Afetna Point, Saipan
Archaeological Investigations of a
Latte Period Village and Historic Context
in the Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands
Boyd Dixon, Cherie Walth,
Kathy Mowrer and Danny Welch
with contributions by
Access Archaeology
Isla Nelson and Robert Jones
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About Access Archaeology
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Afetna Point, Saipan
Archaeological Investigations of a
Latte Period Village and Historic Context
in the Commonwealth of the
Northern Mariana Islands
Boyd Dixon, Cherie Walth,
Kathy Mowrer and Danny Welch
with contributions by
Access Archaeology
Isla Nelson and Robert Jones
eop
cha r
y
olog Ar
Acces
ess
A
s Archae
Archaeopress Publishing Ltd
Summertown Pavilion
18-24 Middle Way
Summertown
Oxford OX2 7LG
www.archaeopress.com
ISBN 978-1-78969-176-4
ISBN 978-1-78969-177-1 (e-Pdf)
© the individual authors and Archaeopress 2019
Cover: Afetna Point to Agingan Point, Tinian in the background
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior
written permission of the copyright owners.
This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.com
Contents
Preface������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xi
Chapter 1 Introduction to Afetna Point on Saipan������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1
1.1. Afetna Point Then and Now ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
1.2. Afetna Point Archaeological Project��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3
Chapter 2 Environmental Context of Afetna Point������������������������������������������������������������������������� 7
2.1. Physical Environment��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
2.1.1 Geology��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
2.1.2 Soils���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
2.1.3. Precipitation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
2.1.4. Vegetation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
Chapter 3 Research Design and Methods Employed���������������������������������������������������������������������� 9
3.1. Research Objectives �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
3.2. Research Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
3.2.1 Pre-Latte Period Site��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
3.2.2 Latte Period Site���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
3.3. Methods������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
3.3.1. Field Methods�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
3.3.2. Data Recovery Excavation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
3.3.3 Laboratory Methods���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12
3.3.3.1. Artifact Analysis�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13
3.3.3.1.1 Ceramics�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13
3.3.3.1.2. Stone Artifacts��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14
3.3.3.1.3 Shell Artifacts ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14
3.3.3.1.4 Historic Artifacts�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
3.3.3.1.5 Faunal Analysis �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
Human Bone Analysis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
Specialized Analysis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
3.3.3.1.6. Radiocarbon Dating�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
3.3.3.1.7 Microfossil Analysis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
3.3.3.1.8 Pollen Analysis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
3.3.3.1.9 Phytolith Analysis���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
3.3.3.1.10 Starch and Other Plant Materials�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
3.4 Previous Archaeological Investigations near Afetna Point����������������������������������������������������������������������18
Chapter 4 Latte Period Village: Historic Context��������������������������������������������������������������������������26
4.1 Prehistoric Background����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26
4.2 Pre-Latte Period����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26
4.3 Latte Period�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31
4.4. Historic Background���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
4.4.1. Contact Period�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
4.4.2. Spanish Administration�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
4.4.3. German Administration�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
4.4.4. Japanese Administration������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35
4.4.5. American Administration����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������36
i
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������38
5.1 Data Recovery Excavation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������38
5.1.1. Features and their Contexts������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������38
5.1.2. Stratigraphic Context�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40
5.1.3. Site SP 1-1037�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
5.1.3.1. Feature 1��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
5.1.3.1.1 Feature 1 Test Pit 1������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������44
5.1.3.2 Feature 2���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46
5.1.3.2.1. Feature 2 Test Pit 1�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46
5.1.3.3. Feature 3��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������49
5.1.3.3.1. Feature 3 Test Pit 1�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������50
5.1.3.4. Feature 4��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������54
5.1.3.5. Feature 5��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������55
5.1.3.5.1. Feature 5 Test Pit 1�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56
5.1.3.6. Feature 7��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56
5.1.3.7. Feature 8��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56
5.1.3.7.1. Feature 8 Test Pit 1�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59
5.1.4 Artifacts�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������60
5.1.4.1. Groundstone Artifacts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������60
Adzes����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61
Pounders����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65
Grinders�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������67
Spheres/Ovoids�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68
Anvil�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69
Mortars and Basins�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69
Polishing Stones���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70
5.1.4.2. Coral Artifacts����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Abraders�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Pestle����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72
Bead������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72
5.1.4.3 Limestone Sling Stones��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72
Patterning of Lithic Artifacts at Parcel 004-1-52���������������������������������������������������������������������������������74
5.1.4.4. Marine Shell Artifacts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76
Adzes����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������76
Grater���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������77
Beads�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
Marine Shell Midden��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������79
5.1.4.5. Bone Artifacts�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80
5.1.4.6. Ceramics��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80
5.1.5. Faunal Bone Remains������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������86
5.2. Radiocarbon Dating����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������88
5.2.1. Research Questions and Interpretive Models�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������88
5.2.2. Materials and Analytical Methods��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������88
5.2.3. Radiocarbon Results��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������89
5.2.3.1. Feature 1��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������89
5.2.3.2. Feature 2��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
5.2.3.3. Feature 3��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
5.2.3.4. Feature 5��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
5.2.3.5. Feature 8��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
ii
5.2.3.6. Statistical Analyses of SP 1-1037 Radiocarbon Results��������������������������������������������������������������90
5.2.3.7. Discussion of Radiocarbon results������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������91
5.3. Microfossil Remains���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������91
5.3.1. Microfossil Results����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������92
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������94
6.1 Introduction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������94
6.1.1 Previous Osteological Investigations in Saipan�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������94
6.2 Assemblage characteristics���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������95
6.2.1 Preservation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������95
6.2.2 Calculations of Minimum Number of Individuals�������������������������������������������������������������������������������97
6.3. Paleodemography�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������97
6.3.1 Age and Sex Distribution�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������98
6.3.2 Abridged Life Table����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99
6.4 Morphology of the cranium and mandible�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101
6.4.1 Cranial and Mandibular Metric Data���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101
6.4.2 Cranial and Mandibular Nonmetric Data�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
6.5 Morphology of the postcranial remains���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107
6.5.1 Postcranial Metric Data for Adults������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������107
6.5.2 Estimated Stature for Adults����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109
6.5.3 Postcranial Nonmetric Data�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110
6.6 Dental Morphology and Pathologies���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������113
6.6.1 Dental Metric Data���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������113
6.6.2 Dental Nonmetric Data��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������116
6.6.3 Permanent Dentition�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������119
6.6.4 Linear Enamel Hypoplasias�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������120
6.6.5 Carious Lesions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������120
6.6.6 Abscesses�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������121
6.6.7 Antemortem Tooth Loss������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������121
6.6.8 Calculus����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������123
6.6.9 Periodontal Disease��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
6.6.10 Dental Attrition������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125
6.6.11 Betel Nut Staining��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������126
6.6.12 Deciduous Dentition����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������126
6.7 Skeletal Pathologies��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������126
6.7.1 Trauma�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������128
6.7.2 Treponematosis (Yaws)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������129
6.7.3 Osteoarthritis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������130
6.7.4 Vertebral Osteoarthritis������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������130
6.7.5 Degenerative Joint Disease������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������130
6.7.6 Pathologies of Unknown Etiology and Other Conditions����������������������������������������������������������������130
6.7.7 Pacchionian Pits ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������131
6.7.8 Squatting Facets�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������131
6.7.9 Unknown Etiology����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������131
6.7.10 Occipital Superstructures�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������132
6.8 Mortuary Analysis����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������132
6.8.1 Burial Orientation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������142
6.8.2 Burial Position and Placement�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������142
6.8.3 Grave Goods ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������142
6.8.4 Discussion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������143
iii
6.9 Conclusions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������145
6.9.1 Summary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������145
6.9.2 How do the individuals recovered compare to remains recovered from other sites?���������������146
Chapter 7 Discussion of Research Questions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������150
7.1 Pre-Latte Period��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������150
7.2 Latte Period�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������152
7.2.1 Does the patterning of Latte burials suggest locations of domestic residences (latte structures)?������164
7.2.2 What are the demographics of the burial population recovered?�������������������������������������������������165
7.2.3 What is the general health of this population?���������������������������������������������������������������������������������165
Chapter 8 Larger Research Implications�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������167
8.1 Latte Period Comparisons����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������167
Chapter 9 References Cited by Major Topics�������������������������������������������������������������������������������169
9.1 Archaeological and Historical References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������169
9.2 Osteological References ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������179
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List of Figures
Figure 1. Location of Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands�������������������������������������������������������������������������2
Figure 2. Project Location on Saipan��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3
Figure 3. Archaeological Inventory Survey Results�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Figure 4. Timeline for Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio, Saipan����������������������������������������������������������������������������5
Figure 5. Schematic of Construction Phases Across the Project Area�����������������������������������������������������������11
Figure 6. Clock Used to Measure Rim Orientation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13
Figure 7. Ceramic Vessel Forms in the Mariana Islands����������������������������������������������������������������������������������14
Figure 8. Kalabera Cave Latte sets�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Figure 9. Map of San Antonio Village Showing the Afetna Archaeological Site������������������������������������������21
Figure 10. TP Locations at Surf Hotel������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Figure 11. Burial Locations at the Surf Hotel�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23
Figure 12. Early Pre-Latte Coastline��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������29
Figure 13. Late Pre-Latte Coastline���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30
Figure 14. Latte Period Settlement Areas����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������32
Figure 15. Subsurface Prehistoric Remains Recorded during Data Recovery����������������������������������������������39
Figure 16. Location of Archaeological Sites and Features�������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Figure 17. Site SP 1-1037 with Features��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Figure 18. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 1, Plan View and Profile Photo�����������������������������������������������������������������44
Figure 19. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 1, Plan View and Profile View to west����������������������������������������������������45
Figure 20. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 2, Plan View to the West, Profile below on the Left�����������������������������47
Figure 21. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 2, Plan View and Profile to the Northeast����������������������������������������������48
Figure 22. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 3, Profile of TP1, View to the South��������������������������������������������������������50
Figure 23. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 3, TP1 Profile, South Wall�������������������������������������������������������������������������51
Figure 24. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 3, TP1 Plan View and Negative Shovel Test Pits�����������������������������������52
Figure 25. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 4, Profile with Complex Stratigraphy Below�����������������������������������������53
Figure 26. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 4, Profile of the North Wall�����������������������������������������������������������������������54
Figure 27. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 5, Profile of East Wall���������������������������������������������������������������������������������55
Figure 28. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 7, Plan View to the South��������������������������������������������������������������������������57
Figure 29. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 7, Plan View of Hearth�������������������������������������������������������������������������������58
Figure 30. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 8 Profile, View to the Northeast��������������������������������������������������������������59
Figure 31. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 8, Profile of North Wall�����������������������������������������������������������������������������60
Figure 32. Artifact Number 55.001, Basalt Adze, Ground Flat and Sharpened���������������������������������������������61
v
Figure 33. Artifact Number 139.001, Basalt Adze, Oval Shape with Use Wear on Bevele��������������������������61
Figure 34. Artifact Number 21.001 (left) and Artifact Number 17.001 (right) Basalt Adze������������������������65
Figure 35. Artifact Number 39.001, Basalt Pounder, Tear Drop Shaped Cobble with Use Wear���������������66
Figure 36. Artifact Number 46.001, Basalt Pounder, Oval Shaped Cobble with Use Wear�������������������������66
Figure 37. Artifact Number 13.001, Basalt Pounder, Rectangular Shaped Cobble���������������������������������������66
Figure 38. Artifact Number 166.001, Basalt Pounder, Conical Shaped Cobble with Use Wear������������������67
Figure 39. Artifact Number 164.001, Basalt Pounder, Oval Shaped Cobble with Use Wear�����������������������67
Figure 40. Artifact Number 171.001, Basalt Grinder, Oval Shaped Cobble with Use Wear�������������������������67
Figure 41. Artifact Number 175.001, Basalt Grinder, Oval Shaped Cobble with Use Wear�������������������������67
Figure 42. Artifact Number 167.001, Basalt Grinder, Oval Shaped Cobble with Use Wear�������������������������68
Figure 43. Artifact Number 176.001, Stone Sphere�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68
Figure 44. Artifact Number 173.001, Stone Sphere with Band around the Center��������������������������������������68
Figure 45. Artifact Number 177.001, Basalt Anvil with Chipping around Edges������������������������������������������69
Figure 46. Artifact Number 161.001, Basalt Mortar, Circular Shaped Ground Cobble��������������������������������69
Figure 47. Artifact Number 161.002, Basalt Mortar, Irregular Shaped Ground Cobble������������������������������69
Figure 48. Artifact Number 37.001, Basalt Mortar, Circular Shaped Ground Cobble����������������������������������70
Figure 49. Artifact Number 140.001, Basalt Polishing Stone, Oval Shaped Cobble��������������������������������������70
Figure 50. Artifact Number 19.001, Pitted Coral Abrader, Oval Shaped with Depressions�����������������������71
Figure 51. Artifact Number 132.001, Coral Pestle, Rectangular Shaped with Use Wear����������������������������72
Figure 52. Artifact Number 116.001, Fossilized Coral Bead, Polished and Drilled���������������������������������������72
Figure 53. Limestone and Basalt Sling Stones, Uniform to Irregular Shaped����������������������������������������������73
Figure 54. Artifact Numbers 42.001 and 149.001 (left to right), Tridacna Shell Adzes, Oval���������������������76
Figure 55. Artifact Numbers 149.002 and 44.001 and 149.001 (left to right), Chisels����������������������������������76
Figure 56. Artifact Number 150.001, Tridacna Shell Adze, Rectangular Shape Dorsal�������������������������������77
Figure 57. Artifact Number 18.001, Codakia punctata Shell Grater, Interior with Possible wear�������������77
Figure 58. Artifact Number 128.001, Three Spondylus Shell Beads, Drilled and Polished�������������������������78
Figure 59. Artifact Number 129.001, Nine Spondylus Shell Beads, Drilled and Polished���������������������������78
Figure 60. Artifact Number 121.001, Spondylus Shell Bead, Drilled and Polished, Exterior����������������������78
Figure 61. Marine Shell Midden (Artifact Number 183.001), Representative Shells�����������������������������������79
Figure 62. Artifact Number 75.001, Human Bone Spear Point������������������������������������������������������������������������80
Figure 63. Three Late Pre-Latte Period Sherds, Plain Carinated Body Sherd (Artifact Number
151.002) (top), Red-Slipped Body Sherd (Artifact Number 151.001) (bottom left), and Type A Rim
(Artifact Number 151.003) (lower right)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������84
Figure 64. Three Type A Late Pre-Latte Period Rim Sherds, Artifact Number 152.001 (upper center);
Artifact Number 152.002 (lower left); Artifact Number 152.003 (lower right)���������������������������������������85
Figure 65. Artifact Number 154.001, Type A Late Pre-Latte Period Jar Sherd, Exterior�����������������������������85
vi
Figure 66. Artifact Number 155.001, Type A Late Pre-Latte Period Bowl Sherd, Exterior�������������������������85
Figure 67. Artifact Number 157.001, Type A Late Pre-Latte Period Jar Sherd, Exterior�����������������������������85
Figure 68. Artifact Number 135.001, Type B Latte Period Rim Sherd Exterior, With Outward Curving
Neck��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������86
Figure 69. Artifact Number 153.001, Type B Latte Period Rim Jar Sherd Exterior��������������������������������������86
Figure 70. Two Type B Latte Period Jar Sherds, Exterior Rims, Artifact Number 133.001 (top),
Artifact Number 133.002 (bottom)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������86
Figure 71. Multi-plot of Calibrated Age Range Determinations from Site SP 1-1037����������������������������������89
Figure 72. Pollen Diagram from Site SP 1-1037 (++=small amount)��������������������������������������������������������������92
Figure 73. Phytolith and Starch Diagram from Site SP1-1037, Saipan (+ = found after count, ++ =
small amount, +++ = large amount)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������93
Figure 74. Copper tubing over the remains of Burial 36, with Burials 37 and 38 to left����������������������������95
Figure 75. Example of a burial represented by less than 25 percent of skeletal elements������������������������96
Figure 76. Example of a burial represented by approximately 80 percent of the skeletal elements�������96
Figure 77. Chart of age distribution for Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio��������������������������������������������������������100
Figure 78. Survivorship curve for all the Parcel 004-1-52 burials����������������������������������������������������������������100
Figure 79. Survivorship curve for the males and females in the Parcel 004-1-52 project area���������������100
Figure 80. Cranium of Burial 28, male, front view (on left); cranium of Isolated Find 1, female������������103
Figure 81. Burial 59, female, typical maxillary dentition������������������������������������������������������������������������������116
Figure 82. Burial 8, female, partial mandibular dentition�����������������������������������������������������������������������������116
Figure 83. Burial 36, male, partial maxillary dentition����������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
Figure 84. Burial 9, male, partial mandibular dentition��������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
Figure 85. Burial 28, male, view of LEH on incisors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������120
Figure 86. Burial 11, female, view of lower right molar 2 with large caries�����������������������������������������������121
Figure 87. Burial 28, male, with slight alveolar recession on maxilla and mandible��������������������������������124
Figure 88. Burial 8, female, with moderate alveolar recession on mandible��������������������������������������������124
Figure 89. Burial 37a, female, with severe alveolar recession on mandible����������������������������������������������124
Figure 90. Location of the burials recovered in the project area�����������������������������������������������������������������136
Figure 91. Burials in analysis areas 1 and 6������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������137
Figure 92. Burials in analysis areas 2 and 3������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������138
Figure 93. Burials in analysis area 4������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������139
Figure 94. Burials in analysis area 5������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������140
Figure 95. Burials in analysis areas 7 and 8������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������141
Figure 96. Schematic Cross-Sections of GTP Locations across the Western End of Parcel����������������������151
Figure 97. Schematic Cross-Sections of GTP Locations Across the Eastern End of Parcel�����������������������153
Figure 98. North to Southeast Cross-Section with GTP 3, GTP 4, and GTP 9 Soil Profiles������������������������154
vii
Figure 99. West to East Cross-Section with GTP 1, GTP 5, and GTP 9 Soil Profiles������������������������������������155
Figure 100. Southwest to Northeast Cross-Section with GTP 1, GTP 8, GTP 6, and GTP 7������������������������156
Figure 101. Diagnostic Shell Artifacts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������157
Figure 102. Diagnostic Basalt Artifacts�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������158
Figure 103. Diagnostic Ceramic Artifacts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������159
Figure 104. Hypothetical Latte Structure in Correlation with Burials 31 through 44������������������������������160
Figure 105. Hypothetical Latte Structure in Correlation with Burials 46 and 47��������������������������������������162
Figure 106. Hypothetical Latte Period Bonfire Pottery Kiln�������������������������������������������������������������������������163
viii
List of Tables
Table 1. Cultural Sequence for Afetna Site (Adapted from McGovern-Wilson 1989:26)����������������������������20
Table 2. Saipan Chronology����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27
Table 3. Archaeological Features Recorded during Excavation of the Property�����������������������������������������40
Table 4. Stratigraphic Summary of Feature 1 TP1 at ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46
Table 5. Stratigraphic Summary of Feature 2 TP1 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������47
Table 6. Stratigraphic Summary of Shovel Test Pits at Feature 3������������������������������������������������������������������49
Table 7. Stratigraphic Summary of Feature 3 TP1 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Table 8. Stratigraphic Summary of Feature 5 TP1 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������56
Table 9. Stratigraphic Summary of Feature 8 TP1��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������59
Table 10. Basalt Artifacts Collected from Site SP 1-1037����������������������������������������������������������������������������������62
Table 11. Coral Artifacts Recovered at Site SP 1-1037��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Table 12. Limestone Artifacts Recovered from Site SP 1-1037�����������������������������������������������������������������������73
Table 13. Frequency and Relative Percent of Stone Tools from Parcel 004-1-52����������������������������������������74
Table 14. Marine Shell Artifacts Recovered from Site SP 1-1037�������������������������������������������������������������������75
Table 15. Ceramics from Data Recovery Excavations at Site SP 1-1037��������������������������������������������������������81
Table 16. Faunal Bone Remains from Site SP 1-1037����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������87
Table 17. Radiocarbon Results from Site SP 1-1037������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������89
Table 18. Age Distribution for Parcel 004-1-52��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������98
Table 19. Sex and Age Distribution of Adolescents and Adults for Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio������������98
Table 20. Life Table for Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99
Table 21. Cranial Metric Data for Males and Females������������������������������������������������������������������������������������102
Table 22. Mandibular Metric Data for Males and Females����������������������������������������������������������������������������102
Table 23. Cranial and Mandibular Indices for Males and Females���������������������������������������������������������������103
Table 24. Cranial and Mandibular Nonmetric Traits for Adult Females, Males, and Individuals of
Indeterminate Sex������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������104
Table 25. Postcranial Metric Data for Females Males, and Indeterminate Sex������������������������������������������108
Table 26. Postcranial Indices for Females and Males�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109
Table 27. Stature Estimates for Males and Females from Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio �������������������������110
Table 28. Postcranial Metric Data for Infants and Children��������������������������������������������������������������������������110
Table 29. Nonmetric Postcranial Traits for Males, Females, and Adults of Indeterminate Sex��������������111
Table 30. Dental Measurements on Permanent Dentition by Sex����������������������������������������������������������������114
Table 31. Dental Nonmetric Traits by Sex��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
Table 32. Individual Occurrence of Carious Lesions by Sex��������������������������������������������������������������������������121
ix
Table 33. Individual Count of Antemortem Tooth Loss by Sex�������������������������������������������������������������������122
Table 33. Tooth Count of Carious Lesions by Sex�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������121
Table 34. Individual Count of Antemortem Tooth Loss by Age�������������������������������������������������������������������122
Table 35. Antemortem Tooth Loss by Tooth for the Parcel 004-1-52 Site Assemblage����������������������������122
Table 36. Individual Count of Calculus by Sex�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������123
Table 37. Individual Count of Calculus by Age������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������123
Table 38. Calculus by Tooth for the Parcel 004-1-52 Site Assemblage���������������������������������������������������������123
Table 39. Attrition by Tooth and Sex����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������125
Table 40. Skeletal Pathologies Summarized by Burial�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������127
Table 41. Burials with DJD, Parcel 004-1-52�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������130
Table 42. List of Burials including Age, Sex, Orientation, Placement, Position, and Grave Items����������133
Table 43. Density of Burials within Each Analysis Area���������������������������������������������������������������������������������135
Table 44. Subadult to Adult Frequency within Each Burial Cluster Area���������������������������������������������������135
Table 45. Frequency of Females, Males, and Indeterminate Sex for Each Analysis Area, Parcel 004-152, San Antonio�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������135
Table 46. Orientation for Burials from Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio ��������������������������������������������������������142
Table 47. Summary of Burial Placement for Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio������������������������������������������������142
Table 48. Comparison of Parcel 004-1-52 with Key Traits of Sundadonts and Sinodonts������������������������146
Table 49. Comparative Assemblages from Saipan and Guam�����������������������������������������������������������������������147
Table 50. Age, Sex Profiles, and Life Expectancy for Comparative Assemblages and Parcel 004-1-52��148
Table 51. Stature Calculations for Parcel 004-1-52 and Comparative Assemblages����������������������������������148
Table 51. Tooth Summary Data for Parcel 004-1-52 and Comparative Assemblages��������������������������������148
Table 52. Linear Enamel Hypoplasia in Parcel 004-1-52 and Comparative Assemblages�������������������������148
x
Preface
This book is based on research conducted by Cardno GS between 2014 and 2017 during archaeological
inventory survey and data recovery excavations at Parcel 004-I-52 in San Antonio, Saipan, in the
Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI). Preliminary results have been presented at the
2nd and 3rd Annual Marianas History Conferences held in Saipan and are available to the public via
www.Guampedia.com. Rosanna Barcinas is especially thanked for coordination and inspiration to make
these events and their contributions a reality.
The authors would like to acknowledge the following individuals and their institutions on Saipan for their
continued support. At N15 Architects, Andrew Ashburn, Chris Fryling, and Catherine Shai maintained
an open door policy with staff archaeologists. At Honest Profit International Ltd. (HPIL), Peter Che was
instrumental in keeping staff archaeologists in the loop with Win Win Way’s project manager Elaine
Kwok and their construction scheduling. They ensured access to Hofschneider Engineering and project
biologist and permit facilitator John Gourley.
The CNMI Historic Preservation Office (HPO) with Mertie Kani and her staff archaeologists coordinated
their permitting requirements with project staff and the Japanese Consulate in a changing economic
climate and Typhoon Soudelor. HPO staff archaeologists Erik Lash, Jennings Bunn, and Jim Pruitt helped
guide the data recovery and laboratory analyses at critical junctures, and HPO review board members
Dr. Hiro Kurashina and Don Farrell and especially Dr. Mike Carson, offered advice when sorely needed.
Former San Antonio resident Robert Hunter at the Department of Community and Cultural Affairs
(DCCA), welcomed staff archaeologists on more than one occasion and shared the CNMI Museum’s
guidelines plus childhood stories of the property.
John Scott of AMPROUXO graciously gave field staff an unexploded ordnance safety brief. Win Win
Way safety officer Ponce Raza helped establish almost daily contact with the CNMI police department
for removal of World War II era combat ordnance. Spontaneous encounters with Scott Russell of the
CNMI Humanities Council also provided focus and context to almost daily surprises in the field, as
did conversations with colleague Dr. Mike Dega at Scientific Consulting Services, Lon Bulgrin of Naval
Facilities Engineering Command Marianas, the late Carmen Sanchez, and Sam McPheters.
SWCA staff osteologist, Kathy Mowrer, shared the challenges of fieldwork and always reported with
a smile for everyone. Cherie Walth of SWCA crafted an excellent burial report out of hours of sand
and sweat and sun. Dr. Mark Horrocks of Microfossil Research Ltd conducted microfossil identification
from five subsistence features containing charcoal radiocarbon dated by Beta Analytic. Judy Amesbury
of Micronesian Archaeological Research Services helped identify midden shell and tools, and Darlene
Moore discussed the complexity of late Pre-Latte ceramics from the perspective of Chalan Piao. Dr. Jolie
Liston discussed aspects of feasting in relation to cooking features at the site. Joe Garido and Joe Quinata
also discussed alternative uses of dogas shells in earth oven cooking and traditional Chamorro place
names, while Moneka de Oro discussed use of stone tools in traditional herbal medicine.
Cardno GS staff included project manager Todd McCurdy in Honolulu and Terry Rudolph in Boise, Guam
archaeologists Rick Schaefer, Jacy Moore, and Brent Coffman, plus Saipan archaeologist John Castro.
Boise based Cardno GS archaeologists Isla Nelson and Robert Jones shouldered much of the manuscript
generation, while Dr. Danny Welch calibrated radiocarbon dates and integrated microfossil results and
ground stone tools into the text. The opinions presented herein do not reflect those of Cardno GS, its
subconsultants, the CNMI HPO, or HPIL and the senior author is responsible for all errors in reporting
and interpretation.
xi
The Procedures for the Treatment of Human Remains adopted by the CNMI in 1999 were followed during
data recovery excavation, analysis, and reporting. Only selected photographs from analysis are included
in this book as per HPO consultation. No photographs of excavated remains in the field are presented.
Human remains were not removed from the island and are temporarily curated at the CNMI Museum of
Culture and History pending reburial consultation with the Chamorro community, the HPO and DCCA,
and HPIL.
This book is dedicated to the people of San Antonio, past and present, who have endured yet another
disaster from Typhoon Yutu to become even more resilient.
xii
Chapter 1
Introduction to Afetna Point on Saipan
1.1. Afetna Point Then and Now
When Spanish Captain General Ferdinand Magellan (Portuguese born Fernando de Magallanes) first
anchored off the island of Guam in 1521, the inhabitants of the small Latte Period village at Afetna Point
on the southwest coast of Saipan (Figure 1.1-1) some 218 kilometers (km) or 135 miles (mi) north were
likely unaware. News from their Chamorro cousins to the south soon reached their shores probably
along with iron nails, glass beads, and other objects of trade from the rather rude visitors.
Subsequent shipwrecks during the Manila Galleon trade period between the Philippines and Acapulco
in Mexico (1565-1815) and the eventual arrival of Spanish missionaries and their military in 1668
would change that splendid isolation. Archaeological investigations of the Afetna Point village yielded
traditional Latte Period burials, cooking features, ceramics, stone and shell tools, datable charcoal, and
microfossils from food remains and fuel dating from the 1400s before Magellan’s arrival to the early
1700s a century or more later, as well as Pre-Latte Period remains perhaps dating to A.D. 500-1000 or
earlier. Examination of deeper excavations suggests the property may not have been habitable when sea
levels were higher prior to 500 B.C. and at the arrival of the first Austronesian settlers a millenium or
two earlier circa 1500 B.C. as indicated at other landward sites nearby.
No direct evidence of foreign Contact before Spanish occupation of the Mariana Islands in 1668 and the
forced abandonment of Chamorros from Saipan during La Reduccion circa 1730 was encountered at the
site, after which time the island remained virtually empty until the arrival of Carolinian and Chamorro
settlers from Guam nearly a century later circa 1815. Spanish resettlement until 1898 (the SpanishAmerican War), the German occupation from 1898-1914 World War One (WWI), and the Japanese
sugarcane period from 1914-1944 World War Two (WWII) left few traces on property which was located
at some distance from the few population centers on the island to the north. However, the construction
of a concrete Japanese ammunition magazine just before the war brought home the reality of global
conflict to the native and immigrant residents, even if it was not obviously defended. Strongpoints were
established at Agingan Point just to the south and measured targets were flagged in the lagoon for use
during the American invasion.
On June 15, 1944, the location was called Yellow Beach 2 by the U.S. Marines and Army infantry
braving Japanese artillery to establish a beachhead before capturing As Lito airfield (today Isely Field
International Airport) the following day. The beachhead then served as a resupply landing for the
next week or two as U.S. Marines and Army Infantry took the battle east and north to slowly clear the
island of enemy strongpoints, and removed battle weary and wounded to off-shore medical treatment.
An inventory survey in 2014 recorded post-war U.S. Coast Guard Loran Station buildings and antenna
support structures, and a modern boxing rink and fruit stand built upon post-WWII era structural
remains. Excavation in 2015 yielded subsurface remains of the late prehistoric village around a deep
sand mine from the 1980s. Archaeological lab work conducted during 2017 yielded a complex record
of this long history, from Pre-Latte artifacts and Latte Period features and burials to WWII Japanese
war casualties, American combat weapons and discarded field gear, unexploded ordnance, and postwar disturbances.
1
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 1. Location of Saipan in the Northern Mariana Islands
2
Chapter 1 Introduction to Afetna Point on Saipan
Afetna Point has long been an idyllic landscape punctuated by episodes of intense struggle on a global
scale for Saipan over centuries if not millennia, perhaps beginning nearby circa 1500 B.C. with initial
settlement of the archipelago. Today regional competition for Asian tourism and American military
investment makes Saipan and its neighbors once again a nexus of geopolitical struggle, but its prehistory
has deep roots that tie the Mariana Islands and its modern culture to ancestral island SE Asia. Afetna
Point contributes to this story and leaves the visitor captivated by its beauty today as it did in the past.
This book presents the results of the first half of this story, that of the late prehistoric or Latte Period
village at the site and its historic context. Remains of the equally prolific WWII invasion beach site will
have to await another telling.
1.2. Afetna Point Archaeological Project
The Afetna Point Archaeological Survey and Data Recovery Project was conducted by Cardno GS for
Honest Profit Limited International (HPIL) of Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China, in support of a
proposed resort development at Parcel 004-I-052 in San Antonio, Saipan (Figure 1), Commonwealth
of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI). The CNMI Historic Preservation Office (HPO) identified the
project area as having a high potential for encountering significant archaeological and historical
resources. Previous investigations reported subsurface archaeological deposits on the property, it is
located on a National Historic Landmark WWII American invasion beach, and supported a USCG Long
Range Navigation (LORAN) Station used from 1944 to 1978.
Figure 2. Project Location on Saipan
3
Figure 3. Archaeological Inventory Survey Results
Afetna Point, Saipan
4
Chapter 1 Introduction to Afetna Point on Saipan
PARCEL 004-1-52 TIMELINE
Marianas Claimed
For Spain
First Archaeological
Evidence of Settlement
1500
B.C.
1500
B.C.
1565
0
Pre-Latte
Period
Spanish
Settle Guam
1668
1600
1500
A.D.
Reduccion
Spanish
American
War
WWl WWll
1898
1914 1944
1700
1700
Latte Period
1800
Spanish Period
Feature
1-3
Feature
8
1900
German
2000
Japanese
American
Feature
5
Site 1036
Site 1037
Sites
1035
1038
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND FEATURES
Figure 4. Timeline for Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio, Saipan
The proposed resort development measured approximately 40,827 square meters (439,458 square feet),
or 4.09 hectares (10.1 acres). It is situated immediately north of the Pacific Islands Club, bounded to
the east by Beach Road (Figure 2), to the west by the Lagunan Garapan and Philippine Sea coast at Unai
Afetna, and to the north by residential neighborhoods and San Antonio Middle School. In 1987, a sand
mining project removed an unknown number of prehistoric human remains from the east half of the
parcel, in an area measuring approximately 0.91 hectares (2.25 acres).
In 2015, Cardno GS completed an Archaeological Inventory Survey report of the project area that
included National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) significance evaluations at four surface sites
(Figures 3 and 4) with recommendations for their treatment (Dixon and McCurdy 2015a). The four
archaeological sites were assigned permanent numbers by the CNMI HPO: SP 11037 is a subsurface
cultural horizon with prehistoric remains; SP 5-1036 is a WWII Japanese ammunition magazine; SP
6-1035 is the remains of the WWII and Cold War USCG LORAN station; and SP 6-1038 is a modern
concrete pad for a boxing rink and then a fruit stand formerly on the west side of Beach Road, with a
WWII buried structural component.
The overall strategy employed during 2015 data recovery fieldwork and 2017 labwork, after consultation
with CNMI HPO (Dixon and McCurdy 2015b and 2015c), consisted of implementing three phases of
investigation. This strategy involved a combination of mechanical excavation conforming to the project
5
Afetna Point, Saipan
engineering design including large scale vegetation clearing, global positional system (GPS) recording
of all significant artifacts and features including burials, and manual excavations targeting features
found to have intact remains for radiocarbon dating and microfossil analyses.
All activities outlined in this project complied with pertinent sections of the National Historic
Preservation Act (NHPA) and associated 36 Code of Federal Regulations Part 800, as well as with CNMI
Public Law 3-39 and in accordance with 55-10-725 Standards for Excavation Permits. The Content, Format,
and Submission Standards for Final Reports of Archaeological Projects in the CNMI. When human remains
were encountered the Procedures for the Treatment of Human Remains adopted by the CNMI in 1999 were
followed.
All excavations, testing, and reporting relating to cultural resources in the form of archaeological sites,
features, structures, artifacts, and human remains were carried out under the supervision of Cardno GS
senior archaeologist Boyd Dixon, Ph.D. meeting the professional qualifications found in the Secretary of
Interior Professional Qualification Standards, 48 Federal Register 44716.
6
Chapter 2
Environmental Context of Afetna Point
2.1. Physical Environment
2.1.1 Geology
The southern portion of Saipan, including the development parcel and the village of San Antonio,
has broad, level lowlands formed of limestone terraces and accretional beach sand deposits with fault
ridges that rise from Agingan Point toward the slopes of Mount Tapotchau at the center of the island
(Young 1989) behind Lake Susupe and its surrounding marsh. The western coastal plain ranges from 100
meters (328.1 feet) wide near Puntan Agingan to 1 kilometer (0.62 mile) wide behind Lake Susupe, with
extensive beaches protected by a shallow fringing reef that ends approximately 1 kilometer (0.62 mile)
south of Afetna Point and the proposed project area.
2.1.2 Soils
The project area is located within Shioya loamy sand, 0 to 3 percent slopes. This type of soil is very
deep, excessively drained, and is located on coastal strands. It was formed in water-deposited coral
sand in areas that are typically long, narrow, and parallel to the shoreline. The surface layer is typically
a very dark gray loamy sand and is approximately 19 centimeters (7.5 inches) thick. Below this layer
is a very pale brown sand that extends to a depth of approximately 160 centimeters (63 inches) below
surface. Cemented sand, coral rubble, or porous bedrock is situated below the sand at more than 150
centimeters (59.1 inches) below the surface. This soil has a rapid permeability, the water capacity is
low, the runoff is slow, and there is a slight hazard of water erosion. Shioya loamy sand is best suited for
urban development and not for farming or grazing (Young 1989).
2.1.3. Precipitation
The climate of Saipan is warm and humid throughout the year when daytime temperatures usually
climb to about 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit) with a relative humidity level of about 70
percent. Nighttime temperatures fall to about 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees Fahrenheit) with a relative
humidity of about 90 percent. The mean average temperature is about 27 degrees Celsius (80.6 degrees
Fahrenheit). Saipan rainfall has a monsoonal pattern, averaging 230 centimeters (90.6 inches) annually.
It is highest during the months between July and November when it averages about 24 to 34 centimeters
(9.4 to 13.4 inches) per month. Rainfall averages about 8 to 10 centimeters (3.1 to 3.9 inches) per month
between December and June (Young 1989). West to northwest moving storm systems and typhoons
bring heavy showers and occasional torrential downpours. During the survey and data recovery field
seasons from December 2014 to July 2015, it was apparent that southwestern Saipan lies in a partial
rainshadow from Mount Tapachau during prevailing trade winds, such that clouds and rain form in the
afternoons to the north but less regularly drift over the coastal plain toward Agingan Point and Tinian.
2.1.4. Vegetation
The mixed secondary forest in the project area was characterized by project biologist John Gourley
as intermittent high cover of lebbeck trees (Albizia sp.; kalaskas in Chamorro [hereafter referred to as
lebbeck trees]) combined with tangantangan (Leucaena leucocephala [hereafter referred to as tangantangan]).
Stands of ironwoods (Casuarina equisetifolia; gagu in Chamorro [hereafter referred to as ironwoods]) line
7
Afetna Point, Saipan
the shoreline areas immediately beyond the western boundary. A few coconut palms (Cocos nucifera;
niyok in Chamorro [hereafter referred to as coconut palms]), Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia; noni in
Chamorro [hereafter referred to as Indian mulberry]), and papaya (Carica papaya) also Iay within the
project area. The mosaic of open field habitat consisted of typical weeds, grasses, ferns, and vines. At
the bottom of the sand mining areas, within the eastern half of the project area, were stands of giant or
elephant ear taro (Alocasia macrorrhizos; piga in Chamorro [hereafter referred to as giant ear taro]). The
majority of the vegetation appeared to be secondary or tertiary growth that encroached into the site
following abandonment of the historic and modern use of the area by the U.S. Coast Guard and more
recent sand-mining activity in the late 1980s.
8
Chapter 3
Research Design and Methods Employed
3.1. Research Objectives
Where not disturbed by the modern sand borrowing activities, previous archaeological investigations
(Graves 1987) and those to the south in the Pacific Islands Club property (McGovern-Wilson 1989),
strongly suggested that Latte Period burials and habitation features were present in the middle of the
proposed development property to a depth of at least 1 meter (3.3 feet). Specialized methods were used
to evaluate these possible horizons and their remains, and they are identified below.
•• Radiocarbon dating of sealed contexts was paired with the identification of wood charcoal
submitted for C14 assay to determine the chronological sequence of occupation at the property;
and
•• Pollen, phytolith, and starch residue analysis of soils from sealed contexts was used to determine
the range of subsistence activities and plant or animal use by former occupants.
Given current understanding of Pre-Latte Period site formation processes on Saipan (Butler and DeFant
1994; Carson 2008, 2014), including cemented sandstone deposits at depths greater than 1.5 meters
(4.9 feet) in some locations (i.e. Carson and Peterson 2011, 2012), deeper excavations were needed to
demonstrate that evidence of earlier Pre-Latte occupation prior to A.D. 1000 was not present in the
eastern edge of the property. In addition to the methods above, the following techniques were used to
assess Pre-Latte Period contexts:
•• Cross-sections of the property were compiled using mapped profiles from linear excavations in
a roughly north to south and east to west orientation to reconstruct the formation of the site
during and before the cultural horizons encountered in data recovery excavations.
In the western portion of the property adjacent to the modern coast, Latte Period Chamorro human
remains, disturbances from Japanese agriculture, evidence of WWII combat with unmarked burials
or UXO, and USCG LORAN Station modifications were expected. Evidence of more recent natural
events such as typhoons was expected. Determination of time period and ethnicity for human burials
encountered during data recovery excavations were enabled by contextual information (associated
artifacts and archival information) by completing these methods:
•• Osteological analyses were undertaken of all human remains to determine minimum number of
individuals, age, gender, and paleopathology.
3.2. Research Questions
Pre-Latte and Latte Period archaeological remains on the proposed development property and in the
vicinity, stood in contrast to the somewhat limited archival evidence of early Spanish Contact occupation
and land use on the southwestern corner of Saipan. Research issues that could be realistically addressed
by the data recovery investigation of the property were therefore determined to some degree by sealed
contexts found with materials for possible analysis exposed during the archaeological inventory survey
(Dixon and McCurdy 2015a), and included addressing the following questions for each time period after
a brief introduction. Research objectives and questions relating to the sparse early historic record and
far more prolific WWII and post-war periods are addressed in the larger technical report (Dixon and
McCurdy 2015b and c) and in future publications.
9
Afetna Point, Saipan
3.2.1 Pre-Latte Period Site
The project area appeared to be situated near the hypothetical late Pre-Latte Period shoreline,
which was projected to lie just east of Beach Road near the 10 meter (32.8 foot) topographic contour
(McGovern-Wilson 1989). Late to Transitional Pre-Latte ceramics were found west of Beach Road in
contexts sometimes mixed with Latte Period remains (Graves 1987).
Research Question 1: Could the pro-graded late Pre-Latte Period shoreline and back dune aquatic environments
be identified by sealed cultural deposits within the project area, and if so what could their analysis say about
land use and marine exploitation prior to A.D. 1000?
3.2.2 Latte Period Site
Much stronger evidence existed for Latte Period occupation on the proposed property and in the
vicinity in the form of a dark organic cultural horizon located not far beneath the present surface at
site SP 1-1037. There were human burials, cooking features, and artifacts suggesting a range of domestic
activities as might be expected of a small village or extended family residential area. What was often
missing from this reconstruction was evidence of actual latte sets or traditional house remains generally
associated with such sites at the time of Spanish Contact and earlier (Russell 1998).
Research Question 2: Could Latte Period habitation structures and use areas in SP 1-1037 be identified from
patterned subsurface features or near more ephemeral structures and could middens be identified and dated in
their vicinity?
Research Question 3: Could Latte Period burials, often found beneath and around these types of habitation
structures, be identified in SP 1-1037 and examined to reconstruct the demographics and health of the local
community after A.D. 1000?
3.3. Methods
3.3.1. Field Methods
The technical approach to data recovery fieldwork, as approved in the Work Plan (Dixon and McCurdy 2015b)
and presented in the End of Fieldwork letter report (Dixon and McCurdy 2015c), consisted of three phases:
1) archaeological monitoring of security fenceline construction, 2) monitoring of vegetation grubbing and
clearing, and 3) data recovery during mechanical excavation, supplemented by manual excavations and
sampling of exposed prehistoric features and cultural strata. At the beginning of mechanical excavation,
Win Win Way construction engineers provided archaeologists with a rough map of four proposed preconstruction phases (Figure 5) for deployment of pile drivers and heavy equipment. Hoffschneider
Engineering surveyors also staked basic building footprints to facilitate excavation placement according
to their priorities. These four areas were used to identify features in the field and separate those of similar
function found in other parts of the construction site. Phase 1 construction comprised the north and
south hotel blocks, swimming pools, and villas in the western half of the property. Phase 2 construction
encompassed the access road located near the Middle School, and Phase 3 construction included the access
road to the front gate along Beach Road near the northeast corner of the property. Phase 4 construction
comprised the southeastern boundary of the property from the former USCG buildings to Beach Road.
3.3.2. Data Recovery Excavation
The data recovery investigation was conducted in a controlled fashion within linear excavations oriented
parallel to each other with adjacent corridors for safe machine placement and transit, varying from 2
10
Chapter 3 Research Design and Methods Employed
Figure 5. Schematic of Construction Phases Across the Project Area
to 5 meters in width. Configurations and orientations of these excavations varied given the constraints
imposed by heavy equipment staging during data recovery and the necessity to backfill open excavations
daily for safety purposes. A welded metal plate covered the teeth of the 1-meter (3.3-foot) and 1.5meter
(4.9-foot) wide excavator buckets to avoid damage to sensitive cultural deposits. One archaeologist
was assigned to closely monitor each earthmoving machine while another archaeologist inspected the
back dirt for cultural remains, both stopping the machine to record any features or signficant artifacts
exposed or suspected. Cultural features such as prehistoric dogas ovens and hearth complexes were
exposed in their greatest expanse to be mapped, and then assigned a unique feature number and prefix
denoting the area of the site, as defined by project engineers (i.e. North Hotel Feature 1), before manual
recording and excavation. Typically Test Pits (TPs) were excavated within these features, measuring
from 20 by 20 centimeters (7.9 by 7.9 inches) to 1 by 1 m (39.3 by 39.3 inches), to extract sealed C14 and
microfossil soil samples plus a representative sample of artifacts and shell midden if present.
Depths of mechanical excavation varied depending on safe proximity to underground utilities or
UXO and depth of cultural deposits. The investigation began by carefully exposing the previously
identified prehistoric cultural horizon and features rarely deeper than 30 centimeters (11.8 inches)
below the disturbed ground surface, especially on the west half of the property subject to heavy WWII
bombardment, mechanized invasion, and subsequent resupply activities. Specific attention was given to
record any significant WWII material or historic features observed above or within the known cultural
horizon. Excavation then continued until at least 50 centimeters (19.7 inches) of undisturbed sterile
sand or the water table was exposed below the cultural horizon.
11
Afetna Point, Saipan
While depth of excavation generally totaled at least 1 meter (3.3 feet) deep in the western half of the
property, depths sometimes exceeded 2 meters (6.6 feet) where WWII combat remains were buried after
the invasion or where prehistoric dogas marine shell ovens were encountered. Depth of excavation in
the eastern half of the property was commonly 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) due to one or more layers of crushed
limestone paving and sand mine overburden. No prehistoric cultural remains were encountered below
1.2 meters (3.9 feet) deep in the east although trenching sometimes exceeded 2 meters (6.6 feet) where
WWII combat remains were buried. The water table was encountered at the base of the sand mine,
roughly 3 meters (9.8 feet) or less with prolonged rainfall, with no deeper cultural horizons observed
during archaeological monitoring of geophysical testing in the survey phase of investigation or data
recovery (Dixon and McCurdy 2015a). This water table proved to be the approximate sea level after
comparison of mechanical excavations conducted before data recovery.
A sample of in situ diagnostic artifacts, including the majority of prehistoric subsistence remains (stone
and shell tools and diagnostic pottery) and WWII combat remains (military equipment and supplies),
were collected to characterize the deposits and features encountered during excavtion. Samples of intact
prehistoric cooking and refuse disposal features were recorded in situ and collected by hand for further
analysis such as pollen or phytolith identification, radiocarbon dating, and organic residue on charred
ceramics. Artifacts and samples to be submitted for special analysis were temporarily housed in an onsite container and then curated at the CNMI Museum of History and Culture after analysis. All human
remains were mapped/recorded in situ by GPS and photography or sketch mapping before manual
excavation and removal for analysis, depending on the degree of disturbance and disarticulation.
When significant cultural deposits were found in manual excavation units, profiles of exposed features
and representative stratigraphy were drawn and photographed. Scaled illustrations and textual
descriptions were also prepared. Photographs included a vertical or horizontal scale and a photo
log was compiled with the date, photographer, direction of view, and subject of the image. Profiles
or plan views showed the stratigraphic layers and horizontal positions of diagnostic artifacts, intact
features, and samples removed for analysis. The stratigraphy matched the geotechnical excavations
previously conducted during the pedestrian survey (Dixon and McCurdy 2015a); therefore, profiles were
photographed but not drawn of the excavations that did not have significant cultural deposits. In cases
where features below 1 meter (3.3 feet) in depth were encountered in loose shifting sands, with heavy
equipment passing dangerously close, profiles were drawn but excavation faces were not thoroughly
cleaned before final photography. Attempts to do otherwise were quickly discontinued for crew safety
after profile collapse was noted.
Soils were described using standard archaeological nomenclatures including the Munsell color.
Subsurface features, artifacts, test units, and human remains were mapped by a survey-grade (submeter accuracy) Trimble XE GPS, with a unique reference number. Pertinent information was recorded
in the GPS data dictionary and in field notebooks or standard forms. GPS data were compiled in Universal
Transverse Mercator Zone 55 North, using the World Geodetic Survey 1984 datum to conform to existing
GIS data currently used by the CNMI HPO.
3.3.3 Laboratory Methods
Artifacts and midden deposits were washed and separated by material category. All resulting categories
were quantified, described, and photographed where appropriate to characterize the assemblages.
Field catalog artifact, bag and box numbers, and provenience information were maintained for each
separated material group in clearly labeled bags. Appendix A includes the results of the artifact
inventory and identification, including samples retrieved for specialized analyses and then curated
for future research.
12
Chapter 3 Research Design and Methods Employed
3.3.3.1. Artifact Analysis
3.3.3.1.1 Ceramics
In the laboratory, diagnostic pottery sherds were sorted by size and condition. The recorded information
for the analyzed sherds included data regarding the following attributes: vessel part, rim type, rim
orientation, surface treatment, temper inclusions, rim and wall thickness, and weight.
Sherds were identified according to their vessel part, such as wall, base, or rim. Rims were identified
according to two of the major rim forms originally developed by Spoehr (1957): Type A and Type B. The
lips of Pre-Latte Type A rims have the same thickness or are thinner than the vessel wall and frequently
close to vertical. The lips of the Latte Period Type B rims are wider than the vessel wall and frequently
inverted. While both unthickened (Type A) and thickened (Type B) rim types occur through time in
the Northern Marianas, Type A rims were nearly replaced by Type B rims by the beginning of the Latte
Period. Information about rim orientation employed categories described by Sant and Lebetski (1988),
as incurving or vertical. Rim orientation is identified in Figure 6.
Estimated diameter of the vessel orifice (opening) was determined by placing the rim on a graph of
concentric rings separated by distances of 5 millimeters (0.2 inches). In this collection, only a few rims
were large enough to provide an estimate of orifice diameter.
A sherd was classified as a base if it was thick and curved, tho early vessel types were frequently quite
thin. Many thick (13 to 17 millimeters [0.51 to 0.67 inch]) sherds that probably derived from the lower
portions of the globular Latte Period pots were not classified as base sherds because they lacked
curvature. Figure 7 illustrates vessel forms commonly found in the Northern Mariana Islands.
Exterior surface treatment was determined by inspecting each diagnostic sherd and classifying it
according to one of the categories previously established for the Northern Marianas. Sherds were coded
as plain if some attempt had been made to achieve a smooth surface, rough plain if the thickness of the
sherd varied and the surface was irregular, boldly combed when a regular pattern of grooves and ridges
was noted, faintly combed when the grooves and ridges were very shallow, randomly grooved when the
grooves and ridges overlapped, and
wiped/brushed when short (at least 1
centimeter [0.39 inch] long) irregular
drag channels were observed. Sherds
were coded as punctate if the surface
had often circular indentations.
Latte Period vessels on Saipan
were characteristically plain with
little surface treatment, unlike
contemporaneous vessels on Guam
with a greater degree of surface
treatment.
The analysis of temper was
accomplished by observing a freshly
broken section of a sherd with a 10x
lens. When green, black, gray, and
occasional white inclusions were
noted, the sherd was classified
Figure 6. Clock Used to Measure Rim Orientation
13
Afetna Point, Saipan
as volcanic sand temper or
calcareous. In addition to volcanic
or calcareous inclusions, some
sherds also contained small bits
of quartz. On Saipan Pre-Latte
ceramics are more likely to have
calacreous sands than later Latte
Period vessels.
Information about thickness was
obtained by measuring each sherd
with calipers. Thickness values
to the nearest millimeter were
recorded. Because the range of
Type B rim thickness increased
over time during the Latte Period,
rim thickness indicated something
about the relative age of the site,
and the shapes of the pots used.
3.3.3.1.2. Stone Artifacts
Figure 7. Ceramic Vessel Forms in the Mariana Islands
Stone artifacts were described in
terms of material type and form.
Measureable attributes included
length, width, thickness, weight, and
alterations to the traditional artifact
surface. Attempts were made to
assess artifact functions based on
knowledge of other sites in the
region and breakage patterns. Nonmetric observations were included
as appropriate in the description.
Functional classes of stone artifacts cross-cut some tool types and activities: fabricators (used for
artifact manufacture and repair), procurement (used in capture or collection of food), weapons
(used as projectiles or in hunting), processing (used in food preparation or consumption),
ornaments (used to be worn or buried with the dead), containers (used to prepare food or
medicine), and sources of raw materials (Craib 1998). Few remains of in situ stone debitage were
noted although most finished tools had evidence of use wear and in some cases were retouched
for continued use.
3.3.3.1.3 Shell Artifacts
Marine shell artifacts recovered during data recovery included Tridacna adzes, gouges, and chisels and
unused possible preforms. Their ubiquity suggests manufacture and use by most households. Spondylus
beads found with several burials were considered a hallmark of Latte Period bodily ornamentation
(Amesbury and Walth 2016). One Codakia punctata shell bivalve, with wear around its interior, suggested
use as a grater.
14
Chapter 3 Research Design and Methods Employed
3.3.3.1.4 Historic Artifacts
Post-Contact remains such as ceramic fragments were examined and assigned to a ceramic type such
as porcelain, stoneware, and ironstone, but are not addressed explicitly in this volume. An attempt was
made to identify the fragment as to form, place of origin, manufacturing date, and decorative patterns
and style. An occasional sherd of Japanese porcelain was observed during surface survey (Dixon and
McCurdy 2015a), but none were recovered in situ during data recovery. It therefore appears unlikely
there was a historic or pre-war period habitation on the property, while the few Japanese soy sauce and
beer bottles could have been deposited during military preparations for war.
Prior to 1915 and continuing to 1944, Japanese merchants traded with the Northern Marianas, including
Saipan and other islands in Micronesia (Peattie 1988). Pre-WWII stores on Saipan sold Japanese dishware
and other goods, and it is likely that pre-WWII Japanese residents of Saipan brought their own supply of
domestic dishware and other household goods from Japan.
Ceramics made in America and Europe could have arrived via visiting ships during the 18th and 19th
centuries, or when the U.S. took over administration of Guam in 1898 while Germany occupied Saipan
and the Northern Mariana Islands. After that date, it is likely that the few German military administrators
and the families accompanying the government officials and troops brought dishware obtained from
Europe with them. Historic artifacts were described in terms of their material type, form, function,
and volume where appropriate. Measureable attributes included length, width, thickness, weight,
and alterations to the traditional artifact surface. Glass bottles, sometimes included maker’s marks,
date, or place of manufacture. Noted bottle characteristics included base diameter, seams, closure, and
embossed designs. References for bottles on Saipan included websites such as www.antique-bottles.net.
3.3.3.1.5 Faunal Analysis
Faunal remains and marine shellfish food remains were identified to family or genus whenever possible,
with the assistance of Judy Amesbury of Micronesian Archaeological Research Services on Guam.
Vertebrate animal bones were identified as major categories of fish, bird, reptile, mammal, and to their
anatomical component. These remains were also identified by the project osteologist as a native species
or historically introduced and invasive species.
Human Bone Analysis
The human skeletal remains were analyzed in two phases (Walth and Mowrer 2018) and at two different
locations on Saipan. Approximately 34 of the 93 burials and isolated occurrences were analyzed at the
laboratory facility in Garapan, June 1-July 5, 2015. The remaining 59 burials were analyzed at laboratory
facilities in Chalan Kanoa, February 1-19, 2017. The remains were gently wiped clean of dirt using a
dampened paper towel. In the laboratory, each skeleton was arranged anatomically on a table. Select
elements were reconstructed when possible to maximize the data collection. Masking tape was used in the
reconstruction. The tape was removed when analysis was complete and the skeletal elements were prepared
for repatriation. Loose teeth were replaced in their sockets within the dental arc to aid in identification. All
dentition, reasonably complete crania, dental remains, and pathologies were photographed.
Each burial was assigned a unique number in the field. However, many of the burials included the
remains of more than one individual. When elements were present from more than one individual, a
unique burial designation was given to the additional individuals by adding a letter following the burial
number (e.g., Burial 25a, Burial 25b). These designations were given only when the remains consisted
of more than a few fragments of bone, and were assigned in the laboratory, not in the field. There had
to be a reasonable expectation that the additional elements were from the same individual, such as an
15
Afetna Point, Saipan
articulated portion of an individual or several elements from a subadult, or that they represented a
reasonable portion of the dentition.
The skeletal and dental data recorded were in accordance with standard osteological texts (Bass 1987;
Bramblett and Steele 1988; Brothwell 1981; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Johnston and Zimmer 1989;
Scheuer and Black 2000; White and Folkens 2005). Data collection forms were tailored after the forms in
Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994), which provide
convenient numerical codes for data entry. All data recorded on the burials and isolated occurrences
were entered into a Microsoft Access database.
All available skeletal information was used in this analysis to assess age of the individual at death
and sex of the adult individuals. Growth and maturation of the dental and skeletal elements provide
reasonably accurate age estimates for subadults. Subadult age estimates were based on the calcification
and eruption of the teeth (Bass 1987; Brothwell 1981; Johnston and Zimmer 1989), the degree of fusion
of the epiphyses, and the lengths of long bones (Johnston and Zimmer 1989; Scheuer and Black 2000).
Age estimates for adults are less precise than those for subadults, and an age range was indicated based
on available morphological data. Adult age estimates were based on documented changes on the face
of the pubic symphysis and the auricular surface of the ilium as presented by various researchers, such
as Todd (1921a, 1921b), Katz and Suchey (1986), Suchey and Katz (1986), Lovejoy et al. (1985), Meindl
and Lovejoy (1989), and Bedford et al. (1989). Additional criteria used to estimate adult age included
assessing the degenerative changes, cranial suture closure, and dental attrition.
Adults and older adolescents were examined for morphological characteristics that would aid in
estimating the individual’s sex. Characteristics for estimating sex on the pelvis include the greater
sciatic notch breadth, subpubic angle, ventral arc, and breadth of the pubic ramus. Cranial characteristics
include the shape of the eye orbit; the size of the mastoid, glabella, and nuchal crest; and chin shape.
Sex-specific metric measurements for select long bones were generated from the Naton Beach Site,
Guam (Walth 2016), and the Latte period (Chamorro) measurements were used to aid in estimation of
sex. Additionally, size and robusticity of the postcranial elements were recorded for the assessment of
age and sex.
Cranial and postcranial measurements were recorded using the guidelines in Standards for Data
Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994), with additional data collected on
the crania following Howells (1973) and on the calcaneus and talus following Steele (1976). Measurements
were taken on the left element for sided elements, substituting the right side when the left was absent
or fragmentary. Instruments used included a standard osteometric board; mandibulometer; spreading,
coordinate, and digital calipers; and metal tape. Dental metric data were collected following Moorees
(1957), Mayhall (1992), and Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Dental nonmetric data were collected using
the method developed by Turner (Turner et al. 1991), the Arizona State University dental anthropology
system that uses a set of dental casts for aiding in the recordation of a suite of traits. Calculation of
stature for this study follows formulae developed by Houghton et al. (1975) based on Polynesians from
New Zealand.
Nonmetric traits were recorded on skeletal elements following guidelines in Standards for Data Collection
from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994), supplemented with descriptions in Brothwell
(1981). Skeletal and dental pathologies and anomalies were recorded, including but not limited to dental
caries, abscesses, periodontal disease, antemortem tooth loss, and cultural modifications. Evidence of
trauma, infectious diseases (such as yaws and periostitis), and degenerative changes were described.
Several standard references were used as an aid in determining the specific pathology (Aufderheide and
Rodriguez-Martin 1998; Barnes 1994; Mann and Hunt 2005; Ortner and Putschar 1981; Scheuer and Black
16
Chapter 3 Research Design and Methods Employed
2000). Muscular skeletal markers were recorded according to the information from Mariotti et al. (2007)
and Steen (2003). The location and degree of expression of occipital superstructures were recorded
according to protocols described in Heathcote et al. (1996).
One small barbed human bone spear point fragment was also found in a disturbed burial context.
Specialized Analysis
The general research questions outlined above were addressed by bringing various analytical methods
to bear for data generation and comparison. Some of these, such as radiocarbon dating, are standard
techniques, while others, such as residue or pollen and phytolith analysis, have been less frequently
applied to Northern Marianas archaeology.
3.3.3.1.6. Radiocarbon Dating
As discussed above, efforts were made to obtain reliable radiocarbon determinations for each substantial
feature. This required dating short-lived wood charcoal or plant parts that were obtained from primary
contexts where available, primarily earth oven deposits and hearth features. Dates were further refined
using Bayesian calibration models (Bayliss and Bronk Ramsey 2004). Dates from subsurface contexts
provided terminal dates (dates after which) estimates that allowed a degree of temporal confidence.
Five charcoal samples were submitted for radiocarbon dating (BetaAnalytic Inc.) using the Accelerator
Mass Spectrometry method, four from feature matrixes and one from a charred Latte Period pottery
sherd in another feature context. Where organic sediments were submitted for radiocarbon analysis,
BetaAnalytic provided high resolution photographs of the sorted carbonized materials prior to dating,
for the principal investigator to select only fragments of charred coconut shells.
3.3.3.1.7 Microfossil Analysis
Five samples, four from earth ovens and hearth complexes and one from a charred Latte Period pottery
sherd in similar feature context, were analyzed for plant microfossils by Microfossil Research Ltd.
(Horrocks 2017) to provide a record of past vegetation, environments, and human activity. The samples
of soil and charred sediment were analyzed for pollen, phytoliths, and starches.
3.3.3.1.8 Pollen Analysis
Pollen analysis included identification and quantification of pollen grains of seed plants and spores of
ferns and other plants. Pollen analysis provided insight into past vegetation and environments, and in
the Pacific region can provide evidence for Pre-Contact Period Mirconesian crops. These crops include
taro (Colocasia esculenta; sunen agaga´ in Chamorro [hereafter referred to as taro]); banana (Musa spp;
chotada in Chamorro [hereafter referred to as banana]); and lesser yam (Dioscorea esculenta; nika or gado’
in Chamorro [hereafter referred to as lesser yams]). Post-Contact Period crops in the Mariana Islands
include sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) (Horrocks et al. 2012, 2014; Kahn et al. 2014). Tree crops used
before and after Contact included coconut; breadfruit (Artocarpus spp.; dokdok in Chamorro [hereafter
referred to as breadfruit]); and screwpine (Pandanus tectorius; kafu in Chamorro [hereafter referred to
as screwpine]). Where present, European-introduced pollen types allowed the differentiation of PreContact and historic or modern deposits.
The samples were prepared for pollen analysis by the standard acetylation method (Moore et al. 1991).
For this type of analysis, at least 150 pollen grains and spores were typically counted for each sample
and slides were scanned for types not found during the counts. However, in some samples pollen and
17
Afetna Point, Saipan
spores were sparse and resulted in a lower count for one sample and insufficient pollen for meaningful
counting in three other samples. Slides of these three were still scanned, and occasional pollen types
noted.
3.3.3.1.9 Phytolith Analysis
Phytoliths were particles of silica formed in inflorescences, stems, leaves, and roots of many plants
(Piperno 2006). Phytolith analysis may provide direct evidence of Pacific crops such as banana
(Horrocks et al. 2012, 2014, 2015; Kahn et al. 2014). Other types of microscopic biosilicates, notably
diatoms, radiolarians, and sponge spicules were extracted along with phytoliths during preparation.
Diatoms were unicellular algae and had cell walls composed of silica; radiolarians were a type of
amoeboid protozoa with siliceous skeletons; and sponges were multi-cellular animals with skeletons
often composed of siliceous spicules. Diatoms were found in aquatic and sub-aquatic environments;
radiolarians and sponges were exclusively aquatic. Diatoms and sponges were found in both marine and
freshwater environments; radiolarians were exclusively of marine origin.
The samples were prepared for phytolith analysis by density separation (Horrocks 2005). For this type
of analysis, at least 150 phytoliths were typically counted for each sample and slides were scanned
for types not found during the counts. Slides of the remaining samples were scanned and occasional
phytolith types noted.
3.3.3.1.10 Starch and Other Plant Materials
This analysis included starch grains and other plant material such as calcium oxalate crystals and tracheary
cells. Starch was the main substance of food storage for plants and mostly found in high concentrations of
microscopic grains in underground stems (e.g., tubers, corms), roots, and seeds. Amyloplasts synthesized
and stored these starch grains. The calcium oxalate crystals were needle-shaped raphides that occurred
in groups called druses, and were found in both the above- and underground parts of many plant taxa.
Tracheary tissue comprised elongated cells through which most of the water and minerals of a plant were
transported. Starch analysis provided evidence of Pacific starch crops, such as aroids (e.g., taro and close
relatives), and lesser yams (Loy et al. 1992; Horrocks et al. 2012, 2014, 2015; Kahn et al. 2014), and later
sweet potatoes. Starch and other remains were prepared for analysis by density separation and presence/
absence noted (Horrocks 2005).
A recent advance in the starch analysis method was the use of Fourier Transform InfraRed spectroscopy.
Typically, starch identification was often uncertain due to loss of distinguishing features; however, this
method could positively identify degraded starch collected from archaeological deposits (Horrocks et
al. 2012, 2014; Kahn et al. 2014). Starch and other remains were prepared for this type of analysis using
density separation and noting presence/absence (Horrocks 2005). Microscopic fragments of charcoal were
also extracted during preparation to identify evidence of fires.
3.4 Previous Archaeological Investigations near Afetna Point
Archaeological investigations in the southwest corner of Saipan indicated that over the past century the
coastline has changed dramatically since Pre-Latte Period times, when the first settlers arrived in the
Mariana Islands around 1500 B.C. Excavations in the vicinity of San Antonio and Chalan Piao by the Bishop
Museum during the early 1920s (Hornbostel 1924-1925; Thompson 1932) targeted the remains of latte sets,
pairs of limestone columns and capstones supporting A-frame structures (Figure 8). By A.D. 1000 villages
dotted the coastline from Unai Achugao in the north to Unai Afetna in the south with far fewer inland.
Numerous burials found beneath and around these former houses show that generations of Chamorros
18
Chapter 3 Research Design and Methods Employed
lived and thrived, fishing the rich lagoon, farming the hillside slopes, and trading with their cousins on
other islands ranging from Guam to Maug on a regular basis. Remains of barbed human bone spear points
and stone or clay sling stones showed that relations were not always peaceful, as populations grew and
infringed on each other’s shrinking territories. Many of these village sites, such as Agingan to the south
of Afetna Point, underwent extensive disturbance during the sugarcane and copra plantation period of
the Japanese Administration between 1919 and 1944 (Bowers 1950; Spoehr 1954), the American invasion
in June 1944 (Denfeld 1997, 2002), subsequent military development of Kobler Airfield, and construction
of the LORAN Station.
Later investigations after the war and the development of radiocarbon dating found that up to 1 meter
(3.3 feet) beneath the disturbed surface of Chalan Piao, east of Beach Road (Spoehr 1957; Thompson 1977;
Russell 1984), the former coastline around 1500 B.C. was far inland. This shoreline encompassed what
is today the vast marsh extending between San Antonio and Chalan Kanoa (Moore et al. 1992), when
Lake Susupe was an arm of the ocean and sea levels were roughly 1.8 meters (5.9 feet) higher than today.
During the Pre-Latte Period, inhabitants lived in houses built on wooden pilings (Carson 2008; Clark et
al. 2010) or on cobble and sand flooring such as found near the House of Taga on Tinian (Carson 2014).
The inhabitants decorated their dead with shell ornaments such as bracelets, beads, or pendants, and
manufactured attractive redware ceramics, some with elaborate designs in-filled with lime. As sea levels
gradually receded to modern levels by A.D. 500, a sand spit accumulated at the southern end of the lagoon
in what is now San Antonio (Thompson 1977) filling in the shallow waters from the former shoreline to the
east and over time eventually sealing in what had become a mangrove marsh from the north.
As the new coastline stabilized, populations began to move closer to the ocean where they remained up
to the time of Spanish arrival. By then the populations were erecting latte stones to support A-framed
structures to house their families and protect their sailing canoes or proas. In 1978, the remains of
a PreLatte Period burial ground were encountered during earthworks in San Antonio village (Russell
1984) and a mass secondary burial of Latte Period individuals was encountered during Beach Road
expansion. Excavation of test pits in advance of the redevelopment of the Surf Hotel (now the Pacific
Islands Club) on the south end of the Reception Building encountered numerous Latte Period burials
near those previously encountered by Fleming in 1978 at a depth of 1 meter (3.3 feet). Subsequent
monitoring to the north, near the two guest wings, encountered shell middens and seven more burials
in shallower deposits (PriceWilliams 1987).
Additional development of the Surf Hotel immediately to the north, required the excavation and
archaeological monitoring of a series of backhoe trenches at the former USCG LORAN Station and Army
Reserve Property. Latte Period burials near Beach Road and cultural sediments to the west were exposed
no deeper than 1 meter (3.3 feet) below surface. Subsequent excavation of seven test pits in the same
project area (Graves 1987) encountered Late to Transitional Pre-Latte ceramics and midden remains in
the upper 50 centimeters (19.7 inches) of Test Pit 1. A dark soil horizon with a rock concentration and
sparse cultural material from 50 to 100 centimeters (19.7 to 39.4 inches) below surface was also present.
Test pits to the east encountered disturbed fill layers near the surface and loosely compacted midden
soil to 90 centimeters (35.4 inches) below surface. Test Pits 5 and 6, located to the west towards the
shore, encountered sparse Pre-Latte ceramics and darkened soil layers to 70 centimeters (27.6 inches)
below surface. Test Pits 7 and 8, closest to the beach, found only Latte Period remains. Construction did
not proceed on this property, although it was subsequently subject to sand mining until stopped by the
CNMI HPO when more burials were encountered in the mid-1980s. Unfortunately, the map showing the
precise locations of Graves’ test trenches was not located.
To the south at the Afetna Site (Figure 9), data recovery excavations at the present Pacific Islands Club
(former Surf Hotel) were required in the vicinity of the deep foundations for two swimming pools and
19
Afetna Point, Saipan
Table 1. Cultural Sequence for Afetna Site (Adapted from McGovern-Wilson 1989:26)
TPs
Layer
Period
Description
1
I
Historic
WWII military gear, shell discs, sling stones
2-4
II
Latte Period
Boulder alignment, burial, pounders, flakes
5-7
III
Mixed
Possible posthole, storm tossed sands
8-10
IV
Middle (or Pre-Latte)
Red slipped pottery, fishbone, hearths
11-12
V
Mixed
Storm tossed sands
13-14
VI
Early Period
Hearths, burned stones and shell
15-29
VII
Sterile base
Storm tossed sands, intrusive hearth
boat pond, situated between the two guest wings and the reception building, and the associated utility
trenches (McGovern-Wilson 1989). Twenty-nine TPs were dug to a depth of up to 1.5 meters (4.9 feet)
(Figure 10). The TPs encountered Latte Period burials and refuse as well as deeper compacted dark sand
sediments with Pre-Latte pottery and Strombus shells. Beneath this stratum was interpreted as sterile
beach sand. An expanded areal excavation measuring 5 by 10 meters (16.4 to 32.8 feet) was then opened
adjacent to the TPs and excavated in 10 centimeter (3.9 inch) levels or spits, resulting in the following
cultural sequence (Table 1).
Figure 8. Kalabera Cave Latte sets
20
Chapter 3 Research Design and Methods Employed
Figure 9. Map of San Antonio Village Showing the Afetna Archaeological Site
21
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 10. TP Locations at Surf Hotel
Excavations in the area of the two swimming pools and boat pond plus associated utility trenches
encountered 34 bone scatters and burials (Figure 11). One was a Japanese combat victim with military
gear, the others likely dated to the Latte Period judging from the presence of red-stained teeth or
missing leg bones in some interments and seven human bone spear points in another. Radiocarbon
dating of sealed deposits yielded three Late PreLatte Period assignations; Layer II at A.D. 650, Layer IV
22
Chapter 3 Research Design and Methods Employed
Figure 11. Burial Locations at the Surf Hotel
at A.D. 565, and Layer VI at A.D. 400. These dates suggest that the former Surf Hotel is situated at the
seaward edge of the Late Pre-Latte beach dune enclosing the Susupe marsh. It is possible that earlier
Pre-Latte remains could lie inland of Beach Road to the east.
Subsequent excavation of 11 backhoe trenches at the Building ‘F’ site in the Pacific Islands Club (Leap
et al. 1991) encountered Latte Period cultural deposits. Some of these deposits were truncated by
construction and others buried up to 1.45 meters (4.76 feet) in recent debris from the demolished Cold
Warera USCG LORAN Station. No in situ burials were encountered and few earlier materials were found.
23
Afetna Point, Saipan
At the Saipan Resort Hotel, located roughly 0.8 kilometers (0.5 miles) north of the development property
in San Antonio, surface survey and excavation of 47 backhoe trenches encountered disturbed remains
of Latte Period occupation and burials with pit features and midden soil (Rader and Haun 1989). These
Latte Period remains were overlying what was interpreted as sterile beach sand no deeper than 170
centimeters (66.9 inches) below surface.
On February 4, 1985, the WWII landing beaches on the west coast of Saipan were listed in the NRHP and
designated a National Historic Landmark (NHL). The NHL encompasses 552.80 hectares (1,365.99 acres)
of land and water and is described as ‘The waters between the coral reefs and the land, including Lagunan
Chalan Kanoa and Lagunan Garapan’ (Thompson 1984). The NHL was designated based on the history
of the area and the integrity of the landing beaches; no archaeological fieldwork was conducted at that
time (Burns and Krivor 2015:30). Twenty years later, the CNMI HPO conducted a survey of a probable
pre-WWII Japanese farmstead at the Tudela Site in As Perdido (Bulgrin 2005). This site was located on
the next terrace above Beach Road and it was determined that subsurface investigations should occur
due to the surface remains of a WWII American battlefield. Collection and identification of the remains
indicated the farmstead was defended by the 25th Marines during the first day of the invasion with .30
and .50 caliber machine guns. There was little evidence of Japanese defenders or American mortars,
artillery shells, or bombs. Other areas overlooking Asilito Field were more heavily contested.
In 2010, an archaeological pedestrian survey was conducted of the western shoreline of Saipan identifying
three clusters of WWII defensive remains, largely Japanese (Katz 2015). Cluster 1 was situated along
Yellow Beaches 1 and 3 including Parcel 004-I-52, between Agingan Point and Susupe Point, and was part
of the Landing Beaches NHL. ‘Cluster 1 is the largest cluster and contains the most features, the vast
majority of which are ‘miscellaneous.’ The building features are either metal or concrete structures,
none of which are intact. In addition to the buildings, a possible concealed defensive position, similar
to Feature 86 found near Pau Pau Beach [a spider hole complex], was identified’ (Katz 2015:90). The
Japanese munitions magazine at Site SP 5-1036 was not recorded during this survey and was presumably
obscured by vegetation and backdirt from nearby clearing.
Building upon that information, an underwater remote sensing survey of the NHL covered the west
coast of Saipan from Puntan Makpe south to Agingan Point, as well as 200 meters (656.2 feet) outside the
existing reef line (McKinnon and Carrell 2015). One goal was to enhance the potential of an underwater
cultural heritage trail for public and visitor education and recreation (McKinnon and Carrell 2015).
Diving on all major magnetic anomalies in navigable portions of Tanapag and Garapan Lagoons recorded
minor objects such as anchors and modern debris, as well as shipwrecks, amphibious tractors, tanks, and
WWII discarded metallic refuse. Diving was not conducted within the Chalan Kanoa lagoon to the south
including settings seaward of Parcel 004-I-52. However, debris from the invasion of Yellow Beaches 1 to
3 remains unrecorded archaeologically as does offshore UXO.
In 2014, Cardno GS conducted an archaeological inventory survey of Parcel 004-I-52 including monitoring
of geotechnical excavations for N15 Architects, in support of CNMI Department of Environmental
Quality permitting to conduct clearing and grubbing for the proposed HPIL hotel construction (Dixon
and McCurdy 2015a). Four archaeological sites were identified within the survey area and assigned
permanent numbers by the CNMI HPO. Site SP 6-1035 were the remains of the USCG LORAN Station
postdating WWII (USCG 1946), SP 5-1036 was a WWII Japanese munitions magazine, SP 1-1037 consisted
of four subsurface cultural horizons with prehistoric remains, and SP 6-1038 was a modern concrete pad
for a boxing rink and then later a fruit stand, which was formerly on the west side of Beach Road (Dixon
and McCurdy 2015a).
24
Chapter 3 Research Design and Methods Employed
CNMI HPO review of the survey report determined that sites SP 6-1035 and SP 6-1038 were not considered
eligible to the NRHP. No further archaeological work was therefore recommended at sites SP 6-1035
and SP 6-1038. However, the CNMI HPO recommended mechanical subsurface exposure of the concrete
drain at SP 6-1035 Feature D to confirm with which time period it was associated. Site SP 5-1036 was
considered eligible to the NRHP under criteria A and D and site SP 1-1037 was considered eligible to the
NRHP under criterion D. Data recovery investigations were recommended at site SP 5-1036 around and
inside the Japanese magazine to ensure no burials or significant WWII artifacts remained. Data recovery
of the entire property was recommended to record the subsurface extent of prehistoric site SP 6-1037
and possible human remains disturbed by WWII, the post-war USCG LORAN Station, and the 1980s sand
mining.
25
Chapter 4
Latte Period Village: Historic Context
4.1 Prehistoric Background
The main Mariana Islands were initially settled by at least 1500 years B.C. (Carson 2014) according to
radiocarbon dated archaeological data on Guam, Tinian, and Saipan (Table 2). Some paleoenvironmental
evidence suggests initial settlement of Guam and the CNMI by as much as 900 years earlier (Athens and
Ward 1998; Athens et al. 2004); however, this has not been corroborated by archaeological data. Far from
the Marianas being an accidental discovery, it appears many of the islands of SE Asia including Sulawesi
and Indonesia were being populated at roughly the same time in what has been termed a ‘swarm’ of
maritime exploration (Peterson 2009), perhaps coinciding with a global high sea stand between 5,000
and 3,500 years (Before Present) B.P. An early voyage from that region via Palau and Yap to the Mariana
Islands is entirely feasible, although equally early dated sites in Palau and Yap have yet to be excavated
at a comparable scale to Guam, Tinian, and Saipan.
The second theory is that Austronesian people originally inhabiting Taiwan circa 3000 B.C. eventually
sailed to the Mariana Islands after first settling in the northern or central Philippines circa 2000 B.C.
The reliability of sailing directly from the Philippines to the Marianas during much of the year has
been brought into question due to prevailing trade winds (Winter et al. 2012), although such skills were
also well developed by Nusantao ‘Seasian’ peoples inhabiting island SE Asia in roughly the same Late
Neolithic time frame (Miksic and Yian Goh 2017). This second theory is based on coastal archaeological
settlement patterns and Pre-Latte ceramic stylistic similarities with decorated and red-slipped
assemblages from northern Luzon (Carson 2014). Noticeably absent in early Pre-Latte sites are pigs,
dogs, and chickens commonly found in contemporaneous Philippine sites and it should be cautioned
that ‘…the early period Marianas pottery resembles [only] a sub-set of the more diverse Nagsabaran
pottery’ (Hung et al. 2011:915).
Conversation with ceramic specialist Darlene Moore who has examined assemblages from both culture
areas indicates that neither surface treatment nor paste and temper are identical (Dixon personal
communication, 2012). It seems likely early maritime settlers were able to transfer their knowledge
of ceramic production to local clays within a relatively brief time frame. One theory does not exclude
the other possibility of course, and both places of origin may have contributed to later Latte Period
development as well.
4.2 Pre-Latte Period
Near the southwest coast of Saipan at Chalan Piao (Amesbury et al. 1996), radiocarbon dates from
charcoal samples and marine shell associated with Marianas Red pottery and incised sherds confirm
early Pre-Latte Period occupation of the island between 1720 and 1325 years B.C. (Figure 12). These sites
are situated 1 to 2 meters (3.3 to 6.6 feet) above the present day sea level but at the edge of the midHolocene high stand (Dickinson 2000; Peterson and Carson 2009), in close proximity to marine resources
and forest products the earliest settlers would have recognized. Changes in sea level also affected
settlement options at San Antonio (Moore et al. 1992; Spoehr 1957) and in Achugao (Butler 1994, 1995),
which at one time were shallow embayments. Sediment coring at inland Lake Susupe, located at one
end of a large marsh approximately 2 kilometers (1.24 miles) north of Chalan Piao, produced evidence
supporting a circa 3500 year B.P. date for the early settlement of Saipan (Athens and Ward 2005; Athens
et al. 2004), although earlier human activity is suggested.
26
Chapter 4 Latte Period Village: Historic Context
Table 2. Saipan Chronology
Major Period
Event/Activity
Date
Note
Settlement
By 1500 B.C.
First human transformation of the Saipan
landscape, settlement, and agriculture
Pre-Latte Period
1500 B.C.-A.D.1000
Coastal settlements based on marine
resources, taro, and coconut; perishable
structures
Early
1500-900 B.C.
Middle
900-400 B.C.
Late
400 B.C.-A.D. 400
Initial movement into interior areas
Transitional
A.D. 400-1000
Agricultural intensification
Latte Period
A.D. 1000-1668
Island-wide settlement; communities with
latte stone structures
Early Latte
A.D. 1000-1300
Beginning of latte construction and
probable introduction of rice
Middle Latte
A.D. 1300-1521
Elaboration of latte structures
Late Latte / Contact Period
A.D. 1521-1668
Continuity of traditional Chamorro life
with infrequent Spanish contact
1500 B.C. – A.D. 1521
Pre-Contact
Era
1521-1898
Spanish Era
Spanish discovery of Guam
1521
Nuestra Senora de Concepcion wrecks
off Aguigan Point
1638
Spanish settlement of Saipan
1668
Father Medina and two Philippino lay
brothers killed on Saipan
1670
Chamorro revolt on Saipan
1684
Chamorros from Gani brought to Saipan
1698
Churches at Anaguan and Fatiguan
destroyed by typhoon
1705
Chamorros removed from Saipan, island
1722-1730
depopulated
Carolinian families first visit Saipan
1805
Carolinian Chief Aghurubw settles at
Arabawal/Garapan
1815
Carolinian families authorized to remain
on Saipan
1818
New group of Carolinians allowed to
settle on Saipan
1843
Chamorros begin to resettle on Saipan
1865-1869
Spanish deportados temporarily housed
on Saipan
1875
1898-1914
German Era
Spanish-American war, acquisition of
Guam by the United States; acquisition
of the Northern Mariana Islands by
Germany
1898-1899
German administration; Garapan
becomes capital of NMI
1899-1914
27
Traditional site occupation is truncated
Afetna Point, Saipan
Major Period
Event/Activity
Date
Note
World War I, Japan occupies the
formerly German-held islands of
Micronesia
1914-1919
Mariana Islands settlement is an expression
of Japan’s Nanshin Seisaku or Southern
Advance Policy
League of Nations creates the
Micronesia Mandate, governed by
Japan
1919
Nan’yo Kohatsu Kaisha (NKK)
established on Saipan, introducing
successful sugarcane commerce
1922-1926
NKK leases properties on Saipan for
sugarcane cultivation and refinery in
Chalan Kanoa
1926
Garapan becomes capital of ‘Japan in
the Tropics’
1926-1944
Transformation of Saipan landscape, most
of the island is converted to sugarcane
cultivation; private land leased
Japanese Naval Air Facilities established
(facilities of the 1st Air Fleet as of
February 1944)
1939-1944
Change to Saipan landscape as various
agricultural areas are converted to air
bases and defenses without compensation
Japanese forces construct defenses and
places of war refuge
1941-1944
1914-1939
Japanese
Colonial Era
1939-1944
Japanese
Military Era
June 1944
U.S. amphibious assault (first day)
Battle of
Saipan
Japanese defenses hard fought; Banzai
charges at Tanapag critical juncture in
the battle
Prisoner of War camp established at
Susupe
U.S. cemetery established at Hopwood
August 1944 - September 1945
U.S. WWII Era
U.S. military facilities (airfields, camps,
defenses) established across the island
Airfields at Aslito, Koblerville, Kagman, and
Marpi
1946-1953
Early PostWar Era
Japanese and Korean soldiers and
civilians repatriated from Saipan
1946
POW camp at Susupe abandoned
Chamorros and Carolinians in camp at
Chalana Kanoa liberated
July 4, 1946
NKK structures become base of new
community
Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
declared
April 2, 1947
Capital on Guam
U.S. Naval Technical Training Unit
established to train Nationalist Chinese
forces on Saipan
1952-1962
Saipan reverts to U.S. Navy control until it
becomes capital of Trust Territory
Source: Farrell 1994, 2011.
Moore (2002) subdivides the Pre-Latte Period into four phases based on pottery styles: Early (1500900 B.C.), Middle (900-400 B.C.), Late (400 B.C. to A.D. 400), and Transitional (A.D. 400-1000). Early PreLatte Phase sites are usually found in coastal calcareous sand deposits and typically contain redware
pottery sherds (a small percentage with lime-filled stamping or incising) and implements of bone and
shell including shell bracelet rings and beads of Conus and Trochus or Cyprea, associated with marine
28
Chapter 4 Latte Period Village: Historic Context
Figure 12. Early Pre-Latte Coastline
29
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 13. Late Pre-Latte Coastline
30
Chapter 4 Latte Period Village: Historic Context
midden or food remains consisting mainly of bivalve shells (Amesbury et al. 1996). Middle Pre-Latte
Phase deposits are thicker and evidenced by a few midden scatters, hearths, and occasional postholes
(Carson 2008; Clark et al. 2010; Marck 1978), plus rock shelters perhaps used before the Latte Period.
The Late Pre-Latte Phase is characterized by the presence of large, thick-walled, shallow pan-like
ceramic vessels (Moore and Hunter-Anderson 1999), although decreasing numbers of decorated bowls
and jars are still present with the in-filling of lime disappearing over time. Transitional Phase deposits
contain a continuation of large flat-bottomed pans, but they decline in frequency as pots with rounded
bases and slightly incurved rims become more common (Hunter-Anderson and Butler 1995). Late PreLatte cooking technology and ceramic manufacturing may have begun adapting to the introduction of
new foods such as rice (Butler 1990), while vessel decoration techniques may have been changing with
the social messages of group identity they were imparting over time. Late Pre-Latte settlement by A.D.
1000 had moved seaward near present day Beach Road following the prograding shoreline and changing
lagoonal resources (Figure 13).
4.3 Latte Period
Latte Period settlement in Saipan (A.D. 1000-1521) appears to have been oriented toward the lengthy
lagoon along the west coast, from Agingan Point to San Roque, and to a lesser extent sheltered reefs off
the south coast and around Laulau Bay, with less evidence recorded of sites in the immediate project
area (Figure 14). This is perhaps a result of expanded copra plantations during German and Japanese
occupation that may have disturbed or removed latte stone remains. Latte Period site complexes at
Agingan on the southwest coast (Hornbostel 1924-1925; Russell and Fleming 1986; Thompson 1932),
and its neighbor Obyan Beach to the east (Tomonari-Tuggle 1990) indicate the presence of Pre-Contact
villages on Saipan and a preference for coastal locations with access to fresh water seeps at low tide.
Subsurface deposits from Oleai to Garapan (DeFant 1993; Hasebe 1928; Hornbostel 1924-1925; Shun and
Moore 1989) bordering the lagoon reflect former coastal activity areas and burial sites, as do remains
at Achugao (Swift and Athens 1990; Swift et al. 1991), Chalan Galaide (Graves and Moore 1986), Chalan
Pupula (Craib 1999), Garapan (Allen 2002; Allen and Prasad 2002; Butler and DeFant 1994; Wickler
1990), and Afetna (McGovern-Wilson 1988). In fact, Farrell (1994) estimated that Saipan’s population
had probably reached 15,000 by the time of the earliest Spanish contacts with the island in the 16th
century. An accurate population estimate from latte sets alone is fraught with complications given the
destruction of the area during the 20th century (Thompson 1940).
Marine resources continued to provide the primary source of protein during this period. Shell middens
contain increased quantities of gastropods and fewer bivalves. The difference in shellfish types found
in middens appears to relate to relative changes in sea levels, which caused a loss in mangrove forests
supporting bivalve habitat (Amesbury 1999), and siltation gradually intensified from deforestation
and agriculture. The presence of lusong or boulder mortars near many latte sets (Dixon et al. 2006)
suggests an increase in the consumption of rice in the Marianas (Butler 1990). Rock-filled ovens are
assumed to have been used to bake tubers such as taro or yams (Bulgrin 2006), or forest products such
as breadfruit.
In 1602, Spanish clergy on Rota noted individual plots worked by Chamorro farmers well inland from
coastal communities (Driver 1983). The ubiquitous Latte Period pottery scatter in these settings may
well be the archaeological signature of this agricultural landscape on Saipan (Bulgrin 2009). A gradual
increase in Latte Period ceramic vessel size and presumed storage or cooking capacity also suggests few
shortfalls in tropical forest or domestic food supply (Dixon et al. 2011) in the waning years of prehistory.
31
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 14. Latte Period Settlement Areas
32
Chapter 4 Latte Period Village: Historic Context
It is precisely this time period at the end of the Latte Period and the cusp of Spanish Colonialism after
Magellan’s arrival in 1521 that is termed ‘Early Modern’ by Southeast Asian historians, inclusive of the
Manila Galleon trade from 1565 to 1815 (Giraldez 2015). ‘In distinguishing this period, world historians
most commonly cite the expansion of international commerce and maritime trade, a rise in population,
a more intensified use of land, the diffusion of new technologies, the growth of regional centers, the
rise of urban commercial centers, the rise of urban commercial classes, religious revival and missionary
movements, and a more pronounced incidence of peasant unrest’ (Andaya and Andaya 2015:8).
All of these attributes, in nascent form, could be applied to the Northern Mariana Islands of Saipan,
Tinian, and Rota after the arrival of the first Jesuit missionaries in 1668. Spurious accusations of
Moorish slaving abduction of Chamorro inhabitants notwithstanding (Seijas 2014:65), Guam was the
seasonal nexus of Spanish trans-Pacific shipping during the early galleon trade between Acapulco
and Manila, however brief and bellicose the initial encounters with the native population. In contrast,
Saipan remained the center of Latte Period tradition and resistance until the La Reduccion policy finally
forced the island to be abandoned in the late 1720s, after failed attempts at Spanish colonization and
indoctrination.
4.4. Historic Background
4.4.1. Contact Period
The Contact Period is the interval between Magellan’s landing in 1521 and the first Spanish settlement
in the CNMI after 1668, in what is otherwise known as the Early Modern Period in SE Asia (Andaya and
Andaya 2015; Miksic and Yian Goh 2017). Latte stone structures continued to be built (Driver 1993), but
Spanish-introduced materials were also found at a few sites dating to this period as Manila Galleons
began to visit the region annually (Giraldez 2015; Seijas 2014). These materials included iron (Quimby
2011), glass beads, and fragments of Asian or European ceramics traded to the islanders by visiting
sailors. Breadfruit, coconuts, yams, and taro were traded to passing vessels during this time period, as
were bananas, sugarcane, rice, and fish caught both inshore and offshore. Chamorros were noted for
their proa, a uniquely fast outrigger canoe, and their superlative skills at handling these vessels even in
rough conditions (Barratt 2003).
After a mutiny, followed by the wreck of Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion in 1638 off Agingan Point
(Giraldez 2015), ‘some Islanders also offered gold neck chains and ivory figurines salvaged from the
wrecks, causing observers to marvel that the islanders valued iron more than gold’ (Quimby 2011:11).
Beginning in 1989, more than ‘1,300 pieces of 22.5 carat gold jewelry, including a variety of chains, rings,
buttons, plates, and other decorative gold items set with diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds’
were recovered from Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion (Mathers et al. 1990:529). However, only a single
silver coin (one Real) was among the recovered items (Moore 2013). At Obyan the top of a copper object
was found in a buried context, suggesting a Post-Contact ending date to Latte Period occupations at
both sites (Spoehr 1957). Chinese sailor Choco was also shipwrecked on Saipan in 1648 where he settled
with a Chamorro wife (Hezel 1989), presumably he was familiar with metal working to some degree.
In 1684, after quelling several native revolts on Guam, Sergeant Major Jose de Quiroga y Losada went
to Saipan to salvage the shipwreck Nuestra Senora de la Concepcion. He met with strong resistance and
proceeded to burn native villages and crops using cannon and firearms; this did not cease until the
natives sued for peace. This reprieve allowed the construction of a fort and church, probably near the
wreck site at Agingan Point where over 10 cannons were recovered (Farrell 2011). After a general revolt
against Spaniards, Quiroga defended his fort from several advances with a small contingent of soldiers
and then slipped away in canoes to reinforce the garrison on Guam. In 1695, when Quiroga returned
33
Afetna Point, Saipan
to end Chamorro resistance, two churches were established, Immaculate Conception at Anaguan to
minister to the survivors of the revolts on Tinian and St. Joseph on Fatiguan to minister to the survivors
from the northern islands campaign (Russell 1998). Beginning in 1722, the dwindling native village
population on Saipan was resettled on Guam for the next century, although it is not beyond possibility
that small groups of mobile Chamorros continued to occupy pockets of northern Saipan and the NMI
or Gani.
4.4.2. Spanish Administration
Sometime between 1815 and 1820, after severe storms devastated the Caroline Islands (Spennemann
1984), refugees from Elato and Satawal began arriving in Guam as they likely did periodically in
prehistory (Barratt 1988). These Carolinians were resettled to Saipan where they established the village
of Garapan from which they assisted in rounding up and salting feral cattle from Tinian for sale to Guam
(Driver and Brunal-Perry 1993), while providing interisland transportation to the alcalde of Saipan after
1835. Chamorros from Guam were then enticed to move to Saipan in the 1860s with offers of farmland,
and in 1889 another group of Carolinians from the island of Namonuito left Tinian when the cattle
venture collapsed and established the village of Tanapag. Remains of 19th century Carolinian burials
have been exposed at Guma Capuchino in south Garapan with imported grave goods including beads
of glass and ceramic, plus shell beads perhaps of local manufacture (Jones and Tomonari-Tuggle 1994).
While the Carolinians proved themselves an asset to the Marianas economy, the arrival on Saipan of
deported Spanish and Filipino political prisoners during the 1870s became a serious impediment to local
self-sufficiency (Madrid 2006) where they often led a life of destitution. Such deportations eventually
ceased and most of the remaining prisoners were repatriated, after which a period of relative political
calm prevailed in Spain’s all but forgotten colonies.
The siesta was broken with the arrival of the American cruiser U.S.S. Charleston in 1898 to take Spanish
government officials prisoner to Manila at the onset of the Spanish-American War (Farrell 1994). In
May of 1899 Colonel Eugenio Blanco arrived with soldiers from the Philippine province of Pampangan
to establish an interim government on Saipan until June 30th when Germany purchased the Northern
Mariana Islands (except Guam which remained in American hands) and the rest of colonial Spanish
Micronesia. The price was set at the equivalent of 4.2 million dollars in February of 1899 after a Japanese
counter offer (Spennemann 2007), and the Paris peace treaty was signed in December of 1898 while
Spain retained the right to use Saipan as a coaling station.
4.4.3. German Administration
On November 17, 1899, Captain Georg Fritz became the first administrator of the Imperial German
District Office at the end of the Spanish-American War (Farrell 1994) and soon offered free passage and
land to Carolinians and Chamorros from Guam to resettle in Saipan where their children were taught
in German schools and German Capuchin Catholic churches (Spennemann 1999, 2007). Attempts to lure
German farmers to the new colony with a similar offer met with far less favorable responses. Fritz
(1989) reported that in 1902, 891 Chamorros, 524 Carolinians, and 42 foreigners resided in the capital
of Garapan and 76 Chamorros, 97 Carolinians, and 1 foreigner in the port of Tanapag. Rota was briefly a
duty station with a coconut plantation and 490 residents, while Tinian remained a cattle ranch with 95
residents.
Germany’s primary interest in the Northern Mariana Islands was the development of a cash-based
export economy of copra production (dried coconut used for oil and livestock feed). Coconut trees were
planted on Saipan, Rota, Tinian, and Aguijan as part of the Tinian Gesellschaft and on the smaller islands
34
Chapter 4 Latte Period Village: Historic Context
to the north in two other lease areas, one to a Japanese firm beyond Agrihan. Japanese trading firm
Nanyo Boki Kaisha also shipped copra to Yokohama with 16 to 30 vessels a year, while the German ship
Germania only resupplied the island three times a year (Farrell 1994). Spanish-era grazing rights to
large undeveloped tracts of land were revoked and lease holders were granted smaller plots to farm,
the remainder being deemed public land suitable for the planting of coconuts or homesteading. Taxes
were collected by local mayors, roads were constructed with community labor, a postal service was
established, schools and a hospital were opened, harbors were improved at Garapan and Tanapag, and
an imposing administration building with replica latte stone pillars was built in Garapan behind Mount
Carmel cathedral (Farrell 1994).
After a poor response to European agricultural settlement offers and the devastation of young coconut
plantations by two typhoons in the Marianas and in the Western and Central Caroline Islands in 1905
and 1907 (Spennemann 2004), several hundred Carolinian residents were resettled to Saipan at Oleai
village south of Garapan and then to Pagan. After destructive typhoons returned to Saipan and Rota
in 1911, 1913, and 1914, the German administration eventually became convinced that their economic
gamble to establish a viable colony in the Northern Mariana Islands had failed (Fritz 1989). German
authority over the islands ended in October 1914, when the Japanese battleship Katori seized control of
Saipan, along with other German possessions in Micronesia.
4.4.4. Japanese Administration
During World War I, Saipan was placed under military jurisdiction by Japan; German nationals were
expelled because Japan and Great Britain were allies. The Supreme Council of the League of Nations
awarded the mandate over German Micronesia to Japan in May 1919 at the close of the war, with an
agreement not to fortify any of the islands. The Nan‘yo-cho or South Seas Bureau replaced the Japanese
naval administration in 1922 and authority was later transferred to the Ministry of Overseas Affairs
(Farrell 1994). After scientific studies of the island, two unsuccessful attempts were made to initiate
agricultural industries on Saipan, until permission was granted to Haruji Matsue to grow sugarcane
with the NKK or South Seas Development Company.
In 1922, the company began importing laborers and cleared land for sugarcane fields, organized
factories, constructed Shinto shrines, and built railroads to the first sugar mill near Lake Susupe. Chalan
Kanoa, where the NKK workers lived near the mill, quickly grew into a major town with a distillery
to use molasses from the sugar mill, a warehouse, railway sheds, a dock, administrative offices, and
company housing. The capital, Garapan, soon boasted schools, a jail (Allen 2006), hospital, leisure club
for employees, recreational facilities, retail stores, power plant, radio station, and regular mail service
to Japan (Peattie 1988). Islanders were served by Catholic priests brought from Japan and a convent was
established for nuns. In 1937, the civilian population was 46,708 with only 4,145 of those being Chamorro
or Carolinian; most of the population was Japanese, Okinawan, or Korean (Bowers 1950), many involved
in small farming and sugarcane plantation employment.
In anticipation of the impending war, as Japan withdrew from the League of Nations in 1934, Aslito
Airfield was completed by NKK laborers the following year ostensibly to serve a new air route by Great
Japan Airways. Ships leaving with women and children of employees began returning to Japan, while
16,000 civilians and 2,000 Japanese prisoners from Yokohama were increasingly conscripted for military
construction. This included new runways in Makpe, Kagman, and Chalan Kanoa, bunkers for artillery
overlooking the expected invasion beaches such as Unai Obyan (Tomonari-Tuggle 1990), and networks
of tunnels, rock shelters, and caves for defense and refuge near Laulau (Haun and Henry 1993; Mazurek
et al. 1991; Olmo 1992a and 1992b; Tomonari-Tuggle 1990). On December 8, 1941, a squadron of Japanese
aircraft left Asilito Airfield and the Puntan Flores seaplane base and bombed military targets around
35
Afetna Point, Saipan
Apra Harbor on Guam, initiating the conflict with the U.S. with similar raids across the Pacific. Asilito
Airfield was made operational with a 1,188.7-meter (3,900-foot) runway, a hospital, administration
building, oxygen plant, power plant, shop areas, taxiways, fuel and ammunition storage, and hangars
plus anti-aircraft artillery positions – many of which are still visible today.
Operation Forager air raids of military targets on Saipan began in February 1944 as a U.S. Navy carrier
task force with over 800 ships sailed for the Mariana Islands. Native islanders, Japanese NKK employees,
and laborers from Korea and Okinawa were forced to work on repairs to facilities at night (Petty 2002),
which were bombed by day (Denfeld 1997; Peattie 1988). The influx of Japanese troops also brought
housing pressures to the island as combined army and navy strength grew to almost 30,000 defenders
under Lieutenant Generals Obata Hideyoshi and Saito Yoshitsugu, far more than estimated by the U.S.
intelligence based on reconnaissance flights.
Systematic air and naval bombardment of Saipan began on June 11, 1944, and landing along the west
coast began on the morning of June 15 as the 2nd and 4th Marine Divisions under the command of
Lieutenant General Holland Smith were soon pinned down to the beaches by aggressive pre-sighted
Japanese artillery not neutralized during the shelling. Concentrated fire from two fixed Japanese
batteries and ‘spider holes’ on Agingan Point facing the present property’s beachfront from the south
was very effective in pinning down the Marines, until neutralized by ten tanks from Company A (Bulgrin
2005). They were reinforced over Yellow Beaches 1 through 3 by the 27th Army Infantry Division the
following day and then by successive waves of artillery, medical, administrative, and communications
support of the battle for Asilito airfield and Naftun Point. This occurred under the command of Major
General Ralph Smith, until he was relieved of duty on June 24 by Lieutenant General Holland Smith
during the struggle for Mount Tapochao.
Meanwhile the 25th Marines crossed the island from Yellow Beaches 1 through 3 at Afetna Point to the
Kagman Peninsula and began pushing defenders to the north (Bulgrin 2005), while the 165th Army
Infantry captured Asilito Airfield becoming operational for American support aircraft by June 22nd
(Rottman 2004). Fighting in the streets of Garapan and Tanapag was intense in spite of previous shelling
and the struggle to gain command of the high ground on Mount Tapochao was not completed until June
25. Saipan was declared secure on July 9, 1944, although forces under the command of Captain Sakae
Oba remained hidden in the jungles around Mount Tapachau until deciding that information about the
war’s end from the Susupe internment camp was correct and he surrendered his command with 50 men
on December 1, 1945 (Jones 1986).
An approximate 3,400 American soldiers and 29,500 Japanese military plus an undetermined number of
Japanese civilians, since the process of separating the dead on the battlefield was complicated by rains
and the mutilation of combat, were killed in action or died of their wounds (Adams et al. 1996; Prasad
and Williams 2001; Tomonari-Tuggle et al. 2007). Civilians who survived helped in the burial process and
were then interned in Camp Susupe to the south, one camp for Japanese, one for Koreans, and another
for Chamorro and Carolinians. ‘Regrettably, the ravages of the battle rage on in the memories of the
families of the 933 native men, women, and children that died in a conflict not of their making’ (Cabrera
2015:24).
4.4.5. American Administration
By late 1944, Saipan was transformed into the first operational B-29 base in the Pacific (Farrell 1994).
Isely Field, the present International Airport and former Asilito Airfield, soon saw the arrival of General
Curtis LeMay to organize high level bombing of selected Japanese military targets. However, there were
still bombing raids on the airfield by Japanese Betty Bombers based in Iwo Jima. Japanese East Field at
36
Chapter 4 Latte Period Village: Historic Context
Kagman and Marpi Point Air Base, were also renovated to support American P-47 fighter support, which
employed napalm for the first time during the Tinian invasion. Kobler Field, close to Isley Field, was
built near Agingan Point to support B-29s bombers (Craib 1991) and was critical for supplying American
Prisoner of War camps in Japan at war’s end.
After the declaration that Saipan was secured, civilian Japanese, Okinawans, Chamorros, Carolinians,
and Koreans were interned in Camp Susupe or on Tinian where they awaited repatriation to the
homelands or were released. The immediate crisis was the medical care needed for the wounded, sick,
and starving men, women, and children. By the spring of 1946, nearly 10,000 Japanese and 1,300 Korean
nationals were repatriated except for a few that were married to local islanders (Denfeld 1997). Over
2,300 Chamorro and 800 Carolinians were released in Saipan and were in high demand for government
wage labor as the U.S. war effort grew and continued to do so until the 1950s and the Korean War
(Bowers 1950; Spoehr 1954).
Construction of the USCG LORAN Station on Saipan began in November 1944, and was built alongside
the same site of the modern Pacific Island Club (i.e., the former Surf Hotel) (Dietz 2018). The LORAN
Station was first built with six Quonset huts and smaller support structures near the antennas. The
transmitting station was paired with other USCG LORAN Stations on Orote Point and Cocos Island on
Guam. The transmitting station on Saipan was used at the same time as the Central Intelligence Agency
training of Taiwan Chinese nationalists to fight the communists in mainland China (Denfield in Mazurek
et al. 1991) in the 1950s, when it was rebuilt with three concrete structures, signal power building,
barracks, and a mess hall. The Agency continued training Taiwanese Nationalists (Mazurek et al. 1991)
until 1962. The towers suffered damage during Typhoon Jean in 1968 and the facility was rehabbed in
1969. It was manned by the USCG until decommissioned in January 1978.
After the establishment of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands by the United Nations, the U.S.
continued administration of Saipan under the jurisdiction of the Navy until 1951, when the Northern
Mariana Islands were transferred to the Department of the Interior. The following year, Saipan became
the headquarters of the U.S. Naval Technical Training Unit and jurisdiction was returned to the Navy.
In 1962, Saipan became provisional capital of the Micronesia Trust Territory (Farrell 1994). On February
15, 1975, Saipan voted to adopt the CNMI covenant with a provision that a portion of Tanapag Harbor
and Isley Field be jointly used by the U.S. military and CNMI. In 1978, the U.S. President and Congress
approved the covenant and new constitution and in 1986, the President granted American citizenship
to CNMI residents.
37
Chapter 5
Latte Period Results
5.1 Data Recovery Excavation
Data recovery excavation occurred between May 27 and July 5, 2015 with three archaeologists and one
osteologist to manually excavate all intact human remains and in situ features (Figure 15). A welded
metal plate covered the teeth of the 1-meter (3.3-foot) wide backhoe bucket and 1.5-meter (4.9-foot)
wide excavator bucket during the excavation. Manual and mechanical excavation were conducted at
approximate 10-centimeter (3.9-inch) levels. Work stopped upon command from the archaeologist to
expose wider expanses above possible features. Further examination was done by hand with a trowel
and shovel before recording. Such techniques were not optimal, but crew safety in close proximity to
moving machinery and UXO was a constant concern. Feature profiles below 1 meter (3.3 feet) in depth
were not always meticulously cleaned for photography, due to the collapse of loose sands with passing
heavy machinery creating an unacceptable risk to crew safety.
As discussed above, excavation exposed at least 1 meter (3.3 feet) of depth below surface in the west
and 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) in the east. Generally, 50 centimeters (19.7 inches) of sterile beach sand was
present beneath the dark brown organic sand cultural horizon and intrusive USCG pipes and wires.
Individual artifacts and UXO from the WWII invasion were sometimes intruding into sterile sand at or
below 50 centimeters (19.7 inches) below surface. This indicated that the prehistoric cultural horizon
was seriously disturbed on June 15, 1944, and then again during clean up after the battle when foxholes
and trenches were buried.
Most human remains encountered during excvavation showed sign of prior breakage and disarticulation,
often found associated with the construction of USCG LORAN Station antennas with their concrete
supports, communication wires, and utility pipelines. Depth of excavation also ranged down to 2 meters
(6.6 feet) below surface when post-U.S. invasion dumps of WWII combat materials, such as UXO, were
encountered, and when intact prehistoric dogas ovens were exposed.
Excavation yielded Tridacna shell gouges, Tridacna shell adzes, Spondylus beads, coral nutting stones,
basalt mortars, basalt pounders, basalt grinders, coral sling stones, limestone sling stones, basalt sling
stones, basalt adzes, basalt manos, basalt sinker weights, basalt pestles, basalt balls, basalt anvil, ground
basalt fragments, and ceramics.
5.1.1. Features and their Contexts
Ten archaeological and architectural features were exposed and investigated during data recovery
excavations (Table 3; Figure 16). These features are identified by their proposed construction
location in the property or previously assigned CNMI HPO site number (Dixon and McCurdy 2015b).
The stratigraphic contexts in which these features were found are first presented for the property
in general, followed by the individual features according to their time periods, earliest to most
recent. Previously assigned feature letters from the inventory survey were retained during data
recovery, but newly discovered features were assigned numbers associated with the construction
area to facilitate communication with engineers coordinating heavy machinery with changing
archaeological needs.
38
Figure 15. Subsurface Prehistoric Remains Recorded during Data Recovery
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
39
Afetna Point, Saipan
Table 3. Archaeological Features Recorded during Excavation of the Property
Site
Number
Feature Number
and Area
Feature Type
Feature Period Feature Size
Feature 1/
North Hotel
FCR hearth
complex
Latte Period
5 x 4 meters (16.4 x 13.1 feet) by
0.2 meters (0.66 feet) deep
FCR, pottery
Feature 2/
North Hotel
FCR hearth
complex
Latte Period
3 x 2 meters (9.8 x 6.6 feet) by 0.2
meters (0.66 feet) deep
FCR, pottery
Feature 3/
USCG LORAN
Station
Dogas oven
Latte Period
5 meters (16.4 feet) diameters by
0.3 meters (0.98 feet) deep
Dogas shell,
pottery
Feature 4/
Road
Pits and buried
horizons
Latte Period
and earlier
strata
0.5 meters (1.6 feet) diameter by
0.4 meters (1.3 feet) deep and 0.75
meters (2.46 feet) deep
FCR, pottery
Feature 5/
Pool
Dogas oven
Latte Period
6 meters (19.7 feet) diameter by 2
meters (6.6 feet) deep
Dogas shell,
pottery
Feature 7/
Road
FCR hearth
Latte Period
0.8 meters (2.6 feet) diameter by
0.15 meters (0.49 feet) deep
FCR, pottery
Feature 8/
South Hotel
Dogas oven
Latte Period
8 meters (26.2 feet) diameter by 2
meters (6.6 feet) deep
Dogas shell,
pottery
SP 5-1036
Feature A
Ammunition
Magazine
Japanese
WWII
8 x 8 meters (26.2 x 26.2 feet)
polygon by 1.5 meters (4.9 feet)
deep within cobble fill
Metal, glass,
bottles
SP 6-1035
Feature D
USCG LORAN
Station
cesspool
Post-WWII
3 x 8 meters (9.8 x 26.2 feet)
octagon by 2 meters (6.6 feet) deep
within cobble leach field
Liquid waste
Feature A
Fruit stand and
boxing pad
Modern
20 x 12 meters (65.6 x 39.4 feet)
rectangle by 0.2 meters (0.66 feet)
deep on top of gravel fill
Crushed
concrete and
metal sign
below
SP 1-1037
SP 6-1038
Feature
Content
5.1.2. Stratigraphic Context
Before presenting detailed feature descriptions based upon excavation and field analysis, the overall
stratigraphic context of the property is presented below. This context is a schematic modification of
Feature D in site Saipan (SP) 1-1037 that typifies stratigraphy above the former sand mine near the
southeast corner of the previous inventory survey area (Dixon and McCurdy 2015a). Severe disturbance
to almost 1 meter (3.3 feet) below surface was normal in this area.
Stratum I, the modern to historic horizon, was not uniformly distributed across the property. Crushed
limestone road gravels from 1944 to 1978 and backdirt from the 1987 sand mine were mostly present in
the eastern half, so are referred to as Strata Ia, Ib, Ic, etc. In some areas near the middle of the property it
appeared that Stratum II was removed and then reintroduced as fill over WWII-era foxholes and refuse
pits or later utility trenches and antenna wires, so was technically Stratum I in feature profiles. In other
areas, primarily in the far western half of the property, it appeared there was no Stratum I present.
Stratum II, the prehistoric cultural horizon, was a relatively compact very dark grayish brown (10YR
3/2) sand with dogas marine shells and Latte Period pottery and tools. This horizon measured 20 to
30 centimeters (7.9 to 11.8 inches) thick. It generally had a wavy lower boundary that implied gradual
and not sudden buildup. Stratum II sometimes covered small basin-shaped earlier features or later
intrusions into the sand below from the WWIIera. This incipient topsoil formerly supported secondary
40
Figure 16. Location of Archaeological Sites and Features
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
41
Afetna Point, Saipan
regrowth of tropical vegetation at the time of grubbing and presumably in prehistory, as well as historic
coconut plantations before WWII. This stratum was not as dark or as uniform along the western edge
of the property overlooking the shoreline. Little evidence of prehistoric remains was encountered and
cultural remains were sparse immediately inside the Beach Road fenceline.
Stratum III, a white (10YR 8/1) loose sand, sometimes contained lenses of gray (7.5YR 5/1 to 7/1)
sand and occasional artifacts and dogas shells near the center of the property. This area presumably
represents Late PreLatte activities but not major habitation. These lenses were not present to the east or
west as tested by deeper excavations during survey and data recovery. The locus of earliest occupation
of the property appears to lie perpendicular to the former sand mine, on a roughly north to south axis,
which was largely removed in 1987.
Stratum IV, a white (10YR 8/1) sterile loose sand, was generally found across the entire site, above the
water table encountered at or near 3 meters (9.8 feet) below surface depending on rainfall. These sands
appear to be those targeted by the 1987 sand mine when other horizons above were removed. Where
darker bands of Stratum III were not present, sands weathered to the same hue within minutes of being
exposed to the sun and elements.
While the depths below surface were approximate, depending on disturbance depths, the overall
stratigraphy was as follows:
•• Stratum I = 0 to 30 centimeters (0 to 11.8 inches) below surface, loose backfills from sand mining
over road gravels from USCG LORAN Station.
•• Stratum II = 30 to 60 centimeters (11.8 to 23.6 inches) below surface, compact very dark grayish
brown (10YR 3/2) organic cultural horizon, sometimes with features beneath in grayish brown
(10YR 5/2) sand.
•• Stratum III = 60 to 100 centimeters (23.6 to 39.4 inches) below surface, loose white (10YR 8/1) sand
sometimes with cultural lenses in gray (7.5YR 5/1 to 7/1) sand grading into the stratum below.
•• Stratum IV = 100 to 150 centimeters (39.4 to 59.1 inches) below surface, loose white (10YR 8/1)
sterile sand below except when cultural intrusions come from above.
5.1.3. Site SP 1-1037
A total of eight features were recorded at Site SP 1-1037 (Figure 17). Features believed to be prehistoric
in time period are presented first; however, the tops of many features were likely truncated by WWII
combat and follow-on cleanup and later construction of the USCG LORAN Station and associated
buried infrastructure. All the features identified during data recovery pertain to the Latte Period from
approximately A.D. 1000 until the settlement of Spanish in the 1670s (Russell 1998), as denoted by their
site prefix ‘SP 1’. Please note that the term ‘prehistoric’ used here in no way infers that native Chamorro
people did not retain their own history before and after the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521.
5.1.3.1. Feature 1
Feature 1 a hearth complex, situated within the North Hotel footprint (see Figure 15), represents what
is likely a primary type of communal or repeated cooking area within the aforementioned domestic
activity zone, presumably situated on the seaward or downwind side of the Latte Period community’s
habitations. Unlike the deeply buried dogas cooking ovens nearby, this feature was a roughly rectangular
area of fire-cracked coral rocks and clusters of burned Latte Period Type B rimmed pottery. This feature
was located within a black (10YR 2/1) to very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) compact sand. At least four
dense clusters of FCR in a white (10YR 8/1) ash, each roughly 50 centimeters (19.7 inches) in diameter,
were noted within the darker matrix. Together, the feature and its contents, measured approximately
5.5 meters (18 feet) in length north to south by 4 meters (13.1 feet) in width east to west and only 10 to
42
Figure 17. Site SP 1-1037 with Features
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
43
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 18. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 1, Plan View and Profile Photo
20 centimeters (3.9 to 7.9 inches) deep. The matrix had a wavy lower boundary above sterile loose white
(10YR 8/1) Stratum III sand; although the top was truncated.
This hearth complex is interpreted as a cooking area requiring the heating of large Latte Period vessels
and their contents on small low fires, although another interpretation is offered in addressing the
Research Questions below. It is presumed that the hearth complex was cleaned out and local resident
families introduced new stones repeatedly either during communal events or over time. Larger
burned rock middens have been found near Latte Period habitation sites on Rota (Bulgrin 2006) and
have been interpreted as accumulated near outdoor kitchens. The roughly rectangular shape of this
feature suggests it may have been roofed (Figure 18 and 19) as do two possible post holes found near the
northeast and southeast corners beneath the midden floor.
5.1.3.1.1 Feature 1 Test Pit 1
Feature 1 TP1 measured 20 by 20 centimeters (7.9 by 7.9 inches) in size and was placed within the
east edge of Feature 1, to investigate the relationship of surface and subsurface artifact density, and to
extract a measured sample of charred material for radiocarbon dating and microfossil identification and
analysis. Feature 1 TP1 was excavated to a maximum depth of 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) below surface
and contained one distinct soil horizon (Stratum II), situated above Stratum III with relatively sterile
white sands below (Table 4). Burned Latte Period ceramics (1 rim and 39 body sherds) were recovered
44
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Figure 19. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 1, Plan View and Profile View to west
45
Afetna Point, Saipan
Table 4. Stratigraphic Summary of Feature 1 TP1 at
Stratum
Depth
(centimeters/inches below
surface)
Soil Description
Contents
II
10-20/3.9-7.9
Black (10YR 2/1) compact sand
with wavy boundary below
Burned coral rocks, ash pockets, 1 Latte
Period rim sherd and 39 Latte Period body
sherds
during manual excavation and one each submitted to BetaAnalytic Inc. and Microfossil Research Ltd. for
analysis. The remaining artifacts weighed 1,589 grams (56.05 ounces) and were unwashed for curation
and future research.
Based on Bayesian sequence models for initial site use, Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS)
radiocarbon dating of charred material adhering to the exterior surface of the sherd from Feature 1 TP1
(Beta 458316) yielded a calibration of Cal A.D. 1483-1646 with the highest probability at a 95.4 percent
confidence level (2 sigma). This calibrated date and its charred remains places the use of this feature in
the final two centuries of the Latte Period when European castaways only sporadically visited Saipan
when the Manila Galleon wrecked off shore and before the first arrival of Jesuit priests in 1668. The
charred material on the matching sherd was identified by Microfossil Research as coconut and fern
pollen, with grass and palm phytoliths, and marine sponge silica. These remains were presumed to be
fuel used to generate the fire(s) of the Feature 1 hearth complex and not food residue from its cooked
ingredients.
5.1.3.2 Feature 2
Feature 2, situated within the North Hotel footprint, is a smaller hearth complex located approximately
25 meters (82 feet) northeast of Feature 1. This feature was a roughly rectangular to oval area of
firecracked coral rocks and clusters of burned Latte Period Type B rimmed pottery. The feature was
composed of a black (10YR 2/1) compact organic sand midden beneath very dark grayish brown (10YR
3/2) sand (Stratum II). At least two dense clusters of FCR in a white (10YR 8/1) ash, each roughly 50
centimeters (19.7 inches) in diameter, were noted within the darker matrix. Together the feature and
its contents measured approximately 3 meters (9.8 feet) in length north to south, 2 meters (6.6 feet) in
width east to west, and only 20 centimeters (7.9 inches) deep. The matrix had a wavy lower boundary
above sterile loose white (10YR 8/1) Stratum III sand and the top was truncated.
This hearth complex has been interpreted as a smaller cooking area or outdoor kitchen requiring
the heating of large Latte Period vessels and their contents on small low fires, although another
interpretation is offered in addressing the Research Questions below. The roughly oval shape of this
feature suggests it may not have been roofed (Figures 20 and 21). Its smaller size presumably indicated
a shorter term of use or by a smaller family group.
5.1.3.2.1. Feature 2 Test Pit 1
Feature 2 TP1 measured 20 by 20 centimeters (7.9 by 7.9 inches) in size and was placed within the eastern
extension of Feature 2, to investigate the relationship of surface and subsurface artifact density, and
to extract a measured sample of charred soil for radiocarbon dating and microfossil identification and
analysis. Feature 2 TP1 was excavated to a maximum depth of 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) below surface
and contained one distinct soil horizon (Stratum II), situated above Stratum III with relatively sterile white
46
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Figure 20. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 2, Plan View to the West, Profile below on the Left
Table 5. Stratigraphic Summary of Feature 2 TP1
Stratum
Depth
Soil Description
(centimeters/inches below surface)
II
10-20/3.9-7.9
Contents
Black (10YR 2/1) compact sand with Burned coral rocks, ash pockets,
wavy boundary below
Latte Period pottery
sands below (Table 5). Stratum II consisted of black (10YR 2/1) compact sand with a wavy boundary and
contained burned coral rocks, ash pockets, and Latte Period pottery. Charred organic sediment recovered
during manual excavation of the unit was submitted to BetaAnalytic Inc. and Microfossil Research Ltd. for
analysis and the remaining soil weighed less than 399.7 grams (14.1 ounces).
Based on Bayesian sequence models for initial site use, AMS radiocarbon dating of charred organic
sediment from Feature 2 TP1 (Beta 458314) yielded a date of Cal A.D. 1450-1530 with the highest
probability at a 95.4 percent confidence level (2 sigma). The calibrated date places the use of this feature
in the final century of the Latte Period. The charred material in the soil was identified by Microfossil
Research as coconut and fern pollen, with grass and palm phytoliths, and starch rapides from aroid
corms and leaves. These remains were presumed to be fuel used to generate the fire(s) of the Feature 2
hearth complex, and perhaps residue from its cooked ingredients.
47
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 21. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 2, Plan View and Profile to the Northeast
48
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
5.1.3.3. Feature 3
Feature 3, situated east of the former USCG facility, was a roughly circular small dogas oven approximately
2 meters (6.6 feet) in diameter and at least 40 centimeters (15.7 inches) deep. These measurements
were taken where mechanical excavation truncated the feature in a road cut into the former sand mine
(Figures 22 and 23). Prior USCG road construction had exposed the discarded midden from the oven to
at least a 5-meter (16.4foot) diameter area on the surface. Five shovel tests excavated beyond Feature 3
(Figure 24) were negative for cultural materials (Table 6). This feature, located on the south edge of the
former sand mine, is much smaller and more shallow than the dogas ovens to the west (Features 5 and
8). Feature 3 may represent a single family or short-term cooking area. If situated on the seaward or
downwind side of the Latte Period community’s habitations, then the actual living area was destroyed
by the sand mine.
The lowest cultural Stratum, IID, at the bottom of the oven feature, was a concave layer of very dark
brown (10YR 2/2) fire-darkened sand 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) thick above and within sterile loose
white (10YR 8/1) Stratum III sand. To the east and stratigraphically above Stratum IID was another 10
centimeter (3.9 inch) thick very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) oven feature Stratum IIC. This stratum
had calcified dogas shells present that appeared not to have been totally removed for consumption.
Stratum IIB, a layer of gray (7.5YR 5/1) ash, lies above the oven and the entire excavation unit was
capped by a 15 centimeter (5.9 inch) thick layer of very dark brown (10YR 2/2) Stratum IIA mixed with
dogas shells and pottery. This uppermost layer, Stratum I, was white (10YR 8/1) crushed coral road
base fill. Feature fill was present below Stratum I, covering an area no more than 5 meters (16.4 feet) in
diameter based on the negative results of five surrounding shovel test pits measuring 30 centimeters by
30 centimeters (11.8 inches by 11.8 inches) below surface.
Table 6. Stratigraphic Summary of Shovel Test Pits at Feature 3
Shovel
Test Pit
Number
1
2
Layer
I-III
I-III
Depth
(centimeters/inches
below surface)
Soil Description
Contents
0-30/11.8
Stratum I white (10YR 8/1) crushed coral road base with
wavy boundary; slight traces of Stratum II very dark
brown (10YR 2/2) sand below; over Stratum III white
(10YR 8/1) sterile sand
Sparse dogas shells,
no artifacts
0-30/11.8
Stratum I white (10YR 8/1) crushed coral road base with
wavy boundary; slight traces of Stratum II very dark
brown (10YR 2/2) sand below; over Stratum III white
(10YR 8/1) sterile sand
Sparse dogas shells,
no artifacts
Sparse dogas shells,
no artifacts
3
I-III
0-30/11.8
Stratum I white (10YR 8/1) crushed coral road base with
wavy boundary; slight traces of Stratum II very dark
brown (10YR 2/2) sand below; over Stratum III white
(10YR 8/1) sterile sand
4
I-III
0-30/11.8
Stratum I white (10YR 8/1) crushed coral road base with
wavy boundary; slight traces of Stratum II very dark
brown (10YR 2/2) sand below; over Stratum III white
(10YR 8/1) sterile sand
Sparse dogas shells,
no artifacts
5
I-III
0-30/11.8
Stratum I white (10YR 8/1) crushed coral road base with
wavy boundary; slight traces of Stratum II very dark
brown (10YR 2/2) sand below; over Stratum III white
(10YR 8/1) sterile sand
Sparse dogas shells,
no artifacts
49
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 22. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 3, Profile of TP1, View to the South
5.1.3.3.1. Feature 3 Test Pit 1
Feature 3 TP1 measured 100 by 100 centimeters (39.4 by 39.4 inches) in size and was placed within
the northern extension of Feature 3, to investigate the relationship of surface and subsurface artifact
density, and to extract a measured sample of charred soil for radiocarbon dating and microfossil
identification and analysis. All matrices were screened through 0.364 centimeter (0.25 inch) wire mesh
and all shell with a few pottery sherds were recovered for analysis (see Figures 22 and 23). Feature 3 TP1
was excavated to a maximum depth of 60 centimeters (23.6 inches) below surface and contained one
distinct soil horizon (Stratum IIA) situated above two distinct oven basins (Stratum IIB/C and IID) with
Stratum III, sterile white sands below (Table 7). Charred organic sediment recovered during manual
excavation of the unit was submitted to BetaAnalytic Inc. and Microfossil Research Ltd. for analysis and
the remaining soil weighed 3,859 grams (136.1 ounces).
Based on Bayesian sequence models for initial site use, AMS radiocarbon dating of charred organic
sediment from Feature 3 TP1 (Beta 458312) yielded a date of Cal A.D. 1450-1530 with the highest
probability at a 95.4 percent confidence level (2 sigma). The calibrated date places the use of this feature
in the final century of the Latte Period. The charred material in the soil was identified by Microfossil
50
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Figure 23. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 3, TP1 Profile, South Wall
51
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 24. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 3, TP1 Plan View and Negative Shovel Test Pits
52
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Table 7. Stratigraphic Summary of Feature 3 TP1
Stratum
Depth
(centimeters/inches
below surface)
Soil Description
Contents
I
0-15/0-5.9
White (10YR 8/1) crushed coral road gravel
with wavy boundary below
None
IIa
15-30/5.9-11.8
Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) sand with wavy
boundary below
Dense dogas shells, sparse Latte
Period ceramics
IIb
30-40/11.8-15.7
Gray (7.5YR 5/1) ash
None
IIc
40-45/15.7-17.7
Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) ashy sand oven
basin
None
IId
45-50/17.7-19.7
Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) ashy sand oven
basin
None
III
50-60/19.7-23.6
White (10YR 8/1) sand
None
Research as non-coconut palm and Indian Mulberry pollen with grass phytoliths and starch rapides
from aroid corms and leaves. These remains were presumed to be fuel used to generate the fire(s) of the
Feature 3 dogas oven and perhaps residue from its cooked ingredients.
Figure 25. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 4, Profile with Complex Stratigraphy Below
53
Afetna Point, Saipan
5.1.3.4. Feature 4
Feature 4, situated beneath former Aguas Street, was a roughly V-shaped pit within the base of the
10 centimeter (3.9 inch) thick Stratum II cultural horizon (Figure 25). This feature was exposed by
trenching through the road gravel of Stratum I, located next to a shallower and smaller pit with
burned coral rocks to the south (Figure 26). The 30 centimeter (11.8 inch) deep V-shaped pit matrix
was a very dark gray (7.5YR 3/1) sand with occasional dogas shells and a wavy lower boundary, but
no evidence of burning in situ. Immediately below the feature was Stratum III, a 40 centimeter (15.7
inch) thick light gray (7.5YR 7/1) sand. Stratum III was homogenous in matrix, with a fairly abrupt
lower boundary. This suggests relatively rapid deposition perhaps during one or more storm surge
events before the Latte Period occupation above. Stratum IIIA below Stratum III was 10 centimeter
(3.9 inch) thick gray (7.5YR 6/1) sand with occasional dogas shells and a wavy boundary below
implying some temporal stability. This is likely toward the end of the Pre-Latte Period to judge
from occasional Type A rim sherds and undecorated redware found in the backdirt. Stratum IIIB
was a 10 centimeter (3.9 inch) thick pinkish gray (7.5YR 7/2) sand with darker mottling and wavy
boundary below, likely another storm surge event. Stratum IIIC below was a gray (7.5YR 5/1) sand
with mottling and occasional dogas shells. This stratum gradually faded into sterile loose white
(10YR 8/1) sand (Stratum IV) at the bottom of the trench approximately 100 centimeters (39.4
inches) below surface.
Figure 26. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 4, Profile of the North Wall
54
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
5.1.3.5. Feature 5
Feature 5 was situated within the swimming pool area between the two hotel footprints. The feature
was a roughly circular shaped dogas oven approximately 6 meters (16.7 feet) in diameter and at least
2 meters (6.6 feet) deep, where mechanical excavation and profile cleaning ceased due to safety concerns
(Figure 27). The side walls consisted of loose sand and ash with shell lenses but were unsafe to document
due to collapsing trench walls. USCG road construction and then grading and grubbing had exposed the
discarded midden from the oven to a much larger area on the surface. This feature, located on the west
edge of the former sand mine, is much larger and deeper than the small dogas oven to the east (Feature
3). Feature 5 may represent a communal or long-term cooking area. If this oven was situated on the
seaward or downwind side of the Latte Period community’s habitation, then the actual living area was
partially destroyed by the sand mine.
The lowest stratum of the oven feature was a 40 centimeter (15.7 inch) thick basin of black (10YR 2/1)
compact organic sandy ash (Stratum II). It was impossible to determine the exact boundary with the sterile
loose white (10YR 8/1) Stratum III/IV sand below because the side wall was extremely unstable. Immediately
above, on the southern side of the feature, was a 20 centimeter (7.9 inch) thick lens of calcified dogas shells,
which appeared not to have been totally removed for consumption. The entire cooking feature was then
capped by Stratum II, a 60 centimeter (23.6 inch) thick layer of dark grayish brown (10YR 4/2) ashy sand
mixed with dogas shells. It is presumed to be the remains of oven clean out and dogas consumption in situ.
This layer is capped by Stratum I, another 60 centimeter (23.6 inch) very dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2),
mixed by WWII-era disturbances and antenna grounding wire.
Figure 27. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 5, Profile of East Wall
55
Afetna Point, Saipan
Table 8. Stratigraphic Summary of Feature 5 TP1
Stratum
Depth
(centimeters/inches
below surface)
Soil Description
Contents
II
150-170/59.1-66.9
Black (10YR 2/1) compact organic sandy ash
Dogas shells
5.1.3.5.1. Feature 5 Test Pit 1
Feature 5 TP1 measured 20 by 20 centimeters (7.9 by 7.9 inches) in size and was placed within the
lowest layer of charred soil in Stratum II, approximately 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) below surface (Table 8), to
investigate the relationship of surface and subsurface artifact density, and to extract a measured sample
of charred soil for radiocarbon dating and microfossil identification and analysis. Charred organic
sediment recovered during manual excavation was submitted to BetaAnalytic Inc. and Microfossil
Research Ltd. for analysis and the remaining soil weighed 96.1 ounces (2,724 grams).
Based on Bayesian sequence models for initial site use, AMS radiocarbon dating of charred organic
sediment from Feature 5 TP1 (Beta 458313) yielded a date of Cal A.D. 1669-1780 with the highest
probability at a 95.4 percent confidence level (2 sigma). The earliest intercept of this calibrated date
places the use of this feature after the first arrival of Jesuit priests to Saipan in 1668 and presumably
before the final removal of Chamorro inhabitants by Spanish military at the end of La Reduccion,
approximately in 1721. The charred material in the soil was identified by Microfossil Research as
grass and palm phytoliths with marine sponge silica and taro starch. These remains were presumed
to be fuel used to generate the fire(s) of the Feature 5 dogas oven and perhaps residue from its cooked
ingredients.
5.1.3.6. Feature 7
Feature 7 was situated on the south side of Aguas Street near the edge of the sand mine. The
feature consisted of a small cooking hearth that was located beneath gravel fill (Stratum I)
and the cultural horizon (Stratum II) approximately 50 centimeters (19.7 inches) below road
surface (Figure 28). This feature was a roughly circular area of fire-cracked coral and small stones
measuring just under 1 meter (3.3 feet) in diameter and only 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) deep
(Figure 29). The hearth was mixed with occasional dogas shells and black (10YR 2/1) ashy sand
above white (10YR 8/1) sands (Stratum III). It is assumed this represents a onetime cooking event,
perhaps similar to many more such features accumulated within the hearth complexes of North
Hotel Features 1 and 2 described above. A test pit was not excavated within this feature due to
near surface disturbances.
5.1.3.7. Feature 8
Feature 8, situated within the South Hotel footprint, was a roughly circular shaped dogas shell oven
approximately 8 meters (26.2 feet) in diameter and at least 2 meters (6.6 feet) deep. Mechanical
excavation ceased due to safety concerns regarding the side walls, which consisted of loose sand and ash
with shell lenses unsafe to profile. USCG road construction and then grading and grubbing had exposed
the discarded midden from the oven to a much larger area on the surface. This feature, located on the
west edge of the former sand mine, is much larger and deeper than the dogas oven to the east (Feature
3). This may represent a communal or longterm cooking area similar to Feature 5. If this feature was
situated on the seaward or downwind side of the Latte Period community’s habitations, then the actual
living area was partially destroyed by the sand mine.
56
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Figure 28. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 7, Plan View to the South
The lowest stratum at the bottom of the oven feature was a 30-centimeter (11.8-inch) thick concave
layer of gray (7.5YR 6/1) fire-darkened sand (Stratum IIC). Stratum IIC covered at least two large and
flat coral cobbles horizontally bedded above the sterile loose white (10YR 8/1) sand (Stratum III). This
implies their use as heating elements for the first cooking event was at least 2 meters (6.6 feet) below
the surface (Figure 30). No longer present was the oxidized firewood used to heat the rocks before
introducing the wrapped food for underground cooking. A 10 centimeter (3.9 inch) thick lens of very
dark grayish brown (10YR 3/2) ash (Stratum IIB) was located above the deepest burned sand. This
perhaps represents a second cooking event covered by another 10 centimeter (3.9 inch) thick layer of
fire-darkened sand.
Immediately overlying those three strata was a 20 centimeter (7.9 inch) thick lens of calcified dogas shells
(Figure 31), which appear not to have been removed for consumption. The entire cooking feature was
then capped by a 40 centimeter (15.7 inch) thick layer of very dark brown (10YR 2/2) organic ashy sand
(Stratum IIA). This layer was mixed with dogas shells and is presumed to be the remains of oven cleanout and dogas consumption in situ. This was in turn capped by another 40 centimeters (15.7 inches) of
grayish brown (10YR 5/2) soil (Stratum I) mixed by WWIIera disturbances and thus spread far beyond
the limits of the cooking feature itself.
57
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 29. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 7, Plan View of Hearth
58
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
5.1.3.7.1. Feature 8 Test Pit 1
Feature 8 TP1 measured 20 by 20 centimeters (7.9 by 7.9 inches) in size and was placed within the
highest layer of intact charred soil in the northwest corner of Stratum IIA (Table 9). The TP was located
here to investigate the relationship of surface and subsurface artifact density and to extract a measured
sample of charred soil for radiocarbon dating and microfossil identification and analysis. Charred
organic sediment recovered during manual excavation of the unit was submitted to BetaAnalytic Inc.
and Microfossil Research Ltd. for analysis and the remaining soil weighed 4,994 grams (176.2 ounces).
Based on Bayesian sequence models for initial site use, AMS radiocarbon dating of charred organic sediment
from Feature 8 TP1 (Beta 458315) yielded a date of Cal AD 1513-1601 with the highest probability at a
95.4 percent confidence level (2 sigma). This calibrated date places the use of this feature in the final two
centuries of the Latte Period. The charred material in the soil was identified by Microfossil Research as grass
and palm phytoliths with starch rapides from artiod corms and leaves. These remains were presumed to be
fuel used to generate the fire(s) of the Feature 8 dogas oven and perhaps residue from its cooked ingredients.
Table 9. Stratigraphic Summary of Feature 8 TP1
Stratum
Depth
(centimeters/inches
below surface)
Soil Description
Contents
IIA
0-20/0-7.9
Very dark brown (10YR 2/2) organic ashy sand
Dogas shells
Figure 30. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 8 Profile, View to the Northeast
59
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 31. Site SP 1-1037, Feature 8, Profile of North Wall
5.1.4 Artifacts
Prehistoric artifacts at Site SP 1-1037 reflected a broad spectrum of domestic activities, including cooking
(ceramics), forest clearing (stone adzes), wood working (shell chisels and adzes), food preparation (stone
pounders and grinders), herbal medicine preparation (stone mortars and pestles), abraders (pitted
coral), ornamentation (shell beads), and hunting or fighting (limestone sling stones and human bone
spear points).
5.1.4.1. Groundstone Artifacts
Groundstone artifacts at Site SP 1-1037 (Table 10) were ‘whole or fragmentary implements whose
shape has been produced mainly by pecking and grinding, as opposed to chipping’ (Hunter-Anderson
1994). Raw materials used for stone tool manufacture included basalt or andesite (not differentiated
geochemically in this report), coral, and limestone. Chert artifacts were not encountered. These
groundstone tools displayed a wide variety of forms and functions suggesting relatively easy access to
raw materials presumably within a half day walk to the sources, or via exchange of blanks and finished
tools with people living in the Saipan uplands. In spite of the absence of basalt or volcanic stone
outcrops on the coastal plain and southern terraces, it appears this interaction was frequent given the
quantity of groundstone tools on property. Perhaps Site SP 1-1037 even functioned as an intermediary
in exchange with inhabitants across the water on Tinian who lacked tool quality basalt and volcanic
stone raw materials.
60
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Adzes
Basalt and andesitic stone adzes at Site SP 1-1037 appeared likely to reflect forest clearing for agriculture
as well as tree felling and shaping activities for house construction and canoe production. They ranged
in shape from flat/rectangular to trapezoidal to oval and most had considerable use wear on one or
more edges. Their limited number on site suggested they were not tools of daily use for every household.
Their used condition may suggest they were re-sharpened or re-hafted and curated at home for future
use by skilled wood working artisans at the work site.
Discrete variables used to characterize stone adzes in Micronesia (Craib 1998:147) included manufacturing
stage (blank, peform, finished), condition (whole or broken), material (basalt or andesite), X-section
(circular, rectangular, lenticular, oval, quadrangular, plano-convex), edge shape (straight, wide-curve,
U-curve), and poll shape (squared, rounded, pointed). Variability in stone tool form is the combined
result of three primary factors: 1) functional requirements, 2) tool use life, and 3) raw material differences
(Andrefsky 2005:160).
Morphological attributes associated with use wear and re-working observed on stone adzes followed
terminology outlined by Andrefsky (2005:87) to compare relative levels of repair and reuse between
artifacts. The attributes used to determine intensity of use and re-use on site included flake characteristics
of step fractures (often the result of heavy impact) and feathered flake terminations (the result of more
controlled stone flaking strategies).
Artifact Number 55.001, found during data recovery in the Phase 1 area, was a complete, finished stone
adze possibly made of basalt (Figure 32). The adze was rectangular in plan and roughly lenticular
to rectangular in cross section. The adze exhibited smooth grinding on both sides of the tool, front
and back. Evidence of use wear in the form of step fractures about the cutting edge was present and
altered the original shape, yet remaining portions suggest a wide-curve bevel shape and squared to
sub-rounded poll for hafting. Flake scars with stepped terminations present along the tool margin, post
grinding, suggested that the tool was reshaped to accommodate a new haft during its use life. The adze
measured 155.21 millimeters (5.1 inches) long by 75.18 millimeters (3 inches) wide by 25 millimeters (1
inch) thick and weighed 454 grams (16 ounces).
Figure 32. Artifact Number 55.001, Basalt Adze,
Ground Flat and Sharpened
Figure 33. Artifact Number 139.001, Basalt
Adze, Oval Shape with Use Wear on Bevele
61
Phase of
Investigation
Fenceline
Fenceline
Fenceline
Grubbing
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Artifact Number
13.001
17.001
21.001
25.001
37.001
38.001
39.001
40.001
46.001
49.001
50.001
51.001
52.001
53.001
55.001
Pounder
Adze preform
Adze preform
Grinding stone
fragment
Grinding basin
fragment
Pounder
fragment
Pounder
Pounder
Grinding Stone
fragment
Sling stone
Pounder
fragment
Pounder
Pounder
fragment
Pounder
fragment
Adze
Road surface
west of USCG
building
Road surface
west of USCG
building
Phase 1 South
Hotel surface
Phase 1 South
Hotel trenching
Phase I South
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 South
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 South
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 South
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Object
FP10
Construction
Area (Stratum
II [30-60
centimeters
below surface])
62
Shaped edges
Smooth surface
Smooth surface
and edge, FAR
Battered end/
smooth surface
Battered end/
smooth surfaces
Battered end/
smooth surface
Two sided
Battered end/
smooth surface
Roughly chipped
Roughly chipped
Battered ends
Alteration
155.21/6.11
93.52/3.68
96.86/3.81
160.21/6.31
60.05/2.36
58.58/2.31
210.05/8.27
85.87/3.38
105.52/4.15
53.52/2.11
195/7.7
60/2.4
141/5.6
138/5.4
74/2.9
Length
(millimeters/
inches)
Table 10. Basalt Artifacts Collected from Site SP 1-1037
75.18/2.96
68.78/2.71
66.07/2.6
88.54/3.49
79.26/3.12
35.32/1.39
98.6/3.9
63.29/2.49
74.15/2.92
41.75/1.64
175/6.9
50/2
59/2.3
44/1.7
34/1.3
Width
(millimeters/
inches)
20.95/0.82
45.48/1.79
64.44/2.54
74.31/2.93
63.19/2.49
30.57/1.20
82.94/3.27
23.15/0.91
52.08/2.05
25.32/0.10
120/4.7
46/1.8
42/1.7
34/1.3
48/1.9
Thickness
(millimeters/
inches)
454/16
484/17.1
454/16
1,814/64
1,816/64.1
69.1/2.4
2,722/96
201.8/7.1
454/16
84.5/3
5,443/192
144.8/5.1
454/16
680/24
224.9/7.9
Weight
(grams/ ounces)
Afetna Point, Saipan
Phase of
Investigation
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Artifact Number
58.001
59.001
134.001
139.001
140.001
160.001
161.001
161.002
163.001
164.001
165.001
166.001
167.001
Object
Sling stone
Sling stone
Pounder
fragment
Adze
Polishing stone
Grinding stone
Grinding basin
fragment
Grinding basin
fragment
Grinding stone
Pounder
Polishing stone
Pounder
Grinding stone
Construction
Area (Stratum
II [30-60
centimeters
below surface])
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 South
Hotel trenching
Phase 1 South
Hotel trenching
63
Phase 1
trenching west of
USCG building
Phase 1
trenching west
USCG building
Phase 1
trenching west of
USCG building
Phase 1
swimming pool
trenching
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
near Burial 65
Two ground
surfaces
One ground end
Two ground
surfaces
One ground end
One ground
surface
(0.9 inches deep
by 6 centimeters
(2.4 inches) wide
Hole 2 centimeters
(0.9 inches) deep
by 6 centimeters
(2.4 inches) wide
Hole 2 centimeters
One ground
surface
One polished
surface
Polished and
chipped end
Battered end
Alteration
105/4.1
90/3.5
90/3.5
150/5.9
110/4.3
125/4.9
100/3.9
150/5.9
80/3.1
150/5.9
84/3.3
57.66/2.27
66.10/2.6
Length
(millimeters/
inches)
70/2.8
50/2
75/3
50/2
100/3.9
125/4.9
90/3.5
110/4.3
35/1.4
80/3.1
57/2.2
33.82/1.33
34.33/1.35
Width
(millimeters/
inches)
40/1.6
90/3.5
55/2.2
70/2.8
80/3.1
45/1.8
60/2.4
70/2.8
35/1.4
33/1.3
29.74/1.17
30.34/1.19
Thickness
(millimeters/
inches)
681/24
1,362/48
680/24
1,816/64.1
680/24
454/16
1,451/51.2
1,905/67.2
142.6/5
153.4/5.4
454/16
74.75/2.64
79.7/2.8
Weight
(grams/ ounces)
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
174.001
175.001
176.001
177.001
Data Recovery
171.003
173.001
Data Recovery
170.001
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
169.002
172.001
Data Recovery
169.001
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
168.001
171.002
Phase of
Investigation
Artifact Number
64
Stone anvil
Phase 4 southeast
corner trench
trenching
Flaked on three
edges
Round and rolls
Two ground
surfaces, two pits
Stone sphere
One ground end
Phase 2 south
access road
trenching
Pounder
Phase 2 north
access road
trenching
Six ground
surfaces
Grinding stone
Grinding stone
Phase 2 north
access road
trenching
One ground end
Phase 2 south
access road
trenching
Pounder
Phase 2 north
access road
trenching
Two ground
surfaces
Three ground
surfaces
Pestle
Phase 1
trenching west of
USCG building
Broken
Grinding stone
Adze fragment
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
near Burial 62
Broken
Phase 2 north
access road
trenching
Adze fragment
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
near Burial 62
One ground
surface
Grooved edge
Grinding stone
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Alteration
Phase 1 pool area
Stone sphere
trenching
Object
Construction
Area (Stratum
II [30-60
centimeters
below surface])
130/5.1
53/2.1
90/3.5
80/3.1
35/1.4
120/4.7
65/2.6
120/4.7
100/3.9
75/3
70/2.8
120/4.7
Length
(millimeters/
inches)
90/3.5
53/2.1
70/2.8
66/2.6
35/1.4
80/3.1
50/2
70/2.8
45/1.8
45/1.8
60/2.4
60/2.4
Width
(millimeters/
inches)
39/1.5
53/2.1
70/2.8
52/2
32/1.3
70/2.8
47/1.9
70/2.8
30/1.2
15/0.6
20/0.8
50/2
Thickness
(millimeters/
inches)
908/32
195.3/6.9
379.4/13.4
379.4/13.4
61.7/2.2
817.2/28.8
306.1/10.8
908/32
270.4/9.5
71.2/2.5
99.6/3.5
544.8/19.2
Weight
(grams/ ounces)
Afetna Point, Saipan
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Artifact Number 139.001, found during data
recovery in the Phase 1 North Hotel trench,
was a complete finished stone adze, possibly
made of basalt (Figure 33). The adze was
rectangular in plan and oval in cross section.
The bevel exhibited a wide-curved cutting
surface and was ground smooth on one side
of the tool. Poll shape was rounded where
it would have abutted the wooden adze
handle. Use wear or chipping around the
beveled and ground cutting edge was evident
in the form of minor step fractures likely
caused by heavy impact during use. Flake
scars along the tool margins as the result of
reshaping and reuse were not present. The
adze measured 80 millimeters (3.1 inches)
long by 33 millimeters (1.3 inches) wide by
33 millimeters (1.3 inches) thick and weighed
153.4 grams (5.4 ounces).
Figure 34. Artifact Number 21.001 (left) and Artifact Number
17.001 (right) Basalt Adze
Artifact Number 17.001, found on the surface west of the USCG facility next to Artifact Number 21.001,
during fence line monitoring, was a complete adze preform possibly made of basalt (Figure 34). The
adze blank was trapezoidal in plan, oval in cross section, and was roughly polished on one side of the
preform. A beveled working edge had been roughly established and exhibited a squared to sub-rounded
shape. Slight use wear or chipping around the beveled and ground cutting edge was evident in the form
of pecking. The adze preform measured 138 millimeters (5.4 inches) long by 44 millimeters (1.7 inches)
wide by 34 millimeters (1.3 inches) thick and weighed 680 grams (24 ounces).
Artifact Number 21.001, found on the surface west of the USCG building next to Artifact Number 17.001
during fence line monitoring, was a complete adze preform possibly made of basalt (see Figure 34). The
adze preform was trapezoidal in plan, oval in cross section, and has been roughly ground on one side
of the tool. A beveled working edge had been roughly established by small flake removal and rough
grinding. Slight use wear or chipping around the beveled and ground cutting edge was evident in the
form of pecking. The adze preform measured 141 millimeters (5.6 inches) long by 59 millimeters (2.3
inches) wide by 42 millimeters (1.7 inches) thick and weighed 454 grams (16 ounces).
Pounders
Pounders are hand tools ‘for crushing by downward force in a regular up and down motion that involves
separation of the tool and the material being crushed each time the tool is lifted prior to the next
downward blow. These tools are struck against a flat or concave nether stone or slab of wood’ (HunterAnderson 1994:5.48).
Basalt stone pounders at Site SP 1-1037 appeared to reflect food processing activities for agricultural
(taro and yams) and/or forest subsistence items such as breadfruit, cycad nuts, and screwpine nuts.
They ranged from roughly tear drop to oval or conical shaped cobbles obviously selected for use with
two hands in mind, and small irregular shaped cobbles best used by one hand. Most of the pounders
had evidence of use wear on one or more surfaces. Their large number on site and numerous fragments
suggested they were a daily component used to support the diet of every household, as might be expected
by expedient domestic use and communal cooking as a shared activity between nearby families.
65
Afetna Point, Saipan
Artifact Number 39.001, found during excavation of the South Hotel in the Phase 1 area, was a complete
pounder possibly made of basalt (Figure 35). The pounder was roughly conical in plan and circular in
cross section with slightly polished surface. The artifact exhibited a single ground pounding end with
use wear evidence of pecking made by successive strikes against a stone mortar. The tool measured
105.52 millimeters (4.2 inches) long by 74.15 millimeters (2.9 inches) wide by 52.08 millimeters (2.1
inches) thick and weighed 454 grams (16 ounces).
Artifact Number 46.001, found during excavation of the South
Hotel in the Phase 1 area, was a complete pounder possibly
made of basalt (Figure 36). The pounder was roughly oval
in plan and elliptical in cross section, with slightly polished
surface and a single ground pounding end. Evidence of use
wear was present as slight pecking on the end of the tool as
the result of successive impacts during use. The tool measured
210.05 millimeters (8.3 inches) long by 98.6 millimeters (3.9
inches) wide by 82.94 millimeters (3.3 inches) thick and
weighed 2,722 grams (96 ounces).
Figure 35. Artifact Number 39.001, Basalt
Pounder, Tear Drop Shaped Cobble with
Use Wear
Figure 36. Artifact Number 46.001, Basalt
Pounder, Oval Shaped Cobble with Use
Wear
Artifact Number 13.001, found during excavation of the
South Hotel in the Phase 1 area, was a pounder fragment
possibly made of basalt (Figure 37). The pounder was roughly
rectangular in plan, elliptical in cross section, with a slightly
polished surface, and a single ground pounding end. The tool
showed considerable use wear in the form of pecking on both
ends of the artifact, which likely formed through successive
impacts during use. The tool measured 74 millimeters
(2.9 inches) long by 34 millimeters (1.3 inches) wide by 48
millimeters (1.9 inches) thick and weighed 224.9 grams (7.9
ounces).
Artifact Number 166.001, found during excavation of the Phase 1
swimming pool area, was a broken pounder possibly made of basalt
(Figure 38). The pounder fragment was roughly conical in plan
and cross section, with a
polished surface, and two
ground pounding ends.
Evidence of use wear was
present on the remnant
working end in the form
of pecking, which likely
formed as the result of
successive striking during
use. The tool measured 90
millimeters (3.5 inches)
long by 50 millimeters
(2 inches) wide by 70
millimeters (2.8 inches)
Figure 37. Artifact Number 13.001,
thick and weighed 1,362
Basalt Pounder, Rectangular
Shaped Cobble
grams (48 ounces).
66
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Artifact Number 164.001, found during excavation of the USCG
area, was a broken pounder possibly made of basalt (Figure 39). The
pounder fragment was roughly oval in plan and cross section, with
a polished surface, and one ground pounding end. Evidence of use
wear was present on the pounding end in the form of pecking caused
by repeated impacts during use. The tool measured 150 millimeters
(5.9 inches) long by 50 millimeters (2 inches) wide by 70 millimeters
(2.8 inches) thick and weighed 1,816 grams (64 ounces).
Grinders
Figure 38. Artifact Number 166.001,
Basalt Pounder, Conical Shaped
Cobble with Use Wear
Figure 39. Artifact Number 164.001,
Basalt Pounder, Oval Shaped Cobble
with Use Wear
Figure 40. Artifact Number 171.001,
Basalt Grinder, Oval Shaped Cobble
with Use Wear
Basalt stone grinders collected at Site SP 1-1037 also appeared to
reflect food processing activities for agricultural products (taro
and yams) and/or forest resources including breadfruit, screwpine
nuts, and cycad nuts. They ranged from roughly tear drop to oval
shaped cobbles obviously selected for use with two hands in mind,
and small irregular shaped cobbles best used by one hand. Most
stone grinders had evidence of use wear on one or more surfaces.
Use wear evidence was often on a ground end of the tool, including
parallel striations caused by back and forth movement upon the
working surface. Pecking from successive striking, a trait more
often found on pounders, is minimal on most grinders, although
some tools obviously served both purposes. Their moderate
number on site and numerous fragments suggested they were a
daily component to processing the diet of every household, as
might be expected by cooking as a shared activity between nearby
families.
Artifact Number 171.001, found during excavation of the Phase
2 road, was a broken grinder possibly made of basalt (Figure 40).
The grinder fragment was roughly rectangular in plan and cross
section, with polished surfaces, and one grinding end. Use wear
was present as slight parallel striations, which likely formed as the
result of back and forth movement
during use. The tool measured 120
millimeters (4.7 inches) long by 70
millimeters (2.8 inches) wide by 70
millimeters (2.8 inches) thick and
weighed 908 grams (32 ounces).
Figure 41. Artifact Number
175.001, Basalt Grinder, Oval
Shaped Cobble with Use Wear
67
Artifact Number 175.001, found
during excavation of the Phase 2
north access road, was a broken
grinder possibly made of basalt
(Figure 41). The grinder fragment
was roughly oval in plan and cross
section, with a polished surface
including a small pecked pit on two
sides. Use wear was present on one
grinding end with considerable
Afetna Point, Saipan
pecking while small striations were present along the flat surfaces. The combination of striations
and pecking suggested that this was a multi-functional tool for both grinding and pounding. The
tool measured 90 millimeters (3.5 inches) long by 70 millimeters (2.8 inches) wide by 52 millimeters
(2 inches) thick and weighed 379.4 grams (13.4 ounces).
Artifact Number 167.001, found during excavation of the Phase 1 area near Burial 65, was a complete
grinder possibly made of basalt (Figure 42). The grinder was roughly oval in plan and cross section,
with polished surface and two grinding ends. Use wear was
present on the tool ends as small parallel striations and pecking,
likely formed by back and forth motion and repetitive striking.
The tool measured 105 millimeters long by 70 millimeters (2.8
inches) wide by 40 millimeters (1.6 inches) thick and weighed 681
grams (24 ounces).
Spheres/Ovoids
Stone implements exhibiting sphere/ovoid and disc forms
have been identified elsewhere in the Marianas ‘in an attempt
to differentiate them from tools used to work chert’ (HunterAnderson 1994:5.61). Basalt stone spheres collected on property
ranged from completely round shaped small cobbles perhaps
made to roll across a flat surface, to a similar shaped object with
a ground depression around its mid-section that might also serve
to roll in one direction. The use of small stone balls in gaming is
described enthnographically for other island communities across
Oceania, including competitive rolling of small shaped stone balls
downslope in Hawaii (Fornander and Thrum 1920:214). While
some stone spheres could have served both purposes, the latter
object could also have been used as a net sinker weight. Their
small number on site suggested they were not a daily component
of every household, as might be expected by gaming objects for
shared activities between nearby families.
Artifact Number 176.001, found during excavation of the Phase
2 south access road, was a complete small stone sphere possibly
made of basalt (Figure 43). The sphere was round in plan and
cross section with a slightly polished surface. Evidence of use
wear was present in the form of pecking across the surface of the
tool suggesting that the tool was struck repeatedly on all faces.
The object measured 53 millimeters (2.1 inches) in diameter and
weighed 195.3 grams (6.9 ounces).
Artifact Number 173.001, found during excavation of the Phase
1 pool area, was a complete small stone sphere possibly made
of basalt (Figure 44). The sphere was round in plan and cross
section, with a slightly polished surface, and a slight groove worn
around its mid-section. The central groove may have been created
to accept cordage as seen with fishing net weights. The object
measured 35 millimeters (1.4 inches) in diameter and weighed
61.7 grams (2.2 ounces).
68
Figure 42. Artifact Number 167.001,
Basalt Grinder, Oval Shaped Cobble
with Use Wear
Figure 43. Artifact Number 176.001,
Stone Sphere
Figure 44. Artifact Number 173.001,
Stone Sphere with Band around the
Center
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Anvil
Anvils have been described elsewhere as ‘a relatively large
stone with a flat surface upon which some battering is evident…
[reflecting] the prevalence of the bi-polar flaking technique…’
in the Marianas (Hunter-Anderson 1994:5.66). The basalt anvil
collected at Site SP 1-1037 was smaller than described above,
but appeared to have been a naturally flat cobble easily held in
one hand or on the lap or ground, with chipping around its three
sides, giving the impression of being used for reducing local
chert flakes or perhaps Tridacna shell blanks into usable tools
for further manufacturing. The limited number of anvils present
on site and paucity of chert flakes recovered from activity areas
suggested that these anvils served a purpose other than chert
flake production. Also, the low frequency of abundance on site
indicated they were not a daily component to processing tools or
food for every household.
Figure 45. Artifact Number 177.001,
Basalt Anvil with Chipping around Edges
Artifact Number 177.001, found during excavation of the Phase 4
southeast corner trench, was a small stone anvil possibly made
of basalt. The anvil was roughly triangular in shape, with a flat
unmodified surface, and chipping along all three sides (Figure
45). Typical use wear in the form of pitting from bipolar flaking
(Vergès and Ollé 2011:1019) was not present on the anvil surface
and suggested use other than chert flake production. The anvil
measured 130 millimeters (5.1 inches) long by 90 millimeters wide
by 39 millimeters thick and weighed 908 grams (32 ounces).
Mortars and Basins
Portable mortars and grinding slabs or basins ‘are nether stones
used with pestles, pounders, and manos to crush resistant
materials in relatively small quantities at a time. Portable mortars
are those thought small enough to have been moved from site to
site over the course of their use-life, unlike the embedded mortars
[lusongs] which, because of the size and weight, are assumed to
have been more or less permanently emplaced as site furniture
elements’ (Hunter-Anderson 1994:5.53). Basalt mortars and
grinding basins at Site SP 1-1037 appeared to reflect plant grinding
activities perhaps associated with medicinal herbs used in healing
practices. They ranged in shape from circular to oval to somewhat
irregular and all had one central depression for grinding activities.
Their limited number on site suggested they were not a daily
component to every household, as might be expected of their use
by native healers or siruhanu.
Artifact Number 161.001, found during excavation of the South
Hotel in the Phase 1 area, was a mortar possibly made of basalt.
The mortar was roughly circular in plan, concave in cross section,
with rounded sides 20 millimeters (0.8 inches) wide. A single ground
69
Figure 46. Artifact Number 161.001,
Basalt Mortar, Circular Shaped Ground
Cobble
Figure 47. Artifact Number 161.002,
Basalt Mortar, Irregular Shaped Ground
Cobble
Afetna Point, Saipan
circular depression 70 millimeters (2.8 inches)
in diameter and 20 millimeters (0.8 inches)
deep in the center was also present on the
mortar (Figure 46). The tool measured 100
millimeters (3.9 inches) long by 90 millimeters
(3.5 inches) wide by 60 millimeters (2.4 inches)
thick and weighed 1,451 grams (51.2 ounces).
Artifact Number 161.002, found during
excavation of the South Hotel in the Phase 1
area, was a mortar possibly made of basalt.
The mortar was roughly circular in plan,
concave in cross section, with rounded
sides 20 millimeters (0.8 inches) wide, and
a single ground circular depression. This
depression measured 80 millimeters (3.1
inches) in diameter and 25 millimeters (1
inch) deep in the center (Figure 47). The tool
measured 125 millimeters (4.9 inches) long
by 125 millimeters (4.9 inches) wide by 45
millimeters (1.8 inches) thick and weighed
454 grams (16 ounces).
Figure 48. Artifact Number 37.001, Basalt Mortar, Circular
Shaped Ground Cobble
Artifact Number 37.001, found during
excavation of the South Hotel in the Phase 1 area, was a mortar fragment possibly made of basalt.
The mortar fragment was roughly circular in plan, concave in cross section, with rounded sides 50
millimeters (2 inches) wide, and a single ground circular depression was present. This circular depression
measured 150 millimeters (5.9 inches) in diameter and 55 millimeters (2.2 inches) deep in the center
(Figure 48). The tool measured 195 millimeters (7.7 inches) long by 175 millimeters (6.9 inches) wide by
120 millimeters (4.7 inches) thick and weighed 5,443 grams (192 ounces).
Polishing Stones
Polishing stones at Site SP 1-1037 appear to reflect the final stages of finishing softer materials for
use, perhaps screwpine or other leaves on a wooden surface for woven products, or grinding within
shallow basins perhaps with water or oil added to a fine finish. Small smooth stones recovered within
domestic settings have been also interpreted as burnishing stones for polishing the surfaces of ceramic
vessels as a surface treatment (O’Reilly 1997:135). Polishing stones recovered during fieldwork were
oval to irregular shaped cobbles obviously selected with their particular use in mind given their
small size, and had evidence of polishing or internal use wear. Their
few number on site suggests they were not a daily component of every
household.
Artifact Number 140.001, found during excavation in the Phase 1 area, was a
polishing stone possibly made of basalt. The polishing stone was roughly oval
in plan, convex in cross section, with a single polished surface. The polished
surface was located on the flat side and measured 30 millimeters wide (1.2
inches) and 30 millimeters (1.2 inches) long (Figure 49). The tool measured
55 millimeters (2.2 inches) long by 35 millimeters (1.4 inches) wide by 35
millimeters (1.4 inches) thick and weighed 142.6 grams (5.0 ounces).
70
Figure 49. Artifact Number
140.001, Basalt Polishing Stone,
Oval Shaped Cobble
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Table 11. Coral Artifacts Recovered at Site SP 1-1037
Artifact
Number
Construction Area
Phase of
(Stratum II [30-60
Investigation centimeters below
surface])
19.001
Fenceline
116.001
Object
Length
Width
Thickness
Weight
(millimeters/ (millimeters/ (millimeters/ (grams/
inches)
inches)
inches)
ounces)
Road surface west of
USCG building
Abrader 2
sided
94/3.7
74/2.9
24/0.9
199.2/7
Data
Recovery
Phase 1 pool
trenching near Burial
33
Bead
5/2
5/0.2
4/0.2
14.6/0.5
132.001
Data
Recovery
Phase 1 pool
trenching
Pestle
150/5.9
52/2
45/1.8
454/16
162.001
Data
Recovery
Phase 1 trenching
west of USCG
building
Abrader
100/3.9
80/3.1
50/2
454/16
171.002
Data
Recovery
Phase 2 access road
trenching
Abrader
120/4.7
100/3.9
40/1.6
454/16
5.1.4.2. Coral Artifacts
Coral was present in the lagoon and more distant reef, and in eroded cobbles along the beach, being
used for abraders or pestles (Table 11) and more readily as heating materials for burned rock hearths
and dogas shell ovens. Some specimens of fossilized coral also were noted, perhaps imbedded in reef rock
or imported from limestone outcrops from nearby Puntan Agingan. Finger coral (Acropora cervicornis)
could also be used for drill bits, although none were positively identified in the field.
Abraders
Abraders were tools ‘that were grasped in the hand and rubbed against a surface (e.g., stone, wood,
clay) in order to smooth, polish and shape them, and to pulverize small-grained materials such as gritty
pigments or pottery temper’ (Hunter-Anderson 1994:5.57). Coral abraders at Site SP 1-1037 appear to
reflect grinding activities perhaps associated with the polishing of wooden surfaces and household
implements (tool handles) or those of bone (spears). Some contained shallow depressions on one
or more sides and may have been used for cracking small nuts (e.g., dry betel nuts), if not crafted as
hand grips for their use as abraders. Others were larger and had relatively flat surfaces to facilitate
grinding. The few number on site suggests they were not a daily
component to every household, as might be expected if their use
was by skilled artisans. Some appeared to have a groove around
the mid-section to be reused as sinker weights.
Artifact Number 19.001, found during fenceline construction
along the road to the USCG building, was an abrader made of
waterworn coral. The abrader was roughly oval in plan and cross
section, with rounded edges, and two ground oval depressions
in the center of both sides (Figure 50). The oval depressions
measured 25 millimeters (0.9 inch) in diameter and 5 millimeters
(0.2 inches) deep in the center of both sides. A slight groove around
the mid-section suggests the abrader may have been reused as a
net sinker weight. The tool measured 94 millimeters (3.7 inches)
long by 74 millimeters (2.9 inches) wide by 24 millimeters (0.9
inches) thick and weighed 199.2 grams (7.0 ounces).
71
Figure 50. Artifact Number 19.001,
Pitted Coral Abrader, Oval Shaped with
Depressions
Afetna Point, Saipan
Pestle
Coral pestles at Site SP 1-1037 appear to reflect grinding
activities perhaps associated with the volcanic stone
mortars also found in similar contexts. They contained
use wear in the form of pitting on two ends from grinding
and pounding within a small vessel of similar proportions.
The few number on site suggests they were not a daily
component to every household, as might be expected of
their use by native healers or siruhanu.
Artifact Number 132.001, found during excavation in
the Phase 1 area, was a pestle made of waterworn coral
cobble. The pestle was roughly rectangular in plan and
cross section, with rounded edges, and pitting use wear
on both ends. The smaller end was more intensely ground
than the butt end (Figure 51). The tool fragment measured
150 millimeters (5.9 inches) long by 52 millimeters (2.0
inches) wide by 45 millimeters (1.8 inches) thick and
weighed 454 grams (16 ounces).
Figure 51. Artifact Number 132.001, Coral Pestle,
Rectangular Shaped with Use Wear
Bead
Only one fossilized coral bead was collected and was
associated with Burial 31. The bead was polished and
drilled from both sides for suspension from cordage. Its
provenience with a human burial also containing a drilled
perforation to the cranium suggests its uniqueness, not
an ornament of common distribution.
Artifact Number 116.001 (reburied), found during
excavation of Burial 31 in the Phase 3 area, was a bead
Figure 52. Artifact Number 116.001, Fossilized Coral
made of a small fossilized coral cobble. The bead was
Bead, Polished and Drilled
roughly circular in plan, and oval in cross section, with
rounded edges, and two drilled perforations. These
perforations measured 5 millimeters (0.2 inches) in diameter and 5 millimeters (0.2 inches) deep on both
sides with a hollow cavity only 1 millimeter (0.04 inch) in the center (Figure 52). The bead measured 14
millimeters (0.6 inches) in diameter and 4 millimeters (0.2 inches) thick and weighed 14.6 grams (0.5
ounces).
5.1.4.3 Limestone Sling Stones
Sling stones ‘represent considerable effort in manufacture, at least those of hard volcanic stone,
limestone or clay’ (Hunter-Anderson 1994:5.66). The bipointed ovoid shape was apparently favored for
its aerodynamic shape, although others were chipped and abraded into more diamond or egg shapes.
‘The marked proliferation of slingstones during the Latte Phase is usually and reasonably interpreted as
signaling the advent of warfare in the Marianas’ (York and York 2011:20), although they could have been
used to hunt fruit bats or seasonal waterfowl. The majority were hand sized weighing 40 to 80 grams
(1.4 to 2.8 ounces), although a few were the size of American footballs and exceeded 1 kilogram (35.3
ounces), thought to be ceremonial or used as canoe breakers (Hunter-Anderson 1994:5.69).
72
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Table 12. Limestone Artifacts Recovered from Site SP 1-1037
Artifact
Number
Phase of
Investigation
Construction Area
(Stratum II [30-60 centimeters
below surface])
Object
Length
(millimeters/
inches)
Width
(millimeters/
inches)
Weight
(grams/
ounces)
11.001
Fenceline
FP11
Sling stone
fragment
58/2.3
31/1.2
78.1/2.8
38.002
Data Recovery Phase 1 North Hotel trenching
Sling stone
67/2.6
38/1.5
103.9/3.7
43.001
Data Recovery Phase 1 North Hotel trenching
Sling stone
59.55/2.3
30.62/1.2
27.6/0.9
45.001
Data Recovery Phase 1 North Hotel trenching
Sling stone
63.33/2.5
42.42/1.7
37.60/1.3
45.002
Data Recovery Phase 1 North Hotel trenching
Sling stone
fragment
<63.33/2.5
<42.42/1.7
<37.60/1.3
47.001
Data Recovery Phase 1 North Hotel trenching
Sling stone
60.41/2.4
36.64/1.4
79.4/2.8
49.001
Data
Recovery
Phase 1 North Hotel trenching
Sling stone
58.58/2.3
35.32/1.4
69.1/2.4
54.001
Data Recovery Phase 1 North Hotel trenching
Sling stone
67.49/2.7
38.30/1.5
69.1/2.4
137.001
Data Recovery Phase 1 North Hotel trenching
Sling stone
60/2.4
28/1.1
56.3/2
138.001
Data Recovery Phase 1 North Hotel trenching
Sling stone
72/2.8
27/1.1
91.8/3.2
Exposed limestone was present
in the coastal cliffs and bedrock
outcrops of Agingan Point not far to
the south, and small cobbles were
presumably available on the beach
below for use as sling stones (Table
12). Their ubiquity at Site SP 1-1037
suggests they were part of most
household weaponry or hunting
tool kits, if not later serving as
net sinker weights. Some sling
stones retained shapes associated
with early stages of manufacture,
with little evidence of grinding or
polishing and were likely preforms
or met the minimal required
shape for functional use. Others
found in fragmented condition
could have been discarded upon
manufacturing breakage or may
have broken as the result of impact
with hard materials. Most sling
stones were not found in situ,
but rather eroded out of backdirt
during excavation or after an
evening rain.
Sling
stones
found
during
excavation in the Phase 1 area were
made of limestone. The sling stones
Figure 53. Limestone and Basalt Sling Stones, Uniform to Irregular Shaped
73
Afetna Point, Saipan
were elliptical in plan and cross section, with two pointed ends, occasionally fragmented perhaps from
a previous impact. The weapons measured between 58 and 72 millimeters (2.3 and 2.8 inches) long,
between 28 and 42 millimeters (1.1 and 1.7 inches) thick at their mid-section (Figure 53) and weighed
between 27 and 103 grams (0.9 and 3.6 ounces). Density of the limestone sources varied considerably, so
not all artifacts were likely to have been quarried from the same outcrop or beach material.
Patterning of Lithic Artifacts at Parcel 004-1-52
The organization of stone tool technology on a particular site, that is the suite of tools created and
employed, was the product of an interrelationship among individuals, their location, task requirements,
and the availability of lithic raw materials (Rickless and Cox 1993:445). Since stone tool traditions
interact with other cultural subsystems such as exchange and food production, tool efficiency and
material access may have fluctuated over time in response to constraints imposed by other variables. In
the case of additions or shifts in the lithic tool kit, patterning in production strategies would likely be
archaeologically visible due to the durable nature of stone tool manufacturing debris. The relationship
between tool types and manufacturing debris within the site area offered the ability to observe which
tools were widely used, and those with a more restricted or specialized use. Patterning present in
availability of tool stone, either raw materials or finished groundstone tools, also offered insight into
potential exchange or distribution networks which supplied local communities.
A total of 55 stone artifacts were recovered from Parcel 004-1-52 (Table 13). Patterning in the relative
proportions of stone tools indicated that pounders were the most prevalent stone tools used on site
(total combined = 26 percent). Sling stones of both basalt and limestone were second in abundance (21
percent), while basalt grinding stones were third in relative abundance (16 percent). Finished stone
adzes accounted for 7 percent of the total assemblage. The assemblage shows a skew toward stone tools
associated with the processing of subsistence items (pounders, grinding basins, grinding stones) which
together account for 49 percent of the total assemblage. As opposed to sites consisting of expedient and
informal stone flakes associated with intermittent resource procurement (Eckert and Welch 2013), the
emphasis on formal tools including grinding stones and pounders suggests a focus on domestic food
preparation activities, as may be present in areas with standing structures for coastal habitation.
The paucity of flake tools, those implements
removed from a stone core for short-term use and
discard, indicates that access to raw materials did
not occur frequently. Rather, tools were brought
to the site in finished or nearly finished form for
extended use, re-shaping and eventual breakage
and discard. The presence of finished tools
coincident with a lack of flakes indicates that
individuals acquired finished tools and brought
them on the site rather than procuring raw
stone and finishing tools on site. This dynamic
points to the fact that inhabitants on site were
connected to exchange networks for distribution
of finished tools, among other goods. The pattern
of primarily finished formal tools within the
assemblage aligns well with known behaviors
associated with the relationship between
abundance and quality of raw material and the
types of tools present (Andrefsky 2005:159).
Table 13. Frequency and Relative Percent of Stone Tools
from Parcel 004-1-52
74
Tool Type
Count
Percent of
Assemblage
(%)
Adze preform
3
5
Finished adze
4
7
Pounder- basalt
13
23
Pounder-coral
2
3
Grinding stone- basalt
9
16
Grinding basin- basalt
3
5
Stone anvil
1
2
Stone sphere
2
3
Sling stone
12
21
Abrader- coral
4
7
Bead- coral
1
2
Pestle- coral
1
2
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
136.001
148.001
149.001
149.002
150.001
183.001
Data Recovery
44.001
Data Recovery
Data Recovery
42.001
129.001
Grubbing
28.001
Data Recovery
Grubbing
26.001
128.001
Fenceline
18.001
Data Recovery
Fenceline
14.001
121.001
Phase of
Investigation
Artifact
Number
75
Tridacna
Dogas
shells
Adze fragment Tridacna
Adze fragment Tridacna
Adze fragment Tridacna
Adze
Phase 4 trenching near USCG
Feature 3, TP1, 010 centimeters Marine shells
below surface
Phase 1 pool trenching
Phase 1 pool trenching
Phase 1 pool trenching
Phase 1 pool trenching
Spondylus
Spondylus
Spondylus
Adze fragment Tridacna
Beads (n=9)
Phase 1 pool trenching near
Burial 36
Phase 1 pool trenching
Beads (n=3)
Tridacna
Gouge
fragment
Phase 1 pool trenching near
Burial 33
Tridacna
Gouge
fragment
Bead (n=1)
Tridacna
Gouge
fragment
Phase 1 pool trenching near
Burial 33
Codakia
punctata
Modified
bivalve shell
Tridacna
Fossilized
Tridacna
fragment
Gouge
Material
Type
Object
Phase I North Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North Hotel trenching
Phase 1 North Hotel surface
Phase 2 access road surface
FP12
FP2
Area
117/4.6
Length
(millimeters/
inches)
62/2.4
76/3
0.7-0.8
14-22/
0.6-0.9
0.7-0.8
14-22/
0.6-0.9
Pollen,
phytolith
Missing butt
Missing butt
NA
56/2.2
52/2
NA
36/1.4
31/1.2
42/1.7
77/3
42/1.7
Missing cutting
edge
33/1.3
19-21/
19-21/
53/2.1
19/0.7
19/0.7
20.05/0.8
43.26/1.7
54/2.1
50/2
59/2.3
57/2.2
Width
(millimeters/
inches)
Modified edges 60/2.4
Sharpened end
Drilled ventral
side
Drilled ventral
side
Drilled ventral
side
Modified edges 43.26/1.7
Modified edges 78.24/3.1
Broken
Broken
Modified edges 70/2.8
Broken
Alteration
Table 14. Marine Shell Artifacts Recovered from Site SP 1-1037
NA
13/0.5
10/0.4
11/0.4
14/0.6
NA
5/0.2
5/0.2
5/0.2
9.62/0.4
8.28/0.3
7/0.3
9/0.4
14/0.6
29/1.1
Thickness
(millimeters/
inches)
3,362/ 118.6
45.2/1.6
28.9/1
59.6/2.1
58.7/2.1
29.2/1
1.9-2.8/ 0.070.1
0.07-0.08
2-2.4/
2/0.07
15.8/0.6
62.6/2.2
44.7/1.6
59.9/2.1
39.3/1.3
215.9/7.6
Weight
(grams/
ounces)
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Afetna Point, Saipan
In this case, abundance is low (no local basalt sources) and quality is high (tool-quality basalt). The
recovered assemblage conforms well to the modeled relationship that maintains that individuals or
groups will typically place an emphasis on formal tools to maximize the use-life of implements that
required investment of time and resources to obtain. The prevalence of reshaping and heavy use wear
on adzes and basalt pounders to maximize tool life correlates well with known behaviors present in
areas where access to quality stone is rare (Andrefsky 2005:158) and illustrates a coastal communities’
technological response to scarce basalt raw materials.
5.1.4.4. Marine Shell Artifacts
Marine shell artifacts comprise a substantial
group of traditional tool types in the project area
assemblage (Table 14), including Tridacna adzes,
gouges, and chisels and their preforms, as well
as Spondylus beads found with several prehistoric
burials. Unused Tridacna shell bivalves found in
primary dogas shell midden contexts suggest their
use as a food source, as do Turbo operculums. Their
ubiquity suggests manufacture and use by most
households. Codakia punctata shell bivalves with
wear around their interior also suggest use as
graters.
Adzes
Tridacna shell adzes and gouges at Site SP 1-1037
appeared likely to reflect activities involving
finer aspects of house construction and canoe
production, given their small size and material,
at least in comparison to larger basalt adzes. They
ranged in shape from rectangular to trapezoidal
or oval and were elliptical or oval in cross-section,
with pointed or oval poll ends where they were
hafted. Discrete variables used to characterize
shell adzes in Micronesia (Craib 1998:147) included
manufacturing stage (blank, preform, finished),
condition (whole or broken), material (Tridacna),
X-section (elliptical, oval), edge shape (straight,
wide-curve, U-curve), and poll shape (oval,
pointed).
Artifact Number 42.001, found during excavation
in the Phase 1 area, was a Tridacna shell adze. The
adze was oval in plan, concave in cross section,
with a cutting edge that appeared to have been
re-sharpened, and the pole end pointed (Figure
54). The tool measured 77 millimeters (3.0 inches)
long by 42 millimeters (1.7 inches) wide by 11
millimeters (0.4 inches) thick at its mid-section
and weighed 59.6 grams (2.1 ounces).
76
Figure 54. Artifact Numbers 42.001 and 149.001 (left to
right), Tridacna Shell Adzes, Oval
Figure 55. Artifact Numbers 149.002 and 44.001
(left to right), Chisels
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Artifact Number 149.001, found during
excavation in the Phase 1 area, was a Tridacna
shell adze fragment. The adze fragment was oval
in plan, concave in cross section, with a broken
and missing cutting edge, and the pole end
squared off (Figure 54). The tool measured 52
millimeters (1.9 inches) long by 31 millimeters
(1.2 inches) wide by 13 millimeters (0.5 inches)
thick at its mid-section and weighed 45.2 grams
(1.6 ounces).
Artifact Number 149.002, found during
excavation in the Phase 1 area, was a Tridacna
shell chisel or gouge. The chisel was roughly
rectangular in plan, concave in cross section,
with a broken pole end, and a sharpened and
tapered cutting edge (Figure 55). The tool
measured 76 millimeters (3 inches) long by 50
millimeters (1.9 inches) wide by 9 millimeters
(0.4 inches) thick at its mid-section and weighed
59.9 grams (2.1 ounces).
Figure 56. Artifact Number 150.001, Tridacna Shell Adze,
Rectangular Shape Dorsal
Artifact Number 44.001, found during
excavation in the Phase 1 area, was a Tridacna
shell chisel or gouge. The chisel was roughly
rectangular in plan, concave in cross section,
with a broken pole end, and a sharpened and
tapered cutting edge (Figure 55). The tool
measured 62 millimeters (2.4 inches) long by 54
millimeters (2.1 inches) wide by 7 millimeters
(0.3 inches) thick at its mid-section and weighed
44.7 grams (1.6 ounces).
Figure 57. Artifact Number 18.001, Codakia punctata Shell
Grater, Interior with Possible wear
Artifact Number 150.001, found during excavation in the Phase 1 area, was a Tridacna shell adze
fragment. The adze fragment was rectangular in plan, concave in cross section, with a broken pole
end, and intact beveled cutting edge (Figure 56). The tool measured 56 millimeters (2.2 inches) long
by 36 millimeters (1.4 inches) wide by 13 millimeters (0.5 inches) thick at its mid-section and weighed
45.2 grams (1.6 ounces).
Grater
According to Judy Amesbury of Micronesian Archaeological Research Services, who identified Artifact
Number 18.001 from the photograph, the bivalve Codakia punctata (Family Lucinidae) was not commonly
used on Saipan in Pre-Latte times when Anadara scrapers or graters were more common. In those
artifacts, the edges were usually more worn smooth around the inner edges (Amesbury, personal
communication 2017).
Artifact Number 18.001 suffered from post-depositional fractures during mechanical excavation of
fence postholes. It likely represented a Latte Period artifact from a species collected in the lagoon
after post-A.D. 1000 seaward progradation (Amesbury et al. 1996; Amesbury 2007). It was perhaps
77
Afetna Point, Saipan
used to peel or grate raw or baked tubors such as
yams or tree fruit such as breadfruit. The artifact
measured 70 millimeters (2.8 inches) long by
59 millimeters (2.3 inches) wide by 14 millimeters
(0.6 inches) thick (Figure 57) and weighed 39.3
grams (1.4 ounces).
Beads
‘Shell beads possibly exhibit a temporal pattern
of occurrence in the Marianas, Conus beads being
produced earlier than, and mostly replaced by,
Spondylus beads. The Pre-Latte deposit at Chalan
Piao lacked Spondylus beads… while Spondylus
beads predominated in the Transitional, Latte, and
early Historic Period contexts’ (Hunter-Anderson
1994:7.5). Most beads appear to have been drilled
from the ventral or inside of the bivalve blank,
leaving the dorsal side with orange coloring
exposed, in some cases appearing to have been
lightly incised in geometric patterns to enhance
their appeal. Three sets of Spondylus beads were
encountered in three burials, likely of Latte Period
origin given their prevalence in late prehistory in
the Mariana Islands (Amesbury and Walth 2016).
Artifact Number 128.001 (reburied with burial)
consisted of three Spondylus shell beads from a
single Latte Period burial. Each bead measured
between 19 and 21 millimeters (0.7 and 0.8 inches)
in diameter by 5 millimeters (0.2 inches) thick and
weighed between 2 and 2.4 grams (0.07 and 0.08
ounces). All three were drilled from the ventral or
interior side of the shell blank leaving a perforation
2 millimeters (0.08 inches) wide to be strung
(Figure 58). The orange exterior may have been
incised in geometric patterns perhaps parallel to
natural striations of the shell before polishing.
Figure 58. Artifact Number 128.001, Three Spondylus Shell
Beads, Drilled and Polished
Figure 59. Artifact Number 129.001, Nine Spondylus Shell
Beads, Drilled and Polished
Artifact Number 129.001 (reburied with burial)
consisted of nine Spondylus shell beads from a
single Latte Period burial. Each bead measured
between 14 and 22 millimeters (0.6 and 0.9 inches)
in diameter by 5 millimeters (0.2 inches) thick and
Figure 60. Artifact Number 121.001, Spondylus Shell Bead,
weighed between 1.9 and 2.8 grams (0.07 and 0.1
Drilled and Polished, Exterior
ounces). All nine were drilled from the ventral or
interior side of the shell blank leaving a perforation
2 millimeters (0.08 inches) wide to be strung (Figure 59). The orange exterior may have been incised in
geometric patterns perhaps parallel to the natural striations of the shell before polishing.
78
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Artifact Number 121.001 (reburied with burial) inlcuded one Spondylus shell bead from a single Latte
Period burial. The bead measured 19 millimeters (0.7 inches) in diameter by 5 millimeters (0.2 inches)
thick and weighed 2 grams (0.07 ounces). It was drilled from the ventral or interior side of the shell blank
leaving a perforation 2 millimeters (0.08 inches) wide to be strung (Figure 60). The orange exterior may
have been incised in geometric patterns perhaps parallel to the natural striations of the shell before
polishing.
Marine Shell Midden
Marine shell midden was recovered within Feature 3 TP1 while screening Level 1, 0 to 10 centimeters
(0 to 3.9 inches) below surface. This feature was within Stratum II at the small earth oven Feature 3.
Feature 3 is located at the east edge of the former sand mine in the USCG area. It was dominated by
over 99 percent small dogas shells (Figure 61 [F through J]). The total weight after extraction of Latte
Period sherds was 3,362 grams (118.6 ounces) for the 10-centimeter (3.9-inch) thick excavated level. The
species, as identified by Judy Amesbury of Micronesian Archaeological Research Services and pictured
in Figure 5.1-63, included the following: A – unidentified gastropod; B through D – Family Cerithiidae;
E – Family Cypraidae, all cowries used to be the genus Cypraea but now they have been divided into
numerous genera (Amesbury, personal communication 2017); F through J – Strombus gibberulus gibbosus
now renamed Gibberulus gibberulus gibbosus (Amesbury, personal communication 2017); and K through
O – Fragum fragum of the family Cardiidae.
According to Ms. Amesbury, the area of Parcel 004I52 is probably too late in time to have much Anadara
antiquata. This species adapted to live in mangrove marshes, which are more characteristic of the PreLatte Period in the Chalan Piao area circa 3500-2000 years B.P. (Amesbury et al. 1996; Amesbury 2007).
Instead, inshore habitat change
related to seaward progradation
would have increased strand areas
useful for terrestrial planting and
collecting during the Latte Period
after A.D. 1000. This would have
resulted in a shift of focus toward
collecting marine shells such as
dogas from coral reefs and sandy
lagoon sediments off shore. The
other species in the photograph,
however small their percentage
of Stratum II at Feature 3 TP1,
were likely recovered in concert
with the vast majority of dogas
due to their shared habitat,
and inadvertently cooked for
consumption.
Figure 61. Marine Shell Midden (Artifact Number 183.001), Representative Shells
79
The majority of dogas shells do
not appear to have been opened
for extraction of their meat (as
possibly with G and H in Figure
61), It is possible they were
instead prepared within ceramic
vessels for consumption in a
Afetna Point, Saipan
seafood chowder or gumbo, perhaps at the nearby hearth complex Features 1 and 2. According to early
postWWII accounts on the west coast of Guam, ‘Shellfish were collected from the beach and waters
of Tumon Bay. People would rake the sand at the waters edge and collect many bivalves…and dogas.
These small shellfish were cooked and eaten as a soup, usually with barbequed breadfruit’ (Bulgrin
and Bulgrin 2009:3). It is also possible the baked dogas shells were pulverized into afok, the slaked lime
used to mix with pupulu leaves to chew betel nut to this day, or just deposited on top of vegetable foods
with associated sands to facilitate steaming (personal communication, Joe Garrido 2018). The effects of
betel nut including the darkening of the teeth were found in many adult Latte Period burials in Parcel
004I52. The vast quantity of dogas shells exposed on the disturbed surface of the site, after grading
and grubbing, suggest their consumption was primarily during family or community feasting events in
larger ovens at Features 5 and 8, which dated near the end of the Latte Period.
5.1.4.5. Bone Artifacts
One distal fragment of a barbed human bone spear point was encountered with Burial 1. Upon analysis,
the spear point was found near the remains of a young child near two partially intact adults. Whether
it was originally buried as an offering or was imbedded within one of the burials was impossible to
determine in the mixed deposits located near the USGS communications building and its underground
utilities.
Artifact Number 75.001 (reburied with burial) was a fragment of a probable human bone spear point
from a single Latte Period burial. The polished spear point measured 30 millimeters (1.2 inches) long by
12 millimeters (0.5 inches) wide by 3 millimeters (0.1 inches) thick and weighed 0.6 grams (0.02 ounces).
The artifact had three parallel sets of barbs along both sides, presumably very near the end or tip of the
weapon (Figure 62). The context was disturbed, but its proximity to an adolescent male suggests it was
buried with its intended person.
5.1.4.6. Ceramics
Of the ceramic assemblage recovered during data recovery at Site SP 1-1037 (Table 15), several Type A
straight rimmed bowl and necked jar sherds were noted across the middle of the site near Road Feature
4. This indicates a limited late Pre-Latte Period use of the former back dune setting prior to A.D. 1000.
Little surface treatment was noted on the sherds
except for red slipping sometimes inside and
out, while tempering agents include calcareous
sands and quartz. The absence of features in that
setting suggests early habitation remained east
of Beach Road, but the limited presence of dogas
shells indicated some collection and subsistence
activities. Late Pre-Latte Period small bowls
and high-necked jar forms predominated the
collected ceramic assemblage perhaps due to its
scarcity. Also called the Transitional Pre-Latte
Period in the literature after circa 1600 B.P. to
differentiate from earlier Intermediate Pre-Latte
flat-bottomed bowls. These ceramics had ‘slightly
thickened, incurving rims, thinner walls, and
rounder bases. Surface treatment varied more
during this time. Most vessels have a plain finish,
but polished, burnished, and striated surfaces also
Figure 62. Artifact Number 75.001, Human Bone Spear Point
occur’ (Moore and Hunter-Anderson 1996:495).
80
81
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching Body
near sand mine
Data
Recovery
131.001
Red slip
40 body
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
Feature 1, TP1
Data
Recovery
130.001
Unwashed
residue
37 body
Phase 1
North Hotel
trenching
Data
Recovery
57.002
Pre-Latte
Latte
Latte
Latte
Type B
rim
Phase 1
North Hotel
trenching
Data
Recovery
57.001
Latte
Type B
rim
FP14
NFM 12 (new)
Fenceline
Latte
Latte
Latte
22.001
Brushed
Type B
rim
Body
Latte
FP7
FP7
Body
Latte
FP9
Latte
Latte
Body
Body
Latte
Latte
Type B
rim
Body
Latte
Latte
Body
Body
Latte
Percolator
Test 7;
Body
70 centimeters
below surface
FP6
FP4
FP3
FP5
FP8
FP8
FP8
Latte
Alternation Period
Body
Fenceline
Fenceline
12.001
20.001
Fenceline
10.004
Fenceline
Fenceline
10.003
15.002
Fenceline
10.002
Fenceline
Fenceline
10.001
Fenceline
Fenceline
9.003
15.001
Fenceline
9.002
13.002
Fenceline
9.001
Body
Body
Fenceline
8.001
FP2
Sherd
Type
Artifact Phase of
Area
Number Investigation
N/A
N/A
N/A
Inverted
Inverted
Inverted
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Inverted
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Rim
87/3.43
N/A
N/A
45.66/1.8
74/2.91
59/2.32
45/1.77
40/1.57
27/1.06
33/1.30
46/1.81
64/2.52
57/2.24
66/2.60
31/1.22
32/1.26
41/1.61
65/2.56
47/1.85
N/A
N/A
45.46/1.79
54/2.13
32/1.26
32/1.26
40/1.57
25/0.98
30/1.18
33/1.30
42/1.65
27/1.06
40/1.57
24/0.94
29/1.14
34/1.33
40/1.57
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
22/0.87
19/0.74
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
18/0.71
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
9/0.35
N/A
N/A
9.58/0.377
10/0.39
14/0.55
23/0.91
16/0.63
16/0.63
12/0.47
14/0.55
12/0.47
14/0.55
19/0.75
9/0.35
12/0.47
17/0.67
18/0.71
Length
Width
Rim
Wall
(millimeters/ (millimeters/ (millimeters/ millimeters/
inches)
inches)
inches)
inches)
Table 15. Ceramics from Data Recovery Excavations at Site SP 1-1037
QST/CST
V/C/QST
VST
VST
CST
VST
VST
VST
VST/QST
CST
VST
VST
VST
VST
VST
VST
VST
CST/QST
Temper
48.7/1.72
>400/
>14.11
376/
13.26
Unknown
72.3/2.55
32.7/1.15
43.8/1.55
27.9/0.98
9/0.32
15.2/0.54
31.5/1.11
30.3/1.07
32/1.13
68.7/2.42
8.6/0.30
13.5/0.48
59.4/2.1
59.4/2.1
Weight
(grams/
ounces)
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Type B
rim
Type B
rim
Type B
rim
Body
Body
Type A
rim
Type A
rim
Type A
rim
Type A
rim
Phase 1
North Hotel
trenching,
Feature 1
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching,
Feature 1
Phase 1
North Hotel
trenching
Phase 1
North Hotel
trenching;
South side of
access road
Phase 1
North Hotel
trenching;
South side of
access road
Phase 1
North Hotel
trenching;
South side of
access road
Phase 3
trenching
South side of
access road
Phase 3
trenching
Southside of
access road
Phase 3
trenching
South side of
access road
Data
Recovery
Data
Recovery
Data
Recovery
Data
Recovery
Data
Recovery
Data
Recovery
Data
Recovery
Data
Recovery
133.001
133.002
135.001
151.001
151.002
151.003
152.001
152.002
152.003
Sherd
Type
Data
Recovery
Artifact Phase of
Area
Number Investigation
82
Red slip flat
Red slip
Red slip
interior
Red slip
Red slip
interior,
ridge
Red slip
Pre-Latte
Pre-Latte
Pre-Latte
Pre-Latte
Pre-Latte
Pre-Latte
Globular jar
Latte
shape
Latte
Latte
Alternation Period
Straight
Straight
Inverted
Straight
N/A
N/A
Inverted
Inverted
Inverted
Rim
49/1.93
49/1.93
64/2.52
29/1.14
81/3.19
54/2.13
142/5.59
100/3.94
56/2.20
38/1.50
39/1.54
50/1.97
27/1.06
51/2.01
32/1.26
116/4.57
75/2.95
49/1.9
7/0.28
8/0.31
10/0.39
7/0.28
N/A
N/A
17/0.67
22/0.87
19/0.75
7/0.28
9/0.35
12/0.47
9/0.35
12/0.47
11/0.43
9/0.35
19/0.75
14/0.55
Length
Width
Rim
Wall
(millimeters/ (millimeters/ (millimeters/ millimeters/
inches)
inches)
inches)
inches)
QST/CST
QST/CST
QST/CST
CST
QST/VST
QST/VST
V/C/QST
V/C/QST
V/C/QST
Temper
16.5/0.58
21.2/0.75
61.1/2.16
8.6/0.30
61.1/2.16
22.8/0.80
209.1/
7.38
Unknown
Unknown
Weight
(grams/
ounces)
Afetna Point, Saipan
Type A
rim
Type A
rim
Base
Type A
rim
Phase 1 near
North Hotel
trenching near
Burial 17
Phase 1 North
Hotel trenching
near Burial 17
Phase 2
trenching
North side of
access road
Phase 2
trenching
South side of
access road
Data
Recovery
Data
Recovery
Data
Recovery
155.001
155.002
156.001
83
N/A
39 body
4 body
Type B
rim
Phase 1
North Hotel
trenching;
Feature 1, TP1
Phase 2
trenching
Feature 4,
Level 1
Phase 2
trenching
Feature 4,
Level 2
Data
Recovery
Data
180.001
Recovery
Data
Recovery
178.002
Latte
Latte
Latte
Latte
Pre-Latte
Inverted
N/A
N/A
Inverted
Straight
N/A
Straight
Straight
Everted
Straight
Rim
55/2.17
N/A
N/A
Unknown
49/1.93
104/4.09
19/0.75
30/1.18
114/4.49
98/3.86
50/1.97
N/A
N/A
Unknown
40/1.57
76/2.99
13/0.51
29/1.14
69/2.72
71/2.80
15/0.59
N/A
N/A
Unknown
4/0.16
N/A
8/0.31
7/0.28
8/0.31
14/0.55
11/0.43
N/A
N/A
Unknown
10/0.39
N/A
9/0.35
5/0.20
13/0.51
15/0.59
Length
Width
Rim
Wall
(millimeters/ (millimeters/ (millimeters/ millimeters/
inches)
inches)
inches)
inches)
Note: *Two body sherds submitted for radiocarbon dating and microfossil analyses, the remainder unwashed and analyzed for curation.
N/A = not applicable; NFM = north fence monitoring; CST = calcareous sand temper; QST = quartzite sand temper; VST = volcanic sand temper.
N/A
N/A
N/A
Phase 1 North
Type B
Hotel trenching;
rim
Feature 1, TP1
Red slip
interior
Data
Recovery
181.001
Pre-Latte
Pre-Latte
Pre-Latte
Pre-Latte
Flat jar base Pre-Latte
Red slip
Red slip
Jar
Red slip
Alternation Period
178.001
Data
157.001
Recovery
Type A
rim
Phase 1 near
Burial 16
Data
Recovery
154.001
Type B
rim
Phase 4
SE corner
trenching
Data
Recovery
Sherd
Type
153.001
Artifact Phase of
Area
Number Investigation
21.4/0.75
62.7/2.21
5.8/0.20
5.8/0.20
128.2/
4.52
146/5.15
Weight
(grams/
ounces)
VST/CST
VST/CST
65.2/2.30
58.2/2.05
VST/CST/ 1,589/
QST
56.05
VST/CST/
Unknown
QST
QST/VST
CST
CST
QST/CST
QST/CST
CST
Temper
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Afetna Point, Saipan
A few general observations are pertinent to
understanding the context of the majority of
ceramics observed and collected in Stratum II
and to a lesser extent Stratum III of Site SP 1-1037.
This can be summarized by parallel observations
in the Mangeggon Hills sites of southern Guam,
albeit from a very different geographical context.
‘Subsurface concentrations [of pottery] were
associated with earth-oven pit fill [or hearth
complex features], [and] other areas of dark soil
containing charcoal and fire-altered rock. The
subsurface patterning that occurred…suggests
that discarded sherds were incorporated into
cooking features as the features were being used,
after they were abandoned, or both. Regarding
temporal changes in the pottery industry during
the time that the…sites formed, early Type
A forms do not entirely disappear from the
archaeological record late in time, but they are
gradually replaced by the Type B form which
then becomes the most common form during the
Latte Period’ (Hunter-Anderson 1994:3.67).
Figure 63. Three Late Pre-Latte Period Sherds, Plain Carinated
Body Sherd (Artifact Number 151.002) (top), Red-Slipped Body
Sherd (Artifact Number 151.001) (bottom left), and Type A Rim
(Artifact Number 151.003) (lower right)
Three Late Pre-Latte Period sherds (Figure 63) were recovered during Phase 1 at the edge of the south
side road. The Type A rim sherd (Artifact Number 151.003) (see lower right) measured 29 millimeters
(1.14 inches) long by 27 millimeters (1.06 inches) wide by 9 millimeters (0.35 inches) thick and weighed
8.6 grams (0.30 ounces). This Type A rim sherd appeared to be from a small, straight walled bowl with
calcareous sand temper. The red slipped body sherd (Artifact Number 151.001) (see lower left) measured
54 millimeters (2.13 inches) long by 32 millimeters (1.26 inches) wide by 11 millimeters (0.43 inches) thick
and weighed 22.8 grams (0.80 ounces). This body sherd appeared to be from a small bowl with quartz and
volcanic sand temper. The carinated body sherd (Artifact Number 151.002) (see upper center) measured
81 millimeters (3.19 inches) long by 51 millimeters (2.01 inches) wide by 12 millimeters (0.47 inches) thick
and weighed 61.1 grams (2.16 ounces). This sherd appeared to be from a medium sized jar with quartz and
volcanic sand temper, red slipped interior with plain exterior.
Bag Number 152 consists of three Late Pre-Latte Period sherds (Figure 64) recovered during Phase 3 at
the south access road. The Type A rim sherd (Artifact Number 152.003) (see lower right) measured 49
millimeters (1.93 inches) long by 38 millimeters (1.50 inches) wide by 7 millimeters (0.28 inches) thick
and weighed 16.5 grams (0.58 ounces). This Type A rim sherd appeared to be from a small, straight walled
bowl with calcareous sand temper and red slipped interior. The second Type A rim sherd (Artifact Number
152.002) (see lower left) measured 49 millimeters (1.93 inches) long by 39 millimeters (1.54 inches) wide
by 9 millimeters (0.35 inches) thick and weighed 21.2 grams (0.75 ounces). This sherd appeared to be
from a small bowl with quartz and calcareous sand temper. The third Type A rim sherd (Artifact Number
152.001) (see upper center) measured 64 millimeters (2.52 inches) long by 50 millimeters (1.97 inches)
wide by 12 millimeters (0.47 inches) thick and weighed 61.1 grams (2.16 ounces). This sherd appeared to
be from a medium sized bowl with quartz and calcareous sand temper. The rim sherd had a red slipped
interior with plain exterior.
Artifact Number 154.001 was a Late Pre-Latte Period rim sherd recovered during Phase 3 at the south
access road. The Type A rim measured 114 millimeters (4.49 inches) long by 69 millimeters (2.72 inches)
84
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Figure 64. Three Type A Late Pre-Latte Period Rim Sherds,
Artifact Number 152.001 (upper center); Artifact Number
152.002 (lower left); Artifact Number 152.003 (lower right)
Figure 65. Artifact Number 154.001, Type A Late PreLatte Period Jar Sherd, Exterior
wide by 13 millimeters (0.51 inches) thick and
weighed 128.2 grams (4.52 ounces). This rim sherd
appeared to be from a medium sized straight walled
jar neck with quartz and calcareous sand temper and
is unslipped (Figure 65).
Artifact Number 155.001 was a Late Pre-Latte Period
rim sherd recovered during Phase 1 near Burial
17. The Type A rim measured 30 millimeters (1.18
inches) long by 29 millimeters (1.14 inches) wide
by 5 millimeters (0.20 inches) thick (Figure 66) and
weighed 5.8 grams (0.20 ounces). This rim sherd
appeared to be from a small red slipped bowl with
quartz and calcareous sand temper.
Artifact Number 157.001 was a Late Pre-Latte Period
rim sherd recovered during Phase 2 at the south
access road. The Type A rim measured 49 millimeters
(1.93 inches) long by 40 millimeters (1.57 inches)
wide by 10 millimeters (0.39 inches) thick (Figure 67)
and weighed 21.4 grams (0.75 ounces). This rim sherd
appeared to be from a medium sized, straight walled
jar neck with quartz and volcanic sand temper, with
a red slipped interior, and unslipped exterior.
Figure 66. Artifact Number 155.001, Type A Late PreLatte Period Bowl Sherd, Exterior
Figure 67. Artifact Number 157.001, Type A Late PreLatte Period Jar Sherd, Exterior
Artifact Number 135.001 was a Latte Period rim sherd recovered duringPhase 1. The Type B rim
measured 142 millimeters (5.59 inches) long by 116 millimeters (4.57 inches) wide by 9 millimeters
(0.35 inches) thick (Figure 68) and weighed 209.1 grams (7.38 ounces). The rim sherd appeared to be
from a medium sized outwardly curving jar with quartz, volcanic sand, and calcareous sand temper
and was unslipped.
85
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 68. Artifact Number 135.001, Type B Latte Period Rim
Sherd Exterior, With Outward Curving Neck
Figure 69. Artifact Number 153.001, Type B Latte
Period Rim Jar Sherd Exterior
Artifact Number 153.001 was a Latte Period rim
sherd recovered during Phase 4. The Type B rim
measured 98 millimeters (3.86 inches) long by 71
millimeters (2.80 inches) wide by 15 millimeters
(0.59 inches) thick (Figure 69) and weighed 146 grams
(5.15 ounces). The rim sherd appeared to be from a
medium sized inwardly curving jar with calcareous
sand temper and a red slipped exterior.
Bag Number 133 consisted of two Latte Period rim
sherds from the same vessel (Figure 70) recovered
during Phase 4. The upper Type B rim (Artifact
Number 133.01) measured 56 millimeters (2.20
inches) long by 49 millimeters (1.93 inches) wide by
14 millimeters (0.55 inches) thick (see Figure 4.389). The lower Type B rim (Artifact Number 133.02)
measured 100 millimeters (3.94 inches) long by 75
millimeters (2.95 inches) wide by 19 millimeters
(0.75 inches) thick (see Figure 4.3-89). Together they
weighed 908 grams (32.03 ounces) and appeared to
be from a medium sized, inwardly curving jar with
quartz and volcanic sand temper, and was unslipped.
Figure 70. Two Type B Latte Period Jar Sherds,
Exterior Rims, Artifact Number 133.001 (top),
Artifact Number 133.002 (bottom)
5.1.5. Faunal Bone Remains
During grubbing and data recovery within the project area, numerous feral dogs, cats, and rats were
sighted by archaeologists and machine operators, as were hermit crabs in a variety of shelters (from
land snail shells to baby food bottles) and occasional coconut crabs. Faunal remains collected from
subsurface contexts were invariably shallow (10 centimeters [3.9 inches] below surface) and from
disturbed, not sealed deposits. Since no land mammal other than the fruit bat or fanihi was native to
86
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
the Northern Mariana Islands prior to European contact in 1521, animals introduced by Spanish or
Philippine immigrants during the 17th and 18th centuries included pigs, cattle, water buffalo, dogs,
deer, and rats, plus chickens and other domestic fowl. Japanese immigrants in the early 20th century
introduced the large land snail presumably from Okinawa and probably other domestic livestock of
Asian varieties.
Not surprisingly, the faunal assemblage identified by the project osteologist below (as listed in Table
16) reflects Post-Contact fauna still present on Saipan today. These are therefore not at all associated
with the Latte and PreLatte remains encountered during archaeological investigation of the property,
unless further research were to suggest otherwise. Where present, butcher marks with metal tools also
indicate the bones’ modern origins, likely discarded as food refuse and redistributed by dogs, cats, and
rats. No evidence of Contact-Period faunal remains was encountered in primary contexts with Latte
Period burials or subsistence features. Pigs, dogs, and chickens are not known to have been transported
to the Northern Marianas by early Chamorro settlers.
Table 16. Faunal Bone Remains from Site SP 1-1037
Artifact
Number
Phase of
Investigation
Construction Area (Stratum II
[30-60 centimeters below
surface])
Object
Material Type Alteration
Weight
(grams/
ounces)
30.001
Grubbing
Phase 1 North Hotel Trenching
2 vertebra, 4
ribs
Mammal
Dog?
39.7/1.40
31.001
Grubbing
Phase 1 North Hotel Trenching
1 long bone
Bird
Chicken?
1.8/0.06
32.001
Grubbing
Phase 1 North Hotel Trenching
2 ribs
Mammal
Dog?
8.2/0.29
33.001
Grubbing
Phase 1 North Hotel Trenching
2 long bones,
1 cut
Mammal
Dog/pig
40.7/1.44
34.001
Grubbing
Phase 1 North Hotel Trenching
1 long bone
Mammal
Dog?
8.5/0.30
36.001
Grubbing
Phase 3 Access Road Trenching 1 tarsal
Mammal
Pig/cow?
25.8/0.91
60.001
Data Recovery
Phase 1 North Hotel Trenching
Mammal
Pig?
35.1/1.24
51.2/1.81
1 tibia
61.001
Data Recovery
Phase 2 Access Road Trenching
1 cranial
fragment
Mammal
Water buffalo
cranium?
Cuts
62.001
Data Recovery
Phase 2 Access Road Trenching
1 long bone
distal end
Mammal
unfused distal
8.9/0.31
end,
63.001
Data Recovery
Phase 2 Access Road Trenching
1 femur, prox.
end
Mammal
Pig? unfused,
prox. end
22.9/0.81
64.001
Data Recovery
Phase 2 Access Road Trenching
1 right
scapula
Mammal
Dog/pig?
Assoc. with
Bag 65
14.2/0.50
65.001
Data Recovery
left scapula,
Phase 2 Access Road Trenching clavicle, rib
frag5
Mammal
Dog/pig?
Assoc. with
Bag 64
29.4/1.04
66.001
Data Recovery
left femur,
Phase 2 Access Road Trenching tibia, tibia
epiphysis
Mammal
Pig
52.5/1.85
67.001
Data Recovery
Phase 1 North Hotel Trenching
vertebra
neural arch
Mammal
Pig/dog?
3.4/0.12
68.001
Data Recovery
Phase1 North Hotel Trenching
1 long bone
Mammal
Dog?
24.7/0.87
217.001
Data Recovery
Phase 2 Access Road Trenching Isolated HR 9
Animal
1 animal
Unknown
218.001
Data Recovery
Phase 2 Access Road Trenching
Animal
Cut marks
Unknown
Isolated HR
10
87
Afetna Point, Saipan
5.2. Radiocarbon Dating
5.2.1. Research Questions and Interpretive Models
Radiocarbon results from subsurface earth oven cooking and features at site SP 1-1037 offered data to
inform aspects of the second main research question: 2a) can Latte Period habitation structures and use
areas at site SP 1-1037 be identified from patterned subsurface features or ephemeral structures and 2b)
Can middens be identified and dated in the vicinity. While excavation did not encounter direct evidence
of latte stone habitation support features (haligi and/or tasa), a large (50 to 70 meter [164 to 229.7 feet]
wide) subsurface area of earth oven cooking and eating with associated food remains provided datable
organic materials from discrete cooking settings. Manually-cleaned earth oven profiles and excavated
test pits with associated organic sediments recovered in situ allowed for analyses and discussion of
initial site occupation and changes evident over time in the morphology and function of on-site cooking
basins.
The relationships between calibrated calendrical date ranges typically offered significant information
regarding whether a site saw sustained habitation over a long duration or short periods of intermittent
site visitation. A model of sequential or punctuated land use would be supported by the presence of
appreciable gaps in the radiocarbon record and would indicate multiple discrete periods of resource
procurement and cooking over time. Alternatively, partially-overlapping age ranges would indicate that
cooking events took place fairly rapidly over time, as may be expected in the case of attached residential
habitation rather than sporadic site visitation.
A final goal of this analysis asked whether site function changed over time, i.e., did residents or visitors
to the site target different resources over time or were similar species targeted consistently between
periods of landscape use. Cooking areas or refuse middens with mutually-exclusive suites of dietary
remains and sequential date ranges would support a pattern of shifting target species over time, while
consistency in dietary remains would support similar food production over time.
5.2.2. Materials and Analytical Methods
Manual excavation within the cooking features collected a total of five soil specimens for radiocarbon
age determination and microfossil identification. BetaAnalytic undertook the process of radiocarbon
assay for each specimen and all tested materials fulfilled the required weight and organic material
content for confident radiocarbon age attribution. All reported radiocarbon dates came from materials
collected in situ with a clean metal trowel during controlled excavation. The samples were placed into
labeled tinfoil containers to control for factors of cross-contamination.
Samples were sent to BetaAnalytic for AMS assay. Conventional radiocarbon ages, corrected for isotopic
fractionation, were recalibrated using Oxcal Version 4.2.4. Calibrated radiocarbon calendar dates were
then subjected to statistical tests of agreement to illustrate chronological patterning as it related to
roughly contemporaneous (within a single habitation span) versus a record of several cooking events
separated by centuries. Coeval dates were signaled in this test by an agreement percentage that exceeded
the combination index (Acomb > An = coeval; Acomb < An = sequential). This method allowed for intra- and
inter-site comparison of chronologic placement. Calibrated radiocarbon age ranges were reported as cal.
A.D. and were evaluated at the two-sigma (95 percent) confidence level in cases of a single radiocarbon
curve intercept. One sigma results (68.2 percent confidence level) were examined in cases where two
sigma results failed to provide refined age ranges. Calibrated radiocarbon age ranges that included
multiple intercepts with the atmospheric carbon calibration curve were discussed in terms of age range
and associated probability distribution. Further, a Bayesian sequence analysis was employed to reduce the
uncertainty (error) value for the earliest likely earth oven cooking events at site SP 1-1037. As the result
88
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Table 17. Radiocarbon Results from Site SP 1-1037
Radiocarbon
Sample ID
Unit
Context
Sample
Material
Depth (centimeters/
inches below
surface)
Conventional 2 Sigma (95.4 %)
Radiocarbon Calibrated Date (A.D.)
Age B.P.
and Period
C14-1
(Beta - 458312)
Feature 3
TP1
Small Oven
Organic
sediment
10/3.9
360 ± 30
1450-1530 (47.7%)
1540-1635 (47.7%)
C14-2
(Beta - 458313)
Feature 5
TP1
Big Oven
Organic
sediment
150/59
140 ± 30
1669-1780 (43.1%)
1798-1891 (36.8%)
1909-1945 (15.5%)
C14-3
(Beta - 458314)
Feature 2
TP1
Hearth
Complex
Charred
material
10/3.9
360 ± 30
1450-1530 (47.7%)
1540-1635 (47.7%)
C14-4
(Beta - 458315)
Feature 8
TP1
Big Oven
Organic
sediment
10/3.9
280 ± 30
1498-1504 (0.8%)
1513-1601 (54.3%)
1616-1666 (38.2%)
1784-1795 (2.1%)
C14-5
(Beta - 458316)
Feature 1
TP1
Hearth
Complex
Charred
material
10/3.9
320 ± 30
1483-1646 (95.4%)
Figure 71. Multi-plot of Calibrated Age Range Determinations from Site SP 1-1037
of systematic collection methods, the reported dates all came from discrete areas of cooking activity and
reflected the actual event date ranges for documented features rather than ambiguous dates for portions
of soil. As the dates provided (Table 17 and Figure 71) described the timing of actual activity events, a
discussion of the timing of initial and subsequent land use and the diachronic change toward larger, likely
communal, cooking events within the subject area is given below.
5.2.3. Radiocarbon Results
5.2.3.1. Feature 1
Feature 1 consisted of a hearth complex, including burned cooking stones, charcoal, and food refuse.
Specimen C14 -5 (Beta-458316), recovered from Feature 1, contained charred material adhered to a Latte
Period ceramic sherd. The charred material provided sufficient weight for dating and was recovered in
89
Afetna Point, Saipan
situ at a depth of 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) below surface within the discrete cooking area. The sample
offered a single calibrated age range determination at the 95 percent probability level of Cal AD 14831646.
5.2.3.2. Feature 2
Feature 2 consisted of a hearth complex, including burned cooking stones, charcoal, and food refuse.
Specimen C14-3 (Beta-458314), recovered from one burned Latte Period body sherd within Feature 2,
contained charred material sufficient for dating and was recovered in situ at a depth of 10 centimeters
(3.9 inches) below surface within the discrete cooking area. The sample provided two calibrated age
range determinations at the 95 percent probability level of Cal AD 1450-1530 (47.7 percent) and equallyweighted Cal AD 1540-1635 (47.7 percent).
5.2.3.3. Feature 3
Feature 3 consisted of a small earth oven, including burned cooking stones, charcoal, and dogas shellfish
food remains. Specimen C14-1 (Beta-458312), recovered from Feature 3, contained charred material
sufficient for dating and was recovered in situ at a depth of 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) below surface
within the discrete cooking area. The sample provided two calibrated age range determinations at the
95 percent probability level of Cal A.D. 1450-1530 (47.7 percent) and equally weighted Cal AD 15401635 (47.7 percent). Similarity in calibrated calendar dates between Feature 2 and Feature 3 come from
identical conventional radiocarbon ages of 360 ± 30 BP.
5.2.3.4. Feature 5
Feature 5 consisted of a large earth oven, including burned cooking stones, charcoal, and dogas shellfish
food remains. Specimen C14-2 (Beta-458313), recovered from Feature 5, contained charred material
sufficient for dating and was recovered in situ at a depth of 150 centimeters (59.1 inches) below surface
within the discrete cooking area. The sample provided three calibrated age range determinations at the
95 percent probability level of Cal A.D. 1669-1780 (43.1 percent), Cal A.D. 1798-1891 (36.8 percent) and
Cal A.D. 1909-1945 (15.5 percent). The likeliest date for use of Feature 5 lies between Cal A.D. 1669-1780.
5.2.3.5. Feature 8
Feature 8 consisted of a large earth oven, including burned cooking stones, charcoal, and dogas shellfish
food remains. Specimen C14-2 (Beta-458313), recovered from Feature 8, contained charred material
sufficient for dating and was recovered in situ at a depth of 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) below surface
within the discrete cooking area. The sample provided three calibrated age range determinations at the
95 percent probability level of Cal A.D. 1498-1504 (0.8 percent), Cal A.D. 1513-1601 (54.3 percent), Cal A.D.
1616-1666 (38.2 percent), and Cal A.D. 1784-1795 (2.1 percent). The likeliest date for use of Feature 8 lies
between Cal A.D. 1513-1601.
5.2.3.6. Statistical Analyses of SP 1-1037 Radiocarbon Results
Features 1, 2, and 3 exhibited overlapping date ranges at the 95 percent confidence level and showed
that all three cooking features were likely created between either Cal A.D. 1471- 1528 (40.0 percent) or
Cal A.D. 15541634 (55.4 percent), with Cal A.D. 1554-1634 exhibiting a slightly higher probability for
overall timeframe of use (X2-Test: df=2 T=1.091 [5 percent 5.991] agreement, n=3 Acomb=98.0 percent
[An= 40.0 Percent]). A Bayesian sequence analysis of these three early dates suggested that initial use of
site SP 1-1037 took place between Cal A.D. 1416-1517, offering support for initial use of the site by circa
A.D. 1500 (1σ, 49.3 percent model agreement=103.4). Conclusions regarding the start date of site use at
90
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
SP 1-1037 relied on one sigma confidence level, as the 95 percent confidence level failed to provide a
sufficiently restricted age range for initial use.
5.2.3.7. Discussion of Radiocarbon results
The modeled date ranges given by both statistical analyses showed that small-scale cooking events had
likely begun within the site area by circa A.D. 1500, if not slightly earlier. This earliest period of site
use continued until A.D. 1600 or a few decades thereafter. The latest cooking event observed at site SP
1-1037 likely took place between Cal A.D. 1669-1780. Overall, the results show two main episodes of use
at site SP 1-1037 with an initial sustained period of earth oven cooking beginning circa 1500 and ending
before the 1630s. After the initial habitual use of site SP 1-1037, available data suggested a residential
hiatus of 50-100 years was followed by later cooking activity between Cal A.D. 1669-1780. While the
complete data set indicated a sequential pattern of site use overall, Features 1, 2, 3, and 8 illustrated
relative continuity and represented sustained earth oven cooking during the Latte Period.
This study also sought radiocarbon data to determine whether site function changed over time and if
shifts in cooking strategies were archaeologically visible. Patterning in earth oven type and size within
the sample, specifically a shift toward larger cooking basin sizes over time, did suggest that large dogas
shellfish cooking events were an aspect of later site use. The earliest large dogas shellfish oven within
the sample (Feature 8) provided a likely date range of Cal A.D. 1513-1601. As Feature 8 failed to show
significant association (overlap) with the clustered dates of Feature 1, 2, and 3 (circa A.D. 1500-1550),
the more likely date range for Feature 8 and large-scale shellfish cooking, is nearer to A.D. 1600 or
shortly thereafter. The shift in earth oven size may reflect later feasting events by a small residential
community or a scaled response to increased local population density. Microfossil remains recovered
within each dated feature are discussed below as they related to continuity and change in subsistence
practices.
5.3. Microfossil Remains
In the coastal San Antonio area, the absence of reliable fresh water sources (not withstanding low-tide
seeps) did not appear to preclude extended occupations and probable household gardening during the
Latte Period. Instead, this scarcity may have encouraged the excavation of shallow wells and regular
visits to moist inland soil basins such as the base of the escarpment in the lower Chalan Piao marsh,
probably by more than one family or clan as seasonal subsistence needs arose in coastal villages.
Recent examination of the relationship between the few small inland latte sets on the northern Guam
plateau and natural resource catchment areas (Dixon and Schaefer 2014) suggests each coastal village
may have maintained one or more inland sites, often situated near recognizable boundaries between
group territories. Pockets of moist arable soil similar to farming and forest collection sites postulated
on inland Tinian (Dixon et al. 2011) would have been prime assets for inhabitants of San Antonio and
southern coastal Saipan. Such planting areas and small residential sites may have functioned as nodes
in a larger subsistence strategy involving farming and tree cropping from multiple camps and activity
areas, supporting coastal villages and their respective clans.
According to these models extrapolated to southern Saipan, inland residency involved exploitation
of locally farmed agricultural products (taro, yams, and bananas) and forest resources (breadfruit,
screwpine, cycads, and wood for construction), when seasonally available. The products were then
processed inland for transport to the nearest coastal village, with the inhabitants eventually returning
inland with marine food supplies (fish and shellfish) and finished tools (pottery and adzes). Besides daily
subsistence needs in the coastal village, feasting events and seasonal droughts must have necessitated
almost weekly commutes between coastal and inland settings, a routine easily recognized in the
91
Afetna Point, Saipan
relationship of lanchos to Spanish-era villages (Russell 1998). This pattern of utilizing inland plateaus as
a resource reservoir of forest products and arable soil by coastal communities may have considerable
time depth in the San Antonio area, given the proximity of many Pre-Latte Period settlements to the
north near Chalan Piao marsh and Lake Susupe. This may also be conceived as a risk minimization
strategy, perhaps developed in response to climatic unpredictability between 1350 and 1800 C.E. (Nunn
2000; Nunn et al. 2007). Microfossil evidence of such a strategy was expected from soils sampled in
Features 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8, although the results tell a somewhat different story.
5.3.1. Microfossil Results
There is considerable circumstantial evidence of what subsistence activities may have been undertaken
locally during the Latte Period at the San Antonio village. Tridacna shell adzes and their fragments, all
of a size better suited for wood working tasks than actual primary forest reduction, were encountered
within the Stratum II cultural horizon. Intact and broken basalt adzes, pounders, grinders, and several
mortars found during excavation also suggest that surrounding forested hillslopes were actively being
harvested by the time the latte sets were erected. Food processing tools such as mortars and pestles are
presumed to have been used where taro, lesser yams, and breadfruit were baked in roasting pits or earth
ovens, and food then consumed on the site or transported back to inland subsistence camps and field
residences. Polishing and grinding tools may have been used to soften screwpine leaves before plaiting
into baskets, mats, and sails, as well as to process clays and tempers for pottery production.
Microfossil remains from plants exploited in Features 1 through 3, 5, and 8 were analyzed in the same
contexts as five radiocarbon samples by Microfossil Research Ltd. (Horrocks 2017). These samples were
all radiocarbon dated to the late Latte Period/early Spanish Contact Period occupation of southern
Saipan. Rather than a plethora of domestic food remains, analysis revealed the dominance of pollen
such as coconuts, other palms, and ferns (Figure 72) and phytoliths such as grasses and palms (Figure
73), all from fuel species in the two hearth complexes Features 1 and 2 and the three dogas ovens Features
3, 5, and 8. This fuel was to be expected given the probable construction materials of shallow cooking
Features 1 and 2 and nearby dogas ovens, but food remains were also expected as a byproduct of cooking
features being opened and rebuilt for repeated use over time. In another study of microfossil remains
from a site near Lake Susupe (Horrocks et al. 2015), coconut and screwpine pollen were identified as
probable constituents of the surrounding native
forest. Possible food remains there on the other
hand, were identified from Discorea phytoliths, not
identified in the San Antonio village site.
Unexpectedly, no microfossil food remains were
encountered in the hearth complexes, but pollen
from Indian Mulberry, sponge spicule silica, taro
starch, and other rapides were encountered in the
deeper dogas oven Features 5 and 8. This occurrence
appears to suggest that dogas ovens were also
used to warm or bake wrapped plant foods for
consumption with the dogas shells, or cut up into the
soup or seafood gumbo in which they were boiled
and eaten afterward. With the benefit of hindsight,
it now appears more realistic to interpret hearth
complex Features 1 and 2 as possible ceramic brush
kilns, given the presence of fuel and the clusters
of burned coral rocks, pockets of white ash, and
92
Figure 72. Pollen Diagram from Site SP 1-1037
(++=small amount)
Chapter 5 Latte Period Results
Figure 73. Phytolith and Starch Diagram from Site SP1-1037, Saipan
(+ = found after count, ++ = small amount, +++ = large amount)
scatters of poorly fired Latte pottery in the shallow burned soils. If they were also used to cook foods
for local consumption, the evidence remains to be encountered. In fact, the one burned pottery sherd
from Feature 1 was noted by Microfossil Research, not to contain burned residue on the interior, but
rather to have burned fuel remains adhered to the exterior surface. Poor preservation in alternating
wet/dry salty conditions of the sandy coastal villages may also be a likely factor for explaining the lack
of perishable organic remains in these features.
93
Chapter 6
Osteological Analysis
6.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the osteological analysis of the human remains recovered from this project
(Walth and Mowrer 2018). The human remains could not be directly dated, but radiocarbon dates from
cooking features and middens found on both sides of the Burial 31–45 cluster area date toward the
end of the Latte period, from the late A.D. 1400s to the early 1700s. The individuals at this site lived
and died in the area between the Latte and post-Contact periods. In the chapters above the methods
used were detailed. This chapter includes this introduction, followed by assemblage characteristics,
paleodemography, morphology of the cranium and mandible, morphology of the postcranial remains,
dental morphology, dental pathologies, skeletal pathologies, mortuary analysis, and conclusions. The
far fewer WWII Japanese remains will not be covered here.
6.1.1 Previous Osteological Investigations in Saipan
Human skeletal remains have been collected and studied since the 1920s in Saipan. The HornbostelThompson collection represents skeletal remains from Guam, Saipan, and Tinian. These remains, now
housed in the Guam Museum, have been the basis of a variety of studies (Brace et al. 1990; Brace and Hunt
1990; Dodo 1986; Hanihara 1986, 1992; Ishida and Dodo 1993; Pietrusewsky 1976). In Saipan, information
about prehistoric inhabitants is located primarily in unpublished burial reports generated from cultural
resources management mitigation. These reports are often difficult to procure and though limited in
focus, they contain most of the details, discussions, conclusions, and raw data regarding prehistoric
skeletal remains from Saipan. Archaeological investigations began on Saipan in the early 1900s, with
work in Afetna and Chalan Piao to the north, and Agingan to the south (Hornbostel 1924; Spohr 1957;
Thompson 1971). It was not until the late 1970s when Thompson (1977) surveyed and preformed test
excavations in San Antonio and members of the Northern Marianas Archaeology Society recovered a
mass burial area exposed during earthworks in the San Antonio village (Russell 1984) that archaeological
research in the southwestern portion of Saipan began in earnest. These projects indicated that parts of
the southwest corner of Saipan had been occupied since the early period of the island’s prehistory.
As research and excavations increased throughout the 1980s, numerous important reports were
produced. Pietrusewsky and Batista (1980) and Pietrusewsky (1986) analyzed the human remains
recovered from five sites on Saipan, including one site in San Antonio. Pietrusewsky and Batista (1980)
analyzed the remains from two of those sites, Saipan Latte House (Grotto) and the Marianas High School
site. The remains from Hafa Dai Beach, San Antonio site, and Tanapag were too fragmented to provide
meaningful analysis. Pietrusewsky and Batista (1980) and Pietrusewsky (1986) were able to determine
that these populations were relatively healthy with some evidence of trauma, exhibited betel-nut
staining and dental modification on the teeth, and that the skeletal elements from the San Antonio
population were particularly robust and tall in stature. McGovern-Wilson (1989) analyzed the remains
of 41 prehistoric burials from the Afetna site for the Surf Hotel in San Antonio, just south of the current
project. McGovern-Wilson findings were similar to Pietrusewsky and Batista (1980) and Pietrusewsky
(1986); the population was relatively healthy, exhibited betel-nut staining and dental modification
on the teeth, and the one male where stature could be estimated, was taller and more robust when
compared with other Mariana Island populations. Hanson (1989) recovered the fragmentary remains
of nine burials during construction in Garapan to the north and also found little evidence of disease,
94
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
no caries, extreme tooth wear (possibly from use of teeth as tools), and that stature fell into the tall
range. In 1996, Hunter-Anderson et al. (1996) excavated 32 prehistoric burials from the Saipan Judiciary
Center in Susupe, and found little evidence of disease, caries, or trauma. A published volume of the
American Journal of Physical Anthropology (Vol. 104) was dedicated to Marianas research (Ambrose et
al. 1997; Douglas et al. 1997; Hanihara 1997; Hanson and Butler 1997; Hanson and Pietrusewsky 1997).
Publications in several other peer-reviewed journals have focused on the colonization of the Marianas
and biological relatedness of the ancient Chamorro (Hanihara 1992; Hung et al. 2011; Pietrusewsky
1990a, 2006, 2008; Vilar et al. 2012).
6.2 Assemblage characteristics
6.2.1 Preservation
The human burials at Parcel 004-1-52 were overall in fair condition. The site and some burials were
disturbed by prehistoric activity. In the pre-Contact period, it was common to bury an individual under or
near a structure where other individuals had previously been interred, thus disturbing the earlier burials
with the new interment. Disturbance also occurred in the historic and recent times. The project area is on a
National Historic Landmark WWII American invasion beach, with a WWII Japanese ammunition magazine,
a U.S. Coast Guard Loran facility used from 1944 to 1978, and the remnants of a modern concrete pad for
a boxing rink and food stand. Burials have
also been disturbed by the construction
of nearby roads, road repairs, and the
installation of various utilities. For
example, Burial 36 was discovered
under the copper wiring associated with
construction of the U.S. Coast Guard Loran
facility (Figure 74). The disturbance from
prehistoric through recent times resulted
in burials being displaced, disarticulated,
and isolated from their original context.
The human bone varied in condition
and most were fragmented to some
degree, with old and new breaks
observed. A few exhibited damage from
root action and gnawing from rodents
and small mammals.Of the 93 field and
laboratory numbered burials, 24 were
in good condition (25.8 percent), 60 in
fair condition (64.5 percent), 6 in poor
condition (6.4 percent), 2 in variable
condition, which is fair to poor (2.2
percent) and 1 (1.1 percent) was in very
poor condition. Assessment of condition
was determined by examination of the
condition of the cortex (weathering,
cracking, root, and insect damage).
Completeness is an estimate of the
skeletal elements present for any
Figure 74. Copper tubing over the remains of Burial 36,
with Burials 37 and 38 to left
95
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 75. Example of a burial represented by less than 25 percent of skeletal elements
Figure 76. Example of a burial represented by approximately 80 percent of the skeletal elements
96
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
individual burial. In the lab, the analyst placed the elements in anatomical position and estimated
the overall percent of the individual represented by the skeletal elements. The majority, 36 burials
(38.7 percent of the sample), were 26 to 50 percent represented, 30 burials (32.3 percent) were 51 to
75 percent represented, 19 (20.4 percent) were 1 to 25 percent represented, and 8 (11.6 percent) were
relatively complete, 76 to 100 percent represented. Figure 75 shows Burial 3 with less than 25 percent
of the skeletal elements present for this individual. Figure 76 shows Burial 37, a burial approximately 80
percent complete represented by all but the lower legs, one foot, and most of the elements are nearly
complete except for the lower half of the femora.
6.2.2 Calculations of Minimum Number of Individuals
The skeletal assemblage recovered from Parcel 004-1-52 ranged from complete, articulated, formal burials
to isolated human bone that consisted of a bone, or bone fragment. In the field, primary inhumations
and isolated remains were assigned a field burial number, but many of the primary inhumations included
the remains of one or more individuals. If the additional remains represented another individual (for
example, an additional sided element), or exhibited skeletal morphology or preservation differences,
then the second (or third, fourth, etc.) individual was assigned a laboratory burial number by adding a
letter to the field burial number, such as 7a, and 7b. In addition to primary inhumations, four isolated
human remains were recovered. The isolated bone was listed by number of fragments, element, side,
and, when possible, age and sex, and were recorded on a separate data sheet, referred to as isolated
human bone. Calculation of minimum number of individuals (MNI) was determined by finding the
most numerous sided element. All human remains were considered and divided by affiliation (Latte or
Japanese WWII) and by age and sex (for adults). Teeth generally survive well but are often lost naturally
through attrition and wear. Therefore, isolated teeth that could not be assigned to a burial or isolated
remains were excluded from these calculations because they are not definitive evidence of death. Teeth
are also small in relative size and not often recovered during monitoring of heavy equipment moving
the sandy matrix.
The remains were assigned to Latte or Japanese WWII temporal affiliation based on preservation, burial
goods, the affiliation of the burial that they were interred near, or on physical characteristics. For
example, two of the Japanese WWII burials exhibited extensive dental work—bridgework and crowns—
which would most likely not be found on the prehistoric Latte population. Japanese burials also had
burial items that were war-related and preservation characteristics of those individuals was different
from the Latte remains. The Japanese remains were in a better state of preservation than the Latte
remains. The most numerous sided element for the Latte group was the femur. The field-numbered
Latte burials totaled 60 and, based on the count of femoral elements, the isolated remains added four
individuals, for 64 field-identified burials. The field-numbered Japanese WWII soldier burials totaled
four. The additional Latte individuals identified in the laboratory was 25 for a Latte total of 89, and
no additional Japanese WWII skeletal remains were identified in the laboratory. The final MNI for the
skeletal assemblage at Parcel 004-1-52 is 93 (89 Latte and four Japanese).
6.3. Paleodemography
Paleodemography is a field of study that focuses on demographic characteristics of prehistoric
populations, and in this case one that is derived from an archaeological investigation. Accuracy of the
age and sex estimates is an important factor and a potential source of bias in the sample (Milner et al.
2008). The demographic profile of an archaeological sample can be affected by factors such as differential
preservation, selective burial practices, and inadequate sampling. The current site was not excavated by
any scientific sampling strategy. Burials that were identified during monitoring were excavated and in
the process, additional burials were discovered and exhumed. The demographic profiles from the age
97
Afetna Point, Saipan
and sex distributions, when paired with data on pathological changes to the skeleton and dentition, can
provide some indication of the health and longevity of past populations.
6.3.1 Age and Sex Distribution
The age distribution is presented in Table 18 and graphically represented in Figure 77. The overall
distribution of subadults (<20 years) to adults (20+ years) is 16 to 73, or 82 percent of the sample are
adults. Therefore, 18 percent of the sample represents subadults, which compares favorably to other
Latte period samples from Guam and the CNMI (Douglas and Ikehara 1992; Graves 1987; McGovernWilson 1989; Pietrusewsky and Batista 1980; Pietrusewsky et al. 2003; Rader and Haun 1989; Trembly and
Tucker 1999; Walth 2016). There are a large number of adults where the age could only be categorized
as 20+ years (33.7 percent, n=30). The next largest cohort is the middle adult category (35–49.9 years of
age) at 25.8 percent (n=23), followed by the young adult category with 21.3 percent (n=19). These three
groups are the majority of the sample (80.9 percent, n=72). Adolescents are 6.7 percent (n=6) of the
sample, followed by infants with 4.5 percent (n=4), young child with 3.4 percent (n=3), child with 2.3
percent (n=2), and older child with 1.1 percent (n=1) of the population. One older individual (50+ years
of age-at-death; 1.1 percent) was also identified.
Sex distribution for the adolescents and adults are presented in Table 19. The table includes only the field
and laboratory burials, which total 79 individuals. The table does not include any of the child categories
or the infant category as sex cannot be determined for individuals this young. The female and possible
female were added together as were the male and possible male to get the totals for females and males.
Table 18. Age Distribution for Parcel 004-1-52
Age Category
Age Range
MNI
Percent
Fetal-Infant
−2 months–1.9 years
4
4.5
Young Child
2.0–4.9 years
3
3.4
Child
5.0–9.9 years
2
2.3
Older Child
10.0–14.9 years
1
1.1
Adolescent
15.0–19.9 years
6
6.7
Young Adult
20.0–34.9 years
19
21.3
Middle Adult
35.0–49.9 years
23
25.8
Older Adult
50+ years
1
1.1
Adult
20+ years
30
33.7
89
100%
Total
Table 19. Sex and Age Distribution of Adolescents and Adults for Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio
Age
Female
Ind
Male
Total
Adolescent
2
4
0
6
Young Adult
9
5
5
19
Middle Adult
12
5
6
23
Older Adult
0
0
1
1
Adult
2
25
3
30
Total
25
39
15
79
Percent
31.6%
49.4%
19.0%
100%
Ind = Indeterminate
98
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Females outnumber males (25 to 15 or 1.67:1) with 1.67 females to every one male. Sex could not be estimated
for 39 individuals (49.4 percent of the sample). As a percent females and males, more females (44 percent,
n=11) than males (33 percent, n=5) died by young adult age (20–35 years) and one male lived into the older
adult age group (50+ years of age). The increased risk of childbearing likely represents a hazard for the
females. Male hazards resulting in death could include warfare, accidents, or other cultural activities.
6.3.2 Abridged Life Table
The abridged life table for the Parcel 004-1-52 burials is presented in Table 20 (sexes combined). The
adult individuals with no specific age estimate were distributed proportionately among the age ranges.
The life table includes parameters such as the actual number of observed deaths (Dx), survivorship
rate (lx), mortality rate (qx), age-specific death rate (mx), and life expectancy (ex). The reliability of
the demographic reconstruction presented in the life table is dependent on the assumptions that the
age and sex estimates are representative of the population. The burial sample has individuals in age
categories from infancy to older adult (estimated in this group as 50+ years of age at death). Overall
life expectancy (mean age at death) is 30.2 years. Mortality risk is highest in the 35–39.9 group. That is
followed in descending order by the 20 to 24.9 age group, the 25 to 29.9 and 40 to 44.9 age groups, the
35 to 39.9 age group, and the 45 to 49.9 age group. Mortality for children (under 15 years) is highest for
children ages 0 to 0.9 months, and 2 to 4.9 years, followed by children 5 to 9.9, and lowest for the 1 to
2.9 and 10 to 14.9 age groups. The survivorship curve data (life table column lx) are presented for the
complete assemblage in Figure 8.5.
The dependency ratio estimates the number of dependents supported by each worker in the population.
The ratio is calculated as the number of individuals that are under the age of 15 and over the age of 50
(Dx 0–14.9+Dx50+/Dx15.0–49.9) divided by the number of individuals between the ages of 15 and 50
(Howell 1982). The dependency ratio for the burial assemblage is .16 or 16 dependents for every 100
workers. Workers have to work harder when there are more dependents than workers. Estimation of
Table 20. Life Table for Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio
x
nx
Dx
dx
lx
qx
Lx
mx
Tx
ex
0–0.9
1
3
3.37
100.0
0.03
98.3
0.03
3,015.2
30.2
1–1.9
1
1
1.12
96.6
0.01
96.1
0.01
2,916.9
30.2
2–4.9
3
3
3.37
95.5
0.04
281.5
0.01
2,820.8
29.5
5–9.9
5
2
2.25
92.1
0.02
455.1
0.00
2,539.3
27.6
10–14.9
5
1
1.12
89.9
0.01
446.6
0.00
2,084.3
23.2
15–19.9
5
6
6.74
88.8
0.08
427.0
0.02
1,637.6
18.4
20–24.9
5
15
16.85
82.0
0.21
368.0
0.05
1,210.7
14.8
25–29.9
5
14
15.73
65.2
0.24
286.5
0.05
842.7
12.9
30–34.9
5
3
3.37
49.4
0.07
238.8
0.01
556.2
11.3
35–39.9
5
17
19.10
46.1
0.41
182.6
0.10
317.4
6.9
40–44.9
5
14
15.73
27.0
0.58
95.5
0.16
134.8
5.0
45–49.9
5
8
8.99
11.2
0.80
33.7
0.27
39.3
3.5
>50
5
2
2.25
2.2
1.00
5.6
0.40
5.6
0.0
Total
89
x = age interval; nx = number of years in the interval; Dx = number of individuals dying; dx = percent of individuals per interval; lx
= survivorship; qx = probability of dying during the interval; Lx = total number of years lived by all individuals in the interval; mx =
death rate for age interval; Tx = number of years remaining in lifetimes of all entering the interval; ex = average life of individuals
entering the interval.
99
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 77. Chart of age
distribution for Parcel 0041-52, San Antonio
Figure 78. Survivorship
curve for all the Parcel 0041-52 burials
Figure 79. Survivorship
curve for the males and
females in the Parcel 0041-52 project area
100
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
fertility in a population is similar to the dependency ratio and is calculated in a similar manner with one
change. Fertility (birth rate) is calculated using the number of deaths over the age of 30 divided by the
number of deaths over the age of 5 (Buikstra et al. 1986). For the current assemblage it is 0.54 (44/82).
The survivorship curve data (life table column lx) are presented for the complete assemblage in Figures
78 and 79, and displays the number of individuals alive from the beginning of the first interval, 100
percent of the individuals are alive, and the curve displays the decline of the population to the last age
interval. The line declines relatively slowly at first, a result of the generally low mortality of the young
individuals. There is a steep drop in the line reflecting the large number of individuals that died in the
age range between 20 and 34.9. The line then levels off slightly with another steep drop to the age of 50+.
6.4 Morphology of the cranium and mandible
Cranial measurements include lengths, breadths, heights, and distances between specified points, and of
individual bones of the cranium and the mandible. Cranial remains were fragmented and reconstruction
was able to be completed on only a few burials to provide cranial metric data. The mandible is a thickerwalled and more durable element than other cranial elements, but still only a few were available for
analysis. Subadult remains were scarce and the bones of children are thinner and more easily damaged.
No cranial remains from the subadults were complete enough for analysis.
Cranial characteristics offer a means to study the genetic affinities between different populations; for
example Ishida and Dodo’s (1997) study of nonmetric cranial variation of people from the Marianas,
and the craniometric studies of the Marianas and various Pacific groups by Pietrusewsky (1990a) and
Pietrusewsky et al. (2003). Researchers generally agree that nonmetric and craniometric data indicate
genetic relatedness (Pietrusewsky 2012; Saunders and Rainey 2008).
6.4.1 Cranial and Mandibular Metric Data
For the current study, cranial measurements and mandibular measurements were recorded (Table 21
and Table 22). Traits were scored on the left and right sides when appropriate, but often only one side or
the other was complete enough to record the trait. The craniometric data are presented for females and
males. None of the individuals of indeterminate sex were complete enough to record craniometric data.
Table 23 presents the cranial and mandibular indices for the males and females. There was only one
male with a cranium complete enough to obtain measurements. There were two females that provided
cranial metric data.
The indices (see Table 23) were calculated using the means determined and listed in the data tables
above. The cranial index is a ratio of the breadth of the skull to its length. The male cranial shape is
nearly oval and is in the mesocranic range (75 to 80) and the females fall in the dolichocranic(narrow
or long-headed) category (<75). The ratios for cranial height in respect to length or breadth indicate a
relatively high cranial shape. The height to breadth ratio is in the tapeinocranic range (<92) for the male
and the females. The cranial module provides a measure of the overall size of the cranium using the
length, breadth, and height measurements. There are two female and one male skull complete enough
to calculate this index: female mean (141.91) and male mean (203.33). These data can be used to attain an
estimate of cranial capacity using the Lee-Pearson formulae (Gohiya et al. 2010:1212; Manjunath 2002;
Olivier 1969:135); the cranial capacity for the two females averages 1,319 cc. The cranial capacity of the
one male is 2,111 cc. The fronto-parietal index expresses the relationship of the breadth of the frontal and
the maximum breadth of the vault. The females are in the broad (eurymetopic) range, with an average of
81.79, and no index for the male could be calculated. The nasal structures did not survive well and there is
only one female that was able to be measured. The nasal index for this individual indicates a broad nasal
101
Afetna Point, Saipan
Table 21. Cranial Metric Data for Males and Females
Females
Measurement
n
Mean
SD
Males
n
Mean
SD
1
200
1
150
Maximum cranial length (1)(GOL)
1
178.1
Maximum cranial breadth (2)(XCB)
2
120.44
Bizygomatic breadth (3)(ZYB)
1
129.17
1
139
Basion-bregma height (4)(BBH)
1
127.18
1
160
Cranial base length (5)(BNL)
1
122.81
1
125
Basion-prosthion length (6)(BPL)
0
1
131.00
Maxillo-alveolar breadth (7)(MAB)
1
1
72.83
Maxillo-alveolar length (8)(MAL)
1
54.97
Biauricular breadth (9)(AUB)
2
111.51
Nasal height (13)(NLH)
1
52.64
0
Nasal breadth (14)(NLB)
1
27.27
1
27.43
Orbital height (15)(OBH)
2
39.79
0.57
1
36.86
Orbital breadth (16)(OBB)
2
40.86
1.92
1
41.20
Biorbital breadth (17)(EKB)
2
97.64
10.08
1
100.88
Interorbital breadth (18)(DKB)
2
23.97
6.59
1
24.31
Min frontal breadth (WFB)
1
97.54
1
104.01
Upper facial breadth (FMB)
2
101.13
1.04
1
98.93
Minimum frontal breadth (11)
2
98.51
1.37
1
104.01
Upper facial breadth (12)(FMB)
0
1
98.93
Foramen magnum breadth (23)(FOB)
1
29.81
1
30.26
Foramen magnum length (FOL)
1
40.14
1
38.9
Mastoid length (24)(MDH)
1
27.97
1
26.41
Frontal chord (19)(FRC)
1
109.92
1
115.85
Parietal chord (20)(PAC)
1
110.47
1
123.29
Occipital chord (21)(OCC)
1
95.31
1
94.86
10.41
39.22
3.46
1
57
1
127.62
All measurements in millimeters (mm). Measurements listed with numbers are referring to Standards (Buikstra and Ubelaker
1994); measurements with capitalized letters are referring to Howells (1973).
n = number; SD = standard deviation.
Table 22. Mandibular Metric Data for Males and Females
Females
Males
Measurement
n
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Chin height (25)
1
27.65
1
40.22
Body height (26)
1
32.24
1
30.36
Body breadth (27)
1
15.64
1
14.06
Bigonial width (28)
1
85.68
1
83.54
Bicondylar breadth (29)
0
1
129.15
Minimum ramus breadth (30)
1
42.08
1
37.50
Maximum ramus breadth (31)
1
51.58
1
44.50
Maximum ramus height (32)
1
66.93
1
64.00
Mandibular length (33)
1
89.66
1
89.67
n
All measurements in millimeters (mm). Measurements listed with numbers are referring to Standards (Buikstra and
Ubelaker 1994);n = number; SD = standard deviation.
102
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Table 23. Cranial and Mandibular Indices for Males and Females
Females
Males
Mean
Mean
Cranial index
67.62
75.00
Cranial module
141.91
203.33
Length-height index
71.41
80.00
Height-breadth index
105.60
106.67
Mean basion-height
index
85.20
58.18
Fronto-parietal index
81.79
Nasal index
51.80
Orbital index
97.38
89.47
Maxillo-alveolar index
71.35
127.77
48.51
46.31
Index
Cranial
Mandible
Robusticity index
Mandibular index
69.43
Gonio-condylar index
Ramus index
64.68
77.07
69.53
Cranial index = maximum cranial breadth × 100/maximum cranial length.
Cranial module = length+breadth+height/3.
Length-height index = basion-bregma height × 100/max length.
Breadth-height index = basion-bregma height × 100/max breadth.
Mean basion height index = basion-bregma height × 100/(cranial length+breadth/2).
Fronto-parietal index = minimum frontal breadth × 100/max cranial breadth.
Nasal index = nasal breadth × 100/nasal height.
Orbital index = orbital height × 100/orbital breadth.
Maxillo-alveolar index = maxilla-alveolar breadth × 100/maxilla-alveolar length.
Mandible robusticity index = mandibular body breadth × 100/body height.
Mandibular index = mandibular length × 100/bicondylar breadth.
Gonio-condylar index= bigonial width × 100/bicondylar breadth.
Ramus index=maximum ramus breadth × 100/maximum ramus height.
index for the female (51.80).
The orbital index expresses
the relationship of the height
to breadth of the eye opening.
The one male and two females
had orbits that are broader
than high, with an index of
97.38 for the females and 89.47
for the male.
The
mandibular
index
expresses the ratio of the length
to breadth of the mandible. The
individuals in this assemblage
have generally short and broad
mandibles. The ramus index
reflects the relative breadth to
length of the ramus. Females
index averages 77.07 and are
broader than the male at 69.53.
Mandibular robusticity index,
which is measured at the
nutrient foramen, reflects the
robusticity of the mandibular
body. The male (46.31) was less
robust than the females (48.51).
In summary, the males have a
nearly oval cranial shape and
females are long and narrow.
Males and females have high
cranial vaults relative to length
Figure 80. Cranium of Burial 28, male, front view (on left); cranium of Isolated Find 1, female
103
Afetna Point, Saipan
and breadth. The frontals are slightly broader in females. One female has a broad nasal index and both
males and females have orbits that are nearly equal in height and breadth. The individuals have short
and broad mandibles, with the females having a higher ramus and a more robust body than the males.
Figure 80 shows the best preserved crania and mandibles from the assemblage. Burial 28 is a male
cranium and a female cranium is shown from Isolated Find 1.
6.4.2 Cranial and Mandibular Nonmetric Data
Variation in expression of 33 nonmetric traits was scored in the cranial assemblage and is presented in
Table 24. Left and right sides were combined in the table. For ossicles in cranial sutures, the asterionic was
present in 15.4 percent, apical bone was present in 11.1 percent, and the epepteric, coronal, bregmatic,
sagittal, and lambdoid were all absent. Supraorbital notch was noted as present in 83.9 percent and
supraorbital foramen was present 43.2 percent with one (male) having multiple foramen present. There
was variability in the zygo-facial foramen with the greatest score being a single foramen, large or small
at 61.3 percent. Tympanic dehiscence was observed in 50 percent of the individuals. Auditory exostosis
was present in 11.1 percent and mylohyoid bridge was absent in 94.8 percent of all individuals. Ishida
and Dodo (1997:402 Table 2a) have trait percentage for Guam collected from the Hornbostel Collection
for tympanic dehiscence (50 percent), supraorbital foramen (33.5 percent), and ossicles at lambda (15.4
percent). Compared to the assemblage of the current study, there is a similar occurrence of tympanic
dehiscence, a slightly greater percentage of supraorbital foramen in the current assemblage, and a lower
percentage of ossicles at lambda in the Hornbostel Collection. The current assemblage has a sample size
that is too small to make meaningful comparisons between males and females. Any differences noted
may be a result of the small sample size.
Table 24. Cranial and Mandibular Nonmetric Traits for Adult Females, Males, and Individuals of Indeterminate Sex
Females
(N*)
Trait/Variation
n
Metopic Suture
Males
(N*)
%
n
6
Indeterminate
(N*)
%
n
5
%
Total*
(N)
n
2
%
13
Absent
6
100
5
100.0
2
100
13
100
Partial
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Complete
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Supraorbital Notch
17
Absent
3
Present
14
Supraorbital Foramen
10
17.7
1
82.3
9
17
4
10.0
1
90.0
3
15
0
31
25.0
5
75.0
26
5
16.1
83.9
37
Absent
8
47.1
8
53.3
4
80.0
20
54.1
Present
9
52.9
6
40.0
1
20.0
16
43.2
Multiple
0
0
1
6.7
0
0
1
Infraorbital Suture
9
9
3
2.7
21
Absent
2
22.2
5
55.6
2
66.7
9
42.9
Partial
1
11.1
3
33.3
1
33.3
5
23.8
Complete
6
66.7
1
11.1
0
0
7
33.3
Infraorbital Foramen
12
9
4
25
Absent
10
83.33
6
66.7
1
25.0
17
68.0
Single
2
16.67
3
33.3
1
25.0
6
24.0
Double
0
0
0
0
2
50.0
2
8.0
104
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Females
(N*)
Trait/Variation
n
Zygo-facial Foramen
Males
(N*)
%
n
18
Indeterminate
(N*)
%
n
9
Total*
(N)
%
n
2
%
31
Absent
5
27.8
3
33.3
0
0
8
25.8
Single (large or small)
11
61.1
6
66.7
2
0
19
61.3
Double (large or small)
1
5.6
0
0
0
0
1
3.2
More than two
1
5.6
0
0
0
0
1
Parietal Foramen
10
Absent
5
Present, Parietal
5
Condylar Canal
8
50.0
5
50.0
3
4
Patent
3
Not Patent
1
Divided Hypoglossal Canal
3
Partial
Complete
62.5
3
37.5
4
2
75.0
1
25.0
1
4
Absent
7
2
50.0
4
2
2
100
5
0
0
0
0
1
25.0
0
0
6
13
66.67
12
52.0
48.0
12
33.3
6
66.7
6
6
75.0
Sagital Sulcus Flexure
33.33
6
50.0
3.2
25
50.0
50.0
12
83.3
10
0
0
0
0
1
16.7
2
16.7
5
4
83.3
15
Right
0
0
2
40.0
2
50.0
4
26.7
Left
1
16.67
2
40.0
2
50.0
5
33.3
Bifurcated
5
83.33
1
20.0
0
0
6
40.0
Foramen Ovale Incomplete
0
2
2
4
Absent
0
0
2
100
2
100
4
100
Partial
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
No Definition of Foramen
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Tympanic Dihiscence
9
9
4
22
Absent
3
33.33
6
66.7
2
50.0
11
50.0
Foramen only
4
44.45
0
0
2
50.0
6
27.3
Full defect
2
22.22
3
33.3
0
0
5
Auditory Exostosis
11
Absent
9
Present
2
Epipteric Bone
8
81.81
8
18.19
0
8
Absent
8
Present
0
Coronal Ossicle
8
100
7
0
1
8
100
8
0
0
11
87.5
24
12.5
3
4
100
4
0
0
6
22.7
27
88.9
11.1
20
100
20
0
0
7
100
0
24
Absent
11
100
6
100
7
100
24
100
Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Bregmatic Bone
7
2
2
11
Absent
7
100
2
100
2
100
11
100
Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Sagittal Ossicle
9
2
2
13
Absent
9
100
2
0
2
100
13
100
Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
105
Afetna Point, Saipan
Females
(N*)
Trait/Variation
n
Apical Bone
Males
(N*)
%
n
9
Indeterminate
(N*)
%
n
5
Total*
(N)
%
n
4
%
18
Absent
7
77.78
5
100
4
100
16
88.9
Present
2
22.22
0
0
0
0
2
11.1
Lambdoid Ossicle
14
8
5
27
Absent
14
100
8
100
5
100
27
100
Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Asteronic Bone
5
6
2
13
Absent
5
100
4
66.7
2
100
11
84.6
Present
0
0
2
33.3
0
0
2
15.4
Occipitomastoid Ossicle
5
6
4
15
Absent
5
100
6
100
4
100
15
100
Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Parietal Notch Bone
6
4
4
14
Absent
6
100
4
100
4
100
14
100
Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Inca Bone
7
4
2
13
Absent
7
100
4
100
2
100
13
100
Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Mastoid Foramen Location
4
6
3
13
Absent
2
50.0
4
66.7
1
33.3
7
53.8
Temporal
1
25.0
2
33.3
0
0
3
23.1
Sutural
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Occipital
1
25.0
0
0
2
0
1
7.7
Sutural & Temporal
0
0
0
0
0
66.7
0
Mastoid Foramen Number
4
6
4
6.5
14
Absent
2
50.0
4
66.7
1
25.0
7
50.0
Single
2
50.0
2
33.3
1
25.0
5
35.7
Double
0
0
0
0
1
25.0
1
7.1
>2
0
0
0
0
1
25.0
1
7.1
Mental Foramen
21
13
6
40
Absent
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Single
20
95.24
12
92.3
6
100
38
95.0
Double
1
4.76
1
7.7
0
0
2
5.0
>2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Mandibular Torus
21
13
8
42
Absent
7
33.33
4
30.8
0
0
11
26.2
Trace
5
34.81
6
46.2
3
37.5
14
33.3
Moderate
9
42.86
3
23.0
5
62.5
17
40.5
Mylohyoid Bridge Location
18
11
9
38
Absent
16
88.89
11
100
9
100
36
94.8
Near Foramen
1
5.56
0
0
0
0
1
2.6
Center of Groove
1
5.56
0
0
0
0
1
2.6
106
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Females
(N*)
Trait/Variation
n
Mylohyoid Bridge Degree
Males
(N*)
%
n
18
Indeterminate
(N*)
%
n
11
Total*
(N)
%
n
9
%
38
Absent
16
88.89
11
100
9
100
36
94.7
Partial
2
11.11
0
0
0
0
2
5.3
Complete
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
* Left and rights combined
6.5 Morphology of the postcranial remains
The postcranial measurements include length of long bones, breadth across the ends of long bones,
diameters and circumference at midshaft or at specific morphological markers along the shaft, and
specified lengths and widths of foot elements. Metric data provide information on size and robusticity.
Humans are a sexually dimorphic species and metric data can help in the estimation of sex of individuals.
Stature of the individual can be estimated using lengths of long bones, and was calculated using
formulae from Houghton et al. (1975) based on Polynesians. Length of long bones in juveniles offers a
means of estimating age. Measurements were taken on the left side unless that side was unavailable for
measurements, in which case the right side was substituted.
Postcranial nonmetric traits include characteristics such as facet forms, presence of foramen in
particular locations, and extensions of articular facets. Nonmetric traits are less influenced by age and
sex than metric measurements and have the advantage of being able to be scored on fragmentary and
poorly preserved remains. Some postcranial nonmetric traits, as with cranial nonmetric traits, offer a
means to study the genetic affinities between different populations (Saunders and Rainey 2008). For the
current study, 20 postcranial nonmetric traits were examined in the adult remains. Traits were scored
on the left and right sides when available, but often only one side was complete enough to record the
trait.
6.5.1 Postcranial Metric Data for Adults
The mean, standard deviation, and range of measurements for 40 postcranial measurements for the
males and females are presented in Table 25. The human remains for this assemblage were poorly
preserved and only six females and seven males had postcranial elements that were complete enough
to obtain some measurements. There were a few measurements that indicated the sexual dimorphism
between males and females that is expected. The maximum length of the clavicle, epicondylar breadth
of the humerus, vertical diameter of the humeral head, anterio-posterior diameter of the ulna, and
minimum width of the calcaneus. However, caution must be advised when the sample size is this
small. Therefore, calculating sex using the metric data was not applied to the indeterminate sex
individuals.
Indices were calculated where all the necessary measurements were available. Because sample size was
so very small, only five indices could be calculated. Table 26 presents the female and male postcranial
indices. The flattening of the humeral shaft is reflected in the humeral diaphyseal index. The
individuals in this collection have a generally rounder rather than flatter shaft with indices of 89.2 for
females and 82.9 for males. The relative forearm to upper arm length is depicted in the radio-humeral
index. The male index is 79.3 and the female mean is 72.4; both reflect a shorter forearm to upper arm
length. The platymeric index is a measurement of the flattening of the femur shaft, and is measured
below the trochanter (subtrochanteric). The females and males have a round to oval cross-section
107
Afetna Point, Saipan
Table 25. Postcranial Metric Data for Females Males, and Indeterminate Sex
Element
Measurement
Females
Clavicle
n
Mean
Max Lgth
1
135
AP Dia
2
12.3
Males
STD
Range
1.0
11.5–13.0
n
Mean
STD
Range
3
145.6
6.6
138–
149.7
4
13.1
1.9
11.4–15.8
SI Dia
2
10.0
1.4
9.0–11.0
4
13.9
0.4
13.3–14.3
Humerus
n
Mean
STD
Range
n
Mean
STD
Range
Max Lgth
1
311
1
299
Epicondylar Brdth
3
57.0
5.1
53.4–62.9
1
65.0
Vert Dia Head
2
38.3
2.1
36.8–39.7
2
51.2
3.4
48.8–53.6
Midshaft Max Dia
2
22.1
1.6
21.0–23.2
2
25.0
1.9
23.7–26.3
Midshaft Min Dia
2
18.3
3.3
16.0–20.7
2
20.7
1.2
19.9–21.6
Least Circumference
0
Radius
n
Mean
STD
Range
Max Lgth
1
225
Midshaft AP Dia
4
Midshaft ML Dia
4
Max Dia Head
0
0
Mean
STD
Range
n
1
237
14.7
2.5
11.5–15.0
2
16.0
0.1
15.9–16.1
12.6
2.5
10.2–15.4
2
13.8
1.2
12.9–14.6
n
Mean
STD
Range
1
251
0
Neck Circumference
0
Ulna
n
Mean
0
Max Lgth
1
248
AP Dia
4
13.7
1.4
11.8–15.2
2
17.4
0.7
16.8–17.9
ML Dia
4
14.3
3.1
10.9–18.2
2
14.0
2.8
12.0–
15.91
Physiological Lgth
0
1
248
Min Circumference
3
33.7
2.5
31.0–36.0
1
30.0
Femur
n
Mean
STD
Range
n
Mean
STD
Range
Max Lgth
0
Bicondylar Lgth
0
Epicondylar Brdth
1
72.1
Max Head Dia
1
41.2
4
44.2
3.7
40.1–48.7
Subtrochanteric AP
3
29.7
0.3
29.5–30.0
2
36.6
8.3
30.8–42.5
Subtrochanteric ML
4
28.4
4.0
24.3–33.8
1
25.0
Midshaft AP Dia
4
27.6
2.3
25.3–30.5
2
27.8
1.1
27.1–28.6
Midshaft ML Dia
4
27.5
1.9
25.8–30.1
2
25.0
0.5
24.6–25.3
Midshaft
Circumference
3
79.7
6.8
72–85
2
82.0
5.7
78–86
Tibia
n
Mean
STD
Range
n
Mean
STD
Range
Max Lgth
1
320
1
353
Brdth Prox Epi
2
53.2
17.5
40.8–65.5
1
45.0
Brdth Dist Epi
2
39.8
6.5
35.1–44.4
2
41.6
10.8
33.9–49.2
Max Dia @ NF
4
33.5
5.8
24.8–37.2
1
25.4
ML Dia @ NF
3
27.2
1.3
25.6–28.0
0
STD
Range
108
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Element
Measurement
Females
Males
Circumference @ NF
2
92.5
0.7
92–93
1
93
Fibula
n
Mean
STD
Range
n
Mean
Max Lgth
0
1
351
Min Dia
2
16.2
2.6
14.4–18.0
1
18.6
Calcaneus
N
Mean
STD
Range
n
3
72.5
2.3
70.4–75.0
2
Max Lgth
STD
Range
Mean
STD
Range
80.3
0.5
79.9–80.6
Min W
3
38.4
0.8
37.4–38.4
2
47.0
4.2
44–50
Talus
N
Mean
STD
Range
N
Mean
STD
Range
Max Lgth
1
47.1
0
Max W
1
40.5
0
Note: All measurements in mm and include adolescent measurements.
AP = anterior-posterior; BRDTH = breadth; DF= Discriminate Function (Steele 1976); Dia = diameter; Epi = ephicondylar; Lgth
= length; Max = maximum; Min = minimum; ML = medial-lateral; NF = nutrient foramen; SI = superior-inferior; STD = standard
deviation; W = width.
Table 26. Postcranial Indices for Females and Males
Indices
Females
Males
Humeral diaphyseal
89.2
82.9
Radio-humeral
72.4
79.3
Playtmeric
104.6
123.18*
Pilastric
100.1
111.4
Platycnemic
81.1
0
Index was calculated using means because of small sample
size.
Humeral diaphyseal = minimum diameter at midshaft ×
100/maximum diameter at midshaft
Radio-humeral Index = maximum length of radius × 100/
maximum length of humerus
Playtmeric = femur subtrochanteric anterior-posterior
diameter × 100/subtrochanteric mediolateral diameter
Pilastric = femur anterior-posterior diameter at midshaft ×
100/mediolateral diameter at midshaft
Platycnemic = tibia mediolateral diameter at nutrient
foramen × 100/maximum diameter nutrient foramen
* This index calculation was completed using Burial 48
because there was only one subtrochanteric mediolateral
diameter, and that individual was very gracile. Using the
mean of the anterior-posterior and this one mediolateral
measurements produced an index that was not
representative.
with the female index of 104.6 (near a 1 to 1) and
the males with 123.18 (greater anterior-posterior
than medio-lateral). Pilastric index is calculated
from the femur midshaft measurements and reflect
the amount of pilastic development (development
of the linea aspera). Females have less development
(more gracile) at 100.1 and males are a bit more
robust with an index of 111.4. Flattening of the tibia
is reflected in the platycnemic index. As with the
femur, this reflects the flattening of the shaft and
is measured at the nutrient foramen. The index for
the males could not be calculated. The female index
reflects a flatter shaft with a score of 81.1.
6.5.2 Estimated Stature for Adults
Stature was calculated for two females and
three males following the calculation of stature
developed by Houghton et al. (1975) based on
Polynesians from New Zealand. Table 27 presents
the list of the elements that were used in the stature
calculations for each burial. The stature estimation
for the females was based on a humerus and tibia
for Burial 16 and on the radius and ulna for Burial
25. Burial 28, male, was based on one element and that was a humerus. Burial 42, female, was also
based on one element and that was the tibia. A radius and ulna were available for Burial 36, male.
Table 27 also summarizes the data for the males and females. The male stature ranges from 1,682.83
to 1,706.76 mm (5′6″ to 5′7″) and the female range was 1,580.86 to 1,658.02 mm (5′2″ to 5′5″). Females
are approximately 9.6 percent shorter than their male counterparts. This is slightly greater than the
7 percent difference found by Houghton et al. (1975).
109
Afetna Point, Saipan
Table 27. Stature Estimates for Males and Females from Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio
Element(s)
Side
Stature in
mm
Stature in
inches
Humerus
L
1,658.02
65.28
Tibia
R
1,580.86
62.24
Radius
L
1,609.0
63.35
Ulna
L
1,617.61
63.69
Female
Tibia
L
1,706.76
Male
Humerus
L
1,685.82
Radius
R
1,690.86
66.57
Ulna
R
1,682.83
66.21
Burial No.
Sex
16
Female
25
Female
42
28
36
Male
Mean Inches
Stature in
feet, inches
63.76
5′ 3¾″
63.52
5′ 3½″
67.20
67.20
5′ 7¼″
66.37
66.37
5′ 6½″
66.39
5′ 6½″
Table 28. Postcranial Metric Data for Infants and Children
Burial No.
Age
Description of Measurement
Measurement (mm)
35
1.4–2.8 years
L ilium length
64.46
L femur maximum length
165.22
L tibia maximum length
138.35
L fibula maximum length
135.92
L radius maximum length
48.29
L ulna maximum length
53.94
35
fetus–40 weeks
Two juvenile individuals had elements sufficiently intact to measure: one fetus/infant and one
young child. The remaining infants and children did not have elements complete enough to measure.
Individuals who were classified as adolescent are included in the adult metric data set. Each individual
is listed in Table 28 with the age estimate, element, and measurement in mm.
6.5.3 Postcranial Nonmetric Data
Nonmetric variation was scored for 20 traits listed in Table 29. For the vertebral traits, these individuals
showed no bridging on the atlas (0/19), no retroarticular bridge (0/4), no vertebral shifts either cranial
or caudal (0/8) are present, the facet form for the atlas is normal (0/10), and accessory transverse
foramen are absent (0/12).
Glenoid fossa extension (13/13), and circumflex sulcus (13/8) was absent. The accessory acromial facet
was absent (normal) in 9 of 13 individuals and present in the other 4 (4/13). The suprascapular notch
was present in two individuals (2/16). The septal aperture of the humerus can be expressed as a pinhole
or a true perforation. In the present assemblage, 4.5 percent (1/22) were recorded as a true perforation
and 4.5 percent as a pinhole (1/22) with the other 91 percent (20/22) as absent. The supratrochlear spur
is absent (normal) in all of the sample (18/18). The ulna notch form includes 90.5 percent (19/21) as the
hourglass (normal) expression and 9.5 percent are two facets (divided) (2/21).
Allen’s fossa was present in one instance (1/6 or 16.7 percent), exostosis in the trochanteric fossa (0/5),
third trochanter (0/8), and Poirier’s facet are all absent in these individuals. In the patellae, there was
one vastas notches noted (1/16). No distal tibia were complete enough to score for squatting facet.
Squatting facet on the talus was nearly evenly split with 6/11 (54.5 percent) absent and 5/11 (45.5
percent) as present. The talar facet form on the calcaneus had two with an expression of two facets and
the other 10 had one facet (normal).
110
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Table 29. Nonmetric Postcranial Traits for Males, Females, and Adults of Indeterminate Sex
Females
(N)
Trait/Variation
n
Males
(N)
%
n
Sex Ind
(N)
%
N
Total‡
(N)
%
N
%
Vertebrae
Atlas Bridging*
3L/3R
Left Absent (normal)
3
Left Complete
Right Absent (normal)
Right Complete
2L/2R
100
2
0
0
3
100
0
0
Atlas Facet Form
2L/3R
19
100
2
0
0
0
0
2
100
1
33.3
0
0
2
66.7
2L/2R
2L/2R
100
1L/1R
2
100
2
100
1
100
Left Double
0
0
0
0
0
0
Right Absent (normal)
2
100
2
100
1
100
Right Double
0
0
0
0
0
2
Absent (normal)
2
Present
0
Accessory Transverse Foramen†
1
100
1
0
0
3L/3R
Absent (normal)
6
Partial
0
Vertebral Shift
1
0
0
3L/3R
100
6
0
0
5
10
4
100
4
0
0
0
100
0
0
0
2
100
0
1
100
100
10
Left Absent (normal)
Retroarticular Bridge
19
100
0
12
0
12
0
0
1
100
0
8
No Shift
5
100
2
100
1
100
8
100
Cranial
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Caudal
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Scapula
Suprascapular Notch/Foramen
3L/3R
1L/1R
3L/3R
16
Absent
6
100
2
100
3
66.7
14
87.5
Notch
0
0
0
0
2
33.3
2
12.5
Foramen
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Accessory Acromial Facet
2L/2R
2L/1R
3L/3R
13
Absent (normal)
4
100
0
0
5
83.3
9
64.3
Present
0
0
3
100
1
16.7
4
28.6
Glenoid Fossa Extension
2L/2R
2L/1R
3L/3R
13
Absent (normal)
4
100
3
100
6
100
13
100
Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Circumflex Sulcus
1L/0R
2L/2R
2L/1R
8
Absent (normal)
1
100
4
100
3
100
8
100
Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Humerus
Septal Aperture
6L/4R
3L/2R
4L/3R
22
Left Absent (normal)
5
83.3
3
100
3
75
20
91.0
Left Pinhole
1
16.7
0
0
0
0
1
4.5
Left True
0
0
0
0
1
25
1
4.5
111
Afetna Point, Saipan
Females
(N)
Trait/Variation
Males
(N)
Sex Ind
(N)
Total‡
(N)
n
%
n
%
N
%
Right Absent (normal)
4
100
2
100
3
100
Right Pinhole
0
0
0
0
0
0
Right True
0
0
0
0
0
0
Supratrochlear Spur
4L/5R
Left Absent (normal)
4
Left Present
0
Right Absent (normal)
5
Right Present
0
Ulna Trochlear Notch Form
2L/2R
100
6
Left Two Facets
Right Absent (normal)
Right Two Facets
3L/2R
%
18
2
100
3
100
18
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
2
100
2
100
0
0
0
0
6L/4R
Left Absent (normal)
N
1L/2R
100
1
0
0
4
100
0
0
0
4L/4R
21
100
3
75
19
90.5
0
0
1
25
2
9.5
2
100
3
75
0
0
1
25
Femur
Allen’s Fossa
2L/0R
Left Absent (normal)
2
Left Present
Right Absent (normal)
Right Present
0L/1R
100
0
0
0
0
100
0
0
Poirier’s Facet
2L/1R
6
0
2
66.7
5
83.3
0
0
1
33.3
1
16.7
1
100
2
100
0
0
0
0
1L/1R
0L/1R
2L/2R
7
Left Absent (normal)
1
100
0
0
2
100
7
100
Left Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Right Absent (normal)
1
100
1
100
2
100
Right Present
0
0
0
0
0
Third Trochanter
3L/3R
Left Absent (normal)
3
Left Present
Right Absent (normal)
Right Present
0L/1R
100
0
0
0
3
100
0
Exostosis
0
2
0
0
1
100
0
0
1L/0R
0
2L/1R
10
100
10
100
0
0
0
0
1
100
0
0
0
0L/2R
2L/1R
6
Left Absent (normal)
1
100
0
0
2
100
6
100
Left Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Right Absent (normal)
0
0
2
100
1
100
Right Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
Patella Vastus Notch
7L/2R
1L/1R
3L/2R
16
Left Absent (normal)
7
100
1
100
3
100
15
93.8
Left Present
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
6.2
Left Bipartite
0
0
0
0
0
0
Right Absent (normal)
2
100
0
0
2
100
Right Present
0
0
1
100
0
0
Right Bipartite
0
0
0
0
0
0
112
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Females
(N)
Trait/Variation
n
Tibia Squatting Facet
Males
(N)
%
n
Sex Ind
(N)
%
N
Total‡
(N)
%
N
%
0L/OR
0L/0R
0L/0R
0
2L/2R
3L/2R
1L/1R
11
Left Absent (normal)
Left Present
Right Absent (normal)
Right Present
Talus Squatting Facet
Left Absent (normal)
2
0
1
33.3
0
0
6
54.5
Left Present
Right Absent (normal)
0
0
2
67.7
1
100
5
45.5
2
100
1
50
0
0
Right Present
0
0
1
50
1
100
100
1
50
1
100
10
83.3
1
50
0
0
2
16.7
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
50
1
100
Calcaneus Talar Facet
3L/3R
2L/2R
1L/1R
12
Left One (normal)
3
Left Two
0
Left Joined (hour-glass)
0
Right One (normal)
3
Right Two
0
1
50
0
0
Right Joined (hour-glass)
0
0
0
0
0
100
* Lateral and Posterior combined
†
C3–C7 combined
‡
Males/females/Ind and left/right combined
6.6 Dental Morphology and Pathologies
In Saipan, poor bone preservation from differential exposure to wet and dry environments and harsh
limestone-based soil matrices are the norm, leaving skeletal remains brittle and fragmented as is the
case in general in the Mariana’s islands (Hanson and Butler 1997). Teeth are often the best-preserved
portion of human skeletal remains, which makes them ideal specimens for study. Researchers have
examined teeth to better understand genetic relatedness and health in Mariana’s ancient population
(Brace et al. 1990; Hanihara 1990; Heathcote 1994; Leigh 1930; Parr 2012; Turner 1990a, 1990b, 1992). This
section describes the dental metric and nonmetric data recorded for the assemblage.
6.6.1 Dental Metric Data
Two standardized measurements were taken on each available tooth using Mitutoyo Digital calipers
following Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). The
mesiodistal diameter (MD), or the length of the crown, was obtained by measuring the greatest distance
between the mesial and distal portion of the tooth, as expected in proper anatomical position. The
buccolingual diameter (BL), or the width of the crown, was obtained by measuring the width of the
tooth, perpendicular to the mesiodistal plane, following the long axis of the tooth. All measurements
were taken to the closest 0.01 mm and were not taken in teeth with extreme amounts of wear. The
mesiodistal and buccolingual diameters were multiplied to attain the cross-sectional area (CX) of each
tooth class, following Brace (1979, 1980). The left tooth was measured unless that tooth was not available,
then the right was substituted. Tooth summaries (TS) were calculated following Brace (1979). The tooth
summary is the sum of the upper and lower mean cross-sectional areas of each tooth category. This
number allows for a comparison of mean tooth size between groups and represents an approximation
113
Afetna Point, Saipan
of the total occlusal area of the population. The TS was calculated for males, females, individuals of
indeterminate sex, and for the assemblage as a whole.
The measurable assemblage is composed of 306 teeth. There are more teeth from the females (n =
122) than males (n = 92), and 92 teeth are from individuals indeterminate to sex. Table 30 presents the
mean, standard deviation, and range for the measurements MD, BL, and CX for the females, males, and
individuals of indeterminate sex. The overall tooth summary for the assemblage is large, at 1,391.79 mm2.
Unexpectedly the tooth summary for the male dentition is the smaller (TS = 1,237.22 mm2) than the female
dentition, which is (TS = 1,470.79 mm2). In males, the largest tooth is the mandibular first molar, with a
cross-sectional area of 134.34 mm2. The mandibular first molar is also the largest tooth in females with a
cross-sectional area of 124.73 mm2. Figure 81 to Figure 84 represent typical male and female dentitions.
Table 30. Dental Measurements on Permanent Dentition by Sex
Tooth Meas.
Female
N
Mean
STD
Range
9.77
1.76
7.2–
11.68
STD
Range
Mean
STD
Range
11.27
0.84
10.06–
12.12
10.04
0.95
9.37–
11.10
10.61
1.76
7.18–
11.84
10.50
1.23
9.62–
10.59
11.25
2.53
8.60–
13.64
CX
105.15
29.11
51.70–
137.00
117.68
8.01
106.62–
126.76
111.70
19.17
95.46–
132.85
MD
11.18
0.85
10.16–
12.82
9.25
0.62
8.38–
10.11
10.74
0.91
9.74–
11.50
Max
M2
11.07
1.16
8.67–
11.66
11.00
1.35
8.94–
11.59
11.59
1.38
8.89–
13.64
CX
123.17
9.43
113.49–
130.87
101.16
6.61
90.38–
106.05
124.28
16.89
95.57–
156.18
MD
10.71
0.76
9.31–
11.36
11.12
0.70
10.05–
11.97
11.15
1.08
9.84–
13.45
Max
M1
11.14
0.97
9.87–
12.35
11.86
0.67
10.76–
12.58
11.52
1.17
9.36–
13.08
CX
117.55
16.01
93.94–
138.94
131.91
11.01
120–50–
151.77
128.57
18.48
101.55–
164.63
MD
7.48
1.06
6.05–
10.5
7.76
1.00
6.79–
8.21
7.81
1.50
6.25–
10.55
Max
PM2
9.24
1.27
6.7–
10.53
9.88
0.76
9.15–
10.54
8.90
1.68
6.54–
11.31
CX
73.35
15.00
64.63–
75.46
76.30
7.16
66.63–
85.47
69.94
20.69
40.88–
112.99
MD
7.39
1.26
5.42–
9.58
7.78
0.86
6.96–
9.62
7.17
0.84
6.21–
8.43
Max
PM1
9.20
1.13
7.27–
10.42
9.93
0.82
9.34–
11.40
8.28
1.66
6.37–
10.67
67.25
9.89
48.45–
80.55
77.07
9.58
65.85–
93.94
59.76
15.59
39.56–
71.43
8.12
0.43
7.47–
8.51
8.18
0.60
7.07–
9.05
6.93
1.30
4.35–
7.97
7.18
1.35
5.68–
8.76
56.64
12.31
5.47–
9.83
58.56
10.70
51.23–
72.97
BL
BL
BL
BL
BL
7
8
8
11
11
CX
Max
C
MD
8
7.33
1.28
6.02–
9.20
BL
7
7.57
0.97
6.58–
8.69
CX
7
56.34
16.38
39.61–
76.73
N
Indeterminate Sex
Mean
MD
Max
M3
Male
5
5
7
7
8
6
114
N
3
9
9
9
6
7
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Tooth Meas.
Female
N
STD
Range
6.76
0.76
5.89–
7.49
Max
I2
Range
7.22
0.65
6.02–
7.90
5.01
1.19
3.6–6.91
4.52
0.58
3.59–
4.91
CX
33.85
8.63
22.28–
49.52
32.80
6.06
MD
6.7
0.81
5.87–
7.48
5.57
Max
I1
5.59
1.41
4.59–
6.91
CX
38.33
5.26
MD
7.13
Man
I1
BL
BL
BL
8
5
3
CX
Man
I2
Man
C
Man
PM2
Man
M1
Mean
STD
Range
6.68
0.36
6.19–
7.08
4.38
0.67
3.91–
5.47
5.03–
9.16
29.30
4.75
22.28–
34.68
0.44
5.26–
5.88
7.67
1.04
6.59–
8.87
3.55
0.22
3.39–
3.70
4.48
0.46
3.87–
4.89
33.11–
51.69
19.70
0.33
19.46–
19.93
34.09
3.51
31.43–
38.94
2.41
5.26–
8.83
5.57
0.44
5.26–
5.28
4.52
0.86
3.91–
5.13
4.61
0.23
3.98–
4.77
6.47
0.36
3.37–
3.39
5.43
0.92
4.78–
6.08
33.12
12.73
20.93–
42.12
19.70
0.33
19.46–
19.93
24.15
0.53
23.77–
24.52
6.05
1.43
4.28–
7.79
6.3
6.3
5.42
1.60
3.85–
7.14
4.82
4.82
30.37
6
2
2
Mean
N
6
4
2
MD
8
6.79
1.30
4.86–
8.42
BL
9
5.79
2.13
3.45–
9.89
CX
8
34.15
7.74
22.66–
45.56
32.47
12.04
23.14–
49.93
30.37
MD
8
6.98
0.47
6.25–
8.20
7.21
0.86
5.79–
8.06
6.97
0.26
6.77–
7.27
BL
8
6.99
1.83
4.61–
9.18
5.82
1.45
3.97–
7.78
6.55
0.86
5.67–
7.39
CX
7
47.63
12.36
32.54–
63.07
42.04
12.93
28.74–
62.71
45.67
6.48
38.39–
50.70
7.57
0.53
6.91–
8.38
7.28
1.01
5.24–
8.17
7.10
0.54
6.33–
7.75
8.46
1.23
6.84–
10.3
7.44
1.39
4.57–
8.51
8.04
0.66
7.39–
8.84
CX
64.17
11.09
50.41–
78.80
53.93
12.22
37.34–
69.12
57.31
8.65
46.78–
66.88
MD
7.71
1.44
5.94–
10.27
7.57
0.73
6.14–
8.06
7.48
0.65
6.36–
8.35
7.86
0.80
6.48–
8.73
8.38
1.04
6.50–
9.42
8.30
1.03
7.28–
9.75
CX
60.65
12.23
38.49–
75.79
63.55
10.87
49.27–
71.71
62.26
10.99
51.44–
81.41
MD
11.42
0.43
11.05–
12.3
12.07
0.86
10.89–
13.04
12.43
0.38
11.99–
13.12
10.93
0.79
10.39–
12.39
11.12
0.71
10.02–
11.58
10.93
0.67
9.60–
11.74
124.73
9.21
117.44–
133.23
134.34
14.28
117.03–
154.76
135.95
12.02
125.23–
154.03
MD
Man
PM1
N
Indeterminate Sex
STD
MD
Mean
Male
BL
BL
BL
CX
7
8
8
4
5
7
6
7
115
1
3
5
7
9
Afetna Point, Saipan
Tooth Meas.
Female
N
STD
Range
11.01
0.43
10.33–
11.92
10.42
0.69
9.23–
11.48
CX
114.57
6.43
MD
9.85
MD
Man
M2
Man
M3
BL
BL
CX
9
6
Mean
Male
N
STD
Range
11.46
1.06
10.40–
13.20
11.02
0.67
10.37–
12.04
101.23–
127.20
126.33
13.77
1.02
8.57–
11.03
11.20
11.01
1.36
8.64–
12.98
107.72
9.61
75.17–
118.68
5
5
Mean
Indeterminate Sex
N
STD
Range
11.60
0.93
10.42–
12.65
11.03
0.60
9.88–
11.85
125.22–
149.29
128.12
13.94
104.93–
149.90
0.81
10.06–
11.34
10.77
0.83
9.70–
11.51
10.52
1.23
99.9–
12.06
10.54
0.28
10.25–
10.85
117.12
7.54
106.62–
133.56
113.63
11.37
100.59–
124.88
8
4
Mean
Meas. = Measurement; STD = Standard Deviation; Max = Maxilla; Man = Mandible; MD = Mesiodistal; BL = Buccolingual; MD
and BL in mm; CX = Cross-section (CX=MD*BL and is in mm2)
Figure 81. Burial 59, female, typical
maxillary dentition
Figure 82. Burial 8, female, partial mandibular dentition
6.6.2 Dental Nonmetric Data
Dental morphological trait analysis has been used on various populations around the world and at various
magnitudes or levels of differentiation from global, regional, to local. There are several advantages
to dental trait analysis: 1) teeth are durable and are typically the best-preserved portion of skeletal
assemblages in the Marianas and elsewhere; 2) dental morphological traits possess a high genetic
component; 3) except for attrition and caries, they do not change shape once formed; 4) they are less
affected by the environment than bone; 5) they can be studied in both living and extinct populations;
and 6) dental trait analysis does not require expensive equipment and can be done by one researcher to
help minimize time and expense.
116
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Figure 84. Burial 9, male, partial mandibular dentition
Figure 83. Burial 36, male, partial
maxillary dentition
The current study used the ASU DAS, which offers a means of standardizing the recording of dental traits
(Turner et al. 1991). The frequency of occurrence of each trait variation is calculated by determining the
number of teeth, which display presence of the trait divided by the total number of teeth scorable for
that trait. The breakpoints used here (the threshold of expression at which a trait is considered to be
present) is based on each trait’s morphological threshold (Haeussler et al. 1988) and follows standards
used by other researcher’s (Turner 1987, 1990a). The tooth chosen to represent the presence of a trait
is dependent on the goals of the study. A trait like Carabelli’s can occur on more than one member of a
class of teeth. Usually only one tooth in the class is used to represent the occurrence of the trait in an
individual. To facilitate use by future researchers, the suite of traits recorded for all teeth is presented
in Table 31.
Teeth are normally similar, if not identical on the two sides, exhibiting a high degree of symmetry, but
random size and shape differences between antimeric teeth (fluctuating asymmetry) does occur. In
recording dental traits, both antimeres were scored, and the antimere exhibiting the greatest expression
of the trait was used to represent the individual (individual count method). The reasoning behind this
method is that the tooth exhibiting the greatest expression best represents the underlying genetic
potential for that trait (Turner 1985).
Table 31. Dental Nonmetric Traits by Sex
Trait/Tooth
Breakpoint /
Total Range
Female
%
Males
n/N
%
Sex Indeterminate
Total
n/N
%
n/N
%
n/N
Maxillary Traits
Winging I1
1/1–4
0
0/5
100
1/4
0
0/4
7.7
1/13
Labial Curve I1
2–4/0–4
0
0/4
0
0/4
16.7
1/6
7.1
1/14
Shoveling I1
2–6/0–6
33.3
2/5
0
0/4
20
1/5
21.4
3/14
Shoveling I1
3–6/0–6
33.3
2/5
0
0/4
0
0/5
14.3
2/14
Shoveling I2
3–7/0–7
33.3
1/3
20
1/5
25
2/8
25
4/16
Dbl Shovel I1
2–6/0–6
20
1/5
50
2/4
20
1/5
28.6
4/14
117
Afetna Point, Saipan
Trait/Tooth
Breakpoint /
Total Range
Dbl Shovel I2
2–6/0–6
Female
Males
Sex Indeterminate
Total
%
n/N
%
n/N
%
n/N
%
n/N
33.3
1/3
40
2/5
25
2/8
31.3
5/16
0
0/5
0
0/4
20
1/5
7.1
1/14
Interruption Groove I2 1–4/0–4
0
0/3
20
1/5
0
0/8
6.3
1/16
Tuberculum I1
2–6/0–6
20
1/5
50
2/4
0
0/5
21.4
3/14
Tuberculum I2
2–6/0–6
33.3
1/3
40
2/5
28.6
2/7
33.3
5/15
Tuberculum C
2–6/0–6
25
1/4
20
1/5
11.1
1/9
16.7
3/18
Mesial Ridge C
1–3/0–3
0
0/6
0
0/5
0
0/8
0
0/19
DAR C
2–5/0–5
20
0/5
20
1/5
0
0/7
5.9
1/17
Accessory Cusps P1
1/0–1
0
0/3
0
0/5
0
0/9
0
0/17
Accessory Cusps P2
1/0–1
0
0/3
0
0/5
0
0/11
0
0/19
Metacone M1
3–5/0–5
66.7
4/6
50
3/6
10
1/10
36.4
8/22
Metacone M2
3–5/0–5
40
2/5
0
0/6
10
1/10
14.3
3/21
Metacone M3
3–5/0–5
40
2/5
50
2/4
0
0/5
28.6
4/14
Hypocone M1
2–5/0–5
33.3
2/6
0
0/6
10
1/10
13.6
3/22
Hypocone M2
1–5/0–5
100
5/5
33.3
2/6
0
0/8
36.8
7/19
Hypocone M3
1–5/0–5
80
4/5
0
0/4
20
1/5
35.7
5/14
Metaconule M1
1–5/0–5
33.3
2/6
33.33
2/6
20
2/10
27.3
6/22
Metaconule M1
2–5/0–5
16.7
1/6
16.7
1/6
20
2/10
18.2
4/22
Metaconule M2
1–5/0–5
80
4/5
0
0/6
25
2/8
31.6
6/19
Metaconule M3
1–5/0–5
40
2/5
0
0/4
20
1/5
21.4
3/14
Carabelli’s M1
2–7/0–7
0
0/5
16.7
1/6
10
1/10
9.5
2/21
Carabelli’s M1
3–7/0–7
0
0/5
16.7
1/6
10
1/10
9.5
2/21
Carabelli’s M2
2–7/0–7
0
0/4
16.7
1/6
12.5
1/8
11.1
2/18
Carabelli’s M3
2–5/0–7
25
1/4
0
0/4
0
0/5
7.7
1/13
Parastyle M1
1–5/0–5
0
0/5
16.7
1/6
0
0/6
5.9
1/17
Parastyle M2
1–5/0–5
0
0/5
0
0/6
12.5
1/8
5.3
1/19
Parastyle M3
1–5/0–5
0
0/6
0
0/5
11.1
1/9
5
1/20
Enamel Extension M1
1–3/0–3
0
0/6
0
0/6
0
0/10
0
0/22
Enamel Extension M2
1–3/0–3
0
0/5
0
0/6
0
0/8
0
0/19
Enamel Extension M3
1–3/0–3
0
0/5
0
0/4
0
0/7
0
0/16
Root # P1
1/1–2
66.6
2/3
100
4/4
33.3
2/6
57.1
8/14
Peg Shaped I2
2/0–2
0
0/3
0
0/5
0
0/8
0
0/16
Peg-Reduced I2
1–2/0–2
0
0/3
0
0/5
0
0/8
0
0/16
Peg Shaped M3
2/0–2
0
0/5
20
1/5
0
0/5
0
0/15
Peg-Reduced M3
1–2/0–2
0
0/5
20
1/5
20
1/5
13.3
2/15
Congenital Abs UM3
1/0–1
0
0/5
20
1/5
0
0/5
6.7
1/15
Interruption Groove I1 1–4/0–4
Mandibular Traits
Shoveling I1
2–3/0–3
0
0/3
50
2/4
100
1/1
37.5
3/8
Shoveling I2
2–3/0–3
0
0/6
25
1/4
50
1/4
14.3
2/14
DAR C
2–5/0–5
0
0/5
25
1/4
0
0/4
7.7
1/13
Cusp # P1
2–9/0–9
0
0/6
0
0/5
0
0/6
0
0/17
Cusp # P2
2–9/0–9
0
0/6
0
0/4
0
0/7
0
0/17
118
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Female
Males
Sex Indeterminate
Total
Trait/Tooth
Breakpoint /
Total Range
%
n/N
%
n/N
%
n/N
%
n/N
Tome’s Root P1
2–5/0–5
0
0/3
0
0/5
0
0/5
0
0/13
Groove Pattern M1
Y/Y,X,+
77.8
7/9
20
1/5
62.5
5/8
59.1
13/22
Groove Pattern M2
Y/ X,+Y
40
4/10
20
1/5
12.5
1/8
26.1
6/23
Groove Pattern M3
Y/,Y,X,+
37.5
3/8
50
2/4
33.3
2/6
38.9
7/18
Cusp # M1
6/4–6
0
0/9
0
0/5
0
0/9
0
0/23
Cusp # M2
4/4–6
50
5/10
40
2/5
62.5
5/8
52.2
12/23
Cusp # M2
5–6/4–6
50
5/10
60
3/5
25
2/8
43.5
10/23
Cusp # M3
4/4–6
42.9
3/7
75
3/4
83.3
5/6
64.7
11/17
Deflect. Wrinkle M1
2–3/0–3
25
2/8
0
0/4
14.3
1/7
15.8
3/19
Deflect. Wrinkle M2
2–3/0–3
11.1
1/9
25
1/4
0
0/6
10.5
2/19
Deflect. Wrinkle M3
2–3/0–3
0
0/6
0
0/3
20
1/5
7.1
1/14
Trigonid Crest M1
1/0–1
0
0/9
0
0/5
0
0/9
0
0/23
Trigonid Crest M2
1/0–1
0
0/10
0
0/5
0
0/8
0
0/23
Trigonid Crest M3
1/0–1
0
0/7
0
0/4
0
0/6
0
0/17
Protostylid M1
1–7/0–7
25
2/8
20
1/5
11.1
1/9
18.2
4/22
Protostylid M2
1–7/0–7
28.6
2/10
0
0/5
12.5
1/8
13.0
3/23
Protostylid M3
1–7/0–7
28.6
2/7
25
1/4
0
0/6
17.6
3/17
Cusp 5 M1
3–5/0–5
44.4
4/9
40
2/5
33.3
3/9
39.1
9/23
Cusp 5 M2
3–5/0–5
20
2/10
40
2/5
0
0/8
17.4
4/23
Cusp 5 M3
3–5/0–5
14.3
1/7
25
1/4
0
0/6
11.8
2/17
Cusp 6 M1
2–5/0–5
11.1
1/9
40
2/5
22.2
2/9
21.7
5/23
Cusp 6 M2
2–5/0–5
30
3/10
20
1/5
25
2/8
26.1
6/23
Cusp 6 M3
2–5/0–5
14.3
1/7
25
1/4
20
1/5
18.8
3/16
Cusp 7 M1
1–4/0–4
11.1
1/9
0
0/4
11.1
1/9
9.1
2/22
Cusp 7 M1
2–4/0–4
11.1
1/9
0
0/4
11.1
1/9
9.1
2/22
Cusp 7 M2
1–4/0–4
0
0/10
0
0/5
0
0/8
0
0/23
Cusp 7 M3
1–4/0–4
14.3
1/7
0
0/4
0
0/6
5.9
1/17
Root # M1
3/1–3
0
0/4
0
0/3
20
1/5
8.3
1/12
Root # M2
1/1–3
0
0/5
0
0/2
0
0/3
0
0/10
Root # M3
1/1–3
0
0/4
0
0/1
0
0/4
0
0/9
Congenital Abs LM3
1/0–1
30
3/10
25
1/4
42.9
3/7
33.3
7/21
Dbl = Double; DAR = Distal Accessory Ridge; n = number present; N = number scored
Table has key trait/tooth combination and breakpoints. Breakpoint is the equivalent score where the trait is considered
present. For example, shoveling has a potential of scores 0 to 6, and is considered present if the score is 2 to 6 (0 and 1 being
absent for that trait).
6.6.3 Permanent Dentition
The current study recorded the following characteristics and pathologies on the dentition: attrition
(wear on the teeth); occurrences of caries; linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH); abscesses; antemortem
tooth loss; and calculus. The current sample from Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio, Saipan, included 42
individuals that had some or all of their teeth. Of those 42 individuals, there are 17 females (40.5 percent),
16 individuals of indeterminate sex (38.1 percent) and 9 males (21.4 percent). The females had 185
119
Afetna Point, Saipan
teeth that were present (32.8 percent),
the males had 175 teeth (31.0 percent),
and individuals of indeterminate sex
had 204 teeth (36.2 percent) for a total
tooth count of 564. For the individuals
of indeterminate sex, tooth count
includes the permanent dentition from
children. The deciduous dentition will
be discussed below in this chapter.
6.6.4 Linear Enamel Hypoplasias
Enamel hypoplasias are deficiencies
in tooth enamel that appear as
horizontal linear grooves or pits, and
are the result of a disruption in enamel
Figure 85. Burial 28, male, view of LEH on incisors
formation (Goodman and Armelagos
1985). These defects are a permanent
record of developmental disturbances due to growth-disruptive stressors. Although the exact
cause is unknown, they reflect nonspecific physiological disruption that occurred during childhood
as the tooth was developing. Enamel hypoplasias have been associated with factors such as fever,
malnutrition, infection, trauma, and hereditary anomalies; thus, they are considered an indicator of
a general stress event (Goodman and Rose 1991).
Only two individuals had teeth that exhibited LEH. Burial 28, male age 20–24, exhibited a clear line
on 10 teeth. This included four uppers (left and right, first incisors and first molars) and six lower
teeth (left and right, first and second incisors and first molars) (Figure 85). This disruption occurred
between the ages of 2.5 to 3.5 years of age. Burial 10, male age 35–39, exhibited a clear line on one
upper first incisor. This disruption appears to have occurred between the ages of 2.5 and 3.5 years
of age. Considering only two individuals out of the 42 that had teeth, suggests a low frequency of
occurrence. It is likely that most of the individuals in this assemblage did not experience severe
stressors as children and they were healthy through the childhood years.
6.6.5 Carious Lesions
Carious lesions are the result of bacteria in the mouth, which causes enamel demineralization (Larsen
1983). The frequency of carious lesions is highly influenced by diet, and is associated primarily
with foods that are rich in sugars and carbohydrates (Larsen 1983). Carious lesions were analyzed
in individuals with erupted permanent dentition, which included the first molars in several of the
children. Carious lesions were found in eight individuals with teeth present (18.6 percent) of the
Parcel 004-1-52 individuals.
By individual, carious lesions were found in three females (3/43, 7.0 percent), three males (3/43,
7.0 percent), and two individuals of indeterminate sex (2/43, 4.7 percent) (Table 32). In terms of
tooth count, the three females had four carious teeth, the seven males had six teeth with caries,
and the individuals of indeterminate sex had two teeth with caries (Table 33). In general, there is a
low percent of caries in this population. Further, carious lesions were typically seen on the occlusal
surface, with few originating at the interproximal or the cervico-enamel junction. See Figure 86 for
examples of carious lesions observed on the occlusal surface.
120
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Table 32. Individual Occurrence of Carious Lesions by Sex
Female
Male
Indeterminate Sex
Total
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
Present
3
17.6
3
33.3
2
11.8
8
19.0
Absent
14
82.4
6
66.6
14
88.2
34
81.0
Total
17
40.5
9
21.4
16
38.1
42
100
Table 33. Tooth Count of Carious Lesions by Sex
Female
Male
Indeterminate Sex
Total
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
Present
4
2.2
6
3.4
2
1.0
12
2.1
Absent
181
97.8
169
96.6
202
99.0
552
97.9
Total
185
32.8
175
31.0
204
36.2
564
100
Looking at which teeth had carious lesions
shows that it was relatively evenly split with
upper molar 2 and lower canine having three
carious lesions. There were two caries on the
lower molar 1, 2, and 3. Upper dentition had
three carious teeth and the remaining nine teeth
were all on the lower dentition.
6.6.6 Abscesses
The progression of dental caries is an important
factor in the cause of dental abscesses. The
progression of the carious lesions result in
the introduction of bacteria in the pulp canal.
‘Bacterial invasion produces rapid necrosis of
Figure 86. Burial 11, female, view of lower right molar 2 with
the canal vasculature and soft tissues, extending
large caries
the process to the root apex and surrounding
trabecular bone, producing a periapical abscess’ (Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martín 1998:403). The
abscess frequently penetrates the thin alveolar cortex, and it is typically seen in prehistoric populations
as a penetrating hole (lytic response) with various stages of healing. Periodontal abscesses may occur
in localized areas along with periodontal disease, but the infection is outside the pulp cavity. ‘Abscess
of the alveolar bone without evidence of caries involvement of the pulp cavity would be suggestive of
periodontal abscess’ (Ortner and Putschar 1985:442–443).
None of the individuals exhibited periapical abscesses that are characterized by a penetrating hole.
There were several individuals that exhibited local alveolar resorption indicative of periodontal disease
and these may be indicative of periodontal abscesses (see periodontal discussion below).
6.6.7 Antemortem Tooth Loss
Antemortem tooth loss can result from one or more factors. Severe attrition can result in carious lesions
or abscesses with subsequent tooth loss. Carious lesions can lead to abscesses and periodontal disease,
resulting in the loss of the tooth. Antemortem tooth loss can also be the result of purposeful extraction for
121
Afetna Point, Saipan
various reasons. Betel-nut chewing is suspected
as a predictor for periodontal disease and
subsequent antemortem tooth loss (Aufderheide
and Rodríguez-Martín 1998:402).
Table 33. Individual Count of Antemortem
Tooth Loss by Sex
a/O
%
Females
6/17
35.3
Males
3/9
33.3
Indeterminate
5/16
31.3
Total
12/42
28.6
Antemortem tooth loss based on individual
count by sex and age is presented in Table 33 and
Table 34. There are 12 out of 39 (30.8 percent)
individuals that lost one or more teeth prior to
death. The rate of caries is low (18.6 percent)
and thus the rate of tooth loss is higher than
expected. Females had a higher rate of tooth loss
than males (35.3 percent versus 33.3 percent).
Tooth loss by age is generally consistent with
expectations with the highest frequency for the
older and middle adults followed by adults (20+
years), then young adults, and with no tooth loss
for adolescents.
a = affected; O = observed
Table 34. Individual Count of Antemortem
Tooth Loss by Age
a/O
%
Adolescence
0/5
0.0
Young Adult
2/12
16.7
Middle Adult
7/15
46.7
Older Adult
1/1
100
Adult
4/9
44.4
Total
12/42
28.6
The data for antemortem loss by tooth are
presented in Table 35 for this assemblage.
a = affected, O = observed
Overall a greater number of lower teeth were
lost antemortem than upper teeth (uppers:
8/296, 2.7 percent and lowers: 46/322, 14.3 percent). Molars are the tooth lost most. Females lost more
teeth than the males and indeterminate sex individuals combined. There were three females of middle
adult age that had lost all or nearly all of their teeth before death. This could be related to sex-specific
tasks or food resources, but there is no evidence of either of these factors. The other possible reason for
the difference by sex is the small sample size.
Table 35. Antemortem Tooth Loss by Tooth for the Parcel 004-1-52 Site Assemblage
Tooth
ULM3
ULM2
ULM1
ULPM2
ULPM1
ULC
ULI2
ULI1
URI1
URI2
URC
URPM1
URPM2
URM1
URM2
URM3
Total
Female
a/O
%
0/4
0.0
0/5
0.0
0/6
0.0
0/4
0.0
0/5
0.0
0/5
0.0
0/4
0.0
0/7
0.0
0/3
0.0
0/4
0.0
0/7
0.0
0/8
0.0
0/8
0.0
1/8
12.5
0/6
0.0
0/4
0.0
1/88
1.1
Male
a/O
%
0/4
0.0
0/6
0.0
0/8
0.0
0/7
0.0
0/6
0.0
0/6
0.0
0/5
0.0
0/3
0.0
0/5
0.0
0/6
0.0
0/8
0.0
0/8
0.0
0/7
0.0
1/7
14.3
0/5
0.0
0/3
0.0
1/94
1.1
Sex Ind
a/O
%
1/4
25.0
1/5
20.0
0/6
0.0
0/8
0.0
0/7
0.0
0/8
0.0
0/4
0.0
0/9
0.0
1/6
16.7
1/9
11.1
0/8
0.0
1/9
11.1
0/10
0.0
0/9
0.0
0/8
0.0
1/4
25.0
6/114
5.3
Female
a/O
%
LLM3
1/7
14.3
LLM2
1/9
11.1
LLM1
2/13
15.4
LLPM2
1/8
12.5
LLPM1
2/9
22.2
LLC
2/13
15.4
LLI2
1/11
9.1
LLI1
0/4
0.0
LRI1
2/4
50.0
LRI2
2/8
25.0
LRC
3/7
42.9
LRPM1
3/7
42.9
LRPM2
3/6
50.0
LRM1
3/7
42.9
LRM2
3/9
33.3
LRM3
2/7
28.6
Total
31/129 24.0
Tooth
a = affected; O = observed; Sex Ind = indeterminate sex
122
Male
a/O
%
1/5
20.0
1/8
12.5
1/7
14.3
2/10
20.0
2/7
28.6
0/4
0.0
0/5
0.0
0/3
0.0
0/4
0.0
1/5
20.0
1/8
12.5
0/7
0.0
0/6
0.0
1/8
12.5
1/6
16.7
0/4
0.0
11/93
11.8
Sex Ind
a/O
%
1/5
20.0
1/7
14.3
1/9
11.1
0/7
0.0
0/8
0.0
0/6
0.0
0/4
0.0
1/3
33.3
0/1
0.0
0/3
0.0
0/6
0.0
0/6
0.0
0/9
0.0
0/10
0.0
0/10
0.0
0/6
0.0
4/100
4.0
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
6.6.8 Calculus
Table 36. Individual Count of Calculus by Sex
Calcified plaque (called calculus) is commonly
observed in prehistoric human remains. As teeth
wear, gaps are opened up to the gingival tissues
of the interdental spaces. Food becomes lodged
in these spaces, and with chronic retention,
bacterial growth occurs. Bacteria invade the
tissues and begin to calcify to form calculus.
This is the single most important factor in the
development of periodontal disease (Aufderheide
and Rodríguez-Martín 1998).
Table 36 presents the individual count for the
occurrence of calculus by sex. The individual
was counted present for calculus if one or more
teeth had calculus present. The overall rate is
moderate in this group with 35.7 percent (15/42)
having at least one tooth with at least slight
amounts of calculus. The occurrence of calculus
is very similar for females and males as well as
individuals of indeterminate sex.
a/O
%
Females
5/12
41.6
Males
4/9
44.4
Indeterminate
6/16
37.5
Total
15/42
35.7
a = affected; O = observed
Table 37. Individual Count of Calculus by Age
a/O
%
Adolescent
0/5
0.0
Young Adult
5/12
41.7
Middle Adult
4/15
26.7
Older Adult
1/1
100.0
Adult
6/9
66.7
Total
16/42
38.1
a = affected, O = observed
The individual count for the occurrence of calculus by age is presented in Table 37. As with Table 36, the
individual is counted present for calculus if one or more teeth is observed with calculus. As expected,
Table 38. Calculus by Tooth for the Parcel 004-1-52 Site Assemblage
Tooth
Female
Male
Sex Ind
Tooth
a/O
%
a/O
%
a/O
%
ULM3
1/4
25.0
1/4
25.0
1/3
33.3
LLM3
ULM2
3/5
60.0
3/6
50.0
1/4
25.0
ULM1
3/6
50.0
3/8
12.5
1/6
16.7
ULPM2
2/4
50.0
4/7
57.1
2/8
ULPM1
2/5
40.0
3/6
50.0
ULC
2/5
40.0
3/6
50.0
ULI2
2/4
50.0
3/5
Female
Male
Sex Ind
a/O
%
a/O
%
a/O
%
2/6
33.3
2/4
50.0
3/4
75.0
LLM2
3/8
37.5
2/5
40.0
3/6
50.0
LLM1
2/11
18.2
2/7
28.6
4/8
50.0
25.0
LLPM2
3/7
42.9
3/6
50.0
3/7
42.9
3/7
42.9
LLPM1
3/7
42.9
3/7
42.9
4/8
50.0
3/8
37.5
LLC
2/11
18.2
3/4
75.0
3/6
50.0
60.0
3/4
75.0
LLI2
1/10
10.0
3/4
75.0
3/4
75.0
ULI1
2/7
28.6
1/3
33.3
2/9
22.2
LLI1
1/4
25.0
2/3
66.7
1/2
50.0
URI1
1/3
33.3
2/5
40.0
2/5
40.0
LRI1
0/2
0.0
2/3
66.7
1/1
100.0
URI2
2/4
50.0
3/6
50.0
3/8
37.5
LRI2
1/6
16.7
2/5
40.0
3/3
100.0
URC
3/7
42.9
4/8
50.0
3/8
37.5
LRC
0/4
0.0
2/4
50.0
3/6
50.0
URPM1
4/8
50.0
4/8
50.0
4/8
50.0
LRPM1
1/4
25.0
2/5
20.0
3/6
50.0
URPM2
5/8
62.5
3/7
42.9
4/10
40.0
LRPM2
1/3
33.3
4/8
50.0
3/9
33.3
URM1
3/8
37.5
3/6
50.0
4/9
44.4
LRM1
1/4
25.0
2/6
33.3
3/10
30.0
URM2
3/6
50.0
2/5
40.0
4/8
50.0
LRM2
2/6
33.3
3/7
42.9
3/10
30.0
URM3
2/4
50.0
1/3
33.3
1/3
33.3
LRM3
2/5
40.0
1/4
25.0
3/6
50.0
TOTAL
40/87
46.0
43/93
46.2
41/108
38.0
TOTAL
25/98
25.5
38/82
46.3
46/96
47.9
a = affected; O = observed; Sex Ind = indeterminate sex
123
Afetna Point, Saipan
the adolescents do not have any calculus. Somewhat unexpected is the lower number of middle versus
young adults that have calculus. This is likely a result of the higher number of middle adults that had
antemortem tooth loss. These individuals likely had calculus but had lost those teeth.
Calculus was scored by tooth and by the degree of build-up; degree of build-up scores were slight,
moderate, and severe. Presence/absence by tooth is presented in Table 38. Calculus was fairly evenly
distributed between uppers and lowers and anterior and posterior teeth. Looking at the degree of
calculus that was scored indicates that the majority (171/233, 73.4 percent) had moderate calculus
present. Followed by a few with slight calculus (52/233, 22.3 percent) and with very few that had severe
calculus (10/233, 4.3 percent). The remaining teeth (331 teeth) had no calculus present.
6.6.9 Periodontal Disease
Periodontal disease is commonly found in archaeological
collections. Localized forms of periodontal disease
correlate strongly with attrition and caries (Aufderheide
and Rodríguez-Martín 1998). Calculus is the single most
important factor in the development of periodontal disease
(Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martín 1998). In archaeological
specimens, periodontal disease is manifested by the local or
general alveolar resorption. If there is alveolar resorption but
little or no evidence of caries or tooth loss, then a diagnosis
of periodontal disease is appropriate (Ortner and Putschar
1985:443). As a simplified method of estimating the number
of individuals that may have had local or general periodontal
disease in the current investigation, the data on the presence
of calculus are used as a proxy indicator.
As described in the above sections, the individuals in this
assemblage have a low occurrence of caries (19.0 percent)
and antemortem tooth loss was moderate with 28.6 percent.
The number of individuals with some degree of calculus is
a moderate amount (35.7 percent). The amount of alveolar
resorption varied from slight to severe (Figures 87 to 89).
Figure 88. Burial 8, female, with moderate
alveolar recession on mandible
Figure 87. Burial 28, male, with slight alveolar
recession on maxilla and mandible
Figure 89. Burial 37a, female, with severe
alveolar recession on mandible
124
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
However, the severe examples, such as seen on Burial 37a (see Figure 89), is primarily a result of
antemortem tooth loss and not periodontal disease. Burial 8 (see Figure 88), mandible, exhibits a rolled
rim characteristic of periodontal disease. There were 20 individuals with mandible or maxilla that were
intact enough to assess the alveolar recession. Of these, four were slight, 10 were moderate, and six
were severe. But as stated above, the severe examples are all related to tooth loss. Alveolar recession
was found on nine females, seven males, and four individuals of indeterminate sex. Ages represented
included two adolescents, two adults (20+), five young adults, 10 middle adults, and one older adult.
6.6.10 Dental Attrition
Dental attrition is normal wear from mastication and not a pathological condition. However, moderate
to severe wear can lead to pathologies such as caries, abscesses, and antemortem tooth loss. Loss of the
enamel surface of the tooth as a result of functional or cultural tooth uses reflects the lifelong history
of the teeth. Dental attrition is scored in the permanent teeth of the assemblage on a scale reflecting no
wear (1), enamel wear (2–3), dentine exposure (4–5), secondary dentine exposure (pulp) (6–7), and wear
to the root (8). Attrition was not scored on damaged teeth.
To determine if there was patterning to the tooth wear, attrition for lefts versus rights was examined.
No difference by side was noted as unusual, and sides were combined. Attrition for uppers versus lowers
showed slight differences. For both males and females, there was slightly greater attrition on lower
dentition than for uppers. As discussed above, there were a number of teeth lost antemortem, and it is
Table 39. Attrition by Tooth and Sex
Tooth
Molars
Premolars
Canines
Incisors
Degree
Females
Males
Ind Sex
Total
a/O
%
a/O
%
a/O
%
a/O
%
1
3/60
5.0
3/65
4.6
12/70
17.1
18/195
9.2
2–3
12/60
20.0
6/65
9.2
7/70
10.0
25/195
12.8
4–5
31/60
52.7
42/65
64.6
37/70
52.9
110/195
56.4
6–7
12/60
20.0
10/65
15.4
7/70
10.0
29/195
14.9
8
2/60
3.3
5/65
7.7
9/70
12.9
16/195
8.2
1
0/44
0.0
0/51
0.0
3/52
5.8
3/147
2.0
2–3
10/44
22.7
13/51
25.5
13/52
25.0
36/147
24.5
4–5
14/44
31.8
28/51
54.9
25/52
48.1
67/147
45.6
6–7
10/44
22.7
10/51
19.6
12/52
23.1
32/147
21.8
8
0/44
0.0
0/51
0.0
0/52
0.0
0/147
0.0
1
0/24
0.0
0/22
0.0
1/24
4.2
1/70
1.4
2–3
4/24
16.7
5/22
22.7
2/24
8.3
11/70
15.7
4–5
14/24
58.3
12/22
54.5
13/24
54.2
39/70
55.7
6–7
6/24
25.0
5/22
22.7
7/24
29.2
18/70
25.7
8
0/24
0.0
0/22
0.0
1/24
4.2
1/70
1.4
1
5/34
14.7
1/34
2.9
2/26
7.7
8/94
8.5
2–3
6/34
17.6
8/34
23.5
6/26
23.1
20/94
21.3
4–5
18/34
52.9
21/34
61.8
16/26
61.5
55/94
58.5
6–7
7/34
20.6
2/34
5.9
2/26
7.7
11/94
11.7
8
1/34
2.9
1/34
2.9
0/26
0.0
2/94
2.1
a = affected, O = observed; Ind = indeterminate
125
Afetna Point, Saipan
not clear if these teeth had been severely worn prior to being lost. The loss of the teeth may have more
to do with caries, abscesses, and periodontal disease than with severe attrition.
Combining lefts and rights, and uppers and lowers, Table 39 summarizes tooth attrition by tooth type
and sex. The males and females have a similar degree of wear for all teeth. Several teeth were worn to
the root; otherwise, most teeth have moderate (pulp exposure) attrition. In general, there is similar
wear on the posterior teeth and anterior teeth.
6.6.11 Betel Nut Staining
The habitual use of the areca nut (Areca catechu) is common throughout Southeast Asia and the Western
Pacific (Strickland 2002). In the Mariana Islands, the areca nut is usually combined with the betel leaf (Piper
betle) and slaked lime (CaCO3) (Hanson and Butler 1997). This combination of ingredients is commonly
lumped into the general category ‘betel nut.’ Betel nut chewing results in a light to dark brown staining in
the maxillary and mandibular dentition (Hanson and Butler 1997). The practice of purposefully painting
(staining or blackening) teeth has been documented in Asia, Micronesia, and Melanesia (Zumbroich 2011).
It is possible that the staining on the teeth in this assemblage is a combination of the practice of chewing
betel nut and of purposefully painting the teeth. The darkest stained and more uniformly stained teeth are
anterior and on the labial surface (outer surface). Betel nut staining was found in almost all of the adult
teeth for this group. Children appear to not chew or have their teeth painted and this may be part of a rite
of passage at some point near young adulthood. Once a person became an adult, all seemed to practice this
cultural modification. Both males and females had stained teeth.
6.6.12 Deciduous Dentition
The deciduous dentition was scored for caries, abscesses, and calculus. There were 22 juveniles in the
sample with only seven children that had some or all of their deciduous teeth. No incidences of caries or
abscesses were observed in the deciduous teeth of these children. Burial 27, an older child 8 to 10 years
old, had slight calculus on the lower second, deciduous, molars. None of the deciduous teeth exhibited
LEH on their deciduous dentition.
6.7 Skeletal Pathologies
The categories of pathologies recorded for human remains from this project include trauma, infectious
diseases, congenital, and degenerative, as well as some of unknown etiology; each is described below. Table
40 below briefly summarizes the burials from this project and the skeletal pathologies noted. The pathologies
observed are those that have been noted in other burial assemblages on Saipan and the Marianas. There are
28 individuals that exhibit some pathology or unusual trait. This is the Chamorro population and does not
include the Japanese remains. The assemblage had 89 Chamorro individuals and this represents 31.5 percent
of the individuals recovered. By far the most common pathology is osteoarthritis including degenerative
joint disease (DJD) on the appendicular elements and vertebral osteoarthritis on the axial elements. The
expression on the axial elements (vertebra) is noted in the table below as Vertebral Osteoarthritis (Vertebral
OA) to easier count the individuals who have this pathology on axial or appendicular elements. There are
10 individuals that have some degree of DJD, four with Vertebral OA, and six with both for a total of 20
individuals. Two individuals have Schmorl’s nodes, two have possible blunt force trauma on cranial elements,
and two (counted above in DJD) possibly had a traumatic injury that resulted in DJD. There are two possible
cases of treponemotosis (yaws), and three individuals with unknown infectious lesions. There is one conoid
joint, three individuals with squatting facets, one with Pacchionian pits, one rhomboid fossae, two Steida’s
process, one with a fused middle and distal foot phalange, and two with enthesophytes at the Achilles tendon.
Each of these are discussed further below.
126
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Table 40. Skeletal Pathologies Summarized by Burial
Burial No.
Age
Sex
Pathology Short Name
Description: Summary
4
20+
Male
DJD
The left patella exhibits Stage 1 lipping along the edges of
the lateral and medial facets. There is slight porosity with
pitting and a small area of remodeling (area is 6.11 mm in
diameter) on the medial aspect.
6
20+
Ind
DJD
Stage 1 lipping on the olecranon process along the trochlea
notch of the left ulna.
7
35–40
Female
Vertebral OA
Stage 2, lipping on two of the mid-to-lower thoracic
vertebrae on both the superior and inferior surfaces.
7a
30–50
Male
Other
Squatting facet on L talus. Steida’s process on left talus.
9
40–44
Male
DJD and Vertebral OA
The 1st left and right proximal foot phalanges exhibited
DJD, Stage 1 lipping, on the proximal articular surface.
Stage 2, moderate lipping exhibited on the lower lumbar
vertebrae on the inferior surface of the centrum.
10
35–39
Male
DJD and Vertebral OA
Both calcanei and tali exhibit DJD Stage 1, lipping on
their corresponding articular surfaces. Stage 1, lipping
on the proximal epiphysis of the olecranon notch and the
margins of the trochlear notch of the left ulna. DJD, Stage
1, lipping on the radial tuberosity of the left radius. C-7 and
T-1 exhibit DJD, Stage 1, slight to moderate lipping on the
inferior aspect of the centra.
16
45–50
Female
DJD and Vertebral OA
and Other
Pacchionian pits on the inner table of the left and right
parietal. One intermediate phalanx and two distal foot
phalanges exhibit DJD, Stage 1, lipping on the proximal
articular surface. Lytic reaction on the articular surface on
the right patella. DJD, Stage 1 exhibited on T1-9, posterior
and superior surfaces.
18
20+
Ind
Congenital
Fused middle and distal foot phalange.
19
20+
Ind
DJD
Stage 1 DJD, lipping on the medial and lateral articular
surfaces of the left and right talus.
23
20–35
Ind
Other
Squatting facet on the left and right talus. Rhomboid fossa
on the left clavicle.
25
24–30
Female
Infectious
Possible treponematosis or infection of unknown etiology
on the frontal.
28
20–24
Male
DJD and Other
Stage 2 lipping on the talus articular surface of both
calcaneus. Enthesophytes at Achilles tendon and calcaneal
spur. Squatting facets on both tali. Steida’s process on the
right talus.
30
30–50
Ind
Trauma and DJD and
Vertebral OA
Atlas exhibits bony growth on the left side. Schmorl’s
nodes on superior aspect of T8-12. Stage 1 lipping along
the glenoid fossa and acromion of the right scapula.
33
20+
Ind
DJD
Stage 2, extensive raised lipping, along the edges of the
glenoid fossa of the left scapula especially along the lateral
edge.
36
30–40
Male
Trauma and DJD and
Vertebral OA and Other
Possible blunt force trauma on frontal. Possibly trauma
related DJD on right 1st metacarpal and trapezium. Stage
2&3 lipping on thoracic and lumbar centrum. Stage 2
lipping on right ulna. Stage 2 lipping on right radius. Two
rib bodies are fused possibly from trauma, or unknown
etiology. Right acetabulum exhibits remodeling, possibly
from trauma.
40a
13–16
Ind
Infectious
Possible treponemal infection or periosteal reaction
exhibited on the left and right tibia at the anterior crest in
the form of bowed shins.
127
Afetna Point, Saipan
Burial No.
Age
Sex
Pathology Short Name
Description: Summary
44
35–45
Male
Trauma
Possible traumatic injury on left frontal.
Female
DJD
Stage 1, slight lipping, on the distal articular surface of
the left distal humerus along the margins of the trochlea
and proximal articular surface of the left ulna. Both
patellae exhibit DJD Stage 1, lipping on the posterior
aspect, especially along the margin of the medial articular
surfaces.
Male
Vertebral OA
Stage 1, lipping on the superior and inferior articular
surfaces on the lumbar and lower thoracic vertebrae.
Stage 2-3 on the lower thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.
Severe lipping is also exhibited on the lower rib vertebral
articular surfaces.
Ind
Trauma or DJD and
Other
Lytic reaction on the left 5th metatarsal, on the 1st
metatarsal, and on three distal phalanges. Possibly DJD as
a result of trauma. Enthesophytes on both calcanei at the
Achilles tendon.
46
40–44
50
30–35
51
20+
52
35–39
Female
Vertebral OA and Other
Stage 1, on the superior aspect of the centrum of the
first lumbar vertebrae and eleventh and twelfth thoracic
vertebrae. Pathology of unknown etiology. There is an
extensive active periosteal reaction and remodeling of
the right ulna, with an accompanying lytic reaction, that
has affected the proximal end and superior aspect of the
olecranon.
53
20–35
Ind
Other
Completely headed periosteal reaction on the fibula at the
interosseous crest due to trauma or a localized pathology
of unknown etiology.
59
20–24
Female
Trauma
Schmorl’s nodes on the inferior and superior aspect of the
lower thoracic and upper lumbar vertebrae.
60
35–45
Female
DJD and Vertebral OA
and Infectious
Stage 1, slight lipping on the left and right distal tibiae
and fibulae epiphyses along the margins of the articular
surfaces. Possible infectious disease involving the ribs.
Stage 1 slight lipping is exhibited on the centrum and
superior articular surfaces of the lower thoracic and
lumbar vertebrae.
63
20+
Ind
DJD and Other
The supracondylar ridge on the distal humerus fragments
exhibits slight lipping. A possible conoid joint is on the left
clavicle.
64
35–50
Ind
Vertebral OA
Stage 3, extreme lipping on the superior and inferior
lumbar centrum.
65
20+
Ind
DJD
Small lytic reaction on the left radius head.
Isolate 4
20+
Ind
DJD
Stage 1 slight lipping on the muscle attachments on the
palmar aspect of the right 4th metacarpal.
6.7.1 Trauma
Trauma and possible trauma were observed in five individuals. Trauma in cranial elements was noted in
two individuals and these lesions may be blunt-force trauma resulting in a depression fracture. Burial
36, male 30-40 years of age, exhibits a periosteal reaction near the center of the frontal approximately
8–10 cm anterior of bregma that may be the result of blunt-force trauma. The lesion is well healed,
exhibiting remodeling at the fracture location. The depression is linear, measuring approximately 12.00
× 3.97 mm. This individual also has DJD that may be a result of trauma in the right first metacarpal and
trapezium, and well as fragments of two ribs fused together that may also be a result of trauma. Burial
44, male 35–45 years of age, exhibits a small circular lesion that has been obscured by a postmortem
break. The circular portion of the lesion exhibits a small amount of remodeling but it is difficult to say
128
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
how large the affected area was because of the newer break. The lesion may be a result of blunt-force
trauma; the remodeling suggests the individual survived the trauma for a period of time.
Schmorl’s nodes is included in the list with the trauma. The pathogenesis of Schmorl’s nodes is thought
to result from chronic stress from a variety of activities leading to herniation and destruction of the
disk. This is traumatic in origin and is therefore included here. Schmorl’s nodes were observed in
two individuals. Burial 30, indeterminate sex 35–50 years of age, has Schmorl’s nodes present on the
superior aspect of thoracic (T) vertebra numbers 8–12. This individual also has bony growth on the left
side of the atlas that could be a result of some traumatic event. Burial 59, female 20–24 years of age, has
Schmorl’s nodes on the inferior and superior aspect of the lower thoracic and upper lumbar vertebrae.
This individual is very young to have this pathology, which suggests some severe traumatic event that
must have occurred.
The last individual is Burial 51, indeterminate sex 20+ years of age, exhibiting an active lytic/periosteal
reaction on the proximal epiphysis of the left 5th metatarsal. There is also a lytic reaction on the
proximal end of the first metatarsal. The lytic reaction appears to have affected the medial aspect of
the bone. Three distal foot phalanges exhibit remodeling on the proximal articular surface. All of these
affected foot elements suggests some type of healed injury, the result of trauma to the foot.
6.7.2 Treponematosis (Yaws)
Treponemal infections include syphilis, bejel, and yaws. The Treponema pallidum bacterium has
adapted to different environments, and in hot, humid climates like Saipan, yaws is the most common
treponemal infection found. Yaws has been found to be endemic in the prehistoric populations in the
Mariana Islands and is primarily a disease of childhood (Buckley and Tayles 2003; Steinbock 1976).
The tibia, fibula, and femur are the elements most commonly affected. Other elements affected are
the clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, hands, and feet (Buckley and Tayles 2003; Ortner and Putschar
1985; Steinbock 1976). Differential diagnoses are tuberculosis, leprosy, and rheumatoid arthritis.
Skeletal changes consistent with yaws include changes in the bone morphology, and a bowing of
the diaphysis of an element can occur. Tibias often exhibit the saber-shin shape (boomerang leg), a
typical characteristic resulting from treponemal infection. Periosteal bone growth on the cortical
surface of a skeletal element (periostitis) is the initial stage of yaws. These early lesions of yaws
can heal completely without leaving observable bone changes. Cortical thickening and narrowing
of the medullary canal occurs in more advanced cases of the disease. Late-stage yaws can be quite
destructive and can have severe gummatous periostitis and osteomyelitis (Ortner and Putschar
1985), as well as caries sicca on the skull.
Two individuals are suspected of having yaws. In Burial 40a, a subadult (13–16 years of age) of
indeterminate sex, the left and right tibia exhibit bowed shins. True bowing is associated with
subadult treponematosis. Subadult treponematosis usually begins before 15 years of age and usually
involves other skeletal elements, particularly other long bones and the hands (Aufderheide and
Rodriquez-Martin 2003:155–157; Ortner 2003:274–275). Burial 40a is estimated to be between 13 and
16 years of age and fits the common age for treponematosis to form and result in the bowed shins.
Alternatively, the bowed shins could be pseudo-bowing, the result of a periosteal reactive bone
formation on the medial and anterior surfaces of the tibia. Pseudo-bowing tends to be associated
with changes occurring in adults. None of the other bones of this individual exhibited evidence
of treponematosis, however very few bones were recovered with this individual and a definitive
diagnosis is not possible. The other individual is Burial 25, female age 24–30. The frontal exhibits
multifocal lesions consistent with a granulomatous destructive condition. The lesions consist of
depressed foci with stellate lines radiating from the central focus of destruction that resulted in a
129
Afetna Point, Saipan
bumpy outer table. The inner table was not affected. The affected area extends from the coronal
suture to glabella, and is primarily on the right side of the frontal. There is no involvement of the
inner table and the lesions are limited to the outer table, also indicative of possible treponematosis
(Ortner 2003). It should be noted that none of the other skeletal elements recovered with this
individual exhibited evidence of treponematosis. Yaws is one possible diagnosis for this pathology,
but it may be the result of unknown etiology.
6.7.3 Osteoarthritis
This disorder is a chronic and progressive pathology that is the result of the direct contact of bone joint
surfaces. The bone-on-bone movement results in the growth of new bone, which is easily identified in
archaeological specimens. This disorder is generally visible in individuals that are 40 years and older.
Secondary causes of osteoarthritis include trauma, infection, metabolic disorders, and occupationrelated stress (Aufderheide and Rodríguez-Martín 1998). For this report, the discussion of osteoarthritis
has been separated into vertebral osteoarthritis (vertebral OA) and DJD, which was observed on
appendicular elements. For this report, vertebral OA includes osteophytosis (osteophytic growth on the
centra) and osteoarthritic changes on the articular facets.
6.7.4 Vertebral Osteoarthritis
There are 10 burials that had some expression of vertebral OA. Burial 30 was discussed above with bony
growth on the atlas that may have been from trauma. Burial 10 had slight (Stage 1) bony growth on the
seventh cervical and first thoracic. The other eight individuals have slight to severe OA on the middle
to lower thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. All individuals were 30 years of age or older and most of the
expression was bony spicules growing from the centra. Of the 10 individuals, there were four females,
four males, and two individuals of indeterminate sex. This is a disease that did not favor one sex over the
other. Both likely lead active lives that resulted in the expression of this pathology.
6.7.5 Degenerative Joint Disease
There were 16 individuals that had DJD of one or more
elements. Table 41 below summarizes the burial, sex,
age, and elements that had some DJD. The elements
listed represent general areas of the body and not
necessarily the specific element, such a knee instead
of patella, ankle for calcaneus or talus, etc. These
individuals were 20 years of age or older and include
three females, six males, and seven of indeterminate
sex. The general area of the body with the most DJD is
the elbow, followed by the knee, foot and ankle, hand
and shoulder, and last one hip. Motions with the arm
resulting in stress at the elbow appear to result in the
most DJD. This is closely followed by activities that
stress the ankle and foot.
6.7.6 Pathologies of Unknown Etiology and Other
Conditions
This section covers an array of pathological
conditions that include Pacchionian pits, squatting
130
Table 41. Burials with DJD, Parcel 004-1-52
Burial
Sex
Age
Element(s)
4
Male
20+
Knee
6
Ind
20+
Elbow
9
Male
40–44
Foot
10
Male
35–39
Ankle and elbow
16
Female
45–50
Foot and knee
19
Ind
20+
Ankle
28
Male
20–24
Ankle
30
Ind
30–50
Shoulder
33
Ind
20+
Shoulder
36
Male
30–40
Hand, elbow, and hip
46
Female
40–44
Elbow and knee
51
Ind
20+
Foot
60
Female
35–45
Knee
63
Ind
20+
Elbow
65
Ind
20+
Elbow
Isolate 4
Ind
20+
Hand
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
facets, abnormalities such as Steida’s process, conoid joint, and fused foot phalanges. Most of these
occur on one or only a few individuals. The last section discusses occipital superstructures on the skull.
6.7.7 Pacchionian Pits
Lacunae laterales are usually large depressions that occur post-bregma and have smooth borders.
Pacchionian pits are small and often clustered, have sharp margins, and can occur on the parietals and
frontal. Lacunae laterales house arachnoid granulations, and Pacchionian pits are caused by the erosion
of arachnoid granulations. Arachnoid granulations filter cerebrospinal fluid. The pits and depressions
increase in size and number with increasing age. The underlying reason for the erosion of the inner
cranial vault by the arachnoid granulations is not known (Mann and Hunt 2005). Burial 16 a female age
45–50 that has Pacchionian pits on the inner table of the left and right parietal.
6.7.8 Squatting Facets
The talus is an especially common location to observe squatting facets. The squatting facets appear as an
oval-shaped extension on the superior surface of the bone and often are also observed on the distal tibia.
In the current collection, the distal tibia did not survive well and squatting facets were only observed
on the talus. Squatting facets are a result of the hyperdorsiflexion attributed to prolonged activity in
a squatting position that strains the foot. Squatting facets on the metarsals have been recorded on
remains from Guam and are likely the result of hyperflexion of the metatarsal-phalangeal joint. One
theory is that this occurs during the scaling of coconut palms (Hanson 1988). Other possibilities would
be any activity that requires the toes to be flexed, perhaps in a squatting or kneeling position.
There were three burials observed with squatting facets. Burial 7a, male 30–50 years of age, had a
squatting facet on the left talus. This talus also had a Steida’s process, which is discussed below. Burial
23, an individual of indeterminate sex age 20–35, had squatting facets on the left and right tali. Burial
28 is a male age 20–24 that had squatting facets on both tali. This individual also had enthesophytes at
the Achilles tendon, a calcaneal spur, and DJD on the articular surface of the calcaneus and tali. There
is also a Steida’s process on the tali. All of this suggests vigorous activity involving the feet, especially
given this person’s young age.
6.7.9 Unknown Etiology
Burial 63, an individual of indeterminate sex age 20+, has a facet that is a possible conoid joint. This
occurs on the left clavicle at the attachment for the deltoid. This is a normal variant of the clavicle that
is described by Scheuer and Black (2000:260) as follows:
In the case of a diarthrodial articulation, a triangular bony outgrowth arises from the inferior
surface of the clavicle, which meets a similar-shaped outgrowth from the upper surface of the
coracoid…. This condition can cause some pain and limitation of movement in the shoulder joint,
as well as numbness or tingling in the upper limb due to neurovascular involvement.
The Steida’s process is an elongated tubercle, which is considered to be an anatomical variant and when
separated from the body of the talus is referred to as an os trigonum. Steida’s process is caused when the
secondary ossification center fuses with the rest of the talus and usually occurs between 7 and 13 years
of age (Mann and Hunt 2005). There are two burials that exhibit this anomaly, Burial 7a (male 30–50
years) and Burial 28 (male 20–24 years).
A fused middle and distal foot phalange was recorded for Burial 18, an individual of indeterminate sex 20+
years old. Enthesophytes at the Achilles tendon were recorded for Burials 28 (male 20–24) and Burial 51
131
Afetna Point, Saipan
(indeterminate sex age 20+). Burial 52, female age 35–39, had a pathology of unknown etiology. There is an
extensive active periosteal reaction and remodeling of the right ulna, with an accompanying lytic reaction,
that has affected the proximal end and superior aspect of the olecranon. The affected area exhibits porosity
and remodeling with large pits, the posterior aspect also exhibits porosity and large pits and lipping along
the margins of the posterior articular surface. The trochlear notch exhibits lipping along the margins of the
articular surface. The radius and distal humerus are missing so it cannot be determined if other elements
were affected. Burial 53, an individual of indeterminate sex age 20–35, has a completely healed periosteal
reaction on the fibula at the interosseous crest due to trauma or a localized pathology of unknown etiology.
6.7.10 Occipital Superstructures
A protocol for scoring occipital superstructures was proposed by Heathcote et al. (1996) and was followed
in the current study. These scores are taken at three sites: the tubercle on the occipital torus (TOT),
the retromastoid process (PR), and the posterior supramastoid tubercle (TSP). Marked expressions of
the superstructures at these locations are phenomena that appear to be related to populations only in
Oceania. One theory for the marked expression in the Marianas’ populations and in the Latte peoples
specifically involves strenuous activities involved in stoneworking (cutting, dressing, moving, and
erecting the megaliths) (Heathcote et al. 1996). However, in a more recent examination of the occipital
superstructures, Heathcote et al. (2014) suggest that this interpretation may be simplistic and that more
factors may be at work resulting in the expression of these traits. The appearance of the superstructures
suggests that occipital superstructure development is essentially fibrocartilaginous at enthesis sites, and
activity may be a proximate cause in genetically predisposed individuals (Heathcote et al. 2014:1019).
Four burials were recorded as having the TOT present and moderately to marked expression of this trait.
See Appendix A for photographs of this trait. The burials with this trait include Burial 30 (indeterminate
sex 35–50 years of age), Burial 33 (indeterminate sex 20+ years old), Burial 44 (male 35–45 years of age),
and Burial 65 (indeterminate sex 20+ years old).
6.8 Mortuary Analysis
The work associated with the archaeological investigation for Parcel 004-1-52 in the village of San
Antonio project area included the discovery and excavation of the human remains. The human remains
were prehistoric Chamorro and WWII, probably Japanese, individuals and this mortuary analysis will
examine the Chamorro individuals only. This chapter will examine the patterns of the burials in terms
of location within the site and with information on age, sex, orientation, placement, and grave goods
for each burial. Location of the burials in the project area is shown in Figure 90. The burial information
is summarized in Table 42.
A cluster analysis was performed to identify spatial units using a k-means algorithm in the ArcGIS
program. The k-means algorithm is set to minimize the average squared distance between points in the
same ‘cluster.’ This was run to show how the data clustered using two to 15 groups. These plots were
examined and the optimum number of groups was selected, which for this assemblage was eight. Using
that set number of groups, the program was then run 10 times. The patterns produced would vary in
each of the 10 sets, with some groups remaining fairly constant in each run. This program is a heuristic
tool and does not have ‘one’ correct result. Further, the program puts all points into a cluster, creating
some spatially large groups. We arrived at the end result by looking at which burials routinely clustered
together, and then removing some of the points (burials) that were too distant to be meaningful. The
clusters are referred to as analysis areas (AAs). There are a number of burials that were isolated and
randomly scattered across the area of investigation. Given the amount of previous disturbances, both
prehistorically and more recently, it is no wonder that there would be isolated burials.
132
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Table 42. List of Burials including Age, Sex, Orientation, Placement, Position, and Grave Items
Burial
No.
Estimated Age
(years)
Estimated Sex
Orientation* Placement
Position
Facing
Burial Goods
Analysis
Area
42
Adolescent
(12–20)
Middle Adult
(40-44)
Middle Adult
(35–39)
Middle Adult
(35–39)
Young Adult
(17–24)
Adult
Adult
Young Adult
(20–35)
Adult
Young Adult
(20–25)
Young Adult
(25–39)
Female
southeast
extended
supine
N/A
none
1
Female
northeast
extended
supine
N/A
none
1
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
1
Female
N/A
extended
supine
N/A
none
1
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
1
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
extended
N/A
N/A
supine
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
none
none
1
1
1
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
extended
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
none
1
1
Male
southwest
extended
supine
N/A
50
Young Adult
(30–35)
Male
northeast
N/A
right side
northwest
none
1
3
Young Adult
(20–35)
Child (3–5)
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
2
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
2
Young Adult
(17–25)
Adult
Adult
Middle Adult
(35–50)
Young Adult
(20–24)
Middle Adult
(35–45)
Adult
Adult
Middle Adult
(35–39)
Young Adult
(20–30)
Adult
Child (8–10)
Young Adult
(30–35)
Young Adult
(24–30)
Middle Adult
(35–50)
Male
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
2
Indeterminate
Male
Male
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/a
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
spear point
none
3
3
3
Female
northeast
extended
supine
west
none
4
Female
northeast
extended
supine
N/A
none
4
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
none
none
4
4
5
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
5
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
none
none
5
5
6
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
6
Female
west
semiflexed
supine
up
none
6
46
47
52
54
49
51
53
55
56
48
2
1
6
4
9
59
60
58
61
24
25
26
27
29
31
37
133
none
1
Afetna Point, Saipan
Burial
No.
Estimated Age
(years)
Estimated Sex
Orientation* Placement
Position
Facing
Burial Goods
Analysis
Area
38
Female
west
extended
supine
up
none
6
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
6
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
6
33
34
Adolescent
(18–22)
Young Adult
(17–25)
Middle Adult
(30–50)
Adult
Child (3–6)
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
east
N/A
extended
N/A
supine
N/A
east
up
none
none
6
6
35
Infant (<2)
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
6
39
Adolescent
(12–20)
Adult
Adolescent
(12–18)
Adult
Young Adult
(20–24)
Old Adult (50+)
Middle Adult
(30–40)
Middle Adult
(35–45)
Middle Adult
(34–39)
Middle Adult
(35–50)
Middle Adult
(45–50)
Adult
Adult
Middle Adult
(35–39)
Middle Adult
(35–40)
Middle Adult
(40–50)
Young Adult
(18–25)
Middle Adult
(35–40)
Adult
Child (2–6)
Adult
Middle Adult
(30–40)
Adult
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
6
Indeterminate
south
extended
supine
N/A
none
6
Indeterminate
southeast
extended
supine
N/A
none
6
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
6
Male
north
extended
supine
south
none
6
Male
east
extended
supine
south
6
Male
east
extended
supine
west
none
Spondylus
bead
Male
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
coral bead
6
Female
east
extended
supine
N/A
none
7
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
7
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
7
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
none
7
7
Male
north
extended
supine
up
none
7
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
8
Female
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
8
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
8
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
8
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
none
none
8
8
8
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
8
Indeterminate
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
none
8
22
30
40
41
45
28
32
36
44
8
11
16
14
19
10
7
12
5
17
18
62
63
64
65
6
* Orientation indicates the position of the head relative to the post-cranial elements and is oriented along the spine.
134
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Table 43. Density of Burials within Each Analysis Area
Analysis
Area
Size (m²)
No. of
Burials
Density
(burials/
meter)
1
260
12
0.05
2
36
3
0.08
3
68
3
0.04
4
595
4
0.01
5
102
4
0.04
6
356
17
0.05
7
1,018
6
0.01
8
875
9
0.01
Total
58
Note: The number of burials includes the main
field-numbered burial only and not all the
comingled individuals.
Table 43 presents the size (m²) of each cluster,
number of burials, and density of burials in each
cluster. The largest cluster is AA 6 at 1,018 m² and
the smallest is AA 2 at 36 m². The densest AA is also
AA 2 with 0.08 burials per m². AAs 1, 3, 5, and 6 are
very similar in density with 0.04 and 0.05 burials
per m². The clustering of burials is similar to
patterns observed in the Latte period, which have
been considered by researchers to represent burial
beneath and around latte sets (Butler 1988; Davis
et al. 1992; Ray 1981; Reinman 1977; Ryan 2010;
Ryan et al. 1999; Spoehr 1957; Stodder et al. 2016;
Thompson 1971; Yawata 1961). Currently, there
is no archaeological indication of latte sets in the
area excavated during this project. Figure 6.18 to
Figure 6.22 show each AA and the burials with sex,
orientation, and position indicated when known.
Table 44. Subadult to Adult Frequency within Each Burial Cluster Area
Subadult
Adult
Total
Analysis
Area
n
%
n
%
n
%
1
1
8.3
11
91.7
12
20.7
2
1
33.3
2
66.7
3
5.2
3
0
0.0
3
100
3
5.2
4
0
0.0
4
100
4
6.9
5
1
25.0
3
75.0
4
6.9
6
5
29.4
12
70.6
17
29.3
7
0
0.0
6
100
6
10.3
8
1
11.1
8
88.9
9
15.5
Total
9
15.5
49
84.5
58
100
Table 45. Frequency of Females, Males, and Indeterminate Sex for Each Analysis Area,
Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio
Female
Male
Ind
Total
Analysis
Area
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
1
5
41.7
2
16.6
5
41.7
12
20.7
2
1
33.3
1
33.3
1
33.3
3
5.2
3
0
0.0
2
66.7
1
33.3
3
5.2
4
2
50.0
0
0.0
2
50.0
4
6.9
5
2
50.0
0
0.0
2
50.0
4
6.9
6
4
23.5
4
23.5
9
52.9
17
29.3
7
3
50.0
1
16.7
2
33.3
6
10.3
8
2
22.2
0
0.0
7
77.8
9
15.5
Total
19
32.8
10
17.2
29
50.0
58
100
Ind = Indeterminate sex which includes juveniles.
135
The following two tables
examine the frequency of
individuals by age and sex
(Table 44 and Table 45).
Subadults were present in AAs
1, 2, 5, 6, and 8. The presence
of both adults and subadults
as well as males and females
supports the idea that most
of these clusters represent
family or kinship units.
The frequencies of females
and males in each burial
cluster area are shown in Table
45. Most of the AAs have both
females and males, but there
are four that have only males
or females, although these
groups do have a number of
individuals of indeterminate
sex. It is possible that some
of the clusters are single-sex
residence units. Both sexes and
all age groups are represented.
Carr (1995) noted that location
of the burial within the
cemetery reflects horizontal
social
position
(group
affiliation), primarily the
deceased kin group. Kinship
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 90. Location of the burials recovered in the project area
136
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Figure 91. Burials in analysis areas 1 and 6
137
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 92. Burials in analysis areas 2 and 3
138
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Figure 93. Burials in analysis area 4
139
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 94. Burials in analysis area 5
140
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
Figure 95. Burials in analysis areas 7 and 8
141
Afetna Point, Saipan
may be the primary factor for association
within the burial clusters within the site in
this study. The clustering of burials reflects
a bounded area for interring the dead and is
one way to symbolize the inclusiveness of a
social group (especially lineage).
6.8.1 Burial Orientation
Table 46. Orientation for Burials from Parcel 004-1-52, San Antonio
Direction
Female
North
Northeast
3
Southeast
1
Southwest
Ind Sex
Total (N)
%
2
2
12.5
1
4
25.0
2
12.5
1
6.25
1
6.25
2
12.5
1
1
South
West
Male
1
2
The orientation of the burials is presented
East
1
2
1
4
25.0
below in Table 46 and in Figure 91 to
Total
7
6
3
16
100
Figure 95 (above). These data include the
main field-numbered burials. It does not Ind Sex = Sex Indeterminate.
include the commingled remains because
Table 47. Summary of Burial Placement for Parcel 004-1-52, San
no orientation could be collected for these
Antonio
individuals. They were not recognized in
Right Side
Supine
the field as separate individuals; they were
identified in the lab. The orientation is along
N
N
the spine and indicates the direction toward
Female
the head. The above figures (see Figures 91–
Extended
6
95) are keyed to indicate orientation, with
Semi-flexed
1
the circle representing the head and the
Male
line representing the spine. When there is
Extended
1
5
no line, the orientation could not be taken
Indeterminate Sex
in the field. This occurred with fragmentary
Extended
3
and incomplete burials with insufficient
Total
1
15
data to determine orientation. The shore
is to the west; and more burials have their
feet towards the beach than to any other direction. This is adding the burials that have their head to
the northeast, southeast, and east (10/16, 62.5 percent). Field information indicates a variability in the
orientation of the body of the body with burials also oriented to the north, south, southwest, and west.
When the orientation is correlated with sex, there the two males oriented to the north, two to the east, and
one each to the northeast and southwest. The orientation of the females indicates two towards the west,
three to the northeast, and one each oriented to southeast and east.
6.8.2 Burial Position and Placement
Burial position describes the body in terms of extended, semi-flexed, or flexed, which is based on the
appendicular elements placed in a straight alignment or with flexure of the elbow, knee, or hip and
the degree of that flexure. Placement of the body describes whether the body was placed on the back
(supine), front (prone), left side, or right side. The positions of the burials were mostly found to be
supine and extended position, but with one in a semi-flexed and one on its right side. Burial placement
is shown in Table 47.
6.8.3 Grave Goods
Only three males had an item that was likely a grave good. The males were Burial 4, an adult with a bone
spear point fragment in AA 3. Burial 36, a middle adult male, had one Spondylus bead, and Burial 44, a
middle adult male, had a coral bead; both are in AA 6. In AA 6, Burials 33 to 37 were closely clustered
142
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
and three Spondylus beads were found. The beads were loose in the fill and it is not clear with which
burial they were originally associated. A cautionary note on the grave goods should be kept in mind.
The site area has been disturbed by human and natural causes from prehistoric to modern times. The
disturbances could have resulted in some artifacts that were not intentionally placed being introduced
into the area of a burial. Similarly, items that may have been placed with a burial might have been
subsequently moved or removed during disturbance events. Artifacts considered grave goods were in
the immediate area or close proximity to a burial. Other artifacts that are more likely to be part of the
general cultural deposit were not considered as grave items. These items would be introduced when the
pit for the deceased was dug and backfilled, and the artifacts in the deposit would have ended up near
the burial.
6.8.4 Discussion
In general terms, mortuary analysis is an examination of the patterns of the burials that may indicate
the actions, behaviors, rituals, symbols, and ideology of a specific community or culture. The difficulties
lie in finding meaningful ways to connect the actions, behaviors, rituals, symbols, and ideology with the
material remains. There are no easy generalizations that can be drawn upon and any connection would
need to be specific to the culture being studied. Different theoretical approaches have been described
and applied, such using the data to generalize underlying social complexity, inherited status, and overall
social organization. One of the underlying assumptions in this approach is that the burial adequately
represents the funeral ritual and social organization. The obvious problem with this assumption is that
the archaeological remains do not preserve the entire rite of passage. What we are left with is the
portion of that ritual that is tangible and has survived through time.
Previous excavations in the Marianas reveal that during prehistoric and early historic times, burial
beneath or adjacent to latte sets was common (Butler 1988; Davis et al. 1992; Ray 1981; Reinman 1977;
Ryan 2010; Ryan et al. 1999; Spoehr 1957; Stodder et al. 2016; Thompson 1971; Yawata 1961). The location
of burials has provided indirect evidence for the presence of latte sets or pole and thatch structures
(Bath 1986). Previous research has hypothesized that prehistoric Chamorro villages included structures
for ordinary households, high-status households, and men’s houses (Davis et al. 1992; Graves 1986, 1991;
Hunter-Anderson and Butler 1991; Reinman 1977; Walth 2016). Some dwellings consisted of pole and
thatch structures raised on wooden posts, and possibly higher-status structures raised on limestone
pillars (latte sets). Researchers have found that Chamorro burials in and around latte sets tend to orient
perpendicular to the long axis of a structure when buried beneath, and parallel when buried outside of
a structure (Bath 1986:33; Butler 1988; Graves 1986:146; Ray 1981; Reinman 1977; Ryan 2010; Ryan et al.
1999; Thompson 1971; Yawata 1961).
In terms of understanding burial practices based on mortuary patterns, Carr (1995) found that local
grave location and formal demarcation of the cemetery most frequently indicated the horizontal social
position of the deceased, including his/her lineal descent group. The variable, ‘horizontal social position’
pertains to sodalities, kinship groups, or residence groups, and could then inform us of potential social
groups for the current investigation. The eight clusters of burials found during the current investigation
suggest that these clusters may be organized as kinship and residence groups (as defined by Carr). A
cautionary note pertaining to analyses of this nature is that the span of time represented covers a
relatively large span of years and this compression in a single cultural layer may create unintended
patterning.
Carr (1995) used the human relations area files (HRAF) to understand the social organization and
philosophical-religious, physical, and circumstantial factors that affect mortuary practices. Some key
findings from his research are that mortuary practices are determined by a complex mix of factors.
143
Afetna Point, Saipan
Mortuary practices that reflected social organization included cemetery internal organization, the
overall energy expended on mortuary activities, and disposition of the body, the number of socially
recognized burial types, the number of persons per grave, and the type of grave ‘furniture’ (i.e., grave
goods; Carr 1995:190). Horizontal social position, primarily the kin or residential group, is indicated by
where the burial is located within the cemetery. Vertical social organization is reflected by variables
that include type of grave furniture (grave goods). Variables that reflect philosophical-religious ideas
more than social organization include body position, body orientation, and the spatial arrangement of
furniture in the grave. Orientation reflects a society’s belief about the afterlife, universal orders, and the
soul’s journey to the afterlife (Carr 1995:157).
Social organization is reflected by several factors, including the type of grave furniture (Carr 1995). If
this is true for the individuals buried in Parcel 004-1-52 in the village of San Antonio, then vertical social
positioning may be reflected in the type of grave items. Only three individuals from the current project
had grave items, all were males and each had only one item. The low number of grave items suggests
any inference of vertical social position may not be adequately represented by the presence/absence
or type of grave items. Since only males had grave items, this may suggest that a higher vertical social
position may be bestowed upon males (patrilineal).
Applying Carr’s findings to the current investigation, the orientation of the placement of each burial is
somewhat variable, but overall, most have their feet pointed generally towards the beach. Further, there
is a similarity in the body position (extended and supine). This may indicate that there may be a one
unifying philosophical-religious or worldview as represented by the commonality in the orientation,
placement, and position of the burials. In terms of social positioning, the organization of the burials
around a dwelling reflects the horizontal social position and is primarily kin based. Four of the AAs have
only one sex, but they do also include individuals where sex could not be estimated. AAs 3, 4, 5, and 8
may be residence groups, whereas AAs 1, 2, 6, and 7 may represent family kin groups.
One of the research questions asks about identifying possible latte structures in the project area. The
location of burial clusters provides a proxy for locations of latte sets. The cluster analysis was completed
to offer a means of determining which burials cluster together to help answer this research question. To
further tease out this answer requires looking at the size of the AA units defined from the cluster analysis
and compare that with known information on latte structures. Bath (1986:33–34) proposed four criteria
for estimating the number and location of dwellings within a site. This was based on information from
Guam, however the underlying assumptions would be comparable to Saipan. Those four criteria are:
1. The long axis of structures….will be oriented somewhere between due north and due east, with
the most likely orientation between N 50°E and N 68°E. This assumption is extended to pole-andthatch houses.
2. House length will vary between 10 and 12 meters, width between 2.9 and 3.6 meters, and distance
between stones or posts between 2.5 and 3.5 meters.
3. The short axis will be at right angles to the long axis.
4. A concentration of burials with a consistent orientation provides evidence of a prior house
structure oriented perpendicular to the burial orientation. (Bath 1986:33–34)
Given the above postulated length and width of a latte dwelling, the overall size would fall between 29
and 43.2 m2. No size was specified for pole-and-thatch structures, but it is assumed that they would not
be any larger and could be smaller. Information on the size of the AA units from this site were presented
above in Table 8.27. AA units 2 and 3 fall within the postulated size for a latte structure. AA 5 is about
twice the size, and the remaining AAs go up in size from there. However, it is possible that the larger
size is a result of one or more factors. Burials are also interred outside of the latte structure, and this
144
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
would increase the overall size greatly. This would make AA units 1, 4, and 6 in the likely realm for a latte
structure depending on the distance outside of the footprint of the structure that burials were interred.
This still leaves AA 7 and 8 being exceptionally large. These two AAs also have a very low density of
burials. Another possibility is that is that a latte structure may have been constructed, removed, and
a new structure placed in a similar area but outside of the original footprint. Looking at size, burial
density, age, and sex of the burials, it is likely that AAs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 do represent latte or some other
residential habitation structure.
6.9 Conclusions
6.9.1 Summary
The human burials at Parcel 004-1-52 were overall in fair condition. The site and some burials had been
disturbed by prehistoric activity. In the pre-Contact period, it was common to bury an individual under
or near a structure where other individuals had previously been interred, thus disturbing the earlier
burials with the new interment. Disturbance also occurred in historic and recent times. The project area
is on a National Historic Landmark WWII American invasion beach, with a WWII Japanese ammunition
magazine, a U.S. Coast Guard Loran facility used from 1944 to 1978, and the remnants of a modern
concrete pad for a boxing rink and food stand. Burials had also been disturbed by the construction of
nearby roads, road repairs, and the installation of various utilities.
All human remains were considered (field- and laboratory-numbered burials, comingled remains, and
isolated remains) in the calculation of MNI; age and sex were also taken into consideration. The human
remains included individuals that were Chamorro and a few from WWII, probably Japanese soldiers.
To calculate MNI, the remains were first separated by cultural affiliation. A MNI of four Japanese was
identified. The MNI for the Chamorro remains totaled 89, with 60 field-numbered burials plus 29
individuals identified in the lab.
Analyses of dental patterns in the teeth of Southeast Asians, Northern Asians, Polynesians, Micronesians,
and Australians have been completed over the last few decades (see work reported in Turner 1987, 1990a,
1990b; and Scott and Turner 1997). Two major dental divisions have been identified and independently
confirmed by other research such as evidence from cranial metrics (Pietrusewsky 1990a, 1990b, 2005).
The two dental groups are referred to as Sinodonty and Sundadonty (Turner 1990a). Sinodonts are
represented by major populations in China, Mongolia, Japan, Korea, Northeast Asia, and North and
South America. The name Sundadonts was coined from the Sunda Shelf, a geological feature that is
now submerged but once connected much of Southeast Asia with the archipelago of islands in the
region. Sundadonts include populations on mainland and insular Southeast Asia as well as Polynesians
and Micronesians. The two groups are identified by a difference in the expression of a suite of dental
traits in these various populations. Turner (1990a) found that the following eight traits were key in the
dichotomization between these two groups: 1) shoveling UI1; 2) double shoveling UI1; 3) one-rooted
UP1; 4) enamel extension UM1; 5) reduced, peg, or absence UM3; 6) deflection wrinkle LM1; 7) threerooted LM1; and 8) four-cusped LM2.
The current study used the ASU DAS for recording dental nonmetric traits. This system offers a means
of standardizing the recording of dental traits (Turner et al. 1991). The data from the current study
were compared with the frequency of occurrence for the two main ancestral groups (Sinodonts and
Sundadonts). Table 48 displays the mean and standard deviation of the Sundadonts and Sinodonts, which
reflects the frequency of occurrence in the represented populations (see Turner 1990a:Tables 1–9). The
data from the current investigation show the frequency of occurrence for this group. The comparison
with the Sundadont and Sinodont data indicates that the individuals from this site are more closely
145
Afetna Point, Saipan
Table 48. Comparison of Parcel 004-1-52 with Key Traits of Sundadonts and Sinodonts
Current Site
Sundadont*
Sinodont*
%
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Shoveling UI1
21.4
30.8
15.8
71.1
11.5
Double shovel UI1
28.6
22.7
18.2
55.8
21.9
One-rooted UP1
57.1
70.6
11.8
78.8
11.4
Enamel extension UM1
0.0
26.4
16.5
50.1
9.5
P-R-CA UM3
10.0
16.3
10.0
32.4
10.3
Deflection wrinkle LM1
15.8
25.5
18.3
44.1
19.7
Three-rooted LM1
3.8
8.8
5.8
24.7
7.7
Four-cusped LM2
52.2
30.7
14.1
15.5
6.9
†
* From Turner (1990a:Table 9).
†
Peg, Reduced, Congenital Absence (P-R-CA) was combined to determine this frequency; note that bold text indicates the
group to which the individuals from Parcel 004-1-52 are closest.
SD = standard deviation.
related to the Sundadonts. The table below does show one trait that has a different frequency than that
of either group: the incidence of enamel extension on upper M1. This may reflect a genetic signature of
a different group, possibly those of the Carolinians or those of Spanish or Philippine descent. However,
it may also reflect the small sample size. More studies would need to be completed to confirm the
difference.
Culturally induced dental modifications observed in the Parcel 004-1-52 individuals include betel nut
staining. Betel nut staining may have included both incidental staining, from the cultural practice of
chewing the areca nut, and from intentionally stained (painted) teeth. Betel nut staining was found in
almost all of the adult teeth for this group. Children appear to not chew or have their teeth painted
and this may be part of a rite of passage at some point near young adulthood. Once a person became an
adult, all seemed to practice this cultural modification. Both males and females had stained teeth.
6.9.2 How do the individuals recovered compare to remains recovered from other sites?
Sites with burials recovered and analysis completed that have comparable data are presented in Table
49. The sites used for comparison include Hunter-Anderson et al. (1996) reporting from Susupe, Saipan,
that had an MNI of 32 individuals, Pietrusewsky and Batista (1980) report from four sites on Tinian and
Saipan with MNI counts of 6, 5, 2, and 33 individuals, Hanson (1989) reports from the Duty Free site on
Saipan with an MNI of 8, Pietrusewsky and Douglas (1989) report on 34 individuals from Oleai, Saipan,
and Walth (2017) reports from the Agana Bridge site on Guam.
The Saipan Judiciary Center site (Hunter-Anderson et al. 1996) recovered human remains from eight
areas. These areas with clustered burials was described as relating to the location of residences and
likely associated with latte structures. In total, there were 32 individuals recovered from this site. There
were infants to older adults and a mix of males, females, and individuals indeterminate to sex, however,
the report does not provide summary information as to the age and sex of each burial or a summary
of the remains by age and sex. For this report, we summarized from the scant information available to
create the data for the age and sex distribution used in Table 8.39 below.
Pietrusewsky and Batista (1980) reported on four sites with human remains, three on Saipan and one on
Tinian. Tinian House had a MNI of four individuals and includes one with yaws. Marianas High School
had an MNI of five, Grotto site had an MNI of two, and San Antonio site had an MNI of 33. San Antonio
146
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
site had a burial pit with skulls stacked on top of each other, which is atypical, but is similar to what
Pietrusewsky and Douglas (1989) reported in the Oleai site.
The skeletal remains from the Duty Free site (Hanson 1989) included eight individuals—two females, six
males, and one child of approximately 2 years of age. The adults were 40 years or older and there was
little pathological evidence of significant disease in any of the individuals.
The remains from the Oleai site included 34 individuals. However, 14 of these were represented by
skulls and/or mandibles only, which is very atypical (Pietrusewsky and Douglas 1989). Further, adults
outnumber subadults greatly and males outnumbered females almost 2 to 1. Features of the cranial and
postcranial remains otherwise compared favorably to other Chamorro remains.
The Agana Bridge site is also known as San Antonio Village (Walth 2017) on the island of Guam. This site
was included because it has comparable data and includes many individuals from the late Latte period
to Contact. There is an MNI of 94 individuals recovered from this site. The individuals recovered from
this site were generally healthy, active people. There was evidence of yaws but otherwise there was little
significant disease.
Table 50 gives the data on Parcel 004-1-52 and the comparative sites. The small sample sizes for most
of the comparable sites may explain the variability in the ratios of subadults to adults and males to
females. The ratio of subadult to adult is also greatly influenced by preservation. The smaller, more
fragile, subadult elements are often poorly preserved in comparison to the more robust adult elements.
The samples from Tinian House and Oleai have unusual ratios of males to females. Removing those from
consideration, then the Judiciary Center and Duty Free sites have more males, and all the others have a
greater number of females. Life expectancy was not calculated for any of the sites except for Parcel 0041-52 and Agana Bridge. These two sites compare well in the life expectancy of the individuals recovered.
Information on the stature of males and females is presented in Table 51. In general, all individuals
are very comparable. The tallest individual was a male from the San Antonio site followed by one from
Table 49. Comparative Assemblages from Saipan and Guam
Title
Short Name
Author(s)
Date
MNI
Archaeological Monitoring and Hand
Excavations in Eight Burial Areas at
the Saipan Judiciary Center, Susupe,
Saipan
Judiciary Center
Hunter-Anderson
et al.
1996
32
Latte
Human skeletal and Dental Remains
from Four Sites on Tinian and Saipan,
Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands
Tinian House
Marianas High School
Grotto
San Antonio
Pietrusewsky and
Batista
1980
6
5
2
33
Latte
The Skeletal Biology of Prehistoric
Human Mortuary Remains from
the Duty Free Site, Garapan Village,
Saipan
Duty Free
Hanson
1989
9
Latte
Human Remains from Oleai, Saipan
Oleai
Pietrusewsky and
Douglas
1989
34
Latte
Final report: Archaeological
Investigation for the Agana Bridge
#1 and Route 1/Route 8 Intersection
Improvements Project (GU-NH-0001
(14)), Hagatna, Guam. Volume II:
Osteological Analysis
Agana Bridge
Walth
2017
94
Latte (Early to Late)
147
Affiliation
Afetna Point, Saipan
Table 50. Age, Sex Profiles, and Life Expectancy for Comparative Assemblages and Parcel 004-1-52
Site
Subadult to Adult Ratio
Judiciary Center
Male to Female Ratio
Life Expectancy
10/16
1:1.6
1.5:1
N/A
Tinian House
2/4
1:2
0:4
N/A
Marianas High School
2/3
1:1.5
1:2
N/A
Grotto
0/2
0:2
1:1
N/A
San Antonio
1/32
1:32
1:1
N/A
Duty Free
1/7
1:7
3:1
N/A
Oleai
5/29
1:5.8
1.9:1
N/A
Agana Bridge
24/65
1:2.7
1.2:1
26.6
Parcel 004-1-52
16/73
1:4.6
1:1.7
30.2
Table 51. Stature Calculations for Parcel 004-1-52 and Comparative Assemblages
Male Stature
Site
Female Stature
Range in cm
Range in feet/inches
Range in cm
Range in feet/inches
173.8
5′8″
158.3
5′2″
163.5–163.8
5′4″
150–173
4′11″–5′8″
Judiciary Center
Tinian House
San Antonio
170–193
5′7″–6′4″
Duty Free
174
5′8″
Oleai
65.6–69.1
5′5″–5′9″
59.4–64.5
4′11″–5′4″
Agana Bridge
170–179.7
5′7″–5″11″
156.1–162.2
5″1–5′4″
Parcel 004-1-52
168.3–170.7
5′6″–5′7″
158.1–165.8
5′2″–5′5″
Agana Bridge site, and the shortest was from Oleai. The other males generally fall with the range of 5′7″
to 5′9″. The tallest female was also from San Antonio and San Antonio and Oleai both had the shortest
females. In general, the females range from 5′1″ to 5′5″. Parcel 004-1-52 fits well within the range for
males and females.
For the data on tooth summaries, there are only four assemblages that calculated this metric (Table 51).
The San Antonio Village individuals have some of the largest teeth overall, but Parcel 004-1-52 females have
unusually large teeth. Oleai individuals have very small teeth. Parcel 004-1-52 males have smaller teeth than
the females which is not common, but otherwise fall within the upper range of tooth summary size.
The recordation of LEH was reported by tooth and not by individual for all but the Agana Bridge and
Parcel 004-1-52 assemblages. For these two assemblages, the females did not have LEH observed. Male
individuals did have LEH and Parcel 004-1-52 had considerably more males with LEH than the Agana
Bridge assemblage (Table 52).
Table 51. Tooth Summary Data for Parcel 004-1-52 and Comparative
Assemblages
Study Sample
Male
Female
San Antonio
Total Sample
1,427
Table 52. Linear Enamel Hypoplasia in Parcel 0041-52 and Comparative Assemblages
1,085
1,011
1,071
Study Sample
Agana Bridge
1,397.4
1,283.8
1,314.9
Parcel 004-1-52
1,237.2
1,470.8
1,391.8
Oleai
148
Male
Female
Agana Bridge
0.2%
0.0%
Parcel 004-1-52
13.3%
0.0%
Chapter 6 Osteological Analysis
The remains from Judiciary Center included pathological conditions of osteoarthritis, periostitis,
osteomyelitis, and cribra orbitalia. Caries were present but in low numbers and periodontal disease
was present. Many of the teeth were stained from betel-nut chewing. LEH was not observed on the
deciduous dentition but was on the permanent dentition. The LEH is 38.9 percent for all teeth, which
is quite high. The results were not reported by individual, only for all teeth, and was not reported by
sex. Thus this site is not included in Table 6.42 above. This suggests some stress but not in the early
childhood years, but certainly in the later developmental years.
The pathologies present in the individuals from Tinian House include treponemal infection (yaws), but
because of poor preservation, no other pathologies were noted on the skeletal remains. Tinian House
had teeth stained from betel-nut chewing. There were caries, abscesses, and periodontal disease present
in these individuals.
The pathologies noted in the Marianas High School include some osteoarthritis. Because of poor
preservation, no other pathologies were noted. Grotto had two individuals recovered and osteoarthritis
was present in both.
San Antonio site included mostly skulls and mandibles, and the dental pathologies included antemortem
tooth loss, caries, abscesses, and periodontal disease. The dentition for adults did have betel-nut staining
on the teeth. For the skeletal remains, the preservation was poor and no pathologies were noted.
The Duty Free site had poor preservation, thus there is little information on the pathological condition
of these individuals. The ends of long bones and vertebrae did not survive well so even osteoarthritis
was not observed. There was no traumatic injury on any of the elements present.
The remains from Oleai recorded typical pathological conditions, which included osteoarthritis, trauma,
treponemal infection (yaws), hyperostosis, and cribra orbitalia. Dental pathologies included tooth loss
(antemortem), caries, and LEH. The LEH is reported by tooth and not by individual and is therefore
not included in Table 8.42 above. Betel-nut staining was present on most teeth, with females having a
greater number stained than the males.
The Agana Bridge burial assemblage noted trauma, treponemal infection, cribra orbitalia, and
osteoarthritis. The dental pathologies included caries, LEH, abscesses, antemortem tooth loss, and
calculus. Betel-nut staining was observed on the adult dentitions.
All of the above are conditions typically observed in archaeological specimens from the Mariana Islands.
Parcel 004-1-52 is no exception. The individuals in Parcel 004-1-52 assemblage were generally healthy,
active people. There is possible evidence of yaws, which is known to be endemic for the pre-Contact
population. Anemia, represented by cribra orbitalia, was absent for this group. There is also a low
frequency of LEH. The absence of cribra and low frequency of LEH would suggest that childhood stress
was not frequent or severe enough to impact the overall health of the individual. The occurrence of
osteoarthritis, although commonly found, is generally within expectations for adults over 30 that are
very active. The amount of physical stress was likely low. The people were active, but the activity was
not overly strenuous. This suggests good overall health and nutrition for this group.
149
Chapter 7
Discussion of Research Questions
The following discussion of research questions posed in Chapter 3 presents interpretations of features,
artifacts, and data analyses described above by Prehistoric Period divided into the Pre-Latte (1500 B.C.
to A.D. 800) and Latte Periods (A.D. 800 to 1668).
7.1 Pre-Latte Period
Very little in situ evidence of the early Pre-Latte settlement of Saipan circa 1500 B.C. was expected on
the property given reconstructions of the former coastline when sea levels were approximately 1.8
meter (5.9 feet) higher than today (Carson 2008).There was not any evidence expected of subsequent
occupation until after the coastline stabilized circa 500 B.C. if not much later (Butler 1994; Dickinson
2000).
Research Question 1: Could the prograded Pre-Latte Period shoreline and backdune aquatic environments be
identified by sealed cultural deposits within the project area and if so, what could their analysis say about
land use and marine exploitation prior to A.D. 1000?
The late Pre-Latte Period high ground for some time before A.D. 1000 appears to have been situated
just east of the Middle School parking lot and on a north to south orientation across the middle of the
property, as the stratigraphic column of Road Feature 4 suggests. Two thin stratigraphic layers were
noted between 50 and 100 centimeters (19.7 and 39.4 inches) below surface, containing only sparse
cultural remains and a few dogas shells but no features. This probably indicated the high ground was
briefly occupied more than once in between periodic storm surges as the Stratum III beach sands
accumulated and later Latte Period occupants then created the Stratum II cultural horizon on top.
East to west trenching along Aguas Street indicated that this early landform with occasional Type A
rim sherds and undecorated redware was only about 30 meters (98.4 feet) wide. Unfortunately Aguas
Street lay astride the 1987 sand mine, which appeared to have targeted the Stratum IV sands below for
extraction. Also representative of this same high ground before A.D. 1000 was the profile of Feature D
recorded directly south of the sand mine during the survey phase of investigation (Dixon and McCurdy
2015b). Dark lenses were found beneath the Latte Period Stratum II, which suggested short-term or nonintensive late Pre-Latte Period activities.
The water table was encountered at the base of the sand mine, roughly 3 meters (9.8 feet) below surface
or less with prolonged rainfall. No deeper cultural horizons were observed during geophysical testing in
the survey phase of investigation (Dixon and McCurdy 2015b) or data recovery. The early to middle PreLatte coastline was therefore hypothesized to have been situated east of Beach Road (Moore et al. 1992),
first behind and then around the shrinking Lake Susupe marsh in the vicinity of Chalan Piao before 100
B.C. (Amesbury et al. 1996; Athens and Ward 2005; Athens et al. 2004). The late Pre-Latte coastline in San
Antonio would only have been located midway through the property circa A.D. 500, as sea level dropped
and the lagoon formed in front. Little in situ evidence of late Pre-Latte marine shell consumption was
noted to measure subsistence changes over time (Amesbury 2007), but dogas shells did appear in much
lower quantities below Road Feature 4. This suggests that their habitat was restricted before the Latte
Period. It has been noted that falling sea levels would have killed large areas of the PreLatte reef, which
when covered in shallow sands, would later create a favorable habitat for Strombus (Amesbury 1999).
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Figure 96. Schematic Cross-Sections of GTP Locations across the Western End of Parcel
Chapter 7 Discussion of Research Questions
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Afetna Point, Saipan
A reconstruction of the depositional sequence across the Parcel 004-I-52 landscape was enabled by
compiling three stratigraphic cross-sections (Figures 96 and 97). Each transect portrays profiles of
geotechnical test pits (GTP) excavated during the survey phase of investigation (Dixon and McCurdy
2015a) at their absolute elevation as recorded by Hofschneider & Associates. The transect containing GTP
3, 4, and 9 oriented from north to southeast (Figure 98) roughly paralleled the late Pre-Latte Period high
ground before A.D. 1,000 and GTP 3 was situated at the highest elevation across the site at approximately
3.7 meters (12 feet) above sea level. Unfortunately, GTP 3 was truncated after encountering human
remains in the Stratum II cultural horizon during the survey phase of investigation. The presence of
Layer III sands at the top of GTP 4 in the bottom of the sand mine was assumed to be the result of
redeposition by erosion after abandonment of the mine in 1987, and was not an intact stratigraphic
sequence.
Earlier strata were not apparent until Feature 4 was exposed. GTP 4 revealed that the water table in the
bottom of the sand mine was near sea level. The water table at GTP 9, located to the south, was at the
interface between modern Stratum I and Latte Period Stratum II, probably near the existing grade of
Beach Road before construction of the USCG LORAN Station began in 1944.
The subsequent Latte Period high ground, circa A.D. 1416-1669, appeared to be seaward of the sand mine
based on the majority of burials and cooking features encountered during data recovery. Although a
few probable earlier Latte Period human remains were encountered around the north and south edges
of the mine judging from their depth below Stratum II, a few were found even further west near the
Middle School fence. This depositional sequence was best portrayed in the west to east transect of
GTP 1 through GTP 9 (Figure 99) and the southwest to northeast transect consisting of GTP 1 through
GTP 7 (Figure 100). Both transects demonstrated the complete absence of modern Stratum I and Latte
Period Stratum II at GTP 1 in the vicinity of the Japanese munitions magazine. This was confirmed by
monitored mechanical excavations along the western fence line. GTP 5 and GTP 8 were situated at the
bottom of the sand mine near the water table, while GTP 7 and GTP 9 were at the interface between
modern Stratum I and Latte Period Stratum II before construction of the USCG LORAN Station began in
1944. The presence of Layer IIa/b and III at the top of GTP 8 in the bottom of the sand mine was assumed
to be the result of redeposition by erosion after abandonment of the mine in 1987, and was not an intact
stratigraphic sequence.
7.2 Latte Period
After A.D. 800-1000 and into the final centuries of sustained European contact before La Reduccion in
the early 1700s, it would appear likely the receding project area coastline was attractive to Latte Period
inhabitants. Although such archaeological evidence was not recorded in the 1920s by Hans Hornbostel
perhaps this was due to dense coconut plantings undertaken during the German and Japanese Periods.
Research Question 2: Could Latte Period habitation structures and use areas in SP 1-1037 be identified from
patterned subsurface features or near more ephemeral structures and could middens be identified and dated
in their vicinity?
While no evidence of latte habitation support architectural features (e.g., haligi or tasa) was encountered,
an almost continuous zone used for food preparation, cooking, eating, and discard that measured at
least 50 to 75 meters (164.0 to 246.1 feet) wide is presumed to have been situated on the seaward or
downwind side of the Latte Period community’s habitations, as noted elsewhere in the CNMI (Dixon et
al. 2006; Russell and Fleming 1986). Virtually the entire width of the property on the west edge of the
former sand mine contained a layer of disturbed organic midden soil with shellfood remains, tools of
marine shell (Figure 101) and basalt (Figure 102), sling stones, and Latte Period pottery (Figure 103) with
152
Figure 97. Schematic Cross-Sections of GTP Locations Across the Eastern End of Parcel
Chapter 7 Discussion of Research Questions
153
Figure 98. North to Southeast Cross-Section with GTP 3, GTP 4, and GTP 9 Soil Profiles
Afetna Point, Saipan
154
Figure 99. West to East Cross-Section with GTP 1, GTP 5, and GTP 9 Soil Profiles
Chapter 7 Discussion of Research Questions
155
Figure 100. Southwest to Northeast Cross-Section with GTP 1, GTP 8, GTP 6, and GTP 7
Afetna Point, Saipan
156
Figure 101. Diagnostic Shell Artifacts
Chapter 7 Discussion of Research Questions
157
Figure 102. Diagnostic Basalt Artifacts
Afetna Point, Saipan
158
Figure 103. Diagnostic Ceramic Artifacts
Chapter 7 Discussion of Research Questions
159
Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 104. Hypothetical Latte Structure in Correlation with Burials 31 through 44
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Chapter 7 Discussion of Research Questions
Type B rims (Stratum II) (Butler 1990; Moore and Hunter-Anderson 1999; Russell 1998). While specific
family cooking and eating areas may have been spatially and temporally discrete events over centuries
(Bulgrin 2009; Dixon et al. 2011), food preparation on such a large scale with 2 meter (6.6 feet) deep
dogas ovens and large hearth complexes suggests both communal marine shell collection and periodic
feasting involving multiple households (Dietler and Hayden 2001). Interestingly, the deepest dogas oven
(Feature 5) contained sediments radiocarbon dated between A.D. 1669 and 1780, decades later than
the smaller dogas oven (Feature 3) and two hearth complexes (Features 1 and 2) that dated A.D. 14501646, and the other deep dogas oven (Feature 8) that dated A.D. 1513-1601. This chronological sequence,
based on Bayesian sequence models for initial site use (Cal A.D. 1416-1517), implies more intense food
production at the end of the Latte Period and presumed highest population density, before the site and
island were forcibly abandoned during La Reduccion circa A.D. 1721.
If so, the other deep dogas oven (Feature 8) dated A.D. 1513-1601 suggests resident families at Afetna
Point, and perhaps in much of what is now San Antonio, were increasingly bound together by kinship
obligations to participate in communal gathering events and periodic feasting (today referred to as
fiestas) as found in other matrilineal societies across Micronesia (Rainbird 2004). An example of such
resource collection, after demographic recovery from WWII in Tumon Beach on Guam, was noted
where ‘People would rake the sand at the waters edge and collect bivalves… and dogas… [that] were
cooked and eaten as a soup, usually with barbequed breadfruit’ (Bulgrin and Bulgrin 2009). Rebuilding
of family residences after devastating typhoons would certainly have called for communal labor (c.f.
Spennemann 2004), as it still does today. Family births and deaths would also have been unifying events,
as burial customs described below appear to imply. Hypothetical reconstruction of these Latte Period
family residences was further complicated by considerable disturbances from pre-war plantations,
WWII, and post-war construction of the USCG LORAN Station. The charred material in the soil of the
hearth complexes and dogas ovens was identified by Microfossil Research as grass and palm phytoliths,
with marine sponge silica, and taro starch or rapides of other aroid corms and leaves. These remains
were presumed to be fuel used to generate the fires of the cooking features, and perhaps residue from
its cooked ingredients.
Notwithstanding these challenges to plant and food preservation, Burials 31 through 44 were found to
be relatively intact during excavation and appeared to be a discrete cluster of 12 individuals within a
rectangular area roughly 3 meters (9.8 feet) wide north to south by 6.5 meters (21.3 feet) long east to
west. Given the approximate distance of 3 meters (9.8 feet) between and across pairs of haligi in most
average sized latte sets (Morgan 1988), this cluster would appear to fit a 3-pair Latte habitation structure
quite well (Figure 104). Excavations also yielded at least three stratigraphic sets of burials: an elder male
in deepest position (Burial 38a), two adults immediately above (Burials 37 and 38) and three to the east
at their feet (Burials 34, 41, and 45), plus four possible subadults to the north (Burials 32, 33, 36, and
42). Also present were craniums apparently not associated anatomically with these individuals (Burials
35 and 44), although some movement during secondary interment or removal of burial components
is possible. It is tempting to interpret this particular cluster as a nuclear family of three generations,
especially given the near absence of teeth and healing in the eldest manamko Burial 38a’s mandible who
lived to 60 years old or more, presumably cared for by his family to a venerable old age. A smaller cluster
of Burials 46 through 48, within a possible 4 haligi/2-pair latte set not far away (Figure 105), suggest
a possible kinship-related household of another nuclear family, without the earlier manamko or later
grandchildren.
Unfortunately none of the remaining burials recorded on the property are as discretely clustered as
Burials 31 through 44. Many appear to have been buried in pairs, denoting familial ties if not the close
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Afetna Point, Saipan
Figure 105. Hypothetical Latte Structure in Correlation with Burials 46 and 47
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Chapter 7 Discussion of Research Questions
timing of their deaths. Worthy of note is that this possible latte set house at Burials 31 through 44 is
oriented on its long axis east to west, perpendicular to and not parallel to the coast as is depicted in
most larger coastal villages in the Mariana Islands (Graves 1986; Morgan 1988). Its orientation and small
size relative to many larger village structures, even if it is the largest or at least longest occupied house
in Site SP 1-1037 (discounting what may have been present in the 1980s sand mine), may imply that
the Puntan Afetna community grew in a more organic manner, rather than being a more symmetrical
planned community as perhaps was the case in Garapan. Radiocarbon dates from cooking features and
middens found on both sides of Burials 31 through 44, within the property boundary, also cluster toward
the end of the Latte Period from the late 1400s to the late 1600s. The local community may have not had
the residential longevity of neighbors to the north or east. Isolated burials and pairs may have reflected
shorter term family habitations toward the late 1600s, especially those found seaward of Burials 31
through 44 and its surrounding intensive activity zone, in shallow sands.
Another alterative activity, perhaps represented by the two hearth complexes Features 1 and 2, could
be the production of pottery, likely undertaken at the family level but redistributed through each
community as need and gifting required. While such features have rarely been recognized as such in
the Northern Marianas, reconstructions of bonfire kiln stacks in the Caribbean appear to have similar
elements – a stone base in a shallow basin on which the vessels lie above and below fuel of wood and
then grass or leaves as cover (Figure 106). After repeated combustion events, each with removal of fired
vessels, one might presumably have a feature consisting of a large spread of burned soils and residual
fuel materials such as palm leaves, plus burned rock clusters with ash. ‘Most potters allowed their wares
to cool before pulling them from the dying fire to prevent undue cracking through rapid heat loss’
(Krause 2016:59), but occasional broken pottery sherds might result from unsuccessfully fired vessels. A
thatched roof set in shallow postholes might keep the rain from ruining each firing.
Figure 106. Hypothetical Latte Period Bonfire Pottery Kiln
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Afetna Point, Saipan
Research Question 3: Could Latte Period burials often found beneath and around these types of habitation
structures be identified in SP 1-1037 and examined to reconstruct the demographics and health of the local
community after A.D. 1000?
7.2.1 Does the patterning of Latte burials suggest locations of domestic residences (latte structures)?
Previous excavations in the Marianas reveal that during prehistoric and early historic times, burial
beneath or adjacent to latte sets was common (Butler 1988; Davis et al. 1992; Ray 1981; Reinman 1977;
Ryan 2010; Ryan et al. 1999; Spoehr 1957; Stodder et al. 2016; Thompson 1971; Yawata 1961). The location
of burials has provided indirect evidence for the presence of latte sets or pole-and-thatch structures
(Bath 1986). Previous research has hypothesized that prehistoric Chamorro villages included structures
for ordinary households, high-status households, and men’s houses (Davis et al. 1992; Graves 1986, 1991;
Hunter-Anderson and Butler 1991; Reinman 1977; Walth 2016). Some dwellings consisted of pole-andthatch structures raised on wooden posts, and possibly higher-status structures raised on limestone
pillars (latte sets). Researchers have found that Chamorro burials in and around latte sets tend to orient
perpendicular to the long axis of a structure when buried beneath and parallel when buried outside of
a structure (Bath 1986:33; Butler 1988; Graves 1986:146; Ray 1981; Reinman 1977; Ryan 2010; Ryan et al.
1999; Thompson 1971; Yawata 1961).
To address the research question regarding identifying possible latte structures in the project area: the
location of burial clusters provides a proxy for locations of latte sets. The cluster analysis was completed
to offer a means of determining what burials cluster together to help answer this research question.
To further tease out this answer requires looking at the size of the AA units (clusters) defined from
the cluster analysis and compare that with known information on latte structures. Bath (1986:33–34)
proposed four criteria for estimating the number and location of dwellings within a site. This was based
on information from Guam, however the underlying assumptions would be comparable to Saipan. Those
four criteria are:
1. The long axis of structures….will be oriented somewhere between due north and due east, with
the most likely orientation between N 50°E and N 68°E. This assumption is extended to pole-andthatch houses.
2. House length will vary between 10 and 12 meters, width between 2.9 and 3.6 meters, and distance
between stones or posts between 2.5 and 3.5 meters.
3. The short axis will be at right angles to the long axis.
4. A concentration of burials with a consistent orientation provides evidence of a prior house
structure oriented perpendicular to the burial orientation. (Bath 1986:33–34)
Given the above postulated length and width of a latte dwelling, the overall size would fall between 29
and 43.2 m2. No size was specified for pole-and-thatch structures, but it is assumed that they would not
be any larger and could be smaller. Information on the size of the AA units from this site was presented
above in Table 8.27. AA units 2 and 3 fall within the postulated size for a latte structure. AA 5 is about
twice the size, and the remaining AAs go up in size from there. However, it is possible that the larger
size is a result of one or more factors. Burials are also interred outside of the latte structure, and this
would increase the overall size greatly. This would make AA units 1, 4, and 6 in the likely realm for a
latte structure, depending on the distance outside of the footprint of the structure that burials were
interred. This still leaves AA 7 and 8 being exceptionally large. These two AAs also have a very low
density of burials. Another possibility is that a latte structure may have been constructed, removed,
and a new structure placed in a similar area but outside of the original footprint. Looking at size, burial
density, age, and sex of the burials, it is likely that AAs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 do represent latte or some other
residential habitation structure.
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Chapter 7 Discussion of Research Questions
7.2.2 What are the demographics of the burial population recovered?
Paleodemography is a field of study that focuses on demographic characteristics of prehistoric
populations, and in this case one that is derived from an archaeological investigation. The current site
was not excavated by any scientific sampling strategy. Burials that were identified during monitoring
were excavated and in the process, additional burials were discovered and exhumed. Thus a note of
caution should be given that the demographics of this excavated population may not necessarily
represent the living population that it was a part of. Paleodemographics examine the age and sex profile
of the population sample.
The overall distribution of subadults (<20 years) to adults (20+ years) is 16 to 73, or 82 percent of the
sample are adults. Therefore, 18 percent of the sample represents subadults, which compares favorably
to other Latte period samples from Guam and the CNMI (Douglas and Ikehara 1992; Graves 1987;
McGovern-Wilson 1989; Pietrusewsky and Batista 1980; Pietrusewsky et al. 2003; Rader and Haun 1989;
Trembly and Tucker 1999; Walth 2016). There are a large number of adults where the age could only be
categorized as 20+ years (33.7 percent, n=30). The next largest cohort is the middle adult category (35–
49.9 years of age) at 25.8 percent (n=23), followed by the young adult category with 21.3 percent (n=19).
These three groups are the majority of the sample (80.9 percent, n=72). Adolescents are 6.8 percent (n=6)
of the sample, followed by infants with 4.5 percent (n=4), young child with 3.4 percent (n=3), child with
2.3 percent (n=2), and older child with 1.1 percent (n=1) of the population. One older individual (50+
years of age at death) was identified. The assemblage does have individuals in all age groups from birth
to old age.
For the information on the distribution of sex, the analysis only considers individuals that are adolescent
or older because sex of children cannot be reliably obtained unless DNA analysis is completed. For
the demographic profile for this group, those individuals that were identified as ‘female possible’
were added to the females, and likewise ‘male possible’ individuals were added to the males. Females
outnumber males (25 to 15 or 1.67:1) with 1.67 females to every one male. Sex could not be estimated for
39 individuals (49.4 percent of the sample). As a percent females and males, more females (44 percent,
n=11) than males (33 percent, n=5) died by young adult age (20–35 years) and one male lived into the
older adult age group (50+ years of age). The increased risk of childbearing likely represents a hazard
for the females. Male hazards resulting in death could include warfare, accidents, or other cultural
activities.
An abridged life table was completed to estimate the life expectancy for the group. For this life table,
sexes are combined, and individuals with no specific age estimate were distributed proportionately
among the age ranges. The burial sample has individuals in age categories from infancy to older adult
(estimated in this group as 50+ years of age at death). Overall life expectancy (mean age at death) is 30.2
years. Mortality risk is highest in the 35–39.9 group. That is followed in descending order by the 20 to
24.9 age group, the 25 to 29.9 and 40 to 44.9 age groups, the 35 to 39.9 age group, and the 45 to 49.9 age
group. Mortality for children (under 15 years) is highest for children ages 0 to 0.9 months, and 2 to 4.9,
followed by children 5 to 9.9, and lowest for the 1 to 2.9 and 10 to 14.9 age groups. Survivorship data
for just the males and females were also calculated. This includes adolescent through older adults. The
adults that were indeterminate to sex were not included. Adolescent females had a life expectancy of 19
years and adolescent males had a life expectancy of 25 years.
7.2.3 What is the general health of this population?
There are 28 individuals that exhibit some pathology or unusual trait. By far the most common pathology
is osteoarthritis including degenerative joint disease (DJD) on the appendicular elements and vertebral
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Afetna Point, Saipan
osteoarthritis on the axial elements. There are 10 individuals that have some degree of DJD, four with
Vertebral OA, and six with both for a total of 20 individuals. Two individuals have Schmorl’s nodes,
two have possible blunt-force trauma on cranial elements, and two possibly had a traumatic injury
that resulted in DJD. There are two possible cases of treponemotosis (yaws), and three individuals with
unknown infectious lesions. There is one conoid joint, three individuals with squatting facets, one with
Pacchionian pits, one rhomboid fossae, two Steida’s process, one with a fused middle and distal foot
phalange, and two with enthesophytes at the Achilles tendon. Osteoarthritis indicates that these were
active individuals that may have participated in physically stressful activities, but it is a typical ailment
that progresses with age. In general, these individuals were relatively healthy. The fact that few had LEH
and none were observed with cribra orbitalia, suggests that they did not have excessive stress during
the developing childhood years. Yaws is endemic in the populations of the Mariana Islands and it is not
uncommon to have some individuals with this disease.
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Chapter 8
Larger Research Implications
8.1 Latte Period Comparisons
As a result of the 3rd Annual Marianas History Conference in Saipan (www.Guampedia.com), tentative
comparisons are enabled between the Afetna Point site in San Antonio (Dixon 2017) and the Anaguan
site in Garapan (Dega et al. 2017), with a linear distance of roughly 9.7 kilometers (6.0 miles) between
the two Latte Period villages. Although both sites were roughly contemporaneous, it is proposed that
their clan composition and the traditions handed down in both villages may have reflected somewhat
distinct ecological adaptations and unique family histories, perhaps resulting in the following patterns
noted below.
•• Both developments covered an approximate area of 4 hectares (10 acres), although the Afetna
Point site included a less than 0.81 hectare (2 acre) portion removed during 1980s sand mining,
with an unknown number of burials extracted.
•• Both sites were occupied during the Latte Period, although use of the Garapan site was much
earlier as radiocarbon dated between at least A.D. 1220-1645 (before sustained Contact), while
the Afetna Point site use was radiocarbon dated between at least A.D. 1426-1780 (more likely circa
1730 after La Reduccion).
•• The Garapan site yielded 416 burials in 2017 and 261 in the 1990s totaling 677, while the Afetna
Point site yielded 93 total, minus those removed in the sand mining and by Graves in the 1980s. The
earliest Latte Period component of the Afetna Point site may thus have been partially removed in
the sand mine, but the site was likely occupied later in time as well.
•• The Garapan site had three spatially distinct burial complexes roughly paralleling the coast and
perhaps representing three time periods or lineage clusters, while Afetna Point burials had no
extensive complexes on such a large scale nor any observable orientation or patterning.
•• Burials at the Garapan site included several with dental incision and one child within a ceramic
vessel, while no such evidence was noted at Afetna Point site.
•• Both sites had a relatively healthy population with evidence of betel nut dental staining, but no
major health problems or introduced pathogens.
•• The Garapan site contained fire hearths and postholes with dense midden, while the Afetna Point
site contained deep dogas ovens and multiple hearth complexes with dense midden, but few
postholes evident.
•• Both sites had the full range of Latte Period stone and shell tools or beads, although the Garapan
site had more basalt flakes, cores, and sling stones, than noted at the Afetna Point site.
•• Both sites had the full range of Latte Period ceramic vessel forms, although the Garapan site had
more decorative surface treatment styles than noted at the Afetna Point site.
•• Both sites had evidence of the range of domestic food crops and forest products expected during
the Latte Period, in Garapan identified from biomolecular research and in Afetna Point from
microfossil remains.
To summarize these comparisons, the Garapan site appears to have been occupied earlier in the Latte
Period, but perhaps abandoned or moved after the arrival of the Spanish missionaries circa 1668. The
Afetna Point site began two centuries later but continued to be occupied up until La Reduccion circa
1730, perhaps due to its greater distance from Colonial acculturation. The Garapan site had a larger
population density and more clustered settlement pattern, while the Afetna Point site had a smaller
population and more dispersed settlement pattern, perhaps reflecting different clan residency rules
and interclan marriage restrictions between opposing ends of the island and lagoon. The higher number
of sling stones at the Garapan site may also have had social implications in this regard.
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Afetna Point, Saipan
Both sites had ample cooking remains, but those at the Afetna Point site suggest communal ovens and
hearth complexes, while at the Garapan site cooking may have been relegated to within site clusters,
again perhaps a reflection of clan residency and foodways. Both sites also had the full range of stone
and marine shell tools or beads, but the Garapan site appeared to contain more evidence of stone tool
manufacture while the Afetna Point site had more evidence of stone tool maintenance and repair.
Garapan was situated much closer to sources of volcanic stone in the uplands, while Afetna Point was
situated at the extreme southwestern corner of the island on a limestone plateau, and not far (on a calm
day) from the island of Tinian. Both sites appeared to be sustained by terrestrial farming, hunting, and
forest collection, as well as marine resource collection and fishing, although Garapan was far closer to
limestone forest resources while Afetna Point was closer to marsh edge settings.
Differences between contemporaneous Latte Period village ‘personalities’ on Saipan and in the
Marianas have not always been recognized as such archaeologically, especially as the changing pace
of development over the past few decades has tended to splinter observations by property and region
of each island. The early Spanish record however, is replete with references to bellicose differences
being unresolved between the villages of Sanhalom and Makpo on Tinian in 1669, shifting allegiances
to the Spanish between villages on Guam in 1684, and continued resistance to La Reduccion in Saipan
and Gani into the 1720s (Farrell 2011). Landuse and clan organization appear to have been matrilineal
and residency tended toward matrilocal prior to contact, as the ‘missionaries noted that Chamorros
did not marry relatives’ and ‘the women were the heads of households’ (Russell 1998:149-150). It could
be expected then that differences in house structures, craft production, foodways, burials, and even
language might well have been preserved at individual villages over generations as part of community
group identity (Ross 1997, 1998), at least until the demise of interisland voyaging in the early Spanish
period (Hage and Mark 2002).
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Chapter 9
References Cited by Major Topics
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1989 The Utility of the Auricular Surface Aging Technique. Poster presented at the 58th Annual Meeting
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Bramblett, C.A., and D. Gentry Steele
1988 The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton. 7th ed. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, Texas.
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1981 Digging Up Bones: The Excavation, Treatment, and Study of Human Skeletal Remains. 3rd
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Bulgrin, L.
2005 The Tudela Site: Fire and Steel Over Saipan, 15 June 1944. Journal of Combat Archaeology 1(1):117.
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Archaeological Investigations of a Latte Village in Saipan
Access Archaeology, 2019
When Ferdinand Magellan first anchored off the island of Guam in 1521, the inhabitants of the small Chamorro
village at Afetna Point on the southwest coast of Saipan were likely unaware. Archaeological investigations
of the traditional village yielded Latte Period burials, ceramics, stone and shell tools, microfossils from
food remains, and charcoal from cooking features dating between A.D. 1450 and 1700. ...Read more
