful composition and attentive placement of a motif within the film. This chapter will examine how a motifs musical meaning is attained, and how it can musically represent traits of its signified. The basic yet fundamental questions of the motif will be asked in this chapter with specific reference to fundamental themes of the original Star Wars trilogy (with occasional reference to the remaining films) – how and why does a leitmotif work, and how can themes relate to one another? Criticisms of leitmotif practice in film have said that they are merely ‘signposts’ or vii ‘visiting cards’, and that a composer just inserts the motif unsystematically.2 Exploration of musical meaning of numerous motifs will demonstrate that these criticisms are fallacious. Chapter three will see if leitmotifs help in the storytelling process. Are they a required or a superfluous element to a story? A single motif is prominent across all of the Star Wars films: ‘The Force Theme’. How this motif earns its meaning, how its meaning develops and changes, and how the motif adapts to different scenarios will be the focal point of the final chapter. Also, a brief look at how the motif evolves from the screen to being a part of contemporary culture. Methodology: Methods of research within this dissertation will include a musical analysis of motifs by Williams and Wagner. Most specifically a look at what elements of motifs can connect to each other, and how different musical aspects help convey certain moods and themes. Furthermore a historical survey of how these musical ideas were implemented in the composers’ respective works. Examinations of works and theories by other musicologists will also be a feature; as also will be a brief cultural view of how the motifs have transcended their cinematic boundaries into external culture. Literature Review: 2 Theodor Adorno and Hanns Eisler, Composing for the Films (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 5. Other criticisms of the leit otif ha e efe ed to the a isiti g a ds . Ha t a ites De uss : The Leitmotiv [sic] reminds me of nothing more than a tonal visiting card. As each character comes on, he presents is the ati a d a d sa s, He e I a . A thu Ha t a n, Claude De ussy as I k ew Hi a d other writi gs of Arthur Hart a , ed. Samuel Hsu, Sidney Grolnic, and Mark Peters (Rochester, University of Rochester Press, 2003), 15. viii Matthew Bribitzer-Stull wrote at length about the history of the leitmotif, its origins, development, types of transformations, and culminated his discussion by examining its use in film in his book Understanding the Leitmotif. This book will be pivotal in understanding the history and transformation of the leitmotif, as well as seeing how and when a leitmotif earns its associative meaning. Stephen McClatchie also engages in a similar discussion in relation to Wagner in Analyzing Wagner’s Opera’s: Alfred Lorenz and German Nationalist Identity. James Buhler and Scott D. Paulin’s respective essays within the essay collection entitled Music and Cinema will be reviewed. Buhler engages with many leitmotifs in Star Wars, his discussion of ‘The Force Theme’ will be built upon. Paulin examines Wagner and his ideas of a Gesamtkunstwerk, Wagner’s ideals of a total work of art could be applied to Lucas’ films. As well as this commentary, Paulin also discusses how closely soundtrack and film should relate to one another. The last essay from this collection, contains Annabel J. Cohen’s views on musical perception and cognition, which will be briefly referred to. Lawrence Kramer’s hypotheses on the meaning of music will also be surveyed from his books: Musical Meaning: Towards a Critical History and Classical Music and Postmodern Knowledge. His theories will be examined in relation to how certain motifs fit within a film. Robert Donington lists and compares ninety-one leitmotifs within the whole Ring Cycle in his book Wagner’s ‘Ring’ and its Symbols: Music and Myth. The titles he applied to Wagner’s motifs will be used, as Wagner never titles the motifs himself. ix 1 Chapter 1 The Wagnerian Tradition In 1848, Wagner decided to write an operatic saga about the legend of the Nibelung. Following the tale of the legendary Norse hero Siegfried and a magical ring, the work would be Wagner’s Magnum Opus and would, he claimed, begin a new era of operatic history. The story was to be told across four different operas, each exemplifying Wagner’s idea of a Gesamtkunstwerk – a total work of art. They would encompass all forms of art under an entire theatrical performance; uniting opera and drama. Within this already pioneering artistic aesthetic, Wagner would develop another idea in the music - a tool for associating the music with the drama: the leitmotif. Early examples of musical association are evident in Monteverdi’s Orfeo where characters are associated with instruments. This continued into the later classical operas of Méhul and Cherubini. Thereafter, reminiscence motifs appeared in the operas and melodramas of Mozart, Schubert and J.C. Bach, but these lacked the musical or dramatic development of leitmotifs.1 Preceding Wagner, was Weber’s use of developing themes, associative timbres and instrumental families in his operas (which Wagner himself conducted). Following in their footsteps, Liszt also developed associative themes in his symphonic poems from the 1850s. However, these motifs were not used to the methodical extent of those in The Ring.2 A e i is e e otif is a the e o usi al idea hi h etu s i a u alte ed state to ide tif a ha a te o sig if a ha a te s e olle tio of the past; it is a p e u so to the leit otif . Aliso Latha , e i is e e otif i O fo d ‘efe e e, The Oxford Companion to Music (Oxford University Press), <http://www.oxfordreference.com.jproxy.nuim.ie/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100413468>, accessed 8 May, 2018. 2 Matthew Bribitzer-Stull, Understanding the Leitmotif (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 20-22. 1 2 In this chapter, Wagner’s use of the leitmotif will be surveyed. The combination of numerous motifs and how they reinforce the narrative will be examined. Similarly, a study of the ‘nature’ motif and its related motifs in The Ring will show how Wagner implements a single motif and how they build upon each other.3 Furthermore, the love duet in Götterdӓmmerung will be examined. Lastly, multiple narrative themes are common in The Ring and Star Wars, similar themes have resultant motifs in both works. Do themes by Wagner and Williams bear any similarity to one another, do similar musical features reoccur in the leitmotifs, and do the motifs develop differently in different media? Motifs in The Ring: Many of the motifs of The Ring are related to one another. Motifs representing similar themes, related characters, or moods can be connected through key, rhythm, harmony and intervallic content. Due to the similarity between certain leitmotifs, the precise number of these motifs varies according to different scholars and Wagnerians. Throughout this dissertation, I will refer to the titles of motifs used by Robert Donington in Wagner’s Ring and its Symbols – in this work Donington lists 91 different motifs across the four operas. Wagner used leitmotifs as the basis for his composition. They do not act as a signpost exclaiming that a character has walked on stage. They support the narrative. They play as much a role in telling the story as the words of the singers. Adorno and Eisler wrote that the function of the leitmotif is ‘the endowment of the dramatic events with metaphysical significance’.4 3 Wagner did not name his motifs. Around the time of its premiere, Hans von Wolzogen published a thematic guide to The Ring in which he gave many of the motifs titles. Many of these titles have stuck. Other Wagnerian scholars continue to name his motifs, including: Donington, Cooke and Dalhaus. 4 Adorno and Eisler Composing for the Films, 5. 3 Through application of distinct leitmotifs to different aspects of the narrative, people, places and feelings are given a sense of significance that is not possible through drama alone. Stephen McClatchie writes: ‘true drama, the Wagnerian goal, could only be achieved through the self-negating participation of each component art’.5 In a Gesamtkunstwerk, Wagner’s ideology of a single unified work of art, neither music nor drama may be at the forefront of attention for the audience. Both arts mutually contribute to the overall work, existing in a state of equilibrium to produce Wagner’s desired aesthetic. The drama and performers provide the surface of the story, they advance the plot and express desires and passions; while concurrently, the music adds a depth below the surface, giving an atmosphere, reminding us of the past and hinting towards the future. The first opera in the series, Das Rheingold, introduces the listener to a plethora of leitmotifs. Following their introduction, they must acquire their function through repetition and association with their signified. A motif must effectively depict that which it represents. The composer must find a way of expressing a character or object musically, if the leitmotif is to work well. The first motif to appear in Das Rheingold is the ‘nature’ motif. It consists of a rising arpeggio in E-flat (figure 1), repeating persistently throughout the prologue. 6 Robert Donington notes the ‘diatonic stability and the undisturbed persistence of the tonic’.7 These musical characteristics of the motif similarly echo the traits of nature itself. Other motifs are subsequently derived from this primitive motif, including: the sword (2), the Valkyries (3), and Siegfried’s horn (4). Once a motif has acquired its meaning, it can then be Stephen McClatchie, Analyzing Wagner s Operas: Alfred Lore z a d Ger a Natio alist Ideology (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1998), 82. 6 De ‘i g des Ni elu ge , Das ‘hei gold A t : P elude-Pa t I , ApsisApo thio pseud. , uploaded Jul , 2008, the prelude to Das Rheingold featuring the primitive nature motif, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wiyoLa9z1ao>, accessed 1 May, 2018. 7 Robert Donington, Wag er s ‘i g a d its “y ols: The Musi a d the Myth (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1963), 278. 5 4 developed. The opening ‘nature’ motif in Das Rheingold is subsequently developed across the four operas. Notably, at the opening of Act 3 of Siegfried this motif returns. What was once a calm, peaceful introduction to the world of the Nibelung, now drives the audience heroically forward with a great sense of momentum towards Siegfried rescuing Brünnhilde from the mountain.8 Figure 1. Nature motif. First motif heard in Das Rheingold. Contains solely notes of an E-flat triad. Rhythmic repetition of long-short-long notes (dotted crotchet – quaver – dotted crotchet). Rising shape. Donington calls it ‘the depths of the Rhine as undifferentiated nature’.9 Figure 2. Siegfried’s sword motif. Similar arpeggio shapes to Nature motif. Rhythmic pattern of longshort-long notes similar also. Motif always rises apart from the downwards octave leap. Donington names this ‘the sword as true manhood’.10 Figure 3. Valkyries’ Motif. More varied approach to arpeggio figure than previous motifs. Long-shortlong rhythmic pattern appears on the downbeats. Overall contour of motif is rising, with four triadic “iegf ied A t III P elude , ‘a d M pseud. , uploaded No e e , , p elude to a t of Siegfried in which the nature motif sounds heroically – contrasting to its introduction in Das Rheingold, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UB_SbLZOmso>, accessed 1 May, 2018. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid., 293 8 5 downward leaps. Entitled ‘the Valkyries as the masculine element of women (Ride of the Valkyries)’ by Donington.11 Figure 4. Siegfried’s Horn. Arpeggio-like figures present with addition of passing and auxiliary notes. Little emphasis on long-short-long pattern. Donington labels this motif ‘Siegfried’s horn call expressing his free spirit’.12 Examining motifs in a scene: In the Prologue of Götterdӓmmerung Siegfried and Brünnhilde, whose love scene concluded Siegfried, are reintroduced. We hear Brünnhilde’s love motif (figure 5) repeated across various instruments throughout the scene, as well as Siegfried’s youthful motif (figure 6).13 The two lovers express their respective desires to one another: Siegfried longs for another adventure, and Brünnhilde longs for her partner to be happy and not to forget her on his journeys. While the characters summarize the nature of their meeting on the mountaintop, the two motifs swell around each other, becoming as close as the couple themselves. As Siegfried departs on a boat, we hear his horn motif in the distance – a final goodbye as he sails away from Brünnhilde. When the curtain falls, the orchestra plays the Rhinegold motif, which was first introduced in the vocal harmonies of the three Rhinemaidens in scene 1 of Das Rheingold. The motif of the gold itself is also played in a minor key. These two motifs remind the listener that the real 11 Ibid. Ibid. 13 “iegf ied s he oi 12 otif dis ussed i figu e also featu es f e ue tl i the duet. 6 drama and conflict is yet to be resolved.14 The brief moments of love and happiness will turn to tragedy and despair in the following acts of Götterdӓmmerung. Figure 5. Brünnhilde’s love motif. Decorative turn, followed by a yearning leap of a sixth, followed by descending intervals over dissonant harmony. Opening notes hint to the romantic, yet dissonances and downward leaps imply sense of tension and danger – a hint to the tragic outcome of this relationship. Donington notes that this motif is a combination of multiple other themes including ‘Siegfried’s love song’, ‘Love of Siegmund and Sieglinde’, ‘Brünnhilde’s Holy Love’, and many more. He calls it ‘Brünnhilde as loving woman’.15 Figure 6. Siegfried’s youthful, hopeful motif. Repetition of tonic and dominant chords provide a sense of strength. Rhythm of melody is straightforward, lacks complexity – similar to the hero which it represents. Repeated dominant pedal provides a solid, stable bass over which the melody can be played. Donington calls this ‘Siegfried’s heroic deeds as the ever reborn spirit of youth’, he also notes that it is a stronger version of the horn motif.16 14 Ibid., 221. Ibid., 305. 16 Ibid., 298. 15 7 Motivic Function: Stephen McClatchie quotes Christian van Ehrenfels on the subject of the leitmotif: ‘the purely musical function of these themes is none other than that of all musical motifs in the structure of symphonic works: they are merely elements, only through the mixture of which musical tensions can be aroused’.17 The aforementioned leitmotifs on their own are simply a musical theme, conveying a mood. Wagner provides the drama and the music. The audience however must associate these motifs with a dramatic counterpart. The associative nature of most leitmotifs can be ascertained if the motif is played as a character walks on stage, or a new location is visited. The subtext is not so easily learnt. The relationship between the motifs of figures 1-4 may not be consciously perceived by a viewer the first time they see the opera. A dichotomy exists in the functions of the leitmotif: there is a poetic/dramatic function and a musical function.18 The poetic/dramatic function is to signify the happenings on the stage; this function is recognisable to the listener. Conversely, the musical function of the leitmotif is more complex. Ehrenfels believes that this musical function is self-contained to a single motif, and that its musical characteristics (harmony, rhythm, melody) must contribute to the overall form of the ‘musico-dramatic organism’ (including other leitmotifs).19 In The Ring, Wagner’s leitmotifs are the bricks contributing to the overall monument that is the entire drama. On their own leitmotifs do not inherit association: they are just a harmonic progression, melodic line, or a repeating rhythm. The signifier and signified (linguistic terms denoting what is referred to and what is, itself, referred) relationship is constructed by Wagner. The link between the Valkyries’ motif and the Valkyries themselves is not instinctively McClatchie, A alyzi g Wag er s Operas: Alfred Lore z and German Nationalist Identity, 78. Ibid., 77. 19 Ibid. 17 18 8 understood. Wagner brings about the connection through the motif’s poetic/dramatic function: by playing the motif when the Valkyries appear or are discussed. Once the meaning of a motif has been explicated, the musico-dramatic function of the motif, may signify when the signified is not present.20 When this is done, an emotional response is elicited from an audience member who recognises the motif’s use. Wagner defined the leitmotif in The Ring. He showed how they could be used, and subjected to different treatments. Effective use of motivic signification could only be executed to a similar extent in an audio-visual setting: where the association between signifier and signified can be implicitly understood. This is one of the reasons why the leitmotif became popular in the early decades of the ‘talkies’ in cinema. And why Williams went to the Wagnerian level of depth in the score for Star Wars to provide ‘dramatic events with a metaphysical significance’ (as aforementioned by Adorno).21 A metaphysical significance that can endow characters, relationships, and forces beyond simple explanation with an emotional weight. Learning from Wagner: This compositional tool which Wagner pioneered in The Ring was taken up by Williams in Star Wars. Leitmotifs in both sagas are used to combine the music with the mythic. Where Wagner uses music to support a naïve hero fighting Gods and dragons, Williams uses music to reinforce the tale of an innocent boy being swept along on an adventure where he will fight a tyrannical Empire and discover a power within himself. Although the settings of the sagas could not be further apart they both have links to the mythic. Wagner was inspired by Norse 20 21 Ibid., 79. Adorno and Eisler, Composing for the Films, 5. 9 legends, while Lucas was inspired by the archetypal hero’s journey, by author Joseph Campbell.22 Musical motifs had been present in films preceding Star Wars, notably in scores by Steiner, Korngold, Waxman and their successors – yet they, like Wagner’s predecessors, lacked a rich systematic diffusion and musical development, and as such, were more akin to reminiscence motifs than the leitmotifs of Williams and Wagner. Williams continued the neo-Romantic, symphonic scoring tradition of these composers after that tradition had begun to die out.23 Unlike these composers, Williams did not limit himself to a few reminiscence themes for a film, he broke the tradition – there were approximately 9 different recurring leitmotifs upon the release of the original Star Wars in 1977, and over 50 in the eight Williams-scored main Saga films. Williams incorporates motifs into the score when appropriate, yet unlike Wagner the score is not constructed from the motifs: In using [leitmotifs] to achieve a sense of musical coherence across vast dramatic spans and changing tonalities and textures.... [Wagner] had to make them part of the larger musical structures in which they appeared. 24 Wagner, as composer and librettist of the operatic saga, had the luxury of giving the music as important a role as the drama; he used the term ‘endless melody’ in describing his music which, unlike other operas, did not differentiate between recitative and aria. Yet, due to the nature of film, the audience’s attention is mostly drawn to the screen. In certain scenes, music may be underscoring a conversation, providing an atmosphere, or in action scenes it may be used to Ke i Ja kso , The a ho as Yoda: Ho did a o s u e s hola alled Joseph Ca p ell i spi e so u h of ou ass ultu e? , The Independent (3 September, 1999), <https://www.independent.co.uk/artsentertainment/arts-the-man-who-was-yoda-1115705.html>, accessed 8 May, 2018 <https://search.proquest.com/docview/312933974?accountid=12309>. “ee appe di es fo su a of He o s Jou e f o Joseph Ca p ell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (Third Edition) (California: New World Library, 2008). 23 The first notable use of a leitmotif by Williams was in the famous Jaws score in 1975. 24 Bribitzer-Stull, Understanding the Leitmotif, 19. 22 10 add intensity and excitement. Wagner could write continuous music throughout the four operas. On the other hand, Williams had to write a series of cues for the films; yet in these cue he develops his motifs, unlike the reminiscence motifs of his predecessors. Wagner used his motifs as the building block for his entire score, though Williams, under the command of director George Lucas, had to supply a series of separate cues – within these cues he could contain his motifs. Frank Lehman, a musicologist with a similar interest in film scores, on the subject of musical and motivic continuity in cues wrote that: Structural integrity is compromised at every turn by the strongly disunifying forces of temp-tracking, cutting, tracking, and the all the other vagaries of editorial subordination to which film music is subject. 25 The director has a large impact on how a film-composer writes. One notable instance of the director changing the soundtrack is in one of the most famous scenes in Star Wars.26 The use of ‘The Force Theme’ in the ‘Binary Sunset’ cue is one of the most musically significant moments of the saga, yet originally Williams did not include the motif in this scene – in fact, he did not include any motifs.27 As such, the tone of the entire scene changed (for the better most would argue). The nature of the mythic, present in both epics, leads to similar themes and characters being evident in both. As such, motifs representing similar themes bear some similarity to one another. The motifs for Siegfried’s heroism (figure 7) and the Force (figure 8) are comparable. Frank Lehman, Qui k Take – Motives, Modulations, a d The Ma h of the ‘esista e i The Last Jedi , Musicology Now, posted 13 February, 2018, <http://musicologynow.ams-net.org/2018/02/quick-takemotives-modulations-and.html>, accessed 13 February, 2018. 26 Starwars.com Team, The StarWars.com 10: Best Music, posted 8 October, 2013, <http://www.starwars.com/news/the-starwars-com-10-best-music>, accessed 13 February 2018. 27 Willia s s o igi al s o e fo the s e e o tai ed o ose-sounding strings accompanied by a flute countermelody – it did not contain any motif subsequently heard in the film. The alternate take for the music has been paired with the iconic scene online, and can be viewed here: Bi a “u set – Alte ate Ve sio , Fil s o Wa pseud. , uploaded “epte e , , Luke sta i g at twin setting suns with the cue Williams originally wrote for the scene playing, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JYXLmHmTrzU>, accessed 3 May, 2018. 25 11 Figure 7. Siegfried’s heroic motif. Antecedent mm. 1-3: Overall rising shape, little rhythmic complexity, lands on flattened sixth of key giving sense of struggle (minor subdominant chord), range of a 9th. Consequent mm. 4-7: narrower range (6th), no additional rhythmic changes, concludes on the minor third – deepens sense of struggle. An ambitious motif due to the antecedent phrase, yet the consequent phrase lacks the wistful drive of its predecessor. Figure 8. The Force motif. Antecedent mm. 1-4: Overall rising shape, much rhythmic variance including semiquavers and triplets, harmony stays in the tonic chord except for final note (F) which is part of the minor subdominant, range of an octave. Consequent 4-8: Range extends to over an octave (an 11th), following striving upwards octave and major sixth leap it returns to the lower register where it largely sticks to notes of the tonic chord. Great sense of aspiration due to range extensions in each of the long notes (minims and dotted minims). Despite being motifs representing heroism and hope, both Wagner and Williams write in a minor mode: adding depth beyond just boldness and bravery. This tonality adds a sense of struggle – the journey of the heroes will not be easy, there will be obstacles to overcome and hardship along the way. Both motifs take on an antecedent-consequent form. The antecedent introduction starts on the dominant leaping up to the tonic, then continues upwards in trajectory landing on a note from the subdominant chord. Following this, the consequent phrase returns to the lower register from the opening, concluding on notes from the tonic. 12 Despite the musical similarities, both motifs acquire their dramatic meaning differently. The meaning of Siegfried’s heroic motif is established when it is first heard - in Act 3 of Die Walküre when Siegfried is first mentioned by Brünnhilde. This appearance of the motif coming alongside the first mentioning of this new character establishes their link firmly. Brünnhilde tells Siegfried’s mother, Sieglinde, ‘the noblest hero in the world, woman, you are carrying in the shelter of your womb’; Siegfried and heroism are instantly attached to the motif.28 Conversely, the meaning for ‘The Force Theme’ is not so swiftly earned. The motif briefly appears as Princess Leia hides the plans to the Death Star, and grandiosely as Luke stares out at the setting twin suns – these initial appearances link the motif to hope (Leia hides the hope of the rebellion in R2-D2, while Luke desires a more significant existence away from his aunt and uncle’s farm).29 Originally titled ‘Ben Kenobi’s Theme’ it returns again when Kenobi first appears, linking it to him also. Kenobi then brings Luke to his home, and tells him about the Force. This is a word which had not yet been uttered in the film, and Luke asks his mentor what it means. Alongside the explanation we hear the antecedent phrase of the motif in the French horn. This motif has acquired three different meanings in the opening hour of the film: hope, Ben Kenobi, and the Force.30 All three of these meanings relate to each other: Ben, a Jedi familiar with the Force, brings hope to Luke when he asks him if he will join him on his adventure. As alleged by F.E. Kirby – ‘it is in their recurrence that the significance of the O heh stes Wu de ! Jess e No a i Walkü e , jaaso pseud. , uploaded Ja ua , , B ü hilde tells “iegli de she s p eg a t to the elod of “iegf ied s he oi otif at : , <https://youtu.be/vb_g8GXrZPc?t=32s>, accessed 8 May, 2018. 29 ‘ D gets death sta pla s , jo h pseud. , uploaded Ma , , Leia s hides the pla s fo the Death Star inside R2-D hile The Fo e The e appea s fo the fi st ti e , <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3gqTktgtBqg>, accessed 3 May, 2018. Star Wars IV: A new hope - Binary Sunset (Force Theme) , Be guita pseud. , uploaded Ma h, , Luke sta i g at t i setti g su s ith The Fo e The e p otot pe pla i g, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gpXMGit4P8>, accessed 3 May, 2018. 30 Luke eets O i Wa Ke o i , stei pseud. , uploaded Ma h, , Luke eets O i-Wan Kenobi the e plai s the Fo e to hi i his ho e, The Fo e The e pla i g all the hile, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YZ_mjtTCdcg&t=320s>, accessed 3 May, 2018. 28 13 themes becomes really meaningful’.31 Like many motifs across various art forms, meaning is rarely acquired instantaneously, and develops over time. Irena Paulus similarly engaged with ideas of the leitmotif in ‘Williams versus Wagner’, writing on this motif that: The function of the theme of the Force goes further still: it expands, from the role of representing a single character to smaller meanings like those related to action (the final battle in A New Hope) and adumbration (announcing the defeat of the rebels in Empire), and takes over a great role like the expression of the transformation of and awakening of new mental powers in the main character, and in the end is equated with much bigger concepts such as, fate, God and supernatural power. 32 Unlike his Romantic era predecessor, Williams’s leitmotifs often acquire multiple associations. The relationship between screen and score allows for more direct and instantaneous association due to the camera telling the audience where to look, this focal point is generally the signified of the leitmotif. As such motifs may latch onto multiple onscreen events before true meaning is acquired. Whereas Wagner, whose motifs are themselves a part of the narrative, can have more control over association as he has the liberty of marking important moments in the tale in which a motif can play a significant role. Wagner is the storyteller of the whole operatic cycle and can format his operas in such a way so as to best serve the music, while Williams must compose for a story that has already been written by another. The differences between the media lead to differences in how motifs are used. The operatic text within which the motifs lie can capture the associativity of a leitmotif swiftly – as in the case of Siegfried’s theme in Brünnhilde’s speech to Sieglinde; elsewhere Wagner may drop textual meaning altogether, for instance when the Valkyries sing ‘Hojotoho’ (Die Walküre, Act 3, Scene 1), here the motif is linked to the characters singing it - as their words cannot direct 31 Bribitzer-Stull, Understanding the Leitmotif, 35. I e a Paulus, Williams versus Wagner or an Attempt at Linking Musical Epics , International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 31/2 (2000), 153-84: 166. 32 14 meaning elsewhere.33 However, for film the music is not as involved with the narrative. Motifs can attach themselves to anything on the screen, association (at first) is very fluid. This cinematic relationship allows the screen to salvage some sort of meaning from the score. True meaning is only ascribed after multiple repetitions of a motif. A larger factor creating motivic differences in both works is time: Wagner had 21 years to think about writing his epic, whereas Williams had less than a year and had to be yielding to the demands of the director, George Lucas. In opera, music endures for as long as the composer chooses. In film, it can be removed at the whim of the director, or sound-editor. Within the span of a 2 hour movie, Williams revitalised the leitmotif tradition in film scores. He imitated the Wagnerian tradition where possible within the cinematic medium. But it was only as the saga progressed that the motivic language could rival that of the scale of The Ring. 33 Bribitzer-Stull, Understanding the Leitmotif, 53. Wag e : The ‘ide of the Valk ies - Cope hage ‘i g , “ait Be az u ek pseud. , uploaded Ride of the Valkyries from Act 3 Scene 1 of Die Walküre in which the Valk ies si g thei a <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPcrqkViZKw>, accessed 6 May 2018. Ja ua , , : Hojotoho , 15 CHAPTER 2: MUSICAL MEANING The previous chapter established how Wagner used the leitmotif in The Ring and the influence this exerted on Williams a century later. This chapter will examine how Williams continues the tradition, and how he musically represents characters in his leitmotifs. How do in-built characteristics of a motif (rhythm, harmony, melody) contribute to an effective representation of a signified? A family of Williams’s related motifs will be analysed, including: ‘Princess Leia’s theme’, ‘Han Solo and the Princess’, ‘Across the Stars (Love Theme)’, and ‘Luke and Leia’. As previously discussed in chapter 1, a dichotomy exists in the functions of the leitmotif; there are two functions: a poetic/dramatic function and a musical function.34 This chapter will focus on the musical function of a leitmotif, a function which is self-contained in the music and does not rely on its pairing with an onscreen counterpart, yet still acquires meaning through interreferential leitmotifs and use of existing musical tropes - which themselves have their own intrinsic connotations. Princess Leia’s Motif: As in the case of Brünnhilde before her, Princess Leia’s motif (figure 1) features a rising sixth: which expresses longing.35 It is this sense of longing that recurs throughout the theme which provides a romantic mood. This rising major sixth is the central musical idea of the theme – McClatchie, A alyzi g Wag er s Operas: Alfred Lore z and German Nationalist Identity, 78. I late t e tieth e tu fil usi , the e had o e to e a i tual pla ook of ultu all accepted, meaning-filled gestures, a rising major sixth for love themes, a rising perfect fifth for heroism and adventures a d u h o e . B i itze -Stull, Understanding the Leitmotif, 124. 34 35 16 what Bribitzer-Stull would call an Urmotiv.36 There is no implicit rule or formula to find the Urmotiv of a theme, as such the analyst must use their musical judgement in determining what the key characteristic of a motif is. The major sixth, in the case of ‘Princess Leia’s Theme’, is the opening of the motif, and thus one of the most common aspects of the theme when it becomes subsequently fragmented, or evolves throughout the scores of subsequent films. Figure 1. ‘Princess Leia’s theme’. Mm. 1-2 are the most common signifiers for Leia; the whole figure shows the entire theme, but these two bars are her motif. Subsequent phrases, in essence, mimic the opening motif, all feature a rising leap, followed by brief decorative semiquavers. The major sixth is highlighted in the first two circles, the third circle highlights an octave leap – an extension of the yearning sixth, creating a greater sense of desire.37 An important question to ask in relation to any theme is, how does the music portray the character? The aforementioned yearning sixth creates a sense of longing and romance – Williams frequently uses this interval in his love themes (for example ‘Marion and Indy’s theme’ in Raiders of the Lost Ark in 1981). This Urmotiv is repeated again in the theme, and at one point is stretched to an octave creating a grander sense of longing. Another feature of the Leia motif is the decorative descending minor third. It usually has the rhythmic pattern of a 36 Ibid., 60. Alte ate a al ses of Leia s The e o asio all substitute iv for the first two instances of ii7b5/I. Williams often swaps between these two chords, but in the case of this analysis use of ii7b5/I better highlights the relationship between the motifs discussed in the coming pages. As such ii7b5/I will only be discussed in analysis of motivic relationships. 37 17 quaver followed by two semiquavers, then landing on a longer note (crotchet or minim). This decorative descent is ornamental in quality, it is lavish and stately (and does not take the form of a grace note or mordent). Harmonically speaking, a tonic pedal is present in the opening four bars (a tonic chord, and a half-diminished supertonic with the tonic in the bass) – this repeated bass note anchors the motif, providing a sense of stability. Further along in the theme, a brief moment of modulation featuring the Phrygian supertonic (bII chord), this change adds a hint of sensuality and exotic to the love theme.38 Tom Schneller examines the borrowing of chords from other modes, and the resultant emotional and semantic resonance, in an article for the Journal of Film Music. Schneller found that the half-diminished supertonic and Phrygian supertonic were often signifiers for romance or the exotic (in the case of Star Wars these chords reoccur in motifs relating to Leia or romance).39 The theme concludes with an imperfect cadence: chords iv – V. The minor subdominant chord in the cadence adds a sense of reluctant, incomplete resolution. This allows for an immediate repeat of the theme (where it can conclude properly this time) if Williams (or the director) deems it necessary. In terms of instrumentation, the leitmotif first appears in the solo French horn over glistening strings, and subsequently in the flute or oboe.40 The solo French horn in this brief introductory To “ h elle , Modal I te ha ge a d “e a ti ‘eso a e i The es Joh Willia s , Journal of Film Music 6/1 (2013), 49-74: 64. 39 Ibid. 40 In the conclusory credits of The Last Jedi P i ess Leia s The e u usuall appea s o solo pia o (there had been no instance of melodic solo piano in any of the preceding scores) in a quasi-elegy fashion to the late Carrie Fisher. Fisher played Princess Leia in the original trilogy of films, The Force Awakens, and made her final appearance in The Last Jedi. In this instance, the music acted as a tribute to the actress appearing alo gside the o ds I Lo i g Me o of ou P i ess: Ca ie Fishe . The sa e the e appea ed o pia o earlier i the fil , he Leia s life as i da ge . ‘o e t ‘o at, P i ess Leia s The e: a detailed a al sis , CBC Music, posted 25 May, 2017 <http://www.cbcmusic.ca/posts/18550/princess-leia-theme-star-wars-new-hope-analysis>, accessed 03 March, 2018. 38 18 appearance sounds melancholic and fearful. And, more often, the oboe and flute give the theme a naïve and innocent quality. Musical function alone of the motif already gives the listener much information about what it represents. Words used to describe aspects of the motif so far have been: longing, romantic, lavish, stately, stability, sensual, naïve and innocent. All of the above could describe the Princess. Leia’s motif alone has given an insight into her character, without a discussion of her on-screen representation.41 Motivic Relations: ‘Princess Leia’s Theme’ (introduced in Star Wars in 1977) shares its Urmotiv with ‘Han and Leia’s Theme’ (presented three years later in The Empire Strikes Back). The rising sixth appears in this theme’s opening (figure 2), similarly to its predecessor in the former film. Figure 2. ‘Han and Leia’s theme’. Rising sixth appears twice (circled) in the theme: in the antecedent mm. 1-2 it is a major sixth, and in the consequent mm. 3-4 it is a minor sixth. This minor Urmotiv adds a sense constraint to the consequent phrase. Like ‘Princess Leia’s Theme’, the note reached after the rising sixth is subsequently decorated and settles on the note below, i.e. jumps to F, settles on E-flat, and jumps to E-double-flat (the Phrygian supertonic), settles on the tonic D-flat via the appoggiatura C. 41 Qualities of the theme overtly hint to the stereotypical Hollywood image of the woman as a romantic counterpart to the hero. Similar aspects of feminine themes appear in motifs of the original and prequel trilogy. However, Williams has appeared to have moved beyond the stereotypical patriarchal view of the feminine in Hollywood in the sequel trilogies. The motifs of prominent female characters here represent things aside f o the o a ti . ‘e s the e has he oi , aspi atio al ualities, hile ‘ose s otif is hopeful, brave a d o fide t. Neithe a e as o e tl o a ti Leia s otif. 19 As well as containing the same Urmotiv as ‘Princess Leia’s Theme’, both motifs have harmonic similarities. ‘Han and Leia’s Theme’ contains more frequent appearances of the aforementioned, blatantly romantic, Phrygian and half-diminished supertonic. In this motif the chords appear more frequently, heightening the passionate quality of the theme – as it is more of an explicit love theme between the pair, whereas Leia’s own theme signifies only the character herself. Contrasting melodic aspects of both themes include the minor sixth in the consequent phrase; this interval adds a sense of anguish to the romance. In ‘Leia’s Theme’ a decorative descending minor third occurs, while in ‘Han and Leia’s Theme’ there is quaver movement which rises a tone, then leaps a minor third. Approach to the minor third differs between the motifs. The upward leap almost provides a feeling of sadness, but then it resolves downward (a perfect fourth in the antecedent, and a diminished fifth in the consequent). Both motifs resolve similarly, but the means by which they resolve differs. Han and Leia’s minor third bounds upwards – giving insight into the character of Han: a plucky, risk-taking smuggler.42 Then the leap resolves downwards, giving a new sense of stillness and calm to the character, as he falls for the Princess. The note of resolution (like in ‘Princess Leia’s Theme’) is a tone away from the note originally leapt to in the opening Urmotiv. This Urmotiv common to both previously discussed themes also appears in another theme: ‘Across the Stars’, which Williams wrote for Attack of the Clones (2002). However, for this particular motif all leaps of a sixth are now minor (figure 3). The love theme sounds sombre and tragic as a result of this. It is also the first of this family of themes to be written in the minor 42 The character of Han never received his own solo (pun not intended) motif in the original trilogy. Yet, Williams himself has written a theme for the character for his spin-off movie (Solo: A Star Wars Story) which will be scored by John Powell. 20 mode, further highlighting the danger produced by this romance: romantic relationships are forbidden for the Jedi Anakin, yet he falls in love with Padmé nonetheless. Figure 3. ‘Across the Stars’ (Anakin and Padmé Love Theme). Rising minor sixth interval highlighted with circle – more sorrowful sound than the major sixths of previous motifs. Descending and ascending minor third quaver figures recur. Antecedent mm. 1-5: Overall descending contour, constrained to range of a sixth (with one auxiliary note rising above creating a seventh) – morose mood. Consequent mm. 5-9: Overall rising contour, with range of an octave – hopeful sound. The star-crossed lovers, represented in this motif, have two children: Luke and Leia. Leia is musically represented through the melodic aspects of this theme (leaping sixth, quaver runs of a minor third), and also briefly signified harmonically through a half-diminished supertonic in the upbeat; while Luke is represented rhythmically. The rhythm of ‘Across the Stars’ is somewhat similar to the rhythm of the main Star Wars theme (or Luke’s theme). This is shown in figure 4. Figure 4. Rhythmic comparison of ‘Across the Stars’ (now in 3/4) to the ‘Main Theme’. Sections circled are similar rhythmically as well as in melodic contour roughly. The leaps of ‘Across the Stars’ are more 21 restrained than those of the ‘Main Theme’, equating to the danger and sorrow in the love theme as opposed to the hope and adventure of the ‘Main Theme’ Lastly, the tender, earnest theme of ‘Luke and Leia’ (figure 5). Although this theme does not contain the Urmotiv of previously discussed themes, it does (similarly to ‘Across the Stars’) relate to Luke’s theme (seen in figure 6). Harmonically, the motif frequently alternates between the tonic and the Phrygian supertonic over a tonic pedal. The melody is steady and diatonic, featuring rising quasi-arpeggio figures with stepwise descents. These features equate to a warm, comforting mood. The feelings conveyed in the music are not dissimilar from those between the twins themselves. Although containing similar elements to the other themes in this motivic family, this motif lacks their gravitas and passion, possibly due to its lack of repetition. ‘Luke and Leia’s theme’ is allocated insufficient time than the other motifs had enjoyed to be explored and progressed, as it only appears towards the end of Return of the Jedi (1983), and was rarely used subsequently. 43 Figure 5. ‘Luke and Leia’s theme’. Opening two bars (antecedent) share contour of the opening 5 notes of the ‘Main Theme’. The melodic range stays within these notes, resting on the mediant (conversely in the ‘Main Theme’ it leaps valiantly to the tonic). This point of rest gives the melody a peaceful stillness aided through a moderate tempo. Consequent mm.3-5: very similar to antecedent, same opening contour, same final notes, slightly varied rhythms and step movement in place of the previous minims. Harmonic stability of Phrygian supertonic over a tonic pedal similar to ‘Princess Leia’s Theme’, yet in that theme tonic pedal was held beneath half-diminished supertonic. 43 The motif occasionally appears in Return of the Jedi when the siblings are together. It appears only once in any of the other movies – The Last Jedi -; even here its appearance is fleeting, lasting just a few bars. 22 Figure 6. ‘Main Theme’, fragment of opening bars. Repeated triplet note opening has been compressed into one crotchet. The contour of circled notes is repeated in different key for ‘Luke and Leia’s theme’. Rising pattern of dominant-tonic-dominant, followed by stepwise descent through subdominant to mediant. In the ‘Main Theme’ following these notes the melody leaps up a minor seventh to a high tonic. Four leitmotifs, and their extended themes, all relate to one another. Williams links them in a similar way to that which Wagner did with many of his motifs (for example, in Das Rheingold as discussed in chapter 1). Furthermore, for Wagner, thematic concerns could override textual concerns (as Wagner was both composer and librettist).44 Despite Williams’s diminished sense of control (when compared to Wagner), he is capable of rivalling Wagner in terms of how the music provides support for the narrative, or even tell the story in its own way (despite the limitations of cinema when compared to opera). More than a Signpost: The examples displayed above demonstrate how leitmotifs are much more than a musical fragment notifying the audience of a character, emotion or idea. The in-built musical aspects, which themselves can express the nature of a character, disqualify the notion that a collection of notes reminds the audience solely of something in the narrative; there is a great deal more transpiring. The musical function of a leitmotif is more ambiguous than the poetic/dramatic function; such is the nature of music. Music can never be as transparent as visual imagery 44 Bribitzer-Stull, Understanding the Leitmotif, 53. 23 unless it is accompanied by text. But, while orchestral music lacks the visual transparency of cinema, it has the ability to express a wealth of emotion and feeling. If the cinema screen tells the story, the music helps the audience to feel the story. Music has acquired new meaning over time. Tricks and tropes have been created and learned through compositions across past centuries. While discussing the connotations and denotations of Wagner’s leitmotifs, HaCohen and Wagner wrote: ‘It should be emphasized that the development of schemes and conventions have been motivated, since the rise of opera, by an aspiration to elaborate and intensify the expressivity of music’.45 Ergo, music written recently has an ability of expression not capable of being created in music composed hundreds of years ago. Traditions have been formed, methods of expression constructed, and an association of certain musical aspects with real world objects, places and people has been built. One of the reasons why a piece such as the ‘Imperial March’ works is because listeners understand qualities that make it militaristic – a strict beat, heavy brass, and a rhythmic ostinato. Williams building upon these musical tropes in his leitmotifs helps them convey their signified. These inherited musical associations allow thematic identity to arise from the listener’s idealized mental constructions, which themselves are created out of the sum of all the listeners’ previous listening experiences.46 The nature of these previously discussed familial motifs defy the criticisms of leitmotifs being merely musical ‘visiting cards’. Crafted connections exist within this motivic family, linking them together in a similar way to that in which a sister, brother, parent or lover are connected through the plot. ‘uth HaCohe a d Naphtali Wag e , The Co u i ati e Fo e of Wag e s Leit otifs: Co ple e ta ‘elatio ships et ee thei Co otatio s a d De otatio s , Music Perception an Interdisciplinary Journal 14/4 (Summer 1997), 445-75: 447 46 Bribitzer-Stull, Understanding the Leitmotif, 65. 45 24 Bribitzer-Stull cites Lawrence Kramer, who wrote: Musical meaning consists of a specific, mutual interplay between musical experience and its contexts; the form taken by this process is the production of modes or models of subjectivity carried by the music into the listener’s sense of self; and the dynamics of this production consist of a renegotiation of the subject’s position(s) between the historically contingent forms of the experience and the experience of a transcendental perspective that claims to subsume (but is actually subsumed by) them. 47 Musical meaning, interpreted by the listener, is created through a combination of the listener’s own past experiences, as well as culturally constructed musical tropes. Williams is selfreferential in use of these tropes. The rising sixth Urmotiv becomes a signifier for love and female characters. This meaning created through use of tropes is then interpreted by the listener, who can attach all their own experiences relating to these feelings and emotions to the motif. Musical meaning of a motif is therefore a composite creation by the composer and listener. Bribitzer-Stull wrote that topical resonance and temporal correlation are required in giving leitmotifs narrative meaning.48 Topical resonance arises from the listener’s own knowledge of the given musical style’s formal structures. One of the structures Bribitzer-Stull included was the ‘intra-referentiality of already established, work-specific associative material’.49 This is the repeated Urmotiv, and also the other aforementioned intra-referential familial links between motifs, which imbue the motifs with a deeper musical meaning (harmony, contour, and rhythm). The motifs do not stand on their own. A motif’s own meaning can be better understood through its relationship to musical features of other motifs within the same family. The inherent ambiguity of music cannot give a motif as detailed a description as a metaphor, or some other literary signifier. Nevertheless, it is this intrinsic obscurity that adds a meaning 47 Ibid., 94. Ibid., 102. 49 Ibid., 107. 48 25 and weight of emotion beyond the possibilities of other artistic media. This ambiguity works in music’s favour in terms of storytelling. If the narrative of Star Wars were being told on screen and by another, fundamentally non-ambiguous, medium simultaneously; then the two would be saying precisely the same thing. Music (and leitmotif deployment) alongside the visual storytelling, together tell the story, but in different ways. The screen presents the audience with information, dialogue, visuals, setting and much more. The soundtrack can help relate the visuals to the audience, and to the human experience. A hopeful farmer and a wizard, joining a smuggler and a giant dog, to save a Princess on a planet-killing machine does not sound like a tale to which audiences could relate effortlessly. Williams and his score give the film a quality of being relatable to ordinary human experience. The motifs and music stir in the listener feelings similar to those which the characters are feeling, or those which the director wants the audience to feel. As Bribitzer-Stull aptly puts it: ‘Leitmotivic association sits at the intersection of emotion, memory and meaning’.50 Emotion, memory and meaning in the motifs, simply put, add depth. Consequentially, Williams’s music does not always run parallel to the screen. 51 Bringing it back to Wagner (whose leitmotifs form the basis of the entire story of The Ring, not just an emotional addition to the narrative), Scott D. Paulin wrote: ‘in linking itself too closely to the image, music becomes an empty supplement that reinforces an already explicit message but adds nothing unique in its own voice’.52 The difference between music and film and the motif’s innate meaning, creates a unique story-telling experience for the film: a creation which as 50 Ibid., 95. In the case of action scenes it may run at similar speeds to those of the beats on screen, but there are very fe i sta es of the usi Mi ke -Mousi g ; that is to sa , the usi di e tl ea ti g o i i g the e e ts on screen. 52 “ ott D. Pauli , Wagner and the Fantasy of Cinematic Unity , i Music and Cinema, ed. James Buhler, Caryl Flinn and David Neumeyer (Hanover: Wesleyan University Press, 2000), 58-84: 72. 51 26 Paulin says: ‘may indeed be seen as more Wagnerian than anything Wagner himself could have conceived’.53 The depth of musical meaning within a motif makes it more than an obnoxious musical signpost marking a character or feeling. Intra-referentiality between motifs create a musical language unique to the film. Every motif is carefully composed so as to best portray what it represents. Williams crafted multiple, musically-related leitmotifs which reinforce each other when played alongside the screen, and also add an atmosphere, emotional weight and narrative support. Once the motif has been composed, the next task is for it to acquire a meaning in the film, and to adapt to each scene in which it is to appear. 53 Ibid., 73. 27 CHAPTER 3 VISUAL SIGNIFICATION AND ASSOCIATIVE DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1 introduced us to ‘The Force Theme’, where it was briefly compared to Siegfried’s heroic motif and the initial development of both motifs’ meanings was examined. Chapter 2 showed how Williams’s motifs have their own innate musical meaning when detached from the screen, through use of musical tropes, harmonies and inter-related motivic families. This chapter will focus on how meaning and motif subsequently develop over the films A New Hope, The Empire Strikes Back, and Return of the Jedi, through the medium of ‘The Force Theme’. This examination will strive to prove how Williams’s music and leitmotifs throughout the saga aid in the storytelling process; thereby supporting Lucas’s statement from the introduction: ‘Star Wars films are basically silent movies’; also proving that leitmotifs are not a superfluous element to the music, and that Williams’s romantic style score compares favourably with that of The Ring in terms of conveying a musical narrative. Pre-association: As well as depicting physical things, leitmotifs can also signify feelings, or non-corporeal concepts. The motif which most frequently occurs across all Star Wars films is ‘The Force Theme’. This motif begins as an apparent musical depiction of Ben Kenobi, but swiftly becomes a signifier for a way of life and a past that Ben represents: the Force. Ben describes the Force as: ‘An energy field created by all living things. It surrounds us, penetrates us and 28 binds the galaxy together’. As such, it is not a physical or visible part of the film, it can only be presented through music or dialogue.1 Lawrence Kramer discusses the nature of musical signs, writing that ‘the sign must be capable of surviving the perishable circumstances in which it is produced’.2 ‘The Force Theme’ exemplifies this, transcending its first three appearances in the film until its meaning is fully established when Ben discusses the nature of the Force to Luke. Kramer’s theories of musical signs echo Bribitzer-Stull’s ideas of leitmotifs. Bribitzer-Stull discusses these ‘perishable circumstances’ in a different manner. He notes that before a motif’s meaning is fully established, presentiment must exist (Wagner also acknowledged this in Opera and Drama, calling this period Ahnung).3 This is a period where the listener hears the motif for what it is musically, but not in associative terms.4 These pre-associative instances prime the listener’s memory and emotions with regard to the motif, so that when narrative association is established beyond doubt by means of visual signification, the true meaning of the motif becomes clear.5 Presentiment gives the listener clues to the emotional association of a motif. Following presentiment these prepared emotions can be associated with the leitmotif and its signified. After establishing the relationship between signifier and signified, both can then develop together. In a similar fashion to the associative meaning of a motif being required to develop and earn its meaning over time, the full musical statement (what Bribitzer-Stull refers to as a ‘prototypical thematic statement’) can (and does in the case of ‘The Force Theme’) emerge late Wagner had similar motifs depicting feelings, one of the most famous being the ede ptio th ough lo e motif in The Ring, or the Tristan Chord from Tristan und Isolde. 2 Lawrence Kramer, Musical Meaning: Towards a Critical History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 155. 3 Barry Millington, The New Grove Guide to Wagner and his Operas (Cary: Oxford University Press, 2006), 171. 4 I the ase of The Fo e The e this p e-associative period would be when Princess Leia hides the Death Star plans in R2-D . I this o e t The Fo e The e is played briefly in solo French horn. 5 Bribitzer-Stull, Understanding the Leitmotif, 102. 1 29 in the musical material, and often may not appear upon a motif’s first appearance. 6 ‘The Force Theme’ prototype plays the second time the motif is heard (‘Binary Sunset’) and its true meaning is not obtained until the fourth appearance of the theme (when Kenobi first mentions the Force). Following the prototypic statement, the succeeding instances of the leitmotif rarely display all the same musical aspects of the prototype: instrumentation, key, rhythm, harmony. Bribitzer-Stull notes multiple methods in which themes mutate and develop throughout The Ring: modal change, harmonic corruption, thematic truncation, thematic fragmentation, textural change.7 In the case of ‘The Force Theme’ all of the above (except modal change) take place within A New Hope.8 Of the 18 times that the theme is heard throughout the film (the greatest number of occurrences of any motif), only 8 instances are in the prototypic instrument: solo French horn; and only on three occasions the motif appears in the prototypic key of G minor.9 Williams uses his leitmotif carefully, modifying the length of statements, instrumentation, harmonisation, and texture to suit the musical atmosphere and narrative situations during any one scene. James Buhler also noticed the prototype of ‘The Force Theme’ appearing before the audience can actually know what it is intended to represent. Buhler writes: Moments like this one [Binary Sunset] when the music seems not entirely bound up with its semiotic function are what gives music its mythical character. The music seems to intuit connections that are beyond immediate rational comprehension.10 6 Ibid., 67. Ibid., 167-87. 8 See Appendices. 9 Follo i g The Fo e The e the ost f e ue tl eo u i g the es a e: Mai The e / I pe ial The e ti es , ‘e el Fa fa e ti es , P i ess Leia s The e ti es a d a el appea i g the Ja a The e , Death “ta Motif , Tuske ‘aide s , a d Dies I ae . Cou ted autho 10 Ja es Buhle , Star Wars, Music and Myth , i Music and Cinema, ed. James Buhler, Caryl Flinn, and David Neumeyer (Hanover: Wesleyan University Press, 2000), 33-57: 44. 7 30 This cue does more than set the mood of the hero gazing wistfully at the twin setting suns. The theme establishes the mythic and fantastical setting of the films. Kramer, Wagner, BribitzerStull and Buhler all acknowledge the significance of a motif’s appearance before it earns meaning: the presentiment (or Ahnung) period. But even following establishment of the relationship between signifier and signified this theme remains significant and worth further study. This signifier begets the concept and feelings associated with the signified. Across all films, the one concept that ties the story and the fantastical universe together is represented only through this one specific theme. Development of Motif and Meaning: The meaning of a motif grows each time it is heard. On successive manifestations the attentive listener is reminded of previous iterations of a motif, recalling when and how it was played and how its meaning builds. Kramer calls this process reciprocal semiotic pressure. 11 This idea of the continuous extension of meaning was touched upon in chapter 1 when discussing ‘The Force Theme’ (it represented hope and the character of Ben Kenobi before finally being linked to the Force with its fourth appearance). The motif occurs at moments of heroism, mysticism and at many of the different stages of Joseph Campbell’s Hero’s Journey.12 Reciprocal semiotic pressure reminds the listener of who the hero is (and was), the world he has ventured into and the changes that have taken place within him. Along this journey the motif is varied to fit with images on the screen. A notable 11 Lawrence Kramer, Classical Music and Postmodern Knowledge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 97. Bribitzer-“tull alls this a u ulati e asso iatio . Understanding the Leitmotif, 4. 12 Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (Third Edition). Fo ief detail o He o s Jou e see appe di es. One notable non-appea a e of The Fo e Motif alo g the stages of Ca p ell s He o s Jou e is he Luke receives his lightsa e the Talis a f o Be Ke o i. Willia s did ot i lude usi he e so as Be Bu tt s sound design of the lightsaber hum could be heard by audiences clearly and distinctly. 31 instance of this is when the motif is truncated alongside the death of Ben Kenobi. The motif is cut short just like the life the person which it originally represented. Following this truncation, Williams wrote the most emotional statement of ‘Leia’s Theme’ heard thus far in A New Hope. Romantic and lavish strings playing this theme do not signify the Princess herself.13 In this case the music is treated as music: the emotional magnitude of the theme outweighs any symbolic nature it had previously. 14 Following the heroes’ escape, Luke can mourn his lost mentor. At this point ‘The Force Theme’ is used to reflect Luke’s loss, it is played sombrely in oboe and flute, then in solo horn with echoing strings. One of the final appearances of the motif occurs grandiosely in strings as the fallen Obi-Wan communes with Luke through the Force - the only time when the motif appears in solo strings - they play fortissimo split across three octaves. This change and opulent instrumentation of the theme mark an occasion where the mystic power of the Force is seen. Aspects of the Force had been seen previously, but in these instances the audience (and Luke) were discovering what it was. It was unfamiliar. Whereas now we know how important and powerful it is (in this scene it transcends the barrier between the living and the dead). This moment of importance is marked in narrative terms and also musically. The final time the motif is stated (‘The Throne Room’) it is turned into a stately brass march as the heroes receive medals for their feats of bravery. For the first time since ‘Binary Sunset’ there are four phrases of the theme. These new musical developments and lengthier statement signify the change and growth of the protagonist. A stronger, more learned character warrants Be Ke o i s Da th Vade - A Ne Hope [ p HD] , Ma elo )u iga (pseud.), uploaded 31 December, , Be Ke o i is killed Da th Vade hile The Fo e The e is t u ated, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sq51w34Hg9I>, accessed 3 May, 2018. 14 Bribitzer-“tull otes this featu e i Wag e , a d alls it o te tual ei te p etatio . B i itze -Stull, Understanding the Leitmotif, 194-95. 13 32 a longer, braver statement of the motif associated with the new mystic world they are entering.15 These final appearances, and dramatic changes of the motif show the audience how far Luke, the hero, has travelled on his journey. The motif has gone from lonesome horn over nervous tremolo strings to a bold, bright brass march over strong string stabs. This motif is treated quite differently in the following film, The Empire Strikes Back. It lacks the musical dominance it had in the preceding film (being played only 11 times now). When composing The Empire Strikes Back, Williams had a larger canvas on which he could paint. He had established important motifs and the musical representation of the universe three years previously. Now he could use these older themes, alongside newer ones written to depict new characters, relationships or locations.16 ‘Luke’s Theme’, ‘The Imperial March’, ‘Han and Leia’, and ‘Yoda’s Theme’ all appear more frequently than ‘The Force Theme’. The character of Yoda, as well as the life he represents, bear similarities to Ben Kenobi in A New Hope, as a result ‘Yoda’s Theme’ has taken on some of the narrative association that ‘The Force Theme’ had formerly. Despite this, ‘The Force Theme’ continues to appear, and in new ways. As Luke has matured in the years between films, so too has his knowledge of the power he has. Whereas in the previous film, a lengthy 4 phrase statement appeared only once, in The Empire Strikes Back these longer statements occur more frequently, signifying this character growth.17 Furthermore, ‘The Force Theme’ is more often “ta Wa s: A Ne Hope - E di g [ p HD] , Ma elo )u iga pseud. , uploaded Fe ua , , Luke a d Ha e ei e edals fo thei a e hile the lo gest ite atio of The Fo e The e is hea d, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iH6a1iYQ0GA>, accessed 3 May, 2018. 16 Williams wrote six new leitmotifs for The Empire Strikes Back: I pe ial Ma h , Ha a d Leia , the d oids leit otif, Yoda s The e , Bo a Fett s leit otif, a d the Lando/Cloud City motif. Alongside these he also i luded, f o the p e ious fil : Mai /Luke s The e , ‘e el Fa fa e , The Fo e The e a d Leia s the e . A total of 10 motifs used in the film overall. 17 There is one 3 phrase statement of the motif, and four 4 phrase statements (most of which occur at the end of the movie). 15 33 employed to signify the Force itself, as opposed to Luke’s heroism or hope. Eight statements of the theme occur alongside a display or discussion of this ancient ability. Return of the Jedi sees a slight regression in the implementation of this motif, in terms of phrase length. Only two of the elongated motifs occur, of the 17 times in total that the motif appears. It occurs frequently while the Force is being demonstrated. Crucially it appears alongside Vader, in two hurried brass phrases as he kills the Emperor in order to save his son (the motif had never before been associated with Vader).18 Thereafter the motif sounds in an elegiac horn and romantic strings as Luke burns his redeemed father’s remains, grandiosely returning to the prototypic key and instrumentation – completing the journey of the hero.19 What originally was often linked to the hero and his journey, becomes linked strongly to the Force, and in the final scenes is linked to the hero’s father, who has been finally achieved vindication.20 ‘The Force Theme’ has been shown to evolve to suit the narrative. Its meaning has changed with the story, and upon retrospective analysis it can be seen to reflect the thematic throughline of the original trilogy. Simultaneously to the development of this leitmotif, it also is used to provide an ambience and mood to each scene it appears in.21 Annabel J. Cohen, a psychologist specialising in music cognition and perception, engages with Gestalt psychology in her proposition of a ‘Congruence-Associationist Framework’ for Vade Kills Palpati e [ p] , Vo a P odu tio s pseud. , uploaded “epte e , , Vade kills the E pe o a d The Fo e The e pla s alo gside Vade fo the fi st ti e, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbbG02LB7g0>, accessed 3 May, 2018. 19 Prototypic key – G minor – only featured one other time in Return of the Jedi: when Luke confront Vader before Vader brings him to the Emperor. However this statement of the theme is very short (1 phrase), and underscores the conversation between father and son, making it barely audible in the film. 20 Luke Bu i g Da th Vade , Ni jeto pseud. , uploaded O to e , , Luke u s the body of his edee ed fathe as The Fo e The e pla s, <https:// . outu e. o / at h? =PW 7l--w5yY>, accessed 3 May, 2018. 21 The Fo e The e o u s i fu the o te ts i the p e uel t ilog -2005), as well as in the two sequel films to date (2015-2017). A discussion of its appearance in these films is beyond the scope and maximum possible length of this dissertation. 18 34 understanding communication in film music.22 In her discussion, Cohen notes the impact of musical meaning upon the overall visual narrative in film: ‘information of musical meaning is transferred not only to a music STM [short-term memory] station but also to the visual STM station.’23 Applying Cohen’s hypotheses to the previously discussed leitmotif, it can be ascertained that the leitmotif not only develops meaning through its several manifestations in different scenes, but also that it can determine the meaning of an individual scene. Cohen explains that ‘the affective quality of music is directed here [short-term memory visual narrative station of brain] because it is useful in determining the meaning of the visual scene.’24 Accordingly, alongside motivic development (via reciprocal semiotic pressure), the score (and leitmotifs within it) provides atmosphere, and more vitally meaning, to a scene itself. Williams’s Leitmotif: ‘The Force Theme’ earns and develops meaning from its pairing with different dramatic contexts. The relationship between the motif and the Force is at first symbolic – in a semiotic sense.25 The motif itself bears no innate relationship to the Force. As the narrative progresses listeners learn that the motif is representative both of the journey of the hero and of the Force itself. The music itself can convey different moods and feelings in varying musical and narrative situations, leading to a multitude of scenes in which it can be deployed. Over the course of its many repetitions, it attains iconography – ‘iconic signs resemble their object’.26 A a el J. Cohe , Pe spe ti es f o Cog iti e Ps holog , i Music and Cinema, ed. James Buhler, Caryl Flinn, and David Neumeyer (Hanover: Wesleyan University Press, 2000), 360-377: 370. 23 Ibid., 373. 24 Ibid. 25 Raymond Monelle, The Sense of Music: Semiotic Essays (Princeton: Princeton University 2010), 15. 26 Ibid. 22 35 The motif is so representative of this imperative component of the saga that the signifier and signified become inextricably linked. This does not only occur in the case of ‘The Force Theme’. For other leitmotifs the signifier can beget the signified. A case in point is the ‘Imperial March’, which when heard outside its filmic context, immediately stirs memories of Vader. The success of the films and the popularity of Williams’s score have led to this association taking place outside the cinematic context. Similarly for Wagner, certain motifs from The Ring have become popular outside their original operatic narrative, such as ‘The Ride of the Valkyries’ or ‘The Magic Fire’ from Die Walküre, ‘The Entry of the Gods into Valhalla’ from Das Rheingold, and ‘Siegfried’s Funeral March’ from Götterdӓmmerung.27 Themes of both composers are frequently performed in concert halls without the film or opera being present. Both composers and many of their motifs have remained popular long after they were written. Williams’s ‘Force Theme’ can be said to sum up the music and its narrative association in the case of all the Star Wars films. In the case of Wagner, the same cannot be asserted quite so unequivocally – no motif is as dominant or prominent, not even the Ring motif itself, which forms the thematic crux of the entire operatic epic. Williams’s use of leitmotif as a means of signification has worked well for the film narrative. But it has also led to his motifs becoming so synonymous with their signified that it is difficult to separate them. Yes, this is also the case with Wagner, but for Williams it was a more difficult process as his music is not at the forefront of the audience’s mind when watching a film, whereas the point of an opera is the music. As well as revitalising the romantic and leitmotivic musical tradition for the screen, Williams made the music matter, he incorporated it as an indispensable part of the story. 27 The ‘ide of the Valk ies has ee featu ed i fil s too, ota ly in a famous scene from Apocalypse Now. 36 Conclusion The leitmotif has two functions: musical and dramatic. As has been shown, Williams followed Wagner’s trend of relating leitmotifs to one another musically; both composers created families of motifs linked by subtle musical details. The point where they differed in execution is in establishing the motif’s dramatic function. In The Ring, the music is intimately tied to the narrative. Characters can sing their musical themes thereby distinctly unifying them with their individual leitmotif, while in Star Wars no such musico-narrative unification exists. Williams is required to develop his motifs alongside the unfolding plot. In opera, music is the narrative. In film, music is narrative’s equal partner. Hence, when Lucas likened Star Wars to silent films, he was not mistaken; the music can indeed express the story on screen. In fact, the DVD release of, The Last Jedi, contains a feature in which the film can be viewed solely with the score – by this means Williams’s soundtrack can tell the entire story alongside visual imagery solely.1 The music is an essential piece of this cinematic Gesamtkunstwerk (Star Wars matches The Ring in terms of scale, musical depth and artistic achievement: making Gesamtkunstwerk an apt title). Such is the unity between score and screen, that it is difficult to separate the two. One could scarcely imagine the opening text without the heroic B-flat brass march; or Luke gazing out at the twin suns without the wistful ‘Force Theme’ playing in solo horn; or the separation of Han and Leia without their love theme in brass and wind, while Leia says ‘I love you’ and Han replies ‘I know’. The leitmotif is anything but superfluous. G ae e M Milla , “ta Wa s: The Last Jedi Ho e ‘elease I ludes “ile t Fil Ve sio , The Hollywood Reporter, posted 13 March, 2018, <https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/star-wars-last-jedi-bluray-includes-silent-film-version-1094305>, accessed 22 April, 2018. 1 37 Criticisms of leitmotif practice in film scores tend to disapprove of the leitmotif being used as a ‘visiting card’, or that the scope of film is not large enough to elicit use of the leitmotif when compared to the grandeur of Wagnerian operas. Critics such as Adorno take a restricted view of the musico-cinematic institution. 2 These criticisms were expressed before the revitalisation of the leitmotif and the romantic score by Williams. Cinema has further developed since then. Films are now potentially capable of matching the Wagnerian ideal. As previously quoted: ‘film may indeed be seen as more Wagnerian than anything Wagner himself could have conceived’.3 Surely, if any film is to come close to the Wagnerian Gesamtkunstwerk it is Star Wars. George Lucas himself described his films as ‘space operas’.4 ‘The Force Theme’s’ meaning and many musical appearances adapt to a variety of situations, and as a result of reciprocal semiotic pressure its associative significance grows considerably from its first appearance to its last. This motif has been shown to represent in musical terms the central thematic journey of the original three films. However, this leads to more questions, as yet unanswered: does this motif continue to change across all the other Star Wars films? Do other motifs evolve to a similar extent? And can the same be said of other leitmotif-based film scores? Returning to the question which opened this dissertation: what does storytelling in film owe to the leitmotif? The leitmotif supports the cinematic narrative, imparting an emotional depth to any scene through exercising the listeners’ awareness, memory and anticipation, all of which are based upon the motif’s previous manifestations. It is a tool which must be used with He e the fu tio of the leit otif has ee edu ed to the le el of a usi al la ke , ho a ou es his master with an important air even though the eminent personage is clearly recognizable to everyone. The effective technique of the past becomes a mere duplication, ineffective and uneconomical. At the same time since it cannot be developed to its full musical significance in the motion picture, its use leads to extreme poverty of compositio , Ado o a d Eisle , Composing for the Films, 6. 3 Pauli , Wagner and the Fantasy of Cinematic Unity , . 4 Paul ‘ose field, -year-old Geo ge Lu as p edi ts “ta Wa s futu e ith Dis e , Los Angeles Times, posted 5 June, 1977, <http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/herocomplex/la-et-hc-flashback-george-lucasmaking-star-wars-20151206-story.html>, accessed 8 May, 2018. 2 38 great care: firstly in instances where its meaning is yet to be ascertained, when its meaning is realised, and in all subsequent uses it must continually develop and transform; elsewise it would be ‘a mere duplication’ (as Adorno wrote) in every scene it appears.5 Through a combination of memory, emotion and meaning, as well as an interconnected web of associative motifs a unique musical language is created. This musical language echoes the form and style of The Ring, but when this style is applied to film the method in which it is implemented must be varied to best suit the cinematic medium. John Williams took compositional elements created by Wagner, and modified how they were used so as to provide a superior cinematic experience for the audience - an experience in which music plays as much a role in telling the story as the screen. 5 Adorno and Eisler, Composing for the Films, 6. 39 Bibliography: Adorno, Theodor, and Eisler, Hanns, Composing for the Films (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). Audissino, Emilio, John Williams's Film Music: Jaws, Star Wars, Raiders of the Lost Ark, and the Return of the Classical Hollywood Music Style (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 2014). Bribitzer-Stull, Matthew, Understanding the Leitmotif (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015). Buhler, James, ‘Annette Davison Hollywood theory, non-Hollywood practice: cinema soundtracks in the 1980s and 1990s’, Twentieth Century Music 3/1 (2007), 145-49. Buhler, James, ‘Star Wars, Music and Myth’, in Music and Cinema, ed. James Buhler, Caryl Flinn and David Neumeyer (Hanover: University Press of New England, 2000), 33-57. Campbell, Joseph, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (Third Edition) (California: New World Library, 2008). Cohen, Annabel J., ‘Film Music: Perspectives from Cognitive Psychology’, in Music and Cinema, ed. James Buhler, Caryl Flinn and David Neumeyer (Hanover: University Press of New England, 2000), 360-377. Cooke, Mervyn, The Hollywood Film Music Reader (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). Dalhaus, Carl, Esthetics of Music (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). Donington, Robert, Wagner’s ‘Ring’ and its Symbols: The Music and Myth (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1963). 40 Grey, Thomas S. ‘Leitmotif, Temporality and Musical Design in the Ring’ in The Cambridge Companion to Wagner, ed. Thomas S. Grey (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 85-114. HaCohen, Ruth and Wagner, Naphtali, ‘The Communicative Force of Wagner’s Leitmotifs: Complementary Relationships between their Connotations and Denotations’, Music Perception an Interdisciplinary Journal 14/4 (Summer, 1997), 445-75. Halfyard, Janet K., The Music of Fantasy Cinema (Bristol: Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2014). Hartmann, Arthur “Claude Debussy as I knew Him” and other writings of Arthur Hartmann, ed. Samuel Hsu, Sidney Grolnic, and Mark Peters (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 2003). Jackson, Kevin, ‘The man who was Yoda: How did an obscure scholar called Joseph Campbell inspire so much of our mass culture?’, The Independent (3 September, 1999), <https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/arts-the-man-who-was-yoda1115705.html>, accessed 8 May, 2018. Kennedy, Michael & Joyce, Rutherford-Johnson, Tim, Oxford Dictionary of Music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). Kramer, Lawrence, Classical Music and Postmodern Knowledge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996). Kramer, Lawrence, Musical Meaning: Towards a Critical History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002). Latham, Alison, ‘reminiscence motif’ in Oxford Reference, The Oxford Companion to Music (Oxford University Press), 41 <http://www.oxfordreference.com.jproxy.nuim.ie/view/10.1093/oi/authority.2011080310041 3468>, accessed 8 May, 2018. Lehman, Frank, ‘Quick Take – Motives, Modulations, and “The March of the Resistance” in The Last Jedi’, Musicology Now, posted 13 February, 2018, <http://musicologynow.amsnet.org/2018/02/quick-take-motives-modulations-and.html>, accessed 13 February, 2018. MacDonald, Lawrence E., The Inevitable Art of Film Music: A Comprehensive History (London: The Scarecrow Press, 2013). Marshall, Colin, ‘See The Empire Strikes Back as a silent film – Precisely How George Lucas Imagined the Star Wars Films’, Open Culture (2016) <http://www.openculture.com/2016/01/see-the-empire-strikes-back-as-a-silent-film.html>, accessed 3 November, 2017. McClatchie, Stephen, Analyzing Wagner’s Operas: Alfred Lorenz and German Nationalist Identity (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1998). McMillan, Graeme, ‘’Star Wars: The Last Jedi’ Home Release Includes “Silent Film” Version’, The Hollywood Reporter, posted 13 March, 2018, <https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heatvision/star-wars-last-jedi-blu-ray-includes-silent-film-version-1094305>, accessed 22 April, 2018. Millington, Barry, The New Grove Guide to Wagner and his Operas (Cary: Oxford University Press, 2006). Monelle, Raymond, The Sense of Music: Semiotic Essays (Princeton: Princeton University, 2010). Neumeyer, David, The Oxford handbook of film music studies (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014). 42 Paulin, Scott D., ‘Richard Wagner and the Fantasy of Cinematic Unity: The Idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk in the History and Theory of Film Music’, in Music and Cinema, ed. James Buhler, Caryl Flinn, and David Neumeyer (Hanover: University Press of New England, 2000), 58-84. Paulus, Irena, ‘Williams versus Wagner or an Attempt at Linking Musical Epics’ International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 31/2 (December 2000): 153-84. Rosenfield, Paul, ’40-year-old George Lucas predicts “Star Wars” future with Disney’, Los Angeles Times, posted 5 June, 1977, <http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/herocomplex/laet-hc-flashback-george-lucas-making-star-wars-20151206-story.html>, accessed 8 May, 2018. Rowat, Robert, ‘Princess Leia’s theme: a detailed analysis’, CBC Music, posted 25 May, 2017 <http://www.cbcmusic.ca/posts/18550/princess-leia-theme-star-wars-new-hope-analysis>, accessed 03 March, 2018. Scheurer, Timothy E., ‘John Williams and Film Music Since 1971’, Popular Music and Society, Vol. 21 (Spring, 1997), 59-72. Schneller, Tom, ‘Modal Interchange and Semantic Resonance in Themes by John Williams’, Journal of Film Music 6/1 (2013), 49-74. Starwars.com Team, The StarWars.com 10: Best Music, posted 8 October, 2013, <http://www.starwars.com/news/the-starwars-com-10-best-music>, accessed 13 February 2018. Tarasti, Eero, Semiotics of Classical Music: How Mozart, Brahms and Wagner Talk to Us (Boston: De Gruyter Inc., 2012). Williams, John, Star Wars: A Musical Journey (Music from Episodes I-VI), ed. Dan Coates (California: Alfred Publishing Co., Inc., 2007). 43 Videography: Scenes from Star Wars discussed: ‘R2 D2 gets death star plans’, jonh7734999 (pseud.), uploaded 25 May, 2009, Leia’s hides the plans for the Death Star inside R2-D2 while ‘The Force Theme’ appears for the first time’, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3gqTktgtBqg>, accessed 3 May, 2018. ‘Luke meets Obi Wan Kenobi’, rstein926 (pseud.), uploaded 19 March, 2013, Luke meets ObiWan Kenobi then explains the Force to him in his home, ‘The Force Theme’ playing all the while, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YZ_mjtTCdcg&t=320s>, accessed 3 May, 2018. ‘Star Wars IV: A new hope - Binary Sunset (Force Theme)’, Benguitar90 (pseud.), uploaded 22 March, 2012, Luke staring at twin setting suns with ‘The Force Theme’ prototype playing, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gpXMGit4P8>, accessed 3 May, 2018. ‘“Binary Sunset” – Alternate Version’, Films on Wax (pseud.), uploaded 27 September, 2014, Luke staring at twin setting suns with the cue Williams originally wrote for the scene playing, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JYXLmHmTrzU>, accessed 3 May, 2018. ‘Ben Kenobi vs Darth Vader - A New Hope [1080p HD]’, Marcelo Zuniga (pseud.), uploaded 31 December, 2014, Ben Kenobi is killed by Darth Vader while ‘The Force Theme’ is truncated, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sq51w34Hg9I>, accessed 3 May, 2018. ‘Star Wars: A New Hope - Ending [1080p HD]’, Marcelo Zuniga (pseud.), uploaded 5 February, 2015, Luke and Han receive medals for their bravery while the longest iteration of ‘The Force Theme’ is heard, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iH6a1iYQ0GA>, accessed 3 May, 2018. 44 ‘Vader Kills Palpatine [1080p]’, Voca Productions (pseud.), uploaded 27 September, 2016, Vader kills the Emperor and ‘The Force Theme’ plays alongside Vader for the first time, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbbG02LB7g0>, accessed 3 May, 2018. ‘Luke Burning Darth Vader’, Ninjeto (pseud.), uploaded 29 October, 2010, Luke burns the body of his redeemed father as ‘The Force Theme’ plays, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PWb7l--w5yY>, accessed 3 May, 2018. Scenes from The Ring discussed: ‘Der Ring des Nibelungen, Das Rheingold Act 1: Prelude-Part I’, ApsisApocynthion (pseud.), uploaded 20 July, 2008, the prelude to Das Rheingold featuring the primitive nature motif, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wiyoLa9z1ao>, accessed 1 May, 2018. ‘Siegfried Act III Prelude’, Randy M (pseud.), uploaded 5 November, 2011, prelude to act 3 of Siegfried in which the nature motif sounds heroically – contrasting to its introduction in Das Rheingold, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UB_SbLZOmso>, accessed 1 May, 2018. ‘Richard Wagner - Götterdämmerung - Prolog, 2. Teil’, urjasager (pseud.), uploaded 14 November, 2012, Music from prologue and interlude of Götterdӓmmerung in which Siegfried and Brünnhilde part ways while their motifs swell around one another, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AdXFL1myers>, accessed 4 May, 2018. ‘O hehrstes Wunder! Jessye Norman in Walküre’, jaason53 (pseud.), uploaded 4 January, 2008, Brünnhilde tells Sieglinde she’s pregnant to the melody of Siegfried’s heroic motif at 0:30, <https://youtu.be/vb_g8GXrZPc?t=32s>, accessed 8 May, 2018. ‘Wagner : The Ride of the Valkyries - Copenhagen Ring’, Sait Beyazyurek (pseud.), uploaded 20 January, 2010, Ride of the Valkyries from Act 3 Scene 1 of Die Walküre in which the Valkyries sing their war cry: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPcrqkViZKw>, accessed 6 May 2018. ‘Hojotoho’, 45 Discography: (As CDs were not used links to appropriate motifs from both Star Wars and The Ring have been provided) Star Wars leitmotifs discussed: ‘Star Wars Music Pick Episode IV: The Force Theme’, StarWarsFreak93 (pseud.), uploaded 6 April, 2009, ‘The Force Theme’ which features in all of the Star Wars films and musically encapsulates the saga, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HcZ9kQ1h-ZY&t=2s>, accessed 4 May, 2018. ‘Star Wars IV: A new hope - Princess Leia's Theme’, Benguitar90 (pseud.), uploaded 22 March, 2012, ‘Princess Leia’s Theme’ which is the basis for all themes within this motivic family, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UtkuZbcZORE>, accessed 4 May, 2018. ‘Star Wars V: The Empire Strikes Back - Han Solo and the Princess (Love Theme)’, Benguitar90 (pseud.), uploaded 22 March, 2012, The love them of Han Solo and Princess Leia which features the same Urmotiv and harmony as ‘Princess Leia’s Theme’, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Hg-sWWmIVY>, accessed 4 May, 2018. ‘Across The Stars - Anakin and Padme Love Theme’, DarkShiree90 (pseud.), uploaded 6 November, 2013, Love theme of Anakin and Padmé which features the minor Urmotiv as well as rhythmic similarities to the ‘Main Theme’, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aC8lR9M62iM>, accessed 4 May, 2018. ‘Star Wars Main Theme (Full)’, Coltrocks56 (pseud.), uploaded 21 July, 2012, the theme which opens all of Williams’s Star Wars films forms rhythmic basis for ‘Across the Star’ and intervallic basis for ‘Luke and Leia’, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_D0ZQPqeJkk>, accessed 4 May 2018. 46 ‘Star Wars VI: Return of the Jedi - Luke and Leia’, Benguitar90, uploaded 22 March, 2012, ‘Luke and Leia’s theme’ based on the interval of ‘Main Theme’ and harmony of ‘Princess Leia’s Theme’, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9HXwju2UXio>, accessed 4 May, 2012. ‘John Williams - The Supremacy (From "Star Wars: The Last Jedi"/Audio Only)’, DisneyMusicVEVO (pseud.), uploaded 14 December, 2017, ‘Princess Leia’s Theme’ appears for the first time in solo piano’, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qnQ779i3fDg&feature=youtu.be&t=146>, accessed 5 March, 2018 Leitmotifs from The Ring discussed: ‘1 Genesis or Nature : Der Ring Des Nibelungen’, Wagner Leitmotifs (pseud.), uploaded 7 August, 2013, The Nature motif from The Ring, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CzFdrDju4Zw&list=PL78TsyiiZjhGNlcivwjVsk_7tn6XG3wh>, accessed 4 May 2018. ‘37 Sword : Der Ring Des Nibelungen’, Wagner Leitmotifs (pseud.), uploaded 8 August, 2013, Siegfried’s sword motif from The Ring, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XhM5UkVVmxA>, accessed 4 May 2018. ‘53 Ride of the Valkyries : Der Ring Des Nibelungen’, Wagner Leitmotifs (pseud.), uploaded 15 August 2013, the motif of the Valkyries from The Ring <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSVv1uk57Jo>, accessed 4 May 2018. ‘73 Siegfried's Horn Call : Der Ring Des Nibelungen’, Wagner Leitmotifs (pseud.), uploaded 3 September, 2013, The motif of Siegfried’s horn from <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8UtqAwUVl00>, accessed 4 May, 2018. The Ring, 47 ‘100 Brunnhilde as Woman : Der Ring Des Nibelungen’, Wagner Leitmotifs (pseud.), uploaded 8 September, 2013, Brünnhilde’s love motif from The Ring, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8gAPeJATj8>, accessed 4 May, 2018. ‘Siegfried’s heroic deeds as the ever reborn spirit of youth (d65), Peter Billam, Siegfried’s heroic and youthful motif from The Ring, <http://www.pjb.com.au/mus/wagner/d65.mp3>, accessed 4 May, 2018. ‘39 Rhinemaidens' Lament : Der Ring Des Nibelungen’, Wagner Leitmotifs (pseud.), uploaded 15 September, 2013, Rhinemaidens sing motif of the Rhinegold, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3UxM0T84_OM>, accessed 4 May, 2018. ‘65 Siegfried : Der Ring Des Nibelungen’, Wagner Leitmotifs (pseud.), uploaded 15 August, 2013, Siegfried’s heroic motif from The <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PMFyRA_e3v8&list=PL78TsyiiZjhGNlcivwjVsk_7tn6XG3wh&index=68>, accessed 4 May, 2018. Ring, 48 Appendices: Appendix 1: A New Hope: ‘The Force Length/ Theme’: Instrument Context Joseph Type of Campbell’s Mutation Appearance/ Hero’s Key Journey 1 (F-sharp 2 phrases in French Leia hides plans Thematic minor) Horn in R2-D2 Fragmentation 2 (G minor) 2 phrases in Flute as Luke stares at the Prototype prelude. setting suns Followed 2 phrases by French Horn then in 2 phrases strings 3 (D minor) 2 phrases in French Introduction to Thematic Horn, 1 in Strings Ben Kenobi Fragmentation 4 (D-flat 2 phrases in French Explanation of The Call to Thematic minor) Horn the Force Adventure Fragmentation 5 (C minor) 2 phrases in Flute Luke declines to Refusal of the Textural Change go to save the Call Princess with Ben 6 (B-flat 2 hurried phrases in Luke rushes home Textural minor – French Horn to his bereaved Change E minor) followed by 2 String aunt and uncle phrases (over Dies Irae ostinato) 7 (G minor) 2 Phrases in French Luke accepts call Supernatural Thematic Horn. 2nd phrase to adventure Aid Truncation, transitions to major Harmonic Corruption 49 ‘The Force Length/ Theme’: Instrument Context Joseph Type of Campbell’s Mutation Appearance/ Hero’s Key Journey 8 (D-flat 1 Phrases in Flute Wide shot of Thematic desert town Fragmentation 2 phrases in Han is fired on as Textural Horn/Strings they prepare to Change, leave Thematic minor) 9 (F minor) Fragmentation 10 (D-flat 2 phrases strings Millennium The Crossing Textural minor) followed by Falcon escapes of the First Change, trumpets Tatooine Threshold Thematic Fragmentation 11 (G minor) 1 Phrase in Oboe Heroes Thematic emerge from Fragmentation hidden compartments 12 (F minor) 1 phrase in French Ben is murdered Thematic Horn (followed by by Darth Vader Truncation Luke mourns Ben Textural emotional transition into Leia’s theme) 13 (F-sharp 2 phrases oboe then minor) flute. Change, Followed by 1 horn Thematic phrase with Fragmentation contrapuntal strings echoing theme 14 (C minor) 2 phrases in trumpets Preparation to The Belly of Thematic (rhythm played attack the Death the Whale Fragmentation, straight – no triplets Star or dotted crotchets) Harmonic Corruption 50 ‘The Force Length/ Theme’: Instrument Context Joseph Type of Campbell’s Mutation Appearance/ Hero’s Key Journey 15 (F minor) 16 (G minor) 2 phrases in trumpets Luke’s ship is The Belly of and trombones damaged the Whale 2 phrases trumpets Luke is pursued The Belly of with rest of and then saved by the Whale brass/woodwind his friend Textural Change Textural Change contrapuntally 17 (F minor) 2 phrase of strings Luke hears the split in 8ves ghostly voice of Textural Change his mentor 18 (F minor) 4 phrases in brass Celebratory repeated march Textural change, The Empire Strikes Back: ‘The Force Length/ Theme’: Instrument Context Joseph Type of Campbell’s Mutation Appearance/ Hero’s Key Journey 1 (F minor) 1 phrase in solo horn Luke uses the Thematic Force (for the first Fragmentation time) to retrieve his lightsaber 2 (F-sharp 2 phrases in solo Ghostly Ben Thematic minor) horn. With appears to Luke Fragmentation, contrasting strings intruding Textural Change 51 ‘The Force Length/ Theme’: Instrument Context Joseph Type of Campbell’s Mutation Appearance/ Hero’s Key Journey 3 (A minor) 3 phrase in brass Empire invades Thematic rebel base, Han Fragmentation, and Leia prepare Textural to flee, Luke Changes destroys the Walker 4 (C minor) 1 phrase in horn Luke speaks to Thematic Artoo before Truncation Yoda appears 5 (C minor) 2 phrases in Ben communes to The Road of woodwinds Yoda through the Trials Texture Change Force 6 (F-sharp 2 phrases in Yoda scolds Thematic minor) woodwinds with Luke’s Truncation, strings recklessness, Ben Texture Change speaks again 7 (F minor) 2 phrases in flute Yoda speaks of Thematic visions, Luke sees Truncation his friends in pain 8 (F minor) 2 phrases in flute Ben appears as The Woman as Thematic Luke prepares to Temptress Fragmentation, leave, his training (temptation in Textural Change is unfinished this case is not caused by a woman, but by Luke’s fear of losing his friends) 52 ‘The Force Length/ Theme’: Instrument Context Joseph Type of Campbell’s Mutation Appearance/ Hero’s Key Journey 9 (G minor) 2 phrases prelude in Luke takes off, Textural horn, then 4 phrases leaving his Change in woodwind, master’s finished in low stings 10 (A minor) 11 (C minor) 4 phrases in lush Luke, in peril, strings, calls out to Leia followed by first for help through phrase in flute the Force 4 phrases in horns, Lando and followed by flute Chewbacca leave varied phrases Luke and Leia to Textural Change Apotheosis Textural Change Joseph Type of Campbell’s Mutation Appearance/ Hero’s (Bribitzer- Key Journey Stull)1 save Han. Luke gets a new hand Return of the Jedi: ‘The Force Length/ Theme’: Instrument 1 (B minor) 2 (C minor) 1 phrase in horns Context Luke momentarily Thematic delays the monster Fragmentation 2 phrases in solo Luke speaks with Textural change horn dying Yoda 53 ‘The Force Length/ Theme’: Instrument Context Joseph Type of Campbell’s Mutation Appearance/ Hero’s Key Journey 3 (C minor) 2 phrases in Yoda confirms Darth Thematic horns. Vader is Luke’s Truncation followed by 2 father oboe phrases 4 (C minor) 5 (C minor) 2 phrases in solo Yoda warns Luke Textural Change horn about the Emperor 2 phrases in flutes Yoda hints that Luke Harmonic has a sibling Corruption, Truncation 6 (G minor) 2 phrases in oboe Ben tells Luke about Harmonic Vader Corruption, Thematic Fragmentation, Textural Change 7 (C minor) 2 phrase in horn Luke senses his The Magic Textural followed by flute. father close by Flight Fragmentation Same phrases repeated again later 8 (D-flat 1 phrase in horn Luke levitates C- Thematic 3PO using the Force Fragmentation 1 phrase in C-3PO speaks of his Thematic piccolo adventures Fragmentation, minor) 9 (F minor) Textural Change 10 (D-flat 4 phrases in flute minor) 11 (B-flat minor) Luke and Leia speak Textural Change about their parents 2 phrases in flutes Luke tells Leia she’s Thematic his sister Fragmentation 54 ‘The Force Length/ Theme’: Instrument Context Joseph Type of Campbell’s Mutation Appearance/ Hero’s Key Journey 12 (G minor) 1 phrase in horn Luke speaks to his The Crossing Thematic father of the Return Fragmentation Threshold 13 (D-flat 1 phrase in flute minor) Luke fights his Thematic father Fragmentation, Harmonic Corruption 14 (B-flat 1 phrase in horn minor) Luke says he ‘feels Thematic the good’ in his Fragmentation father 15 (C minor) 1 phrase in horn, Luke refuses to kill Master of the Thematic echoed fragment his father Two Worlds Fragmentation, by flute Textural Change, Harmonic Corruption 16 (D-flat 2 rushed phrases Vader kills the Textural minor) in low brass Emperor Change, Thematic Fragmentation 17 (G minor) 4 phrases: 2 in Luke burns the Freedom to Return to elegiac horn, remains of his father Live Prototype model followed by 2 in with slight strings. Strings textural changes repeat 2 phrases and fade into other melody (prototypic instrumentation) 55 Appendix 2: The different stages of the Hero’s Journey from: Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (Third Edition) (California: New World Library, 2008). Part 1: Departure 1. The Call to Adventure 2. Refusal of the Call 3. Supernatural Aid 4. The Crossing of the First Threshold 5. The Belly of the Whale Part 2: Initiation 6. The Road of Trials 7. The Meeting with the Goddess 8. Woman as the Temptress 9. Atonement with the Father 10. Apotheosis 11. The Ultimate Boon Part 3: Return 12. Refusal of the Return 13. The Magic Flight 14. Rescue from Without 15. The Crossing of the Return Threshold 16. Master of the Two Worlds 17. Freedom to Live