John Baldacchino

Prompting this book is the paradox of belonging. What pushes the author to write are art’s questions. Rather than take the route of writing, artists in academia could opt for the studio, teaching students, and occasionally indulge in conferences and symposia. However, beyond such rituals, writing art’s questions remains akin to art’s acts of belonging. In these lessons of belonging this is done through art’s paradox. Belonging is a matter of art because art belongs to the aporia that writes it.

More than a book about Illich, this is a conversation with Illich’s work as we enter the third decade of the 21st century, just under twenty years after his passing, and almost fifty years since his Deschooling Society was first published. As Illich is beatified and demonised in equal measure, Educing Ivan Illich chooses to focus on the relationship between reform, contingency and disestablishment. As reform stands for a plurality of reiterations that seek effective forms of accordance, in our recognition of contingency we freely claim that even as we might recognize the presence of universality in how everything appears on a shared horizon, we are not denied the existence and dynamic reality of plural possibilities in their inherent contradictions. In this bargain of synchronicity, we find that disestablishing the reified universe by which we have, for so long, traded, staked and even lost our freedom and intelligence, is not just a desire but it becomes a must. Unlike other commentators of Illich’s work, Baldacchino argues that what is radical about Illich is not a freestanding concept of deschooling but in how, in disestablishing social life, he exits the walls of the polis by upholding tradition as a disruptive force. In such light Illich’s work is read in what remains overdue. Odd though it may sound, this is an urgent need for anyone interested Illich’s unique and irreplaceable contribution. To that end, Educing Ivan Illich has far more to offer than is usually expected from a commentary on someone else’s work.

Sejjieħ il-Ħsieb huwa damma filosofika miktuba f’forom miftuħa u mqanqla minn mistoqsijiet imkattra mis-sens ta’ limitu f’dak li huwa l-għarfien uman, u l-ħelsien f’dak li jagħmilna bnedmin. Filwaqt li l-ħelsien jislet il-libertà personali f’kulma jintrabat mal-intelliġenza, dan m’għandux jinqara f’sens individwalista u wisq anqas personalista. Il-ħelsien jinstab fl-isfera ta’ kif ngħixu flimkien bħala komunità li fiha naqsmu, imma wkoll nissuperaw, il-limiti tal-eżistenza tagħna.

Hawn Baldacchino jorbot il-ħelsien ma’ kif inqisu lil xulxin f’dak li persuni jaraw f’ħaddieħor. F’din ir-reċiproċità nagħrfu l-limitu li jġegħelna nfittxu possibbiltajiet li jmorru lil hinn mill-istat immedjat tal-eżistenza hekk kif nesprimu r-realtajiet tagħna fl-ideat, l-aspirazzjonijiet u t-twemmin fid-diversità kollha tagħhom. B’dan il-mod nirrealizzaw li, kif tgħid Hannah Arendt, aħna differenti għax ilkoll l-istess.

In editing this volume, John Baldacchino presents its two parts as follows:

Part I: HISTORIES: By histories of art and design education it is broadly assumed that identifiable practices and forms of teaching and learning can be located within time spans that give them specific forms and identities. Such histories, in their plurality, reflect a number of recognizable themes by which as a discipline, art education gains specific relevance. The contexts for these histories remain plural inasmuch as they are broadly defined by the events that prompted them, and by which they were shaped by art and design practices as they became located in an educational and/or schooled existence.

Part II: PHILOSOPHIES: Philosophies of art and design education could imply a plurality of questions, concepts and practices that emerged through a series of aesthetic, discursive and critical conversations within art and design education. The relationship between art practice and art education may or may not be considered as a problematic construct in and of itself, in that it continues to expand along an open-ended horizon of possibilities. While the possibilities of art and design practice appear as being infinite, the educational parameters by which they are expressed in an educational and/or schooled existence remain loosely articulated.

Art as Unlearning makes an argument for art’s unlearning as a mannerist pedagogy. Art’s pedagogy facilitates a form of forgetfulness by extending what happens in the practice of the arts in their visual, auditory and performative forms. The concept of learning has become predominantly hijacked by foundational paradigms such as developmental narratives whose positivistic approach has limited the field of education to a narrow practice within the social sciences. This book moves away from these strictures by showing how the arts confirm that unlearning is not contingent on learning, but rather anticipates and avoids it.

My Teaching, My Philosophy brings together twenty of the most prominent thinkers on education, philosophy, art, and literature to converse with Kenneth Wain and the many facets of his work. It shows how Wain's passionate engagement with various issues, most prominently philosophy and education, continues to re-generate new ideas and thoughts through his philosophical method. This book gives Wain's philosophy the attention it deserves and succeeds in continuing an open-ended philosophical conversation with its readers. My Teaching, My Philosophy is a must-read for anyone wanting to get a snapshot on the most recent thinking on philosophy of education. It is edited by John Baldacchino, Simone Galea and Duncan Mercieca.

This book presents John Dewey’s work as a claim to the human potentials found in experience, the imagination and the possibilities that emerge from our disposition towards liberty. It details Dewey’s work as a critical junction marked by the quandary of schooling and culture, and where learning is also positioned beyond the boundaries of educational institutions. The book first examines Dewey in his various contexts, influences and life experiences, including his relationship with Hegelian philosophy, Emersonian transcendentalism, Darwin’s method of scientific experimentation, and his deep bond with his first wife Alice Chipman and their work in the Laboratory School. It then revisits Dewey’s approach to politics and education within contemporary debates on education, learning and the School. This discussion takes stock of what does a diverse and plural society mean to us today, at a time that remains challenged by the politics of class, race, gender and sexuality. Dewey’s work has a profound bearing on our understanding of these challenges. Thus to read and talk Dewey is to engage with a conversation with Dewey the philosopher who poses an array of questions, ranging from the way we feel (aesthetics), behave (ethics), think (logic), live as a community (politics) and how we learn (education). In addition, the book also takes Dewey’s concept of experimentation into a discussion of unlearning and deschooling through the arts and aesthetics education. Offering a thought-provoking dialogue with Dewey’s philosophy, this book recognizes the contradictory nature of learning and extends it to the open horizons of experience. By way of discussing the various aspects of Dewey’s approach to organization, policy making and the relationship between education and business, it repositions Dewey in contemporary political and educational contexts, exploring the possibility for education to be free and yet rigorous enough to help us engage with forms of knowledge by which we negotiate and understand the world.

In taking the critique of inclusion and entry as a first step, Art’s Way Out’s discussion of art, politics and learning aims to delineate what an exit pedagogy would look like: where culture is neither seen as a benign form of inclusion nor as a hegemonic veil by which we are all subscribed to the system via popularized forms of artistic and cultural immediacy. An exit pedagogy—as prefigured in what could be called art’s way out through the implements of negative recognition qua impasse—would not only avoid the all too facile symmetrical dualism between conservative and progressive, liberal and critical pedagogies, but also seek the continuous referral of such symmetries by setting them aside and look for a way out of the confined edifices of education and culture per se. An exit pedagogy seeks its way out by reasserting representation in the comedic, the jocular, and more effectively in the arts’ power of pausing, as that most effective way by which aesthetics comes to effect in its autonomist and radical essence.

«In this fluent, limpid, and scholarly work, Baldacchino examines, inter alia, the problem of empathy in relation to art as an event (or series of events), drawing upon a wide and rich range of sources to inform what in effect is his manifesto. With a profound understanding of its philosophical basis, Baldacchino unfolds his argument in an internally consistent and elegantly structured way. This is not a book to be ‘dipped into’, to do so would miss the development of Baldacchino’s philosophical position; like an art work itself, Art’s Way Out has coherent structure, and a complex, interrelation between form and content, reflecting an artist’s concern for getting things right.»
-- Richard Hickman, Cambridge University

«Although art has a limitless capacity to take on myriad responsibilities, according to Baldacchino we also need to consider a ‘way out’ because only then will we understand how art goes beyond the “boundaries of possibility.” As he explains, “our way into reason also comes from an ability to move outside the limits that reasons sets”. This is the ‘exit pedagogy’ that he advocates. And here exit does not mean to leave, but rather to reach beyond, to extend and explore outside the borders we impose on learning, teaching, schooling and most forms of cultural agency. The need to embrace the capacity of art to cycle beyond the contingencies we impose on it also helps to clarify the limits of inclusive arguments for deploying art education for various individual, institutional, and socio-political ends: art as self expression, art as interdisciplinary method, art as culture industry, art as political culture, art as social justice and so on.  This image invokes for me part of the legacy of Maxine Greene that Baldacchino revealed in his earlier text, Education Beyond Education (2009), when he explored her thesis of the social imagination, which is best, achieved when teaching becomes ‘reaching.’ What Art’s Way Out gives us is an exit strategy from the deadening tendency to ignore the enduring capacity of art to give life to learning, teaching and the very culture of our being.»
-- Graeme Sullivan, Penn State University

In Thodor Angelopoulos’s Ulysses’s Gaze it is poetically claimed that God’s first creation was the journey after which came doubt and nostalgia. Anyone who knows the Mediterranean will recognise that claims of this sort go beyond their poetic packaging. Makings of the Sea presents the Mediterranean as a horizon of journey, doubt, and nostalgia. Readers are invited to follow the journey as that which casts the Mediterranean as a universal aesthetic imaginary; where through doubt, a hybrid imaginary emerges over a horizon stretched between utopia and crude fact; and where we are all invited to reconsider nostalgia as the ground without which no one might properly converse with the nuances of everyday life.

Engaging with 20th century Mediterranean visual and performing arts, literature and music, this book invites the reader to consider how everyday aesthetics inhabit and define the Mediterranean as a common cultural horizon founded on difference. The author entertains no illusions on how this region is ‘shared’ between its peoples and their histories. Instead, he urges the reader to attend to what Albert Camus identifies as “the light” which Mediterranean men and women “have been able to keep.” Yet one must never forget that Camus’s statement is further qualified with a warning: “just as the Mediterranean sun is the same for all men, the effort of men’s intelligence should be a common inheritance and not a source of conflicts and murders.”

«The first book of a trilogy that explores Mediterranean aesthetics, Maltese born author, John Baldacchino begins his ‘Odyssey’ with as much richness, complexity and depth as the expansiveness and sublimity of Theo Angelopoulo’s film Ulysses’s Gaze. He turns to the Sea to begin weaving the geopolitical specificity of the Mediterranean imagination. In a series of poetic chapters, Baldacchino deftly charts a journey that willingly faces doubt as to the vistas he presents, but always returns home so that he can begin anew. Baldacchino starts his quest by tracing a horizon against which a host of artists, poets, and writers are drawn upon, all the while keeping the significance of the Sea at play as he takes the reader to home shores so that the second volume can begin to appear on a new horizon. The book is an important achievement in Mediterranean geopolitical aesthetics. We await its sequels.
—jan jagodzinski, University of Alberta

A fascinating and related aspect of Baldacchino’s book is gradually recognised as the reader progresses through the text and realises that the book is itself an embodiment of this epic journey, carrying him or her from one land to another, connecting one discipline to several others, and leaping into the sea during different decades of the twentieth century. As he or she traverses a complex interdisciplinary series of fields, the reader will find that this journey is not an easy one, but then again, a smoother reading would probably serve only to undermine the idea of a horizon that is replete with uncertainties.
The hybridity, richness, and indeed, the doubts that permeate any serious engagement with the Mediterranean are not only palpable in the author’s scholarly insights and in the complex moves that the book performs, but especially in the fact that this book is actually only the first of a trilogy of texts on Mediterranean aesthetics that Baldacchino is working on.
—Raphael Vella, University of Malta

Developing a theme in dialogue with Maxine Greenes philosophy, this book introduces the reader to what animates Greenes passionate work: the self and the imaginary. It illuminates how Greene empowers us all as learners of the possible, by identifying learning with the power of the imagination. Greenes work promises hope beyond the impasse that often occurs when learning is reified by educational systems. Education Beyond Education illustrates how Greene redefines the notion of the imaginaryand with it, that of the imaginationas that which expands the possibilities of learning beyond the boundaries by which education is often narrowly defined and practiced. Tracing Greenes key arguments, Education Beyond Education offers a strikingly original and empowering way to see and re-position education beyond its customary limits.

"As the 'subject' of this text, I wish to testify to its fairness and, yes, to its thoughtfulness. Because of John Baldacchino's scholarly acquaintance with traditions that might infuse and clarify the complexities of education, I think he has shed new light on provinces of meaning I have chosen to inhabit throughout my academic life."
-- Maxine Greene

There are at least two reasons why John Baldacchino is superbly equipped to offer this interpretive perspective of Maxine Greene’s philosophy. First, like Maxine, herself Baldacchino is well read in the continental philosophies of the Frankfurt School including such writers as Theodor Adorno and Max Horkhiemer. He is well versed in the existential philosophies of Albert Camus , Jean Paul Sartre and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, all writers of central importance in Greene’s thought as well. Had this appraisal been prepared by a North American, say an adherent of one of the analytic philosophies, it is doubtful that a critical reading of Greene would have occurred, let alone a sympathetic one.
Second, unlike the tight linearity of the analytical school Baldacchino’s own writing might best be described as having a painterly quality. His logic unfolds like that of a web, with multiple connections so that a discussion of oppositions such as theory vs practice , past vs present, or truth vs falsehood does not lead the reader to a single conclusion but to an ever widening inter-connected web -- to an array of meanings, in much the same way that Greene makes connections between works of art as possible worlds in the imagination.
—Arthur Efland, Ohio State University

Reading philosophy in any meaningful way is never easy; reading commentary of philosophy is often even more difficult, but John Baldacchino skilfully renders Maxine Greene’s work accessible and opens up avenues of ideas that are worthwhile and relevant, such as the central notion that educators should look at education from a perspective beyond the classroom.
—Richard Hickman, Cambridge University

Baldacchino richly engages Greene’s prose. In a particularly successful way he enacts his methodology of trying to dialogue with her work rather than to ventriloquate her voice through his own. The book features a great deal of Greene’s language, showing her thinking out loud, so to speak, about educational questions, questions of meaning and purpose, political and aesthetic concerns, and a good deal more. I think any serious reader of Greene’s work will find Baldacchino’s interpretation of her overall oeuvre, pivoting around the diptych of self and the imaginary, to be enlightening and educative. His sustained dialogue with her encourages the reader to return to Greene’s texts and to look again both at their core claims and at the form in which they are expressed. Any serious reader new to Greene’s work will find Baldacchino’s book a helpful guide and resource – a good companion, so to speak.
—David T Hansen, Teachers College, Columbia University

Baldacchino makes a couple of choices that prove brilliant in the end. First, in the spirit of Maxine Greene, he chooses to write, in effect, in dialogue with Maxine. He is seeing alongside her, reacting, reflecting, and choosing. This becomes, then, an invitation to readers to do their own seeing, to do philosophy themselves, to enter and contribute their own reflective praxis. (...) Second, Baldacchino focuses on the deeper connections in Greene's work around the self and the imaginary. He illuminates what he sees as the central and profoundly readical idea of freedom--pushing against the impasses and the imposed horizons we encounter in the everyday landscapes of our lived lives, and becoming students, then, of the possible through the imagined, the imaginary.
—William Ayers, University of Chicago

In Education Beyond Education, John Baldacchino examines the paradigm of education and learning that Maxine Greene offers us. It is a much needed work and a valuable contribution to philosophy of education. Professor Baldacchino presents the intricacy and depth that Maxine Greene has to offer, challenging the reader to delve into the complexity that Maxine Greene has written about. Anyone looking for an introduction to the works of Maxine Greene will profit from this insightful book.
—Anthony DeFalco, Long Island University

Originally published in 1998, Easels of Utopia presents a discussion of art's duration and contingency within the avant garde's aesthetic parameters, which throughout this century have constructed, influenced, and informed our definitions of modernity. In this context the book reads Umberto Boccioni's Futurism as reminiscent of Thomist realism; proposes Caravaggism's historical relevance to the election of individuality in post-war realism; and draws the readers attention to the aesthetic implications in Carlo Carrà's metaphysical art and its reappraisal of the early Renaissance. Following a contextual analysis of the historic avant-garde in Part One, Part Two presents parallel discussions of Italian and British questions, articulated by the works of Marino Marini, Francis Bacon, Renato Guttuso and Stanley Spencer in their return to individuality within art's aesthetic construct. The author argues that this initiates a return to 'lost' beginnings where form seeks knowledge, content regains an ability to anarchize, and art recognizes its contingent condition.

Makings of the Sea is an inquiry into the makings of the Mediterranean imagination in the 20th century, focusing on specific cases in the visual and performing arts, music and literature. Following a thematic structure that falls broadly under the headings of journey, doubt and nostalgia, this is an essay on Mediterranean aesthetics.

While the fresh debate on education’s autonomy continues in this special issue as in other forums and venues, new layers of complexity on this theme continue to emerge, just as further nuances are revealed in the course of discussion. Following this welcomed growth in the discussion, and in the spirit of characterizing autonomy—and therefore also education’s autonomy—as it bears polysemic possibilities, we explore in this editorial old and new theoretical and practical horizons for conceptualizing and realizing education’s autonomy. We claim that advocates of education’s autonomy should ask not just where we want to go but also how far do we want to go; to what degree programs of education’s autonomy should inspire to change theoretical and practical frameworks, and as such the way we think about education? To what degree educational programs should exceed the current social structures within which education functions? By surveying such questions, we hope to expand the discourse on ...

Milux, psikologu li jispeċjalizza fl-uġigħ qalli li għandu jsir ħafna aktar sabiex iktar professjonisti li jaħdmu fis-saħħa jsiru konxji dwar il-fibromijalġja. Meta tqabbel ma’ dak li konna nafu saħansitra sentejn ilu, bil-progress li sar fir-riċerka, issa nistgħu nifhmu aħjar x’inhi l-fibromijalġja. Madankollu, m’hemmx ċertezza sakemm it-tabib, il-fiżjoterapista, jew professjonisti oħra jkollhom għarfien sħiħ ta’ din il-kundizzjoni kumplessa. Kultant qisha lotterija. Darba kont fis-sodda nsofri bl-uġigħ u bdejt naħseb kif nista’ noħloq komik dwar din il-kundizzjoni. Bgħatt emails lil xi wħud li kont naf, u dawn kitbuli lura, jgħiduli li jridu jaħdmu miegħi fuq dan il-proġett. Dan il-komik huwa miktub u ddisinjat bl-għan li jqajjem kuxjenza dwar il-fibromijalġja fost professjonisti, familji, u komunitajiet. Jagħtina stampa tal-bidliet kontinwi fil-ħajja ta’ dawk li għandhom il-fibromijalġja u kif ukoll dwar l-impatt li dan iħalli fuq dawk qrib tagħhom. Jitfa’ dawl u jenfasizza l-imp...

This paper looks at autonomy through the dynamic relationship between particularity, experience, and subjectivism in the works of Georg Lukács and John Dewey. While the focus on autonomy appears to be initially focused on the relationship between universality and particularity, the ultimate goal is to then situate the discussion on the horizon of education. Given Dewey’s and Lukács’s common Hegelian lineage, this paper looks at whether they retain elements of commonality, especially in terms of the arts, and whether forms of mediation in art and education could avoid becoming didactic. To explore these questions, this paper revisits subjectivity in two forms: (a) as a form of mediation, and (b) as immediate experience. Some play on the subject as being ( qua subjectivity) and a subject (like art) in the curriculum might enter the discussion. However, the former sense of subject tends to be more central than the latter. While immediate subjectivity is critiqued by Lukács as being ope...

The influence of John Dewey’s work never stopped from spreading everywhere. This includes many countries found across the Mediterranean. However, to argue that by implication there is a Mediterranean character in Dewey’s work is to belabour both Dewey’s work and the many, and often conflicting, meanings of a concept like Mediterraneity Even if such an argument were to be made on discursive genealogies that would travel back to the great doyen of American pragmatism, this would need to select and elect a well identified “set” of affinities which would need strict terms of definition – especially when travelling between attributor and attributee and what is exactly being attributed to whom.

This paper looks at autonomy through the dynamic relationship between particularity, experience, and subjectivism in the works of Georg Lukács and John Dewey. While the focus on autonomy appears to be initially focused on the relationship between universality and particularity, the ultimate goal is to then situate the discussion on the horizon of education. Given Dewey’s and Lukács’s common Hegelian lineage, this paper looks at whether they retain elements of commonality, especially in terms of the arts, and whether forms of mediation in art and education could avoid becoming didactic. To explore these questions, this paper revisits subjectivity in two forms: (a) as a form of mediation, and (b) as immediate experience. Some play on the subject as being (qua subjectivity) and a subject (like art) in the curriculum might enter the discussion. However, the former sense of subject tends to be more central than the latter. While immediate subjectivity is critiqued by Lukács as being open to a fragmentation of reality that leads to forms of oppression, the Deweyan perspective proposes a way out of the cycle that traps subjectivism between didactic and fragmentary forms of being. Can the subject mediate without proposing a form of learning that presumes reality as a fixed ground? And could we predicate subjectivist immediacy by what Dewey, in Experience and Nature calls “the recognition of ‘subjects’ as centres of experience” that are, in effect, “equivalent to the emergence of agencies equipped with special powers of observation and experiment”? The binding horizon for both questions will be that of what Lukács calls the speciality of the artwork’s own “world” [eigenen “Welt”] and the dilemmas that this could raise when contextualized in education.

The influence of John Dewey’s work never stopped from spreading everywhere. This includes many countries found across the Mediterranean. However, to argue that by implication there is a Mediterranean character in Dewey’s work is to belabour both Dewey’s work and the many, and often conflicting, meanings of a concept like Mediterraneity Even if such an argument were to be made on discursive genealogies that would travel back to the great doyen of American pragmatism, this would need to select and elect a well identified “set” of affinities which would need strict terms of definition – especially when travelling between attributor and attributee and what is exactly being attributed to whom.

Many scholars, students and teachers who admire and continue to find inspiration in Paulo Freire’s and Ivan Illich’s work often insist on a shared common ground. This is done for good reason: Illich and Freire sought a sense of hope and liberation beyond the limitations by which large sections of humanity remain oppressed. It is therefore too easy to argue that texts like Pedagogy of the Oppressed and Deschooling Society can be aligned in sustaining a liberating and emancipatory approach, just as Illich’s case for the disestablishment of education would make a lot of sense if it were aligned with Freire’s critical pedagogical narrative. However, as this paper begins to show, though noble, such an approach would be detrimental to the one foundational aspect which both works happen to share: the claim to heterodoxy by which both Freire and Illich have endeared to make their case. More than a standard academic paper, this is a reflection on decades of being engaged with these two books...

Baldacchino, J. 2014. Art, Paralogy and Education. In conversation with Kenneth Wain’s philosophical interlocutors. In Baldacchino, J. Galea, S. Mercieca, D. (eds.) My Teaching, My Philosophy. Kenneth Wain: A Lifelong Engagement with Education. Peter Lang.

Dewey's argument for education is predicated on how, as free and intelligent beings, we have the power to develop dispositions. However, in a context where democracy is neutered by anti-politics, reading Dewey now comes with an urgent need to revisit his argument for an experiential and experimental approach towards the world. Revisiting Horkheimer's critique of Dewey, which reveals two opposed notions of instrumentalism, this article argues that unless Dewey is reassessed from the non-identitarian character of his pragmatism, his philosophy of education risks being lost to an alignment with social constructivism. This exposes the Deweyan approach to what Maxine Greene calls a disjunction in the culture between everydayness and reason, where the "integrations" that Dewey achieved with his concentration on experience vanish. Historically framed, this paper draws on Lorraine Hansberry and James Baldwin's discussion of a democracy that is more akin to a "burning house" than an associated form of living. K E Y W O R D S disposition; instrumentalism; anti-politics; democracy; education; race; the arts. SISYPHUS J O U RN A L O F E DU CA T IO N

When we speak of art education, are we trying to make sense of somethingby means of something else, just as a ventriloquist speaks with the mouth ofa dummy to make us believe that he is having a dialogue with someone elsewhen in effect he is speaking to himself? This paper discusses how art educationcould only flourish as an act of approximation as it rejects the incrementaland constructivist assumptions that have turned art and educationinto transactional instruments. Discussing art and education’s immanentrelationship, this paper argues that art education is only necessary by forceof the accidents that characterise it. Four scenarios, here identified in whatthe author calls the paradox of the ventriloquist’s soliloquy in art education,illustrate this argument. In discussing how this comes about, this papermakes reference to Herner Saeverot’s concept of indirect pedagogy andCharles Garoian’s prosthetic pedagogy.

This book is endorsed by several academics (see selection of comments http://www.johnbaldacchino.com/academic-books.html). It is relatively recent and I am projecting several launches. One review already published and a couple of other reviews are in the pipeline. It has been followed by a number of journal articles as well as a lecture to the Faculty of Education at Cambridge University (2012), a Key Note paper to the Faculty of Fine Arts in Porto University (2012), and recently a seminar-lecture in the West of Scotland University (2013).