ISSN: 0189420X ! # " " !$ " % ! " " ! " " ! " " " " " $ # & " " ! ! Or: ! " # $% & ' # ! * + , ! " # '% ! # $() , + * !" ! ₦ " # $ $ % & + "1 % " , % # '"( # # + - . /0 0# + 2 3 " # ) * , 3 4 * $ 0 * 5 # # 6 3# $ 7 / 8 $ 8 / + $ + $ 9 # " 1 1: '"( # ( # $ $ ; < ! + ! 6 )&( !=! # # $ % % - > 8. For Further enquiries: - The Editor: Prof. Ibitamuno Mitchell Aminigo (+2347036528254) Technical/Associate Editor: Dr. Abdulrahman Yusuf Maigida (+2348032345719) : !! " # ! ! # % ! $ $ !" # $ & ' $ ( Technical Officers: ( ) ' Technical & Associate Editor: * " % + , - .! , ' 0 2 , / /1 / % + ,. .%/ !' # % + , / % + - 0 3 , / ) 4 ./ 4 $ ! / % + ,. ! ' , # ! % + ,. 2 ! % + , % + , '. ! , - .! .! ' List of Contributors 1. Abiona I. Adekeye, Ph.D and Bello W. Niyi; Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria 2. Dr. C.N. Musa (Associate Professor) and Ekwukoma Victor, M.Ed; Department of Educational Studies and Management, Faculty of Education, University of Benin, Benin City 3. Y. A. Fasasi, Ph.D, P.A.O. Etejere, Ph.D and S. Oyeniran, Ph.D; Department of Educational Management, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. 4. Dr. (Mrs.) Udeme Akaninyene Umo; Department of Educational Foundations, Guidance and Counselling, University of Calabar, Cross River State and Inemesit Essiet Umofia; Department Of Adult And Non-Formal Education, University Of Port Harcourt, Rivers State. 5. Ahmed H. Song, Department of Arabic and Islamic Studies, University of Maiduguri; Musa Abdullahi, Department of Sociology, University of Maiduguri and Iya Aliyu Gana, Department of Education, University of Maiduguri 6. Torutein Ovienadu, Ph.D; Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, Faculty of Education, University of Port-Harcourt 7. John M. Patrick, Ph.D; Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, University of Port Harcourt. 8. Abdur-Razzaq Mustapha Balogun Solagberu, Ph.D; Chief Lecturer, Department of Islamic Studies Kwara State College Of Arabic And Islamic Legal Studies, Ilorin. 9. Abdullahi Dauda and Omadefu Pius Osede, Department of Business Administration and Management, Nasarawa State Polytechnic, Lafia, Nasarawa State and Goni Ibrahim; Department of Public Administration, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. 10. Dr. (Mrs) Ijeoma M. Opara and Dr. Bruno U. D. Onyekuru; Department of Educational Psychology Guidance and Counseling, University of Port Harcourt. 11. Dr (Mrs.) Offor Ibebietei Temple, Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Bayelsa State. 12. Okoli, N. J., Ph.D and Nyewusira, B. N.; Department of Educational Foundations, University of Port Harcourt and Chituru Nyewusira, Department History & Diplomatic Studies, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education. 13. Dr. (Mrs.) Abdullah Ummulkhayr Labake, Frmr. Lecturer in Islamic Education, Department of Curriculum Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Lagos, Akoka. Yaba. Nigeria 14. Iya Aliyu Gana, Department of Education, University of Maiduguri. 15. Dr Ekpo, G.U.A, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt and Ogunleye A. Victor, Ph.D, Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. 16. Ogunlade Oyeronke Olufunmilola, Ph.D; Olafare F. Oladimeji and Udom Stella Ogechi, Department of Science Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. 17. Abali, Soala Obadiah, Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt. Journal of Education in Developing Areas | Vol. 21(1) March, 2013 1 18. Njoku Chimezie, Ph.D and Anyanwu Jerome, Ph.D; Dept. Of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University Of Port-Harcourt. 19. Adediran, Olusola Akintunde, Ph.D; Department of Educational Psychology, Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo and Adediran, Mary Adejoke, Department Of Primary Education Studies, Emmanuel Alayande College Of Education, Oyo. 20. Dr. Jerome Anyanwu, Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. 21. Johnson E. Maciver, Ph.D; Department of Educational Foundations, Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State. 22. Ojokheta, K.O. Ph.D and Nwogu, G.A. M.Ed; Department of Adult Education, University Of Ibadan, Nigeria. 23. Busari Atinuke Rashidat (Mrs), Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt Rivers State. 24. Prof. [Dame] N. C. Okorie, Assor Blessing and Ihua Jonathan N.; Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt. 25. Comfort Achama Malik M.; Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt. 26. Sam Zibo Porbeni, Ph.D and Omgbou Augustine Victor, Dept. of Educational Foundations, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State. 27. Dr. Pac Ordu, School of Business Education, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria. 28. Amosa Abdulganiyu Alasela, Department of Science Education, Faculty of Education, University Of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. 29. Ukwuije Chinedu Kelechi, NCE, B.Ed, M.Sc., Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance & Counselling, University of Port Harcourt. 30. Dr. Ibrahim I. Abdulrahaman, Kwara State College of Education, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. 31. Kebbi Janet Amasinghna, Ph.D; Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State – Nigeria. 32. Joshua O. Adeleke and Catherine B. Ogunremi, Institute of Education, University Of Ibadan, Nigeria. 33. Dr. (Mrs.) G. I. Osa-Edoh, Department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Benin, Benin-City- Nigeria. 34. Paulley, F. Godgift, Ph.D; mnim, Department of Educational Foundations, Faculty of Education, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State. 35. Kpolovie, Peter James, Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance And Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt and Obilor, Isaac Esezi, Department of Finance, Rivers State College of Arts and Science, Port Harcourt Journal of Education in Developing Areas | Vol. 21(1) March, 2013 2 TABLE OF CONTENT 1. Influence of Political Decentralization on People’s Participation in Grassroot Governance and Sustainable Community Development in Osun and Kwara States - Abiona I. Adekeye , Ph.D and Bello W. Niyi - 1 2. Teacher Education Programme in Nigeria: The Need for a New Paradigm - Dr. C. N. Musa (Associate Professor) and Ekwukoma Victor, M.Ed. - 12 3. Management of Higher Education in the Knowledge-Based Economy: Imperatives for National Transformation - Y. A. Fasasi , Ph.D, P.A.O. Etejere, Ph.D and S. Oyeniran, Ph.D. - 19 4. Adult Education as a Panacea for Re-Branding the Nigerian Psyche - Dr. (Mrs.) Udeme Akaninyene Umo and Inemesit Essiet Umofia - 27 5. Islamic Perspective on Pre-Marital Sex in the University of Maiduguri: Causes, Consequences and Solutions - Ahmed H. Song, Musa Abdullahi, and Iya Aliyu Gana - 33 6. Integrated Community Develoment Approach: A Panacea For Sustainable Development Torutein Ovienadu , Ph.D. - 41 7. Building Community Capacity Using ‘Domain Approach’: Reflection from Ngo’s Community in Nigeria - John M. Patrick , Ph.D. - 48 8. Al-‘Isra’ Wal Micraj in Tafsir Al-Jalalayn and Fīzilal Al-Qur’an: Lessons for Muslims in the 21st Century - Abdur-Razzaq Mustapha Balogun Solagberu , Ph.D - 58 9. Evaluation of Advertising Effectiveness on Sales Revenues of the Food Beverages and Tobacco Sector in Nigeria: A Study of Northern Nigeria Flour Mills Plc. - Abdullahi Dauda, Omadefu Pius Osede and Goni Ibrahim - 66 10. Influence of Parenting Styles on Children’s Cognitive Development - Dr. (Mrs) Ijeoma M. Opara and Dr. Bruno U. D. Onyekuru. - 75 11. Teachers’ Adherence to the Principles of Test Administration in Bayelsa State Dr (Mrs.) Offor Ibebietei Temple - 82 12. An Analysis of Historical Values for Objective Inquiry - Okoli, N. J., Ph.D; Nyewusira, B. N . and Chituru Nyewusira . - 90 13. Teacher Education Programme in Nigeria: Standardizing the Admission and Training Process of Islamic Studies Teachers – Dr. (Mrs.) Abdullah Ummulkhayr Labake - 96 14. Associated Challenges of Teaching and Learning of English Language among Secondary School Students in Nigeria - Iya Aliyu Gana - 105 15. Comparative Study of Selected Body Composition Variables in Male and Female Athletes of University of Ibadan, Nigeria. - Dr Ekpo, G.U.A, and Ogunleye A. Victor, Ph.D 111 - 16. Perception of Undergraduates on the Role of Information and Communication Technology in Entrepreneurial Education in University of Ilorin, Nigeria - Ogunlade Oyeronke Olufunmilola , Ph.D; Olafare F. Oladimeji and Udom Stella Ogechi . 17. The Social Demand for Education and Enrolment Challenges of Universities in Rivers State, Nigeria - Abali, Soala Obadiah . - 3 117 124 Journal of Education in Developing Areas | Vol. 21(1) March, 2013 18. Changing Roles of the Nigerian Family and Social Studies Education in the 21st Century - Njoku Chimezie , Ph.D and Anyanwu Jerome , Ph.D - 136 19. Anxiety as a Correlate of Pupils Mathematics Achievement in Primary Schools in Ibadan, Oyo State - Adediran, Olusola Akintunde , Ph.D and Mary Adejoke - 142 20. Achieving National Unity Through Social Studies Education - Dr. Jerome Anyanwu - 149 21. Counselling for Family Stability and Security in Yenagoa Metropolis of Bayelsa State Johnson E. Maciver, Ph.D - 156 22. Assessment of the Knowledge Level and Application of Metacognitive Learning Skills among Distance Learning Students of University of Lagos, Nigeria Ojokheta, K.O. Ph.D 165 and Nwogu, G.A. M.Ed. 23. Assessment of the Effects of Reinforcement on Student’s Academic Performance in Oyigbo Local Government Area of Rivers State - Busari Atinuke Rashidat, (Mrs.) - 174 24. Central Life Interest And Perceived Organisational Effectiveness Of Principals And Teachers In Public Secondary Schools In Rivers State Prof. [Dame] N. C. Okorie, Assor Blessing and Ihua Jonathan N. - 180 25. Total Quality Management and Quality Improvement in Secondary Schools in Rivers State - Comfort Achama Malik M. 188 - 26. The Challenges Of Applying Technology (ICT) Into Guidance Counseling In Niger Delta University – Sam Zibo Porbeni, Ph.D and Omgbou Augustine Victor. 196 27. Assessing the Effectiveneess of Entrepreneurship Education in Classroom Implementation of NCE II Vocational Education Curriculum - Dr. Pac Ordu. - 205 28. Effect of Community Resources on Junior Secondary Schools’ Performance in Basic Technology In Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria - Amosa Abdulganiyu Alasela - 214 29. Factors that Influence Students’ Attitude Towards Voluntary Confidential HIV/AIDS Screening (VCHAS) - Ukwuije Chinedu Kelechi , NCE, B.Ed, M.Sc. 30. Skill-Based Curriculum for Successful Capacity Building in the In-Service Training of Nigerian Teachers - Dr. Ibrahim I. Abdulrahaman . 222 - 229 31. Quality Assurance: The Question With the National Open University of Nigeria in South-South Geo-Political Zone of Nigeria - Kebbi Janet Amasinghna , Ph.D - 237 32. Effect of Language of Instruction and Pupils’ Attitude on the Performance of Primary School PupilsiIn Mathematics - Joshua O. Adeleke and Catherine B. Ogunremi . 33. Managerial Tasks and Teacher Burnout in Senior Secondary Schools of Rivers State Prof. (Dame) Ngozi C. Okorie , Ihua Jonathan Nwovuhoma and Assor Blessing . - 244 253 34. The Place Of Vocational And Technical Education In Skills Acquisition Among Secondary School Students: Implications For Counselling – Dr. (Mrs.) G. I. Osa-Edoh. - 261 35. The Relevance of History of Education in Teacher Preparation: The Nigerian Experience - Paulley, F. Godgift, Ph.D; mnim. - 268 - 276 36. Education Funding in Nigeria: Adequacy – Inadequacy? - Kpolovie, Peter James and Obilor, Isaac Esezi. Journal of Education in Developing Areas | Vol. 21(1) March, 2013 4 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 INFLUENCE OF POLITICAL DECENTRALIZATION ON PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION IN GRASSROOT GOVERNANCE AND SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN OSUN AND KWARA STATES By ABIONA I. ADEKEYE, Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria & BELLO W. NIYI Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Abstract This study investigated the influence of political decentralization on people’s participation in Community Development Programmes in Osun and Kwara states of Nigeria. The study adopted descriptive survey research design. The Population comprised members of Community Based Association 1’022 (51.5%), Community Development Agents 142 (7.2%) Community Leaders 266 (13.4%), political Leaders 127(6.4%) and Government Representatives 427 (21.5%). Multi -stage sampling procedure was adopted to select 1,984 respondents. Data were collected using Political Decentralization and Community Development Assessment Scale (PDCDAS). Two research questions were raised and two hypotheses were formulated. Research questions were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and T-test while Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Research hypotheses showed that, there was a significant relationship between political decentralization and sustainable community development (r = 705**; P<0.05); people’s participation in governance (r =537**; P < 0.05). Results showed no significant difference in factors affecting sustainability of community development programmes between Osun and Kwara States, Nigeria (Crit-t=.1.96.calt=.498.df=1982.P>.05 level of significance). The results of the research questions also showed no difference in influence of political decentralization on sustainable community development programmes in Osun and Kwara States, Nigeria (Crit-t=1.96.Cal-t=1.586.df=1986.P>.05 level of significance). However, taking the two factors together, the influence of political decentralization on sustainable community development programmes was much pronounced in Kwara State ( x = 44.5931) than Osun State ( x = 43.4585). Based on the findings, it was recommended that political decentralization should be a recurrent exercise which should be tailored towards effective grassroots participation so as to enhance political stability, physical and socio- economic transformation. Keywords: Political participation. decentralization, community development programmes, sustainability, w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 1 citizen March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The global trend of devolving the responsibilities of centralized governments to constituent units through decentralization has become a common phenomenon. The premise of political decentralization is to enhance administrative efficiency as measures in terms of accelerated development through creation of local effective political units. Political decentralization depicts dispersing of decision making governance closer to the citizenry. It implies political arrangement of transferring authority and responsibility of public functions from the central government to subordinate or quasi independent government such as regions, states and local governments for development and influences in the formulation and implementation of policies (Bello Imam, 2004; Sharma, 2005). Political decentralization is a principle as well as the best management strategies for large organizations such as government, as it facilitates all facets of development in a country. Through political decentralization, citizen’s participation in governance is enhanced, thereby ensuring effective planning, financing and management of public functions, from the central government and its agencies, to local governments and semi autonomous public authorities (Bello–Imam, 1996; Bulamin, 1995; Awotokun, 2000; Akai, 2002; Adamolekun, 2002; Sharma, 2005). Political decentralization process in Nigeria has metamorphosed into 36 states structure apart from the Federal Capital Territory in Abuja. The country was also divided into six geo political zones. Associated with state creation is growth in the number of local government areas. Based on different recommendations and local government reforms, the number of local government has increased to 774 to dates. (Dasuki, 1984; political bureau, 1987; Suberu, 1996). Adejuiyugbe, (1979); Dasuki, (1984); Oyovbaire; (1985); Politcal Bureau, (1987); Bulamin, (1995); Suberu; (1998); and Adamolekun; (2002) identified the rationale for political decentralization among which include: fostering participatory democracy; enhancing even and sustainable grassroots development; the need for balanced federalism; pursuit of the federal character principle and ensuring good governance through transparency and accountability among others. Arising from political decentralization factors is the relationships with community development that are evident among which includes: the need for mass participation in grassroots governance; and the need for even and sustainable development. Therefore, the elements of community development in relation to political decentralization are imperative for empirical understanding which Dusautoy, (1962); Anyanwu, (1992); and Sarumi, (2003) identified as: induced social change at unit levels; people oriented development projects; development of local leadership and its institutions; community as links for development; encouragement of mass participation in grassroots governance; and initiating a self generative, self sustaining and enduring process of growth. The above scenarios constitute the background against which this research is anchored as one observed with growing interest, that for over fifty years of Nigeria political independence, the country’s geo political structure has been altered several times with little or no socio economic transformation associated with such political decentralization. However, in spite of the large number of political units in Nigeria with their purported benefits as envisioned, many Nigerian communities still remain under developed. Many citizens are still agitating for more political units. In view of the yearnings and aspirations of citizens for more units to be created, this research investigated the extent to which political decentralization process has impacted positively on peoples participation in sustainable community development programmes. In Nigeria, it is observed by Suberu, (1998); Ugwu, (1998) that different successive governments have been involved in political decentralization through public policies on the creation of states and local governments. This process is conceived by the public as a development effort which is to bring governance and development closer to the people. However, government inability to achieve over all development has precipitated many communities to accept community development as a w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 2 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). strategy which is germane to self help and people’s initiative to improve the physical and socio economic conditions of the communities Thus, this study investigated the extent to which political decentralization has influenced sustainable community development in terms of rural transformation and mass participation in grassroots governance in Osun and Kwara States. Democracy is one of the most fashionable buzz word of contemporary political system across the globe. In its most generic and broadcast sense democracy is an integral part of movement of history which Abraham Lincoln sees as “the government of the people by the people and for the people” (Omotola, 2006). Generally, democracy is a form of government as which citizens in a state have political investments of political participation and trust (Ayoade, 1998). It especially has to do with the ability of the people to control decision marking (Zack Willians, cited in Omotola, 2006) which explains why Osagbae, (1999) asserts that the central thing about democracy is to ensure that power actually belongs to the people. Democracy emphasizes freedom of the individuals in various aspects of political life, equality among citizens, and justice in elections between the people and the government and the participation of the people in choosing those in governments. This presupposes that democracy is hinged on the active participation/involvement of the people in governance. It is a procedure whereby members of a community participate directly in decision making about development that affects the community. These are essential tools through which people can achieve community empowerment and ownership. It covers a spectrum of activities involving people in their communities, from more passive involvement in community life to intensive action. Community participation means some form of involvement of people with similar needs and goals in decisions affecting their lives. The theory of community participation underlines that the local community should be given an active role in programmes and improvement directly affecting it. It is only rational to give control of affairs and decisions to people most affected by the programmes. Besides, since no government or authority has the means to solve all the public problems adequately, it is necessary to involve people in matters that affect them. Since people are involved, the process of participation helps to promote sense of ownership and control among the people. The advocates of community participation therefore belief that it brings many lasting benefits to people instead of only a means of getting things done. Community participation associate with citizen partnership with the citizen power and control as “the re distribution of powers that enables the have not citizens presently excluded from the political and economic processes, to be deliberately included in the future (Anyanwu, 1992). The inalienable attribute of good governance and democracy that can facilitate community participation among others include i. Accountability; ii. Transparency in government procedures; iii. Expectation of rationale decisions; iv. Predictability in government behaviors; v. Openness in government transactions; vi. Free flow of information; vii. Respect for the rule of law and Protection of the civil liberties; viii. Freedom of the press; ix. Decentralization of power structure and decision making (Sambo, cited in Omotola, 2006) w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 3 March, 2013 i. ii. iii. iv. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). However, community participation in governance is based on Broad representatives, accommodating various shades of interest and opinion; Consultation and consensus building; Enlightened discussions, debate and contribution; and Active involvement of the good society (Attahiru ,2007) Effective community participation in governance at the local level in Nigeria started in1976. Hitherto, the authority and legitimacy of the local governments had always been threatened by the traditional rulers who had always competed with the local governments for the royalty and resources of the localities. Traditional rulers as local institutions got state and national recognition under different regimes. They were invited to participate in the constituent Assembly. The outcome of the participation of traditional rulers in this Assembly was the extension of their advisory functions from the local level to the state level and also its documentation or entrenchment into the 1989 constitution. A national council of traditional rulers was constituted and aimed at acquiring the rule of a standing national advisory committee on a wide range of issues such as diplomacy, politics bureaucracy and economy. Empowerment of the local and formal institution was extended to other local informal institutions. (Olasupo, 2000). In addition to the existing indigenous institutions at the local level, the family support programme, Better life for rural women among others were created to raise women’s consciousness of their social and political rights. They were organized into associations to attract government support and enable them to better pursue their collective interests. Individual votes at the local level were not left out of this empowerment to ensure good governance at the local level and even at the national levels. It ensured effective monitoring of elections by preventing abuses of impersonations and multiple voting. (Olasupo, 2000). Economically, local institutions (informal) and the citizens were assisted by the establishment of the people’s Bank to provide credit for disadvantage people who could not meet the usual conditions of the normal commercial banks. Community banks system was established to provide banking services to needy communities. The community banking system was a self sustain financial institution owned and managed by a community or groups of communities, for the purpose of providing credit, deposit, banking services to its members, largely on the basis of self recognition and credit worthiness. Emergence of the civil society based on region, religion, sub nationalities and other primordial loyalties came into limelight with those registered with the government and there are those not registered with government. Community participation has decision making structure, advisory panel, and designated group. Those who participate in governance among the citizens are elected official, public administrators and individuals in the relevant country who do not occupy governmental position. However, community participation is concerned mostly with individuals who do not occupy governmental positions among which are community based associations, family support programmes, and better life for rural women, cooperative societies (Olasupo, 2000). The agitation for more political units in the country is not just a recent phenomenon or a post independence political problem. It had been in existence before this period. There were growing demands for the creation of new states during the colonial era as they were after independence. The restructuring of the nation state is very old indeed. The ethnic polarization in Nigeria led to the growing demands for states among minority groups particularly before independence. Most of the ethnic groups concerned themselves with the development and progress of their areas (Oyobaire, 1985; Suberu, 1994; and Omotoso, 2003). Ever since 1954, when the minorities in the country first bombarded the then colonial government with an avalanche of requests for the creation of their autonomous divisions, in order to ensure equity and justice in an unfolding Nigeria federal structure; the demands for creation of additional states and w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 4 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). localities to the already existing ones by Nigerians have become a fad. Nevertheless, the Nigerian federation has been bedeviled with considerable instability resulting in internal restructuring of the boundaries of the constituent states six times since independence that is 1963, 1967, 1976, 1987, 1991 and 1996; and, at the end of all those balkanizations, the country has metamorphosed into a complicated 37units along with the federal capital territory and 774 local government areas arising primarily from separatist agitations (Bello Imam, 1996; Alabi, 2006). It is also pertinent to note that an important feature of federal frame work of 1954 was the three regional structure for which the country was bedeviled by problems arising from fear of domination. For example, the minorities in Eastern Region formed the Calabar Ogoja Rivers (COR) state movement and demanded a separate state. In the Northern Region, minority groups formed various associations to demand for the creation of a middle Belt state. In the Western Region, the Mid West state movement demanded the creation of Mid West state. The pressures from this movement led to the establishment of the Willink Commission to investigate the fears of minorities and the means of allaying them. The report of the commission confirmed that there was convincing evidence of fears among the minorities but insisted that the creation of the new state would delay the proposed granting of Nigeria’s independence. Because of their desire for self –rule, the nationalists could not wait for new state or region to be created (Oyovbaire,1985; Osarhieme, 1998; Suberu,1998; and Omotoso, 2003). There were a lot of proposal for the state creation, as more and more Nigerians clamored for the creation of their dream states from the existing ones. Agitation for creation of new states soon became a political issue and newly emergent politicians used the issue to canvas for votes and political support in their bid to gain the rein of governance. The agitation and creation of states continued as follows: (i) Demands for new state (1963 State Creation Exercise); (ii) Minority agitation for another region in northern Nigeria; (iii) Minority demand for state in eastern region; (iv) 1967 twelve – state framework; (v) The 1976 state creation exercise; (vi) Demand for new state in the second republic (Omotosho, 2003). ! " # The three tiers: Federal, States and Local have distinct role to play in achieving national community development policy objectives. The roles of federal government according to the policy include: co ordinate and monitor community development activities in the states, make adequate provision, grant and other forms of support for self help project in the states; and facilitate and monitor activities of international agencies in community development projects among others. The state government role shall include: supervision and monitoring community development activities in the local government; assist project by making adequate annual budgetary provisions; and promote and fund research and planning activities among others. Local government role in community development shall include: monitor community development activities at the community level, make budgetary provision for grant to community projects, establish Community Development Committees (CDSs) and encourage education and training or field workers and community leaders among others. (Anyanwu, 1991; Community Development Agency, 2007; Abiona, 2009). $ % The research questions for the study are as follow: RQ1 Are their differences in factors that affect sustainability of community development programmes through political decentralization process between the selected states? RQ2 Are their differences in influence of political decentralization on sustainable community development programmes between the selected states? w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 5 March, 2013 $ JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). & The following null hypotheses were tested for the purpose of study. Ho1. There is no significant relationship between elements of political decentralization and sustainable community development. Ho2. There is no significant relationship between political decentralization factors and people’s participation in sustainable community development programmes. ' Descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. This method described, examined, and analyzed the variables of political decentralization and its influence on sustainable community development programmes. The target population for this study comprised all members of community based associations, community leaders, change agents and political representatives in nine local government areas each from Osun and Kwara states. A multi stage sampling procedure was used to select 1,984 participants. The first stage involved cluster sampling technique, whereby two states were selected purposively, namely; Osun from South West and Kwara from North Central geo political zones respectively. The second stage involved the stratification of these states into six zones along the existing senatorial districts in which three senatorial districts were selected from each of the state. To ensure adequate representation, three local government areas were selected from each senatorial district, which resulted to nine local governments from each state. The third stage involved a random sampling technique for the selection of specific respondents in proportion to the number of the ward in each local government area. From each ward, 50 participants were selected based on their participation in community development programmes and political activities. The proportion sample size was 20% from population of 10,250 and the total sample for the study was 2,050 participants. The instrument used for this study is a questionnaire tagged “Political Decentralization and Community Development Assessment Scale” (PDCDAS). The instrument was exposed to validity and reliability test. It recorded a correlation index of 0.87 which was considered sufficiently high to confirm the instrument as reliable. The research questions were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and T test while Pearson Product Moment correlation was used to analyze the hypotheses generated at 0.05 alphas. $ $ % ( ) What are the differences in factors affecting sustainability of community development programmes between Kwara and Osun State through political decentralization process? # *: T test Showing Differences In Factors affecting Sustainability of Community Development Programmes through political decentralization process between Osun and Kwara States Osun Kwara N 964 1020 Mean 44.4585 44.5931 Std.Dev 5.7319 Crit t Cal t df p 1.96 .498 1982 .648 44.5931 Table 1 shows that there is no significant difference in the factors affecting sustainability of community development programmes between Osun and Kwara states (Crit t =1.96, cal.t= .498, df= 1.982, P > .05 level of significance). From table 1, it could be observed that there was no significant difference existed in the factors affecting sustainability of community development programmes between Osun and Kwara States. The calculated t value was .498. The mean score for Osun was 43.4585 while the mean score for kwara was 44.5931, This shows that there is no significant difference w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 6 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). in factors affecting sustainability of community development programmes in Kwara and Osun states. This implies that the factors affecting sustainability of community development programmes were much pronounced in Kwara 44.5931 $ % + ) What are the differences in influence of political decentralization on community development programmes between Osun and Kwara States ? # ,) T Test Showing Differences In Influence Of Political Decentralization on Community Development Programmes between Osun And Kwara States. N 964 Osun Kwara 1020 Mean 35.1805 34.8147 Std.Dev. 5.0382 Crit t Cal t df p 1.96 1.586 1982 .113 5.2256 Table 2 shows that there was no significant difference in the influence of political decentralization on Community Development Programmes in Osun and Kwara States (crit t=1.96, Cal.t=1.586, df =1982, P>.05 level of significance). From table 2, it could be observed that no significant difference existed in the influence of political decentralization on Community Development Programmes between Kwara and Osun States. The calculated t value was 1.586. The mean score for Osun State was 35.1805 while the mean score for kwara states was 34.8145, This shows that there is no significant difference in Community Development Programmes between Kwara and Osun States. & Ho1: ( ) There is no significant relationship between political decentralization and sustainable community development. # -: Relationship between Political Decentralization and Sustainable Community Development. . # ' Political Decentralization $ 19.0685 3.1309 1984 Sustainable Community Development . 34.9924 .705 .000 Sig. 5.1374 . at. P<0.05; r=705 It is shown in table 3 that there was a significant relationship between political decentralization and sustainable community development (r = .705; p<0.05). The null hypothesis is therefore rejected and the alternative hypothesis formulated is accepted. This shows that political decentralization has influence on sustainable community development programmes in Osun and Kwara States of Nigeria. & + & ,) # . # + # /) $ # + # ' Std. Dev. 19.0685 3.1309 Participation in Governance… 30.2702 4.0076 Political Decentralization n 1984 r .537 p Remark .000 Sig. Sig. at .p<0.05; r=537 It is shown in table 4 that there was significant relationship between political decentralization and peoples’ Participation in Governance and Sustainable Community Development (r = .537; w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 7 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). p<0.05). The null hypothesis formulated is rejected. Consequently, the alternative hypothesis is retained. This means that when the data was subjected to Pearson correlation test. It shows that political decentralization has influence on people’s participation in governance in both Osun and Kwara States of Nigeria. 0 The major highlights of the findings of the study include among other things that: 1*2 The result in table 1 shows that there is no significant difference in the factors affecting sustainability of community development programmes between Osun and Kwara states, Nigeria. This shows that when the data collected were subjected to analysis it was discovered that there was no difference in the factors affecting sustainability of community development programmes between Osun and Kwara states. The findings corroborated research report of Abisoye, (2008); Adedokun, (1998); Akinyemi, (1991); Otite, (2003) on the factors affecting sustainability of community development programmes, Abisoye, (2008) stressed that elected representative are not doing enough in terms of accountability. However, it can be deduced that factors affecting sustainability of community development programmes were more pronounced in Kwara State x than Osun State x 1,2 The result in table 2 shows that there is no significant difference in the influence of political decentralization on Community Development Programmes in Osun and Kwara States, Nigeria. This implied that political decentralization has greater influence on community development programmes than x 2 in Osun x 1-2 There was a significant relationship between political decentralization and community development. The result shows that a significant relationship existed between political decentralization and sustainable community development programmes. The null hypothesis is rejected. Consequently, the alternative hypothesis formulated is accepted. The data was subjected to Pearson Product Moment Correlation test. It was shown that a significant correlation existed between political decentralization and sustainable community development. The result revealed that political decentralization has greatly influenced community development programmes in Osun and Kwara States, Nigeria. However, the study established that all variables considered have positive significant relationship on community development in Osun and Kwara States, Nigeria . It was discovered that through political decentralization, community development units were established at the state and local government levels: community development committees (CDC) were established at the state and local government level. Grants were provided through local government to support community development programmes. Rural development services were provided by local government in most communities. The finding revealed that community development agents helped to mobilize people to participate in the development of their areas. Committees were mobilized through local political units to monitor development activities. The finding is consistent with the views of (Otite2003; Akinyemi, 1990; Adedokun, 1998). The finding is also in conformity with the National Community Development Policy, (2007) which designed the roles of states and local governments in community development among which are; establishment of community development units at the local and states government level; grant support for government; rural development services; government involvement in training community leaders; establishment of vocational training programmes to develop skills; involvement in mobilizing people for development and Partnering with development agent. The study therefore established that states and local government are effective in performing their statutory duties assigned through political decentralization in relation to Community Development Programmes This finding is in conformity with the rationale of political decentralization as emphasized by Omotosho, (2003) ; Adejuyigbe, (1979) among which is the need to spread development to the grassroots .The finding of this study in table 3 is in contrast to the study of Abisoye, (2008) on the ratings of government efforts at improving w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 8 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). the lots of the people that there was no government impact on development, the study poorly rated government efforts at improving the social life of the people. 1/2 There was significant relationship between political decentralization and peoples’ participation in governance. The result in table 3 shows that all variables considered have positive significant influence on people’s participation in community development programmes that is, community leaders were always involved in policy formation and decision making in political decentralization for development purposes in both Osun and Kwara States, Nigeria. It has also been discovered from the study that there was effective communication among members of the community and people’s participation. The result of this hypothesis is also in congruent with the submission of Adedokun, (1998) that there is a relationship between decentralization of policy making on community development and effective participation of people. That when there is decentralization of policy statement concerning community development, the tendency for peoples’ participation will be raised or enhanced. Corroborating this finding, the research report of Akinyemi, (1990) stressed that there is encouraging attitude in community participation among rural dwellers and further stressed that community participation has become a crucial factor in any meaningful development effort in recent times. People are beginning to recognize the limitation of government in providing all the impetus and resources which are basic to development. They are becoming actively more concerned with finding solutions to development problems on a more collective basis than ever before. Atte, cited in Adedokun, (1998) equally supports the finding of this report and stressed that for people’s participation to be improved in development programmes, decentralization is a basic strategy. The finding affirms the research report of Akinyemi, (1990) which emphasized the need for decentralization. That decentralization is necessary in community development activities because of the better experiences of the people in the hands of government agents and further stressed that people were actively involved in the decision making and the implementation of projects due to determination of people to bring about a transformation of their socio economic development. This finding is in conformity with the rationale for political decentralization highlighted by Omotosho, (2005); Adejuyigbe, (1979) on the needs for government to spread decision making apparatus to the grassroots for general participation. The findings in the above table 4 on peoples’ participation in governance through community development programmes also buttressed the experience in Nepal programme. It was discovered in Nepal programme that grassroots democracy was practiced through community development. ! "# $ # % % % "# ! % & ! Political decentralization has served as a potent instrument for enhancing people’s participation in governance and sustainable community development programmes. Some factors have impeded the level of sustainability of community development programmes which included communal clashes, political instability, inadequate funding, leadership problems, poor accountability and transparency and communication gap. This study has provided the need for community stakeholders to understand and appreciates the value of decentralization as an instrument for the promotion of sustainable community development programmes. It is hoped that this study will provide an insight to the impact of decentralization as a veritable tool for sustainability of community development programmes. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 9 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: 12 Political decentralization through creation of states and local units should be a recurrent exercise which should be tailored towards effective grassroots development and popular participation in governance; 1 2 Government should identify and encourage community stakeholders to serve as model of leadership for effective and positive participation in planning, monitoring and evaluation of community development programmes; 1 2 For a more sustained community development programmes, government should properly address the problems of communities through participation and involvement of the three tiers of government, federal, state and local political units with the benefitting communities, this will entail comprehensive and coordinated mobilization of resources through partnering with international development agencies; 1 2 It is hoped that government and the communities will provide solutions to problems bedeviling sustainability of community development programmes; and 1 2 Our development policy needs to be guided by new priorities such as rural development and promotion of community education which will allow citizens to re shape their physical, socio economic conditions through participation in self help projects. $ Abiona, I .A, ( 2009): ' # ' %( )& # , Ibadan University Press: 81 Abisoye, A.O, (2008): Participation and Democracy: Implication for Community Development in Oyo State, Nigeria. Ph.D Thesis, Department of Sociology, University of Ibadan. Adamolekun, L. (2002): ' * + +% , . ( Ibadan Spectrum Books Limited: 48 50, 266 292. Adedokun O.M, (1998): The Contributions of Community Education to Sustainable Community Development Project in Oyo state, (1987 1996). ' ) : Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan,Ibadan. Adejuyigbe, O. (1979): Rationale and Effects of State Creation in Nigeria withReference to the 19 States +/ $ ( ' )$ 0 1% ! 2. 3 ! 4 University Press Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria: 190 212 Akai, N. and Masayo S. (2002): “Fiscal Decentralization Contributes to Economic Growth: Evidence from State Level Cross Section Data for the United States” 5 %6* 7 , 8 Akinpelu, J. A. (1988): - - * 9 ( )& # $ Uniben press, Benin City Akintayo, M. O. and Ogbenekohwo J.E. 2004 ) & # ! + 7 ( )& # ,: ' ! Educational Ibadan Research and Study Group. Akinyemi V. I. (1990): Determinants of Citizen Participation in Community Development activities in Ondo state Ph.D Thesis Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan Ahmed, A. O. (1988): The Influence Of Adult Education On Altitude Towards Community Development in Niger State of Nigeria. Ph.D Thesis Department of Adult Education University of Ibadan. Alabi, D. O. (2006): Federalism and the Quest for National Development ; +$ 5 * 4$ 6 <$ 0 . ) ' . Lagos, Concepts Publications Limited. 1: 46 52 Anyanwu, C.N. (1981): ' # ' % + 7 ( )& # Ibadan: Aberrant Publishing Company Limited: 189 194 Anyanwu, C.N. (1992): Community ) & # , :! ' # & . Ibadan, Gebesther Educational Publishers. Anyanwu, C.N. (1999): . ( )& # . Ibadan, Gabesther Education Publishers: 5 Attahiru M.J. (2007): Democracy$ = = & )& # :! ( 7 Spectrum Books Limited, Ibadan: 66 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 10 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Awotokun, K. (2000): An Appraisal of Local Government In Nigeria . - / + . + ,+ # < =& ' # & % :! ' , 19 Ayoade, J.A.A. (1998): The Federal Character Principle and Search for National Integration . + $ +!* > +$ * 3 ; = )4 ' 3 ! :! . Ibadan, Spectrum Books Ltd, and IFRA: 101 Bello Imam, I.B.(1996): < =& : ! , 7& & ! % =& Heinemann Educational Books (Nig.) Plc in Association with French Institute for Research in Africa: 6 7. Bulamin, A.O. (1995): ' % < =& Distance Leaving Centre University of Ibadan: 12 13. Community Development Agency, (2007): National Community Development Policy, Agency, Abuja. Dasuki Reform, (1984): Report on Local Government System and Administration. Dusautoy, P. (1962): 1! 9 % ( )& # ' ! London Oxford University Press. Obianigwe, (1999): Talking Rural Development. Vanguard, Monday, March 18th, 1999 Olasupo, F. A. (2000): Community Participation in Governance and Development in Nigeria +/# & - / . + , + ( # < =& ' # & % :! Lagos, Malthouse Press Limited: 169. Omotola, S.J. (2006): No democracy, No Development or Vice Versa? . ; $ 5 * 4$ 6 <$ 0 7 ) )& # :! , ( # . ) ' Vol.1. Lagos, Concepts Publishing Limited: 29. Omotoso, O.F. (2003): Administrative Problems of State Creation in Nigeria: The Case of Ekiti and Osun States. Unpublished Thesis, Faculty of Social Science, Department of Political Science University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Onabanjo, F.A. (2004): ( )& # ,3 )& # ' ( ! Lagos, Felix Enterprise: 1 44. Osarhieme, B.O (1998): The Development of the Federal Idea and the Federal Framework, 1914 1960 + $ +!* > + $ * 3 ; = 4 ' 3 ! : ! , Ibadan,.Spectrum Books Limited: 34. Osaghae, E, E. (1999): “Sustianing” Democratic Stability in Africa: The Moral “Imperative” In Omoruyi, O.et al (eds) Democratication in Africa: African Perspective Vol.1 Benin City: Hima and Hima. Otite, R.E (2002): Partnering in Community Development: A Study of Three Rural Communities in Delta State Nigeria Thesis Faculty of Education, Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan: 114. Oyovbaire, S.E (1985): 4 :! , + )& # % :! Macmillian Publisher. 1:15 17. Sarumi, A. (2003): Community development: Historical Perspective . :! 5 < * 3 University of Ibadan 5. (1): 16 Sharma, C.K (2006): “Decentralization dilemma”: Measuring the degree and evaluating the outcomes, . 5 %' $ ? $ 8? #@@ 8 / # !@ / @ 9 Sharma, C.K (2008): “Emerging dimensions of decentralization debate in the age of globalization”, MPRA # # ? $ = 6 & <* % . #@@ 8 / # ! @ / @ 9 Suberu, R.T.(1994): Recent demands for new states in Nigeria. :! 5 %4 $ 1, 2: 67 82. Suberu, R.T. (1998): States’ creation and political economic of NigeriaFederalism + $+ +!* > $ + * $0 = ; $ 4 # ! :! .* # A / : 276.280 Suberu, R.T, (1996): 7 ( % =& : ! $ Ibadan. Spectrum Books Limited: 68 69 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 11 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME IN NIGERIA: THE NEED FOR A NEW PARADIGM By Dr. C.N. Musa Department of Educational Studies and Management Faculty of Education University of Benin Benin City 08034091854 e-mail – readurbook50@gmail.com Ekwukoma Victor, Department of Educational Studies and Management Faculty of Education University of Benin Benin City 3# This paper examines the need for a new paradigm in teacher education for improved educational standards at all levels of the Nigerian education. The authors identified some of the major problems besetting Nigerian teacher education such as the admission of unqualified candidates into teacher education programmes, deficient teacher-education curriculum, poor training environment and poor conditions of service. Relevant recommendations were made to address these problems. It is believed that when these recommendations are implemented, the quality of teachers will not only improve but also the standards of education at all levels will improve. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 12 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Of all the problems that beset the Nigerian educational system, none is as persistent and compelling as the one relating to the training of competent teachers. There has been a quest for high standards of education and a need for curriculum relevance, appropriate textbooks and other instructional materials. In addition, there is the desire for improved performance in public examinations of the West African Examinations Council (WAEC), the National Examinations Council (NECO) and the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examinations (UTME). Similarly, owing to the high and embarrassing rate of unemployment in Nigeria, there has been a nationwide call, passionately for the integration of entrepreneurial training in the Nigerian educational system. The above challenges and the challenge of preparing competent and visionary leaders in Nigeria cannot be effectively accomplished without the aid of competent teachers. Unfortunately, the teacher education in Nigeria has been steadily whittled away by a myriad of problems. It is in this light that this paper is designed to examine these problems that characterize the teacher education programme in Nigeria. # The problem of this study is the decline in quality output of education which is exemplified in the recurrent abysmal performances of students in public examinations. Poor teaching by all categories of teachers has been found to be responsible for this state of affairs in the schools. These problems have given rise to several calls for educational reforms. Musa and Musa (2007) have identified a plethora of systemic problems which require some dispassionate examination, especially in the area of objectives, curriculum planning and implementation. Omatseye and Mogbeyiteren (2008) have argued that these problems have culminated in a rising tide of mediocrity in the entire educational system. Similarly, Osagie and Ibadin (2007) identified a mismatch between the products of the Nigerian educational system and the objectives of education enshrined in the National Policy on Education resulting in poor quality and wastage. Indicators of poor quality and wastage include high dropout and failure rates, rampant examination malpractices, poor reading and writing skills among students at all levels. For example, in the 2005 WAEC examinations, due to the high rate of examination malpractice, the Federal Ministry of Education derecognized a total of 324 secondary schools as centres for public examinations from January 2007 to December 2010. Evidence of wastage can be seen among the teaming population of students who repeat the General Certificate of Education (GCE) and Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board Examinations every year. The table below shows figures which the authors extrapolated from the annual reports of the West African Examinations Council to give a rough statistical picture of the enormity of wastage resulting from high failure rate and dismal performance of candidates in WAEC Examinations. # *) 43 5 ,6678,6*, 9 ,667 ,66: ,66; ,66< ,6*6 ,6** ,6*, No of candidates that sat for WASSCE 1,170,522 1,290,553 1,415,192 1,372,979 1,351,557 1,540250 310,007 280,691 289,432 410,547 343, 519 337,071 472,906 62,295 Eng. Lang. & Maths 23.98 22.42 22.54 25.02 24.94% 30.99% 20.04% % of the failure rate 76.02 77.58 77.46 74.98 75.06 69.01 79.96 No of candidates that had five credits and above including Eng. lang. and Maths % of candidates that had five credits and above including ) WAEC Annual Reports and Authors’ Computation (2006 2012) The wastage rate was 76.02% in 2006, 77.58% in 2007, 77.46% in 2008, 74.98% in 2009, 75.06% in 2010, 69.01% in 2011 and 79.96% in 2012. This parlous state of affairs has been attributed to steady decline in quality of education, incessant policy somersaults, decaying infrastructure, lack of w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 13 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). research, disappearing libraries, students’ lazy attitude to study, poor teaching quality and dwindling academic staff. Recently, there was a terrible public outcry and condemnation over the mass failure of candidates in WAEC and NECO examinations. However, Akin (2011) reported that stakeholders in education under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of Education have absolved the nation's two major examination bodies, WAEC and NECO, of any blame in the mass failure of Nigerian candidates in public examinations. The mass failure of students in both WAEC and NECO examinations in recent times was traced by the stakeholders to poor teaching by the unqualified teachers in schools. It has been noted that majority of the teachers in public schools across the country do not possess the relevant competencies required for the implementation of continuous assessment, as well as the competencies needed in writing objective, reliable and standardized test items. Professor Lawal Adetula of the National Mathematics Centre (NMC), Abuja and other education stakeholders have called on the government at all levels to recruit more competent teachers. In view of the above, the argument is that Nigeria's desire to realize its vision of becoming one of the twenty largest economies in the world by the year 2020 is largely dependent on its capacity to produce highly skilled and competent citizens, especially at the basic education level for global best practices and competitiveness in line with the Millennium Development Goals and the Education for All (EFA) initiatives. Several authors have lamented the declining standard of education at all levels in Nigeria (Fafunwa, 1980; Moses, 2008; Nduka, 1993 & Olayemi, 2001). More efforts are, perhaps inadvertently, geared towards quantitative expansion of education rather than qualitative improvement in Nigeria. Most of these problems identified cannot be sincerely addressed without adopting a new paradigm for teacher education in Nigeria for the training of competent teachers. 5 Teachers have been recognized as the potent agents of human engineering and survival. The success of any system of education depends to a large extent on the number of teachers, their quality, their devotion to duty and their effectiveness on the job. Teachers are the fountain head of educational improvement. The National Policy on Education, in appreciating the pivotal role of the teacher, makes it abundantly clear that no education system can rise above the quality of its teachers (Ojo, 2008). Ukeje (1996) stretches this further by unequivocally stating that no nation can rise above its teachers. Shekarau (1996) remarked that the teacher is central to the learning process and hence to the education in all its ramifications. Equipment and other teaching materials can be improvised, but good teachers cannot be improvised. Teacher education is supposed to be closely related to every phase of development in Nigeria for wherever one turns, be it in the social, economic or political sphere of activities, one is faced with the ever recurring problem of the need for trained manpower; but no adequate training can take place without competent teachers. The search for a new paradigm for an effective teacher education would therefore necessarily involve a careful identification of the problems. # + 5 + % B % # ! , There are three main levels of teacher training in the Nigerian educational system – The Teachers’ Grade Two (TC11),The Nigerian Certificate in Education(NCE),The Bachelor of Arts/Science Education B.Sc/B.A.Ed and B.Ed. Of all the recognised professions in Nigeria today, only teaching requires less than a full secondary education as its minimum qualification for admission into training institutions. In other professions like Law, Medicine, Engineering, an ordinary level General Certificate of Education (GCE) certificate with 5 papers at credit level or at least a good secondary education are basic requirements for the Bachelor’s w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 14 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). degree programme. Some Colleges of Education even admit candidates with passes in English and Mathematics and one or two credits. Additionally, most teacher training institutions have become "dumping grounds" into which candidates who could not secure admissions in other disciplines are pushed (Ekwukoma, 2008). In most universities, candidates who have no interest or aptitude whatsoever in the teaching profession are usually ‘pushed’ to the faculties of education as a last resort by the admission authorities. Some years ago, worried by the paucity of applicants into Colleges of Education, the Federal Ministry of Education directed the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) to find out through research, the reasons for the dearth of applicants into Colleges of Education. The study which used pre NCE students as prospective applicants into Colleges of Education, found that even pre NCE students who were already in the precinct of a teacher education programme would not want to train as teachers in Colleges of Education if they had the requisite qualification to gain admission into the university. This finding is consistent with Afe (1995) who found that a majority of the students in the College of Education, Ekiadolor Benin opted for Education only out of necessity. As a strategy for boosting the interest of Senior Secondary School Certificate holders in applying to train as teachers at the NCE level, a paradigm shift was suggested to affiliate Colleges of Education to Universities for a smooth transition of students to the degree programmes of the Universities to which the Colleges of Education are affiliated. But implicit in this paradigm shift is the setting aside of the original mission of the Colleges of Education as institutions for the training of highly qualified non graduate teachers to dispense education at the primary and junior secondary school levels. This is why there is need for a philosophical paradigm shift. Situations arise when students without any aptitude for the teaching profession, and have been pushed to education as a stepping stone) are unable to transfer from education to their desired disciplines and are compelled to graduate in education without even the slightest interest in the ethics of the profession. This frustration, to a very large extent, may account for the poor and abysmal performance of students and teachers, and ultimately with serious implication for the education sector. 85 One of the criticisms frequently made against teacher education is that methods courses are removed from the subject matter to be taught (Fafunwa, 1980). There is indeed a need for integration of the two, because one practically gives meaning to the other. A teacher requires to have not just a mastery of the content of the subject he intends to teach, he must equally have the pedagogical underpinnings to impart the knowledge. Unfortunately, most of the opponents of pedagogical training beyond subject matter mastery dominate the university system. To them, a thorough mastery of the subject matter of instruction is all it takes to teach, arguing that teachers are born and not made. Ojo (2008) had responded that there is no doubt that aptitude exists, but it is not restricted to teaching. Some people are endowed naturally with the gift of the garb and can thus be eloquent in the discussion of any subject they have a mastery of. Some people have the natural talent to act plays but it does not mean they do not need training to become artiste. Some people are witty and can argue for or against issues with convincing logic; yet they cannot practise law until they are trained as lawyers. This is because the practice of law has a method, just as in teaching. The knowledge of the content of instruction or subject matter does not guarantee effective impartation of the knowledge. Thus, teacher educators should emphasize pedagogy, that is, the science of (method and techniques) of teaching as well as the subject matter. Another shortcoming of teacher education in Nigeria is the little or absence of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) curricular contents (Moses, 2008). Teacher education curriculum should be revised and enriched with appropriate ICT curricular content, sufficient and adequate to make teachers knowledgeable enough to teach computer education at the basic level. Today’s teachers should be able to use the computer as an educational resource to enrich and mediate their lessons. The w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 15 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). extraordinary changes and innovations brought about by ICT in all facets of human endeavour make it imperative that similar changes be incorporated into teacher education programme. Teacher trainees must adopt a new orientation and embrace the paradigm shift in communication from analogue to digital. This will not only make the classroom dynamically lively but also enhance creativity and students' active participation in the process of learning. Ojo (2008) remarked that with the use of ICT, the classroom may assume the character of superhighways and become centres of activities and at the same time, there will be no physical boundaries restricting learning to any specific location. Students' benefits from using ICT are greatly dependent on the skill of the teachers and the teachers' attitude and readiness to embrace and integrate ICT in teaching. 5 The environment for the training of teachers and the conditions of service of even their trainers do not reflect the new existential realities. Most institutions and faculties of education where teachers are educated are characterized by the absence of adequate teaching and learning facilities. Where these facilities exist, they are usually obsolete and moribund. This factor has inevitably widened the gap between theory and practice in the entire education sector. In some first generation universities in the South South, postgraduate students, prospective trainers of teachers, stand for 3 hours receiving lectures due to lack of adequate lecture space. One of the authors took a course on Instructional Technology in his undergraduate days where about twenty modern technological teaching aids were discussed out of which none was brought to class by any lecturer. Courses in Home Economics and Technical Education for example are taught only theoretically without the laboratory and workshop facilities for the practical. There is too much theory in the teacher education which is spilling over into the whole system of education in Nigeria. Another problem of the teacher education in Nigeria is the training period. Teaching is the only profession that possibly has the shortest period of training. The shortness of the duration of training perhaps explains why the Teaching Practice Exercise in most teacher education programmes is short. A very significant internship practical exercise like the Teaching Practice is supposed to take a minimum of one academic session, organized in excitement evoking manner so that students can embrace it with all sense of pride and excitement. It is heartwarming, however, that some universities have blazed the trail by setting aside a whole nine months academic session for the Teaching Practice Exercise. That is the paradigm shift that this paper is advocating. Teacher education should graduate from the “crash programme” or “fire brigade” approach to the digital era where credentialing is not on the basis of patronage but quality professional training. This is one of the extrinsic problems affecting teacher education in Nigeria. Poor conditions of service which includes poor remuneration is one of the factors that make the teaching profession less attractive to geniuses. Osunde and Izevbigie (2006) noted that the poor conditions of service and the negative perception by the larger society are crucial factors responsible for teachers' low status. Awanbor (1996) stated that state governments in different parts of the country find it convenient to withhold or delay teachers' salaries sometimes for up to four months in arrears and that teachers' promotions are the slowest to come among other debasements. Awanbor concluded that this state of affairs is also inevitably accompanied by lack of social muscle and hence the low social rating of teachers and the teaching profession generally. The position of this paper is that the age long poor conditions of service have discouraged a lot of geniuses from seeking admissions into teacher education programmes. The outcome of this is Ukeje's (1996) observation that the teaching profession is fast becoming a profession of failures and disgruntled elements, and the last hope of the hopeless. It is in this light that Fafunwa (1980) advised that if the right calibre of teachers are to be attracted, the teachers' salary must be made more attractive. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 16 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ The curriculum of teacher education should be revised and enriched with contents that will open new vistas of professionalism and versatility. A professionally versatile teacher should be innovative and know something about most things. He should be able to teach at least two subjects conveniently, especially these days of paradigm shift towards broad fields approach to teaching and learning. Fafunwa (1980) advised that a professional teacher should be so trained as to be prepared to improvise some of the necessary materials himself if the school cannot afford to supply them as the cost of some equipment may be prohibitive, largely because many of the materials needed are foreign made and therefore imported at considerable expense. Additionally, there should be general education which will include the Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, ICT and Humanities. The knowledge of the Social Sciences will help the teacher understand the socio economic forces which drive his society, the political and cultural institutions of his people, to acquaint himself with the process of change and the tools for facilitating social change, to understand community development and how to identify himself with the process of change, and so on. The teacher needs the knowledge of the Natural Sciences to understand the nature of things around him. He has to develop a scientific habit of thinking and understand the scientific approach to phenomena, especially in a world like ours where science has become a major cultural factor, and no teacher can afford to be ignorant of the basic scientific facts (Fafunwa, 1980). The conditions of service in the teaching profession should be improved to attract best brains and geniuses into teacher education. A good senior secondary result with credits in English and Mathematics should be the minimum requirement for admission into teacher education programmes. Admission into faculties of education in universities should be offered to only candidates who chose to study Education in the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examinations. The act of offering candidates admissions into faculties of education for consolation, compensation or as stepping stone should be completely discouraged by the university authorities. In fact, faculties of education should screen out such candidates. Finally, teacher education, being an integral component of Nigerian education sector, is also affected by the general problems that characterize the Nigerian education system. Such problems include poor policy implementation, the craze for certificate, or what Ronald Dore calls ‘Diploma Disease’, examination malpractice, under funding, politicization of education, and so on. All these steps will need the concerted efforts of stakeholders in the education sector to evolve an appropriate paradigm for teacher education in Nigeria. It is very necessary that issues relating to the teacher education in Nigeria be discussed extensively because no country’s education quality can rise beyond the quality of its teachers. This call for a paradigm shift in the Nigerian teacher education, targeted at improving educational standards at all levels of the Nigerian education, is not only timely but also momentous at this time the country is striving to achieve the Millennium Development Goals in education and also to implement the Education –for All (EFA) project which is an off shoot of the MDG goals. It is hoped that a diligent implementation of the recommendations of this paper will open up whole new vistas for Nigeria in actualizing its educational goals and policies. $ Adeyemi, A. (2007, February, 10). "WAEC Releases Nov/Dec. Result" Daily Independents. Pg. 6 Afe, J. O. (1995). Teacher Education in Nigeria. Benin City: Nigeria Educational Research Association (NERA). w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 17 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Akin, A. (2011, November, 21). "Mass failure: stakeholders exonerate WAEC, NECO". ) , pg. 12 Awanbor, D. (1996). Self concept and Nigeria teacher trainees' attitude towards teaching 5 % 7 19(1), 7 11. Ekwukoma, V. (2008). "Low self esteem among some education students in the University of Benin" Unpublished First Degree Thesis, University of Benin. Fafunwa, B. A. (1980). New Perspectives in African Education. London: Macmillan Education Limited. Moses, O.J. (2008). 3 # ! % & # . Nigeria: Amfitop Publisher. Musa, C.N. & Musa, R. J. (2007). Educational "Reforms for What" In A. Owan Enoh (2007) Education Reforms in Nigeria. Nigeria: Saniez Books. Nduka, O. (1992). A key note address on occasion of the opening ceremony of the National Workshop on Examination Malpractice, held at the University of Benin, 24 25 November, 1992. Ojo, M.O. (2008). "Retaining and retraining professionally competent and satisfied science teachers". :! . 4(1), 85 91. Olayemi, A. (2001). "Closure of private schools". :! * Pg. 11. Omatseye, B. O. & Mogbeyiteren, M. (2008). The Certificate Disease and Productivity: The Nigerian Dilema. Nigeria: Amfitop Publishers. Osagie, R. O. &Ibadin, V.O. (2007).Quality Assurance inSecondary Schools.African Journal of Studies in Education. 3(2), 123 132. Osunde, A. U. & Izevbigie T.I (2006). An Assessment ofTeachers' Attitude Towards Teaching Profession in Midwestern Nigeria. Spring Journal of Education 126, 462 467. Shekarau, I. (1996). The Teacher: His Welfare, Motivation and Status. The Nigerian Principal.5 (1), 78. Ukeje, B.O (1996). Teacher Education for National Development in Lass P.N., Anikweze C.M. and Maiyanga A.A. (eds) Teacher Education: An imperative for National Development. Kaduna: National Commission for Colleges of Education. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 18 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 MANAGEMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE KNOWLEDGE-BASED ECONOMY: IMPERATIVES FOR NATIONAL TRANSFORMATION. By Y.A. FASASI, Ph.D adefasas@yahoo.com P. A. O. ETEJERE, Ph.D Pat_6etejere@yahoo.com & S. OYENIRAN, Ph.D Saheed_oyeniran@yahoo.com Department of Educational Management, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. 3# Higher Education is widely seen as a crucial ingredient in national transformation, and as fundamental to the development of the knowledge economy. This paper focuses on the need to manage higher educational institutions for national transformation in the face of knowledge economy. It examined knowledge economy and its characteristics. The paper further looked at the changing structure and demand for work in the knowledge economy. In addition, the implications of the knowledge economy on Nigerian higher education were critically examined. It was suggested that Nigerian higher education would require responsive governance and leadership, adequate funding, provision of infrastructure, quality assurance, adequate staffing and curriculum development in order to put it on the track of transformation. Finally, rationalisation of higher education in response to societal needs, curriculum development, improved funding and provision of facilities were recommended in order to overcome the challenges of knowledge economy. Key Words: Managing Higher Education, Knowledge-Based Economy, and National Transformation w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 19 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The world has transited from an agricultural economy (pre Industrial Age, largely the agrarian sector) to an industrial economy (with the Industrial Age, largely the manufacturing sector) to a post industrial/mass production economy (mid 1900s, largely the service sector) and now to a knowledge economy (late 1900s – 2000s, largely the technology/human capital sector). This latest stage has been marked by the upheavals in technological innovations and the globally competitive need for innovation with new products and processes that develop from the research community. Industrial production is steadily shifting from material and labour intensive products and processes to knowledge intensive products. A radically new system for creating wealth that depends upon application of new knowledge has evolved. Really, we have entered an age of knowledge, in which the key strategic resource necessary for prosperity is knowledge itself, educated people and their ideas (Bloch, 1988). Unlike natural resources, such as iron and oil, that have driven earlier economic transformations, knowledge is inexhaustible. The more it is used, the more it multiplies and expands. This technical change and innovation that is multidirectional and interdependent has a direct bearing on what is going on in our higher educational institutions. For Nigeria to achieve the much desired national transformation, higher education has very important roles to play because it is capable of providing solution to many of the problems confronting the nation. Thus, Bloch (1998) asserted that solution to virtually all the problems with which government is concerned: health, education, environment, energy, urban development, international relations, economic competitiveness, defence and national security, depend on creating new knowledge and hence upon the health of our universities. Higher education creates a demanding but rewarding environment in which individuals may realise their creative and intellectual potentials. Through high level training across the discipline, it equips people with the necessary knowledge, skills and values to play a wide range of social roles and to become effective citizens .Through research and the production of knowledge, it provides a society with the capacity to innovate, adapt and advance. In fact, the ability of any higher education system to discharge these functions to meet people's learning needs, to develop and transmit appropriate skills, and to create relevant and useful knowledge is a key index of a society's cultural, social and economic vitality and well being. There is a high correlation, internationally between excellent higher education and overall national achievements in development, growth, competitiveness, and welfare. Universities play a crucial role in generating new ideas, and in accumulating and transmitting knowledge, yet they have remained peripheral to development concerns. Although, they are no longer the sole generators of knowledge needed for development, through their research and teaching they help to produce expertise, manage development, engineer social transformation, and preserve social values and cultural ethos (IIEP, 2007). Education contributes to the growth of national income and individual earnings. While land was the main source of wealth and income in agricultural societies, capital and machinery became important in industrial societies. In today’s information societies, knowledge drives economic growth and development. Higher education is the main source of that knowledge through its production, dissemination and its absorption by any society. Economic growth currently depends on the capacity to produce knowledge based goods. However, the future of knowledge economies depends more on their capacity to produce knowledge through research and development rather than on knowledge based goods. Hence, knowledge economies place greater value and accord higher priority to the production and distribution of knowledge. Higher educational institutions are a major source for providing the human capital required for knowledge production. In fact, Brennan, King, and Lebeau (2004) elucidated that throughout most of their histories, universities have entered into intimate relationships with other social institutions, sometimes supportive, sometimes critical. In the modern world, calls for universities to adapt and to respond to the changing character and needs of other social and economic institutions are frequent. However, what is the role of universities in bringing about changes in society? A World Bank report in 2002 identified four essential functions of higher education in supporting knowledge driven economic growth: w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 20 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 1. the capacity to train a qualified and adaptable labour force – including high level scientists, professionals, technicians, teachers for basic and secondary education, as well as future governance; 2. the capacity to generate new knowledge; 3. the capacity to access existing stores of global knowledge and adapt it to local use; 4. the transmission of norms, values, attitudes and ethics as the foundation of the social capital necessary to construct healthy civil societies and cohesive cultures, the very bedrock of good governance and democratic political systems In this paper, management of higher education towards national transformation in the knowledge based economy is discussed with particular focus on university education. = + 5 According to Wikipedia, “knowledge based economy” is an expression coined to describe trends in advanced economies towards greater dependence on knowledge, information and high skill levels, and the increasing need for ready access to all of these by the business and public sectors. The knowledge economy is a term that refers either to an economy of knowledge focused on the production and management of knowledge in the frame of economic constraints, it refers to the use of knowledge technologies (such as knowledge engineering and knowledge management) to produce economic benefits as well as job creation (Drucker,1969). It is an interdisciplinary concept, involving economists, computer scientists, engineers, mathematicians, librarians, geographers, chemists and physicists, as well as cognitivists, psychologists and sociologists. Knowledge and technology have become increasingly complex, raising the importance of links between firms and other organisations as a way to acquire specialised knowledge. A parallel economic development has been the growth of innovation in services in advanced economies. To participate in the knowledge economy trade, the World Bank(2004) provides four core requirements in their Knowledge Assessment Methodology that a country must have. The World Bank defines the requirements as having sound institutional and economic regime, education system, and telecommunications infrastructure, and an Innovative System. A key concept of the knowledge economy is that knowledge and education (often referred to as "human capital") can be treated as one of the following two: a business product, as educational and innovative intellectual products and services can be exported for a high value return or a productive asset. The initial foundation for the knowledge economy was first introduced in 1966 in the book “The Effective Executive” by Peter Drucker. In this book, Drucker described the difference between a manual worker and a knowledge worker. A manual worker, according to him, works with his hands and produces goods or services. In contrast, a knowledge worker works with his or her head not hands, and produces ideas, knowledge, and information. The major driving forces, in the knowledge economy are: Globalization, Information technology, Information/Knowledge Intensity, New Media and Computer networking and Connectivity = + 5 According to Houghton and Sheeben cited in Obayan (2012), the characteristics of the knowledge economy were: 1. Unlike physical goods, information is non rival – not destroyed in consumption. Its value in consumption can be enjoyed again and again 2. Bridges are being built between various areas of competence, as codification tends to reduce knowledge dispersion 3. Learning is increasingly becoming central to both people and organizations w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 21 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 4. Learning involves both education and learning by doing, learning by using, and learning by interacting 5. Initiative, creativity, problem solving and openness to change are increasingly important skills 6. Flexible organizations are becoming the norm. They integrate ‘thinking’ and ‘doing’ and avoid excessive specialization and compartmentalization, by emphasizing multi task job responsibilities 7. Whereas machines replaced labour in the industrial era, information technology has become the source of codified knowledge in the knowledge economy, demanding uniquely human skills such as conceptual, interpersonal and communication skills 4 In the knowledge economy, the specialized labour force is characterized as computer literate and well trained in handling data, developing algorithms and simulated models, and innovating on processes and systems. Harvard Business School Professor, Michael Porter asserts that today’s economy is dynamic and that comparative advantage is less relevant than competitive advantage which rests on making more productive use of inputs, which requires continual innovation(Porter,2004). Consequently, the technical, STEM careers including computer scientists, engineers, chemists, biologists, mathematicians, and scientific inventors will see continuous demand in years to come. Additionally, well situated clusters, which Michael Porter argues is vital in global economies, connect locally with linked industries, manufacturers, and other entities that are related by skills, technologies, and other common inputs. Hence, knowledge is the catalyst and connective tissue in modern economies. The quantity of knowledge embedded in the goods produced and exported has increased considerably according to World Bank cited in Vaeghese (2009). While the knowledge content has increased, the goods have become, as it were, lighter in weight in fact, ‘weightless’facilitating their exportation. Knowledge economies engage in knowledge production (research and development) and in the production of knowledge based goods. Investment in knowledge production is financially rewarding to firms, increases national income, and helps maintain the potential for growth and national competitiveness for the future (Chen & Dahlman, 2004). While returns to investments in knowledge based production may be achieved in the short term, those from investments in research and development (R&D) activities may only be realized in the long term. The economic landscape has changed dramatically over the past 30 years. For most of the twentieth century, economic dominance relied on a solid agricultural and manufacturing base. But by the late 1970s, the industrial economy was eclipsed by a rapidly growing service economy that relied on a more diverse set of skills that favoured workers with higher education. Advances in technology and widespread globalization have contributed to changes in the structure of work. Computing technology has allowed companies to aggressively restructure production processes and employ fewer workers using more sophisticated technology. In some instances, the remaining jobs require fewer skills because technology performs the more complex responsibilities of the job. But more often, modern technologies replace the rote manual tasks performed by less skilled workers. In the jobs that remain, increasingly sophisticated skills are required to implement and manage the technology(Levy & Mumane,2004). Beyond technology, globalization also has fundamentally altered domestic employment markets. The most recognizable effect is the movement of less skilled, labour intensive jobs, for example, in such fields as textile manufacturing, to low wage competitors abroad. However, jobs are gained from trade as well, and they tend to be more highly skilled as globalization provides new markets for technologically advanced goods and services (Sachs, 1998). Knowledge economies require people with theoretical knowledge to promote research activities, with professional skills to develop production, and with technical skills to produce and support production. These skills correspond to a level of education imparted in universities and institutions of higher education. The International Labour Organization (ILO, 2004) estimated that, in some knowledge economies, nearly 70 per cent of all new jobs require a post secondary level of w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 22 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). education. While the more advanced countries have universalized school education and massified, if not universalized, higher education, most of the Commonwealth countries are far from reaching this target. Further, it has become essential that the developing countries expand their higher education sector if they are to catch up with the technological advances of other countries and accelerate their economic growth (World Bank, cited in Varghese2009). In other words, for developing countries, higher education expansion is becoming a prerequisite for progress towards a knowledge economy. & 5 = + 5 Changes in the structure of work have dramatically increased the demand for higher education. Economic restructuring has created most of the new jobs in occupations dominated by highly skilled managerial and professional workers. The share of technical jobs, in which highly skilled workers create and deploy complex technologies such as engineers, computer programmers, scientists, health and science technicians, and the like has doubled since 1959, though it still only accounts for about 7% of all jobs 1Carnevale & Deschrochers,2003). Much of the increased demand for college educated workers comes from rising skill requirements within existing jobs. The transition to the knowledge economy has negatively affected the less skilled workers in the factories that once served as the powerhouses of the economy. Well paid manufacturing jobs that once provided a middle class lifestyle for high school educated workers suffered the most devastating job losses, declining from 32% to 17% of all jobs between 1959 and 2003 (Carnevale & Desrochers 2003). Although there was concern that a decline in our manufacturing economy would result in a nation of low paid, low skilled along with increased educational requirements, new skill requirements have also emerged. General reasoning, problem solving, and interpersonal skills have all become more important in today’s workplaces because most new positions are being created in education, health care, and office settings, where there are higher levels of human interaction. In manufacturing according to Carnevale and Desrochers (2003), as technology takes over more of the manual processing tasks, employees spend more time interacting with each other to effectively manage the new technologies. Most employers associate reasoning, problem solving, and interpersonal skills with educational attainment, especially college level attainment. Solid cognitive and applied skills are also needed to complement general skill requirements. As jobs change and skill requirements increase, workers need sufficient cognitive abilities to learn new tasks and apply what they already know in new ways. Workers also need occupational and professional competencies that provide the applied skills to get the job done. An important aspect of demand for higher education in the knowledge economy is the increasing social demand for university education in Nigeria’s trend which will continue to increase and which the country cannot escape due to the effect of globalisation. Obanya (2012), reports that the societal preference level of each of the three types of higher institutions, with universities attracting 75% of candidates, polytechnics 23% and colleges of education a mere 1.5%.This is because people want a degree with which they can compete in the labour market which is highly competitive. = + 5 & 5 The requirement of the knowledge economy has a lot of implications on the Nigerian higher education system. For the nation to survive, higher education must respond to these challenges. Higher education must inculcate in the learners the required skills needed to survive in the knowledge economy since skill acquisition is the order of the day. This is why Obanya (2012) opined that the emergence of the knowledge economy has abolished the distinction between intermediate, lower, and higher level manpower. Brainpower has become society’s major asset and every operator of national economic systems would have to be a knowledge worker. Quoting from Wikipedia, he maintained that there can be no lower, middle and higher levels of knowledge work. Therefore, education at all levels (and more w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 23 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). particularly higher education) must aim at the same level of knowledge worker. This, however, does not mean uniformity in curricula content. Variety will still have to be encouraged as there must be a growing emphasis on educating for all talent. Another important influence of the knowledge economy on higher education is the popular view of education as a service, a commodity that is not only produced and consumed domestically but traded internationally Thus, higher education is no longer treated as public good of social value. According to Balogun (2012), the consequences have been the shift towards business of education, marketing of education, commercialization of education, emphasis on human resources development rather than human development, and promoting international linkages and networking for profiting from opportunities opened up with globalization. Therefore, there is need for structural reengineering of the courses offered in Nigerian higher education system in line with the demand of the current era which has changed the structure of work. Based on this, Balogun (2012) observed that in consonance with the demands of the knowledge era, new disciplines, new methods, new techniques and new structures of institution of higher learning are evolving in the sphere of university education. The existing models are under strain, some are fading away, others are reorienting, and entirely new models are emerging to meet the societal and individual demands of knowledge era. Life long learning has become a worldwide trend. Students are alternating study and work in their lifetime. In order to meet this new demand, universities have become more open to all learners regardless of their age, gender, race, family background, and social status. The implication of this is that higher education curriculum should be designed in such a way that it will provide for the needs of these students. In this regards, it is not the content of the curriculum that matters but what we do to the content. World Bank, cited in Varghese (2009) also reported that globalization, technological changes, the rise of the knowledge economy, and changing skill requirements in the labour market seem to influence changes in the landscape of higher education, not just in Commonwealth countries but worldwide. Since the emergence of these phenomena, knowledge based sectors have become the primary drivers of growth, and the demand for skills and higher education qualifications is on the rise. The move towards a knowledge economy has been characterized by a change in the pattern of deployment of the labour force and an increase in the knowledge content of products. Knowledge economies have experienced a migration of workers from manufacturing activities to service sector activities, making the latter a dominant sector both in terms of level of employment and income generated. The share of the labour force engaged in service sector occupations doubled or trebled in knowledge economies in the 1990s. = + 5 ! Higher education administrators in Nigeria must provided leadership that would help in meeting the challenges of the knowledge economy. They must be transformational in character and ensure that resources are geared towards meeting these challenges. According to Balogun (2012), a 21st century Vice Chancellor must exhibit qualities that would induce cooperation, support, service, and obedience from the followership. He must exhibit transparent leadership. Leadership guided by the statutes, rules, and regulations of the university. It should be leadership based on firmness, fairness, equity, and judicious application of approved rules and regulations. 0 ' Although, the federal allocation to education sector has not reached the intended standard set by UNESCO, the government is committed to the development of higher education in Nigeria. For example in the 2012 budget, out of the 400.15 billion that was allocated to education, 307.8 billion(75%) was set aside for higher education and the 36 federal universities got 204.2 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 24 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). billion(66%).While commending the federal government for this, there is a need to do more in this direction. However, the university leadership must use these funds to address specific needs of the knowledge economy such as the introduction of programmes that would equip the students with the required skills to be relevant in the knowledge economy. Also funding must also address specific needs of the institutions and fund research and development. There is no gainsaying the fact that there is a relationship between quality of infrastructure and goal achievement in higher education. In order to meet up with challenges of knowledge economy, students must be exposed to 21st century technological facilities. The maintenance of these equipment and gadgets is also important in order to produce the desired objectives. % 3 The institutional administrators must ensure that the requirement of the 21st century higher education management puts quality management at the central stage. Furthermore, the demand for knowledge in the current era is not merely on skills but also on quality of the skill possessed. This therefore calls for the introduction of quality assurance mechanisms within the university. Total Quality Management (TQM) must be at the centre of higher education administration if Nigerian higher education is to survive in the knowledge economy. This is an important component of higher education administration as no educational system can rise above the quality of its teaching staff. Therefore, staff with the required skills needed in response to the challenges of the knowledge economy must be recruited. This must be in required quantity and quality. Capacity building programmes for various categories of staff should also be encouraged for the development of all staff. This is to acquaint them with the new development in the current context. In addition to this, mentoring of the younger staff by the experienced ones is also crucial for survival of the younger ones. ' Change is inevitable in any organisation and is a constant phenomenon. Higher education institutions are prone to change and innovation by virtues of their functions. Therefore, management of change is therefore crucial in higher institutional administration. They ensure that the institutions are managed in such a way that it will accommodate any challenges posed by the global economy. Administrators should evolve a way of developing new curriculum that would meet the need of the 21st century. This must be vigorously pursued as part of the administrative function. This is the only way to put higher education in Nigeria on the path of relevance. An important aspect of this is to ensure that the curriculum should be relevant to the societal needs. Continuous curriculum evaluation should also be carried out in order to adapt to any challenges posed by globalisation. The paper has provided an insight into challenges of higher education in the face of the knowledge based economy. Therefore, higher education should be managed towards responding to challenges posed by the knowledge economy. This would serve as a basis for transformation of higher education in Nigeria. The factors to drive the transformation agenda are staffing in adequate quantity and quality; adequate resource inflow to support the fundamental functions of teaching, research, and community service; quality assurance, the evolution of favourable governance structure and management of change and innovation. If all these are achieved, higher education will put the country on the track of transformation. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 25 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ In order to position higher education in Nigeria to meet the challenges of the knowledge driven economy, the following recommendations need to be adopted 1. Rationalisation of higher education in response to societal preference level of each of the three types of higher institutions, with universities attracting 75%, polytechnics 23% and colleges of education 1.5% of candidates. 2. Introduction of new programmes that would equip learners to be relevant in the knowledge driven economy. 3. Teaching in higher institutions should focus on the need to nurture the culture of problem identification and thinking through its solution in the students. 4. Transformation of the university system to meet the demand of the various stakeholders without compromising the fundamentals. 5. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) exploitation advantage should be taken by higher education institutions to exploit the possibilities and opportunities that ICT offer. These ICTs enable increased interconnectivity between knowledge agents through virtual networking 6. Intellectual Property Rights (patents, copyrights, design registration) is encouraged as an important instruments to codify and commodify knowledge and hence, the diffusion of knowledge. Their dissemination and use should be further stimulated. 7. Funding conditions (financial and fiscal) should be geared to more innovative risk taking and better rewards thereof. $ Balogun, A.M.(2012). 3 % ! ! & ! * ! C Keynote paper presented at the seventh regional conference on higher education for globalised world, held at the conference centre, university of Ibadan, Ibadan. September 17 – 21, 2012 Bloch, E. (1988). National Science Foundation, Testimony to congress Carnevale,A.P. & Desrochers,D.M..(2003). % D ! # % * % Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Chen, D.A.C.& Dahlman, D.J. (2004). ! & # ,+ 8 ## Washington, DC: World Bank. (World Bank policy research working paper, No. 3366.) Drucker, P. (1969). +! % ) E= 1 ( ! ! New York: Harper and Row. ISBN 0 465 08984 4 Frank L. & Richard J. M. (2004). The new division of labour: How computers are creating the next job market. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press and Russell Sage Foundation; Houghton,J & Sheeben,P. (2000): + ' ! 7 , Centre for Strategic Economic Studies, Victoria University, Australia IIEP (2007) Newsletter : higher education and development Vol. XXV, N° 1, January March 2007 International Labour Office (2004). ' ! # ,' $ / $ # . Geneva, Switzerland: ILO Obanya,P.A.I. (2012).; 9 & % / % % ! ! A paper presented at the seventh regional conference on higher education for globalised world, held at the conference centre, university of Ibadan, Ibadan. September 17 – 21, 2012 Porter, M. (1969). Clusters and the new economics of competition. ; & A 3& Sachs, J.D. (1998). Global competition drives growth. In J. J. Jasinwoski, (Ed.). 3 ! , ! %* ! ! # # New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Varghese, N.V.(2009). = * 8* ,( ! % & # % ! ( . UNESCO and IIEP report. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 26 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 ADULT EDUCATION AS A PANACEA FOR RE*BRANDING THE NIGERIAN PSYCHE By DR. (MRS.) UDEME AKANINYENE UMO Department of Educational Foundations, Guidance and Counselling University of Calabar Cross River State 08035532988 udemeakanumo@yahoo.com & INEMESIT ESSIET UMOFIA Department of Adult and Non-formal Education, Community Development University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State 08064885265 inem2k4@yahoo.co.uk Abstract Slogans like War Against Indiscipline and Corruption (Idiagbon 1984), ‘Reform’ and Anticorruption by Obasanjo (1999 – 2007), “Rule of Law”, due process’ of Yar-Adua (2008), “Rebranding” of Akunyili (2009) are all pointers that, the method used to transmit our cherished values has failed. The greater percentage of the perpetrators of value debasing acts seem to be young adults. To realize a change in the psyche requires an educational process that impacts positively on their psyche. This paper examines adult education as a panacea for re-branding the Nigerian psyche. First the concepts of adult education and psyche were x-rayed. These brought us to the current psyche of the young adults, methods of adult education under the forum for socialization, a forum for reflection and action, a forum for corporate mode/ partnerships with the movers within movement were examined as best for re-branding the Nigeria psyche. The paper in conclusion recommended that there should be campaign against antipathy towards hard work, merits, integrity and moral values. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 27 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Nigeria is fast becoming number one in the rank of corruption and cyber criminals in the world. The culture of any given society is driven by the norms, values, and orientation of the dominant class in that society. No society or country can survive in the future if the current generation of young adults are neglected, misdirected, sexually polluted, or believe in little or no work that can bring about ill gotten riches in a short time. Therefore, there is a need for an educational programme that would be all embracing of the mind, spirit and soul commonly known as the psyche. Psyche which is a product of socialization is external. It is learned, internalized and deposited in our conscious and subconscious levels. There is a need for the psyche of the Nigerian young adults to be re branded, to curb the trait of non compliance with the norms and values of the society. Norms and values are put in place to positively influence and build the character of citizens from a young age, and guide them to a more emotionally stable and law abiding adulthood. 3 5 Adult education cuts across all human activities carried by adults who have attained biological maturity (illiterates and literates) who are socially responsible for their words and actions, and are accepted by the society in which they live as adults. It is diverse field of educational endeavours which emanate from individuals and societal felt needs. By the differences in needs, adult education naturally has differences in definition. It is in recognition of these diversities in definitions that United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO 1976) provided what has been considered the most comprehensive definition of adult education: * % $ ! # & * * ! * ! # & # & # 9 # ! # ## #$ ! & # # # $ & $ & ! * $ * # ! # % * & * % # B % # # & %% $ $ From the above definition, adult education is seen to combine academic, non academic, social, cultural, vocational activities to satisfy the ever changing needs of the adult. The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defined “Psyche” as the mind: one’s deepest feelings and attitudes. It is the soul, spirit, and mind. The human breath, spirit, soul and mind are personified in the idea that ‘Psyche’ is represented in Greek art tradition as a lady with butterfly type wings (Onyeocha 2004:26). The psyche shows the structure of one’s soul, which reveals one’s sense of rationality, and one’s intellect and passions. The soul had been divided into rational and irrational parts by great philosophers like Aristotle (384 – 322 BC). The rational soul goes for hard work, pain, merit while the irrational element goes for greed, appetite, immediacy, avoidance of hard work and pain, non commitment etc. The psyche is cultivated and motivated by out side forces over time. 5 Successive governments have formulated and adopted with little success varied policies and programmes like: Ethical Revelation 1979 1983, Instant Moral Action or War Against Indiscipline w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 28 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). (WAI) 1984 1985, National Orientation from 1983 – 1993, Anti Corruption Crusade 1999 2008, Re branding Nigeria 2009 among others to rejuvenate and strengthen societal values among young adults. Adult education becomes a panacea for the re orientation of the Nigerian psyche because, the erosion of societal problems require formal, informal and non formal institutional strategies. Thus, Norms and values are transmitted by the older family members to the young through doing, observing and reacting to issues in life (Lyer, 2006). As the young grow older, norms and values are also transmitted through the church, mass media, peer group and the school. Discussion, role playing, folktales, modeling etc are some traditional approaches of transmitting norms and values in a society (Kireet, 2000). Re branding involves changes to the brands’ image, name, and marketing/advertising strategies. It is aimed at repositioning the tone of goods/services, in order to distance it from certain negative connotations of the previous brand. Akunyili (2009) explains that re branding is the change of negative attitudes of Nigerians to the positive. Such negative attitudes include among others: the acquisition of money by spurious means and flaunting it; the high regard for materialism over moralism, which leads to corruption, greed, hatred, ritual sacrifices, indifference to the feelings of others etc. Africans are noted for their adherence to cultural values which Onwubiko (1988:20) outlined as: sense community, human relations, sense of sacredness of life and religion, sense of hospitality and language as cohesive of the community, hard work, diligence, patience, disciplines and sense of obligation to fulfill ones commitments. These were pre Nigerian and early Nigerian psyche. Present day Nigerian young adults have an ethical blindness and disorientation in which Onyeocha (2004:26 – 28) captures the prevailing psyche of young adults as he remarks: ! & $ %% ! & ! # " ! * % ! % ! $ # & !& ! $ * # ! 8# % # * * !E ! & $* ! $> * ! & %% * % $ I H $ %% # % # & F & % # ! % . ! # ## " % % * G! H % / $ * % / & ! % * ! In this situation the good, the bad and the ugly parade the streets as local champions. Fraud, falsehood, bribery and corruption, brute force and violence walk the streets in broad day light thus, driving the opponents into the shade (Ahya, 2008:4). The mental disposition that one uses what he has to get what he wants is usually backed by retrogressive apologetic dicta like: “If you cannot beat them, join them”, “Whoever is able to climb the iroko tree, should collect all the fire wood needed since climbing of such a tree takes place once in a life time”, or “If your bread is buttered, have it to the fullest”. With such ruinous dogmas, the ideas of justice, rebuilding, and improving on what used to be are banished from the Nigerian intellect and psyche. With all these traits deposited in the minds of the young adults, they have turned to unpatriotic acts such as armed robbery, rape, prostitution, kidnapping, killing, fraud, examination malpractice, cultism, get rich quick syndrome ambition etc. This malady is largely acquired by all, discussed and condemned by everybody alike but nobody has cared to make a change at the structure of the Nigerian young adults’ psyche which predisposes them to retrograde attitudes. Orji (1982:22) argued that “a multifaceted social problem needs a total national commitment to ascertain its causes, precise dimensions and probable cure and to implement the curative measures for lasting effectiveness”. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 29 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). A mental state dominated by irresponsibility manifests in the way we care for our things, our environment, for one another etc. In the end there is neither national consciousness, state consciousness nor personal consciousness (Chikerenwa, 2009). ' 3 5 # $ 8> 3 Adult education re educates the young adult to regain his former attitude of mind or psyche. For the country to embark on social, economic and political transformation, socialization is indispensable. The process of socialization begins from childhood through the influence of the parents, the peer group, and other institutions involved in the up bringing of children. As an adult, the citizen is exposed to the influence of mass media, as well as literature. Socialization, through adult education calls for hard work as well as revival of societal values. From a young age, Americans are exposed to and immersed in a life that promotes patriotism and integrity, through their educational institutions especially adult education, lectures on citizenship, youth organizations, the church, the mass media, films, music etc. With this insight, Linderman, Meiklejohn and other visionary educators launched the adult education movement in the United States of America. Another example of socialization through adult education is the Russian ideology. The Russian youth and adults are initiated into Marxism by being members of the young Communists League and the Communist Party, and also through the formal school system. Workers’ committees, the mass media, etc. The British learn through political socialization to love their country first and foremost. They learn the fairness of justice on public affairs and believe that their country’s social system is one of the best in the world. All these values come as a result of political socialization and indoctrination through adult education. Adult education encourages the young adult to play a dynamic and constructive part in the development of a society in which progress is measured in terms of human well being, and not buildings, prestige, and get rich quick syndrome. 30 This method fosters the identification and comprehension of socio political issues in our democratic context. The adult learners review the stated mission, identify strengths, weaknesses and strategies for change, establish priorities and take action (Rice, 1990). This method of reflection and action of adult education is more likely to have an impact on the young adults’ psyche, because it emphasizes that they will be more committed to implementing solutions that they help to create. 30 + + The most far reaching strategy for redefining the psyche of the young adults is found in the corporate model, which is found in partnerships between young adults, business and social organizations and various groups. The programme is a package in adult education where businesses join forces with economic development corporations and with neighourhood self help organizations; the alliance broadens the context for the identification of issues beyond those narrowly defined within the community and on society (Okendu, 2006:63). These alliances can transcend the barriers of societal ills by supporting social, political, and citizen action with analysis, knowledge and skills that people can use to solve their own problems. 4 ( 3 5 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 30 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The state of the psyche of the young adult can be changed. When General Murtala Mohamed took over the reins of power in 1976, the Nigerian psyche transformed overnight. According to Achebe (1983:1) + $# * & % %% , 7& %% > !8 % & % & ! & & ! % # % * B ! # # H * & ! A ## This social change was a symptom of the contradictions in the society. Adult education always begins with a goal arising out of a social problem that adult learners perceived. Nzomiwu (1997) stated that education is functional only if it is capable of engendering right attitude, values and correct habits in the beneficiaries. Character training has always been emphasized by the Federal Ministry of Education hence in 2006, the Slogan “WECAN’ (We educate for character aptitude and our needs). Bidmos (2008) was of the opinion that the issue of character training requires a special package in the whole education which is about liberation. Adult education is about dialogue, about shared understandings, about empowerment for collective political and economic action. It is not merely coming to learn new facts, it is coming to understand what we already know, reflecting on our experiences so that knowledge becomes a power in us – a power to take action in a rational and decisive manner. Adult education can change the psyche of the young adults since it is an education that provokes reflection and critical judgment as a prelude to change. As Okendu (2006) puts it: “Learning to swim in a sea of issues that otherwise threatened to drown us.” Young adults are expected to be well adjusted, independent, and capable of holding their own the ups and downs of life. During childhood, they should be trained to acquire the basic knowledge and skills for solving environmental problems, and grow with a culture of self application and dexterity. Young adult learners should seek a voice in those matters that directly affect their lives through activity oriented methods such as role playing, games, debates, research campaigns, rallies, and celebration of one historic event or another. Young adults should be taught the philosophy and ethics of the Nigerian culture in this computer age to produce desirable behaviours. Other forms of punishment and flogging should be reintroduced in Nigerian schools. Therein, lays the power of the adult educator in changing the psyche of the adult learner to a full and able participant on temporary issues, in deciding the direction of social and political history of Nigeria. Leaders themselves must be practical in the re branding of the Nigerian psyche and not focus only on the clarion calls for it. Through collaborations with other groups, government should organise seminars and conferences, to analyze the lives of national heroes and heroines like Margaret Ekpo first female activist, the first canonized Saint in Nigeria Blessed Micheal/ Wene Tansi, Chinua Achebe, Nnamdi Azikiwe, Kano Nwankwo, Okacha among others have exhibited patriotism through hard work. These measures can redo the psyche of young adults by giving them better role models and also preserve their history. The positive attitude towards hard work, merits, and integrity, must be greatly encouraged for a new way of life. Those in authority should not use force since it is expensive, inefficient and likely to engender counter force. The most effective power is exercised by the control of knowledge. The way we understand our history, beliefs, race, gender equality, ethnicity, class, expectations, can affect the way we evaluate our daily lives. These can either enslave us or set us free. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 31 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Adult education as a panacea for re branding the psyche of the young adults has evolved in two parts. It has facilitated democratic reflection and action, critical identification of issues and also served to domesticate learners, ignore contradictions and adjust minds to inevitable conformities of a mass society. $ Achebe, C. (1983). The Trouble with Nigeria. Enugu: Forth Dimension publishers. Ahya, O. A. (2008). Abia State University Convocation Lecture. Theme: Universities, Knowledge Societies and Development Values Institutions and Capacities. U chon Production. Akunyili, D. (2009). www.allafricaaggregate.com. Tuesday 28th April by relevant links. West Africa. Bidmos, M. A. (2008). Issues of Morality in Nigeria Schools A. Ejiogu and V. Onyene (eds). Emergent issues in Nigerian Education 4 Lagos: Mukugamu and Brothers Enterprises. Chikerenwa, I. (2009). September 20th Catholic Bishops in West Africa from One Body Leader, vol. 1, No. 31, p 8. Hordon, M. (1990). The Long Haul. New York: Doubleday. Houston Read Commission (1989). Profiles of Neighbourhood Learning Centres. Demonstration and pilot projects operated by the Houston Read Commission in cooperation with organizations and individuals in the privates, public and volunteer sectors. Houston. Kireet, J. (2000). An outline programme of values oriented education and relevant pedagogical suggestion, in report of the working group to review Teacher Training in programme light of the need for value orientation, New Delhi, Government of India, Ministry of Education and Culture. Lukes, S. (1974). Power: A Radical View, London Macmillan. Lyer, S. S. (2006). Managing for Value, 2nd Edition, New Delhi, New Age International Publishers. Nzomiwu, J. P. C. (1997). Educational Administration: Ethical Emphasis. A. N. Ndu, L. O. Ocho and B. S. Okeke (eds). Dynamics of Educational Administration and Management, the Nigerian Perspective Awaka: Meks Publishers. Okendu, J. N. (2006). Administration of Adult Education. Owerri: Odesaa Publishers. Onwubiko, O. A. (1988). Wisdom lectures on African Thought and Culture: Totan Publishers Ltd. Onyeocha, I. M. (2004). A New Ethical Orientation Whence and Wither? Ahiajoku lecture colloquium. Owerri: Ministry of Information Government Printers. Orji, K. (Ed) (1982). The Nigeria Ethnical Revolution 1981 – 2000 AD. Lagos; National Ethnical Re Orientation Committee. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary: International New Students Edition. Rice, C. S. (1990) Strategic Planning for Small Business. Holbrook, Mass: Bob Adams. UNESCO (1976). # - ! +% % + 7 E Nairobi. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 32 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE ON PRE*MARITAL SEX IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI: CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES AND SOLUTIONS. By AHMED H. SONG Department of Arabic and Islamic Studies, University of Maiduguri MUSA ABDULLAHI Department of Sociology, University of Maiduguri IYA ALIYU GANA Department of Education, University of Maiduguri Abstract This paper examines the prevalence of pre-marital sex among students in the University of Maiduguri from the Islamic perspective. The prevalence of premarital sex in the university environment constitutes a health hazard and it is a matter of serious concern to the community. The design adopted was a survey, with the use of questionnaire (open and close ended), the focus group discussion and documentary analysis of security division records were employed in the study as the research instruments. The samples for the study were randomly selected across faculties. Results of the study revealed that majority of students engaged in pre-marital sex for different reasons and the environment provides outlets for their activities. The consequence of such acts includes unwanted pregnancy, abortion and STIs and STDs among others. This constitutes a serious threat to the reproductive health of the student. The study recommends that the Islamic perspectives of sexual regulation be enforced and awareness lectures and debates be carried out regularly, particularly during orientation weeks for students. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 33 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). It has been the dream and yearning of both parents and children to gain admission into the highest educational environment like the university. However, hardly most concerned parents don’t care to know anything that relates to the social but educational developments of their wards. The university environment which opens its premises to anyone in the name of study is made to have ample social freedom and academic challenges. The academic challenges may reveal some positive or negative results due to that social freedom students enjoy while in university. Naturally, the Muslim parents are to some extent handicapped as they are reduced to the position of mere spectators, since their wards are not at home but in the university. Thus, watching their wards deep in loose policies of the university environment in the name if social developments, which are abhorrent to Islam. There are obvious signs that the university environment permits free association of male and female students at lecture halls, hostels, dining halls, gardens, and recreation centres and so on throughout the days and nights. Absolute privacy of the male and female is never checked or controlled, hence there is a slogan of “mind your business”. This paper, therefore, examines the social freedom of the university campus which usually terminates with prevalence of premarital sex in its environment form the Islamic point of view. In Islam chastity explains the virtue which leads to the act of procreation in men and women. The two opposite sexes are warned not to indulge in form of any illegal premarital intercourse at all cost. With chastity in mind, it protects against the power desires of individuals. In 2006 a legislator was caught inside the football field in a sexual act with a female student. He was made to pay about N500,000.00 to some students who lay siege for the moment as arranged with the female students. Security report has it that the girl sent a text (they are about to start the show) to the group when the legislator was about removing his trouser. In another development a female student physically fought a business man in front of the security at first gate because the man refused to give her the N10,000 as agreed upon earlier. A male student in 2005 took a female student to the security for stealing his TV and Video, but the female student said that she took them because he failed to pay her the cumulative fee for sex he had with her for the semester. There was an understanding that when he gets his scholarship he will pay, but when he collected his scholarship, he failed to pay her and she has to take his TV and Video. Looking at how the university environment allows the prevalence of such immoral behaviors of marital scandals, the hypothesis of it is that human society would suffer from various types of spiritual deviations. Such society faces a great number of acute diseases ranging from psychological to the temporal and spiritual problems. In essence, a polluted society is one that deviates from the teachings of Islam and inclines to sinful behaviors (Abdullahi, 2004). Sins pollute the university environment through involvement of males and females in various categories of pre marital sexual relationship. It has been the experience nowadays that the university environment guarantees total freedom away from the expectation of parents. The Quran therefore treats the issue of chastity within the limits of morality and decency. Sexual desires are far more dangerous than much harm for the fight against which many laws have been enacted to restrict the freedom of individuals in certain cases (Tabbarah, 1978). The holy Quran says: G * & ! / % ! # % $ = + * & ! # * " # & & * * $ % $ * % $ H $ & % %# $ % % "$ / ! 9 ! E B E # $ * * ## " # %E & % w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 34 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). + * ‫ا‬ C , 8 1 * & J ‫رةا ر‬ ! = $ ‫ا‬ From the above explanation of the Quran, it is evident that it is the responsibility of the Muslim community to do everything possible to maintain chastity and do away with all sinful and immoral behavior. # The reported prevalence of pre marital sex by various sections of the university community has drawn the attention of scholars and policy makers. The university cleaners complained of clearing used condoms every day and the health unit reported increasing cases of STIs. There is a general out cry from the university community and some parents on what seems to be risky social behavior among students. Parents And larger society expects the university authority to enforced positive value systems in the lives of the students, but most often, such expectations are not realized as mechanisms of such enforcement is either weak or in none existence. This is one of the reasons the university authority banned female students from entering male Hall of Residence after 10pm. They also enforced dressing code, prohibited the use of tinted glass cars in the campus, increased security surveillance and banned campus social clubs that are not humanitarian and community service providers. Despite the authorities’ efforts, the prevalence is seemingly on the increase and against the teachings of Islam. On the 1st November 2003, three girls were reported to have been raped outside the venue (SE 101, Science Complex) where a musical show and fashion parade was talking place. The causes and consequences of such immoral acts are not known to the authority and thus knowledge gab exists in these regard. (#? The purpose of this study is to examine the prevalence of premarital sex among students in the University of Maiduguri. Therefore, the objectives are set: 1. To explore the relationship between the university environment and the practice of premarital sex among the students; 2. To find out the causes and consequences of premarital sex 3. To proffer possible solutions for eradicating the prevalence of pre marital sex $ @ In line with the above objectives, the following questions are raised: 1. Is there any relationship between the university environment and the practice of premarital sex among the students? 2. What are the causes and consequences of pre marital sex? 3. What are the possible solutions to the eradication of pre marital sex? ' This study is looking at existing problem; therefore a survey research design is adopted, using both the primary and secondary data. The instrument consists of questionnaire, the focus group discussion (FGD) (used to gather primary data) while security documents were used for the secondary data. The simple random technique was used in selecting the 300 respondents for this study and the simple percentage and Pearson’s Product Moment (PPM) were employed in the analysis of the data. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 35 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 0 The discussion of findings is based on the research questions raised which are now answered as follows: $ # + " 5 8' A The study has shown that 95% of the sampled respondents responded that premarital sex exists in the university. Observation data reveal that there is greater preference for the fresh students, particularly the female ones. They were considered to be young and adventurous coupled with the freedom they enjoy for the first time in their life. They are also cut off from family restrictions and very much likely eager to engage in relationships that were not tolerated at home. Why preference for young students? Male discussants explained that they are not exposed and have little or no idea about what university life is and they are very easy to be manipulated and convinced. A female discussant argued. ! & * & & * * &$ # I. & H # * . "# 2 ! & * ! ## & A & % % % ! > % & # * % & ! 4=)$ C Majority of students with 94% reside on campus, either in halls of residence or rented boy’s quarters on campus. The university environment encourages pre marital sex activities as posited by 68% of respondents. The university environment has a number of conducive outlets where pre marital sexual activities are carried out. Students in the university enjoy high degree of freedom with little or no parental supervision, coupled with opportunity to interact and learn both conforming and non conforming behavior. The study revealed that the conservative club garden, the love garden, and Sardauna and Ado Bayero Halls of residence are areas where pre marital sex activities are carried out mostly. In the conservation garden for instance, photographers leave their benches and tables behind, coupled with thick flowers and trees between tables and with absence of security lights, the area is considered to be safe haven for premarital sexual activities. The love garden is equally an isolated area and completely in darkness and with long cement sitting benches, which is another conducive environment for students to carry out pre marital sexual activities. Sardauna and Ado Bayero Halls of residence are mostly occupied by rich male students and most of them have furnished their rooms with latest musical instruments and DSTV. This proximity to lecture halls and distance from security surveillance and the public, provide the opportunity to carry out pre marital sexual activities frequently. Discussants opined that 60% of pre marital sex activities are carried out in these halls. The Ado Bayero hall in particular was singled out by discussants as the most conducive environment for pre marital sex, because most of these students residing in the hall walk easily to their rooms from lecture rooms with girls because the distance is very short. The love garden is patronized by both outsiders and members of the university community. Other areas include the sports complex, the Centre for Tran Saharan Studies, the Veterinary Faculty, the Convocation Square and Dilara Buildings. These areas are isolated and have no security lights. @ 8' A The availability of condoms and contraceptives at affordable price on campus equally facilitates pre marital sex. A level three male discussant explained that female students will not resist sex if you have condom or ready to buy condom. Sutherland (1939) argued that carrier of deviant sub culture tend to influence others in the process of socialization. The university setting thus provides students the w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 36 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). opportunity to learn multiple conforming and deviant behaviors in the process of interacting with each other. Absence of recreational activities, particularly sporting activities has relatively contributed to the prevalence of pre marital sex activities. Majority of discussants agreed that sporting activities in the university have diminished and 66% of respondents posited that absence of sporting activities may encourage pre marital sex activities because lack of such recreational and sporting activities creates empty minds. Only in a rare instance, Students Union Government organizes inter faculty football competition. This kind of situation normally gives students the opportunity to start scavenging for girls for possible interaction later in the day. An empty mind is said to be a devils workshop and absence of sporting activities takes me to girl’s hostel every evening said one male discussant. The study also revealed that prolonged session registration period and examination period also contributed to pre marital sex. Students take advantage of the time gab between opening of the school and commencement of lectures on schedule as contributing to pre marital sex. During such long periods, particularly at the beginning of semester, students are idle and mostly discuss about sex and other trivial issues. Discussants in both male and female FGD groups agreed that, they have more time to themselves because lectures take place rarely and where it does, the class is so large that you will be playing and doing all sort of things without the ‘teacher noticing’, said a female discussant. There is agreement among discussants that seminars, debates, symposiums and other related activities could have helped, but it does not take place. Class assignments were normally done by few and copied by majority for a fee. The lecturers will not notice it because of a large number of students in class. Thus little or no sporting activities coupled with little academic activities makes students to find alternative means of keeping themselves busy. Another factor that relates to erratic calendar is the semester breaks that last for two or three weeks. A male discussant observed that: ) ! ! * / ! % % % # & * / . H % / # % & ! / . & & * " * ! & ! HH ! 4=)$ C A male discussant also explained that even during the normal academic session sex activities flourish. He explained further that K / H / ! $ * ## ! ! / ! % ! & * 4=)$ C ! $ Majority of the discussants, both male and female agreed to the view expressed above. A female discussant explained that student’s even smooth in the class while waiting for the lecture and in some cases when lecturer comes, they don’t bother to listen because the class is always over crowded. Truly a class meant for 30 40 students is now used as a lecture room for over 400 hundred students. The class room has no enough seats and teaching facilities. Even large lecture halls that were built to accommodate 200 250 students can no longer accommodate students. Most courses have more than 1000 students and without teaching aid. Certainly, teachers cannot take attendance or know who is in the class or not. Very few students who sat in the front will listen to the teacher while the rest will either photocopy or just forget the lecture notes. To get rid of what the university authority called morally polluted environment, it restricted female/male visitations after 10.00pm for female to male room visitations and completely ban the male to female room visitations on campus. Perhaps it was for this reasons that most female students that were morally corrupt prefer to stay on private rented flats in town, particularly the 202/203 housing w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 37 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). estates so that they can have and keep males overnight in their rooms. Respondents were asked if such policy can reduce sex activities on campus. The study reveals that 64% of respondents posited that the policy room visitation will not reduce sex deviance. Majority of discussant were of the view that the university policy has no impact on students’ sexual activities. Many of the discussants argued that it is not only in the rooms that students engaged in sex, because there are many hide outs that provide the opportunity. Majority were of the view that less sex activities take place in the hostel rooms than what is done in the love garden and the photographers joint.` Social clubs on campus encourage pre marital sex through their activities and sub cultural norms. Majority of discussants agreed that most students learn deviance when they join social clubs. They like night show, fashion and ossification. They encourage orgy dressing and provide dress codes. They arranged girls to friends in town and they were used as channel of getting girls for party by the big men in town. Most of them were drop outs from other institutions while some have been changing one department to another. Some have spent over six years in the university while some were withdrawn but still remain on campus. They are used by rich male and female students in writing their exams. Most of them have multiple I.D cards reflecting different courses and different departments. They don’t encourage debates, symposia, publications or any academic activity. They organize parties, fashion parade, musical shows ‘Who is who’ award nights, and where mostly engage in drugs and cult activities. Among them are homosexuals, rapids and engage in group sex most especially after night parties organized in town or at the 202 residential quarters. Most of the social clubs have memberships from outside the university community. A female discussant was very bitter with one social club that she wanted to join and the leadership for the club demanded to sleep with her first. In order to establish the relation between club membership and engaging in pre marital sex, the PPM correlation was calculated and obtained ration value of 123 which indicates a negative relationship. Controlling for gender equally did not have an impact on the value obtained ( 126), which indicated a negative relationship despite the fact that 80% of respondents posited that campus social clubs encourage pre marital sex through their activities on campus. Thus the revelation indicates that there is no difference in relationship with pre marital sex across members and non members of social club. Accordingly, the null hypothesis fails to reject. A Part Four male FGD member said: * * > ! ! & % $* ! * * * !* ## * > * % ! ! * # & ! 4=)$ C & " & ! ! * # 8 ! * * " ! ! ! % Students who are not social club members have different opinion about members of social club. They look at them as the most unserious and spoil students. They don’t attend classes and most of them have spent more than 5 years still without a degree. They spoil innocent students, particularly the I> * H who were new to the system. Most student join clubs to show that they are big boys. Some clubs are exclusively for the rich boys. A lady discussant observed that the rich students have their club and such students don’t like mixing up with poor students unless you dress very well or very intelligent so that you can bail them out when examination period comes. A level four FGD group member observed that, it is mostly during such club shows that girls dress to attract people and most often some of them become victims of rape at the end of the show. She further explained that: K > % ! / * A * .% > * *$ # $ # ! w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 38 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). !$# # $ & * 4=)$ C & * # ! ! 1 $ & * / * "# Majority of female FGD groups agreed to her observations arguing that a student’s popularity depends on which club she/he belongs to and how best the student presents himself/herself. Students go to club shows not only to catch fun, but to get a girl friend or a ‘sharp sharp partner. Activities of campus social clubs normally last between two to seven days. Almost all their activities are social gathering without single academic event. This trend is not only peculiar to Maiduguri University, but other institutions of higher learning. In most of their night shows, a variety of activities takes place at the same time inside and outside the hall. While miming on stage by an artist, some will be dancing, some smooching, some negotiating or having sex outside the hall and mostly inside a car. Their pleasure unit knows no bound during such nights. In social clubs they learn variety of behavioral trends and learn different life style. They learn to smoke, consume alcohol, and engage in cult and sex activities. @ The data from the security documents, focus groups and the sampled respondents were unanimous on the view that pre marital sex may have its social and economic benefits, but at the end, it also comes with a bitter experience. Female students in some instances think of sex as a way to show care, affection and love, with possibility of marriage in future. They perceived sex as a sign of commitment in the relationship. The consequences as revealed by the study include unwanted pregnancy 68%, STIs/HIV/AIDs 93% drug and alcohol consumption 32% and abortion which are biological in nature. The psychological consequences identified include depression 68%, phobia 37%, guilt 38%, regrets 43%, bondage 23% and stress. The social consequences are loss of family support, loss of self respect 57%, corruption of character 71%, poor academic performance 28% and alienation from peers, particularly roommates. In summary, students who engage in pre marital sex suffer negatively from long term physical, emotional, social and moral consequences than students who choose not to engage in it. Pre Marital sex is a riddle with multiple emotional and mental consequences. # 5 8' A There is the need for Islamic based advocacy for both students and the University Administration. This will educate the community on the religious and societal values. The University should encourage religious organizations and morally social clubs to organize debates and workshops regularly and particularly during orientation weeks by faculties. The much drifts of social values in the University environment could be checked if Muslim society adhere to the above mentioned verses of the Quran. The instruction which was revealed inform of warning to both believing male and female categories to “Lower their Gaze” was not to mean that one should lower his head without looking at people at all, which is impossible. God only requests one’s gaze be lowered without letting it fix continually on a prohibited sight that arouses desires. Muslims should walk towards things that will make greater purity for them so as to lead a decent life. In fact it is recommendable that “Except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof” means the face and hands which may be revealed to men’s sight when this not cause any temptation; the hair, however, should always be concealed, as many commentators and Muslim scholars have decided (Tabbarah, 1978). Stakeholders’ particularly Muslim parent teachers association and Muslim educationalists may wish to find out the nature of damage/pollution for sinful acts in the university environment. The authority should come out with effective penalties for those caught in the act in and engage all senior academic staff for effective adult supervision, particularly of behaviour of students on the campus. Unless the w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 39 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). students are taught about good conduct and manners as well as made to understand the environment/home requirements, they are likely to become in discipline, rude and immoral grandaunts by the time they leave the university environment. $ Abdullahi, S.A. (2004). Our families, their values, and our responsibilities: some insight into the disintegration of family values in Hausa society’. A Paper Presented at Peace Forum. Kano: Mambayya House. Ajilola, A. A. D. (n.d). Basic Quran’s moral teachings. Kaduna: Straight Path. Focused Group Discussion (2007) # & % # 8 " ! University of Maiduguri Lari, S. M. M. (1990). Youths and Morals: Islamic Culture. Iran: Development Office. Sutherland, E. H. (1939) Introduction – College of Criminology and Criminal Justice. www.criminology.fsu.edu Tabbarah, A. (1978) The Spirit of Islam: Doctrine and Teaching. Beirut: Tabbarah. AbeBooks The Holy Qur’an. University of Maiduguri Security Records and Documents. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 40 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 INTEGRATED COMMUNITY DEVELOMENT APPROACH: A PANACEA FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT By TORUTEIN OVIENADU, Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, Faculty of Education, University of Port-Harcourt Abstract This paper is designed to offer a model that will integrate human and material resources to solve the identified problems of a Community simultaneously. The Integrated Community Development (I.C.D) model is an approach to enhance sustainable improvement of the socio-economic lives of the people which is the main focus of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). To tackle the problem of under-development in a meaningful and sustainable manner, all the possible causes must be dealt with holistically. In this I.C.D model, the planner adopted participatory approach to enhance food security and improve the standard of living of the people. With the application of the principles of participation, felt-need, self-help and other tools, their felt developmental needs were identified. None of the identified needs was left behind, rather they were tackled holistically to provide food security and improve the living conditions of the people through their own initiative and efforts. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 41 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Development, according to Amirize (2005:1) is “any conscious effort made or designed by individuals, organizations or state authorities, to facilitate the gradual growth, advancement and improved well being of man and society”. Development must therefore be all round. Development is not limited to physical infrastructures such as roads, bridges, supermarkets, highways, parks and so on. Development must be built on the socio economic needs of the people. The emphasis of development is on identifying the felt needs of the people and to help them to overcome their identified problems. This is in line with the views of Nyerere (1978) who asserted that “development is for man, by man and of man”. Development implies improvements in all facets of human welfare. It refers to a stable situation of enhanced conditions of individual and group performances and well being. Todaro (1973) conceives and presents development as a multidimensional process involving the re organization and re orientation of entire economic and social systems. To him, development has both physical and psychological dimensions. Development therefore has to do with all aspects of peoples’ life such as economic, social, logical and administrative and otherwise. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2001:6) declared that development entails the pursuit by societies of three core values of life sustenance, self esteem and freedom. i. Life sustenance: this has to do with the provision of such basic needs as food, housing clothing and basic education. Until a country is able to provide its citizens with these basic needs, it is regarded as under developed, because they form the major objectives of development. ii. Self esteem: this has to do with self respect and independence. When a country and its people cannot stand on their own, then they have no self esteem. iii. Freedom: in order to promote freedom, there are three evils that people strive to overcome; want (hunger), ignorance (illiteracy) and squalor (filth). People desire freedom to be able to afford a decent life (Abah. 2005:22). It must be noted that these three core values relate to one another because the absence of any one of them affects the others negatively. When we take a critical examination at the indices of development, we conceptualize development in line with Okoli’s (2005) submission as “man directed and propelled socio economic and political transformation of self and entire structure of a given political system from a comparatively low and/ or present level to a more qualitative and/ or objective improvements of the living conditions of the citizenry. These subsequently improve man’s potentials and capabilities and eliminate and/or reduce poverty, penury, inequality, unemployment and generally, enhance the conditions for human existence. It is based on the holistic improvement of the socio economic lives of the people that the idea of community development came to the limelight in 1948, at the Cambridge Summer Conference. Community development is not limited to physical infrastructures, but includes a lot more in terms of socio economic lives of the people. It is a development with many colours or perspectives which embraces both tangible and intangible projects. Oyebamiji & Adekola (2008:24) while reporting on Oduaran (1986) highlighted that the goals of community development ranges from material ones such as construction of roads, bridges, culverts, schools, hospitals and so on to non material ones like provision of basic education for the adults, attitudinal change, reducing infant mortality, environmental sustainability among others. Indeed, the goals of community development amongst others is a crusade against ignorance, poverty disease, unprogressive customs, social apathy and personal boredom in people irrespective of age, sex, class and so on. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 42 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). In order to pull the scarce resources together to achieve the lofty goals of community development both the human and material efforts must be integrated. The identified problems of the community must be tackled holistically to achieve all round development. The integration of these resources will eventually lead to sustainable development which is the cornerstone or the basis of the Millennium Development Goals (M.D.Gs). Some terms which are relevant to this discussion need to be clarified according to their meanings and usages. They are clarified under the following headings: 1 2' Integrated Community Development is the harnessing of all available resources to holistically solve the identified problems of a community. If the identified problems of a community are five; they must be solved concurrently. No problem or need should lack behind. This is the essence of the Millennium Development Goals. In order to pull both human and material resources of the community together to improve the socio economic lives of the people, there must be a model. The ICD model is a design to harness the resources together to achieve sustainable development. # The sustainability concept is a modern world concept which refers to long term human and material sustenance. Abah (2005) noted that it ensures the continued existence of programmes long after their establishment. Sustainability is central to all development efforts. Without it, investments in the development efforts are short lived and of no effect. It is only the global barometer for measuring a resilient and enduring socio economic system. A programmer’s results are called sustainable if they are utilized by the direct recipients after the completion of the programme without further external assistance (UNDP management programme, 2001:488). In a broader and encompassing definition, sustainable development is defined as development that meets the needs of the present generation without even compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Oyebamiji and Adekola (2008) reporting on Jhinga (2004) maintained that the aim of sustainable development is the creation of sustainable development in the quality of life for all people. The concern of sustainable development in improving life and living standard and its emphasis on meeting human needs makes it a very useful tool in community development. The emphasis of sustainable development according to Torutein (2011) is that developmental projects should not be short lived in usage; they should be of quality, meet the needs of the people and last for a very long time. These indices make sustainable development a keystone in community development and adult education. $ ' 1 1' 2 $ 2 The Millennium Development Goals are tailored towards holistic development. Development is people centered; it must therefore be holistic and sustainable. In the light of sustainability as the cornerstone for quality life, 192 United Nations members state and at least 23 international organizations came up with the blue print tagged Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), in 2000. They came up with eight international development goals and resolved to harness ideas, efforts and resources to meet the needs of the world’s poorest nations and also those of high risk strata of society. The lofty goals are earmarked to be achieved by the year 2015. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 43 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The MDGs wish to eliminate extreme poverty and hunger, attain universal basic education, reduce infant mortality, improve maternal health, combat the HIV/AIDS scourge, check malaria and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability and develop a global partnership for development. A cursory examination of these goals shows that they are interwoven. These goals imply all rounds development. The MDGs are becoming a global point of reference concerning developmental matters. The achievement of these goals will eventually lead to civilized transmission of communities and their subsequent emancipation from regression tradition, poverty, ignorance and disease. These millennium goals must be integrated to enhance maximum benefits to all. If these goals are tackled unilaterally, there will be no sustainability. This is because, the goals are complementary. Therefore, the relevance of ICD approach to the achievement of Millennium Development Goals cannot be overstressed. The integrated approach, according to Anyanwu (1992) is based on the appreciation that community development means more than road building or construction of dams through self help efforts. The crux of the ICD approach is that a comprehensive programme for community development should include provision to the socio economic, cultural and political development of the people. It therefore, calls for the effective coordination of all the human and material resources available in any community for the achievement of its maximum improvement. The people in the community must be involved throughout the various stages of community development efforts. This is called participation. It is therefore obvious that the main aim of ICD is integration of the economic, social, political and cultural aspects of the community effort to achieve all round sustainable development. ' Integrated community development (ICD) model is a holistic system that is designed to link and synthesize all various elements of the community to harness their human and material resources towards the improvement of the social, economic, political and technological advancement of people. So far, we have seen that the bottom line of the MDGs is holistic and sustainable development. For this objective to be achieved, an Integrated Community Development approach is the solution. This approach will not solve each identified need unilaterally but will simultaneously solve all the identified problems with the available material and human resources. This is when the attempt to help the people improve on their socio economic status will be realistic and sustainable. 3 ' 3 # Akaba is a fast growing community in Yenagoa Local Government Area of Bayelsa State. An ICD model was experimented in Akaba Community. The target of the ICD model was to provide food security and improve living standards of the people. The Akaba project is an integrated community development programme with five main functional areas which were treated holistically to achieve food security and improve living standards of the people. These focal areas were derived from the people’s felt needs. The tools that were used to arrive at these felt needs are consultation, conscientization, participation, communication, mobilization and education. The identified focal areas are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Agriculture: to improve their farming practices Education: to help them acquire basic skills in reading and writing Health: to enable them live in a pollution free environment Micro infrastructure projects: provision of basic infrastructure such as feeder roads, portable drinking water and public convenience. Natural resource management: to preserve the natural resources such as trees and animals by avoiding cultural practices that are not environmentally friendly and sustainable. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 44 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The model below was designed to achieve the following objectives: i. To improve their farming practices. ii. To help them acquire basic skills in reading and writing. iii. To enable them live in a pollution free environment. iv. To provide basic amenities such as feeder road, provide drinking water and public convenience, and v. To help them conserve their natural resources. The end product of the Akaba ICD model is sustainable food security and improved living standards. 3 ' ICD TOOLS ICD ELEMENTS After meeting with the community leaders of Akaba community using the ICD tools (conscientization, consultation, participation, communication, mobilization and education), it was necessary to communicate the feedback to the entire community for deliberation, modification and adoption. This is the purpose of the research feedback to the wider community. Without the leaders of the community, there can be no success with the masses (Onyeozu, 2007). The next stage is action planning by various groups. The purpose of action planning by various groups is to map out strategies and resources as well as time frame for meeting the realization of the identified priority needs. Since the identified needs are five, the entire community was divided into five groups. Each group handled a priority need from implementation to completion. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 45 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The aim of the feedback is to communicate draft action plans of each group to the wider community for discussion, modification and approval. This is to ensure effective participation and involvement of all stake holders and the entire community. The purpose of implementation and monitoring is to execute the plans effectively. This will not be left for only the groups but to the specialists in each identified needs. The monitoring was done in conjunction with the community development experts. The effective monitoring and execution of the programme eventually led to sustainable food security and improved living standard for the targeted people. The next stage is the review which was to determine or evaluate success of the various projects while the purpose of consultation is to communicate outcomes of the reviewed action plans to stakeholders groups and to understand their views on the projects and possible identification of new priority needs. The whole process revolves around participation, felt needs and self help principles. Participation which is the involvement of the people in needs identification, planning and execution of projects is a sine quanon in community development in that any group activity which does not include an aspect of human participation by members of the group in its programme cannot be regarded legitimately as community development. According to Onyeozu (2007:66), participation is all but the channeling of individual actions into collective form. Here, stress is laid on mutual and the building of “collaborative relationship” and co operation as the importance of mutual co operation cannot be overstressed in community development efforts. Participation emphasized total control by community members. The concept of felt needs is that people must be able to identify what they want to do in order to achieve desired development. In Onyeozu’s (2007) view, felt need is something sincerely desired, something craved for, wanted, longed for or inspired to do. It is an object of inner wish or heartfelt prayers. Ogili (2004) described felt needs as “those tangible and intangible things a group requires as essential to its survival as an organic whole”. Without those tangibele and intangible things, the group or community would remain stagnant. Such tangible things, as posited by Ogili (2004), include good roads, water supply, electricity, educational institution and so on. While the intangible things include ability to work together, methods and tools to carry out their occupation, ability to read, write and understand their physical, social and cultural environment. Self help means the community people coming together and joining efforts and resources to get themselves out of their present unsatisfactory condition. According to Anyanwu (1992) self help is the main end product of community development. Oyebamiji and Adekala (2008:50) described self help simply to mean the community people coming together, and joining efforts and resources to get themselves out of their present unsatisfactory condition. Self help enables the local people to exploit to their own advantage, resources which would otherwise lay dormant. Also, self help increases the confidence and competence of community people in the handling of their own affairs. In self help, the community and its people depend less on outside assistance; they only see such assistance as supplementing, but not a replacement for local efforts as Julius Nyerere puts it; “development is for man, by man and of man” (Anyanwu, 1992:iv). To tackle the problem of under development in any meaningful and sustainable manner all the possible causes must be dealt with, not as isolated conditions but interrelated facets of all encompassing problems. This is the focus of integrated community development approach. It is when all the identified problems are holistically tackled that sustainability will emerge. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 46 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). For the problems of a community to be identified and solved, the people must be actively involved from needs identification to planning, execution and monitoring of projects meant to better their welfare. In order to pull both material and human resources together to solve all the identified need holistically, integrated effort or approach is indispensable. In the model discussed above, the designer used participatory approach to enhance food security and improve the living conditions of the people. Through participation and other tools, their felt development needs were identified. None of the identified needs was left behind but were all tackled at the same time to provide food security and improve the living conditions of the people. $ In order to achieve all round and sustainable development, which is the cornerstone of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the integrated community development approach is indispensable. Development agencies should involve the community members in needs identification, planning, execution and supervision of projects aimed at improving their welfare. The participation and involvement of the community members should be done through their leaders. The leaders of the community must however, be acceptable, honest, transparent and charismatic. The success of any community development effort relies greatly on leadership. Further, in planning for sustainable community development projects, specific functions should be given to specific people. It would be unsustainable, for instance, to allow market women association to handle literacy project. Above all, the identified problems should be holistically tackled to ensure sustainability of improved living conditions of the people. $ Abah, E. O. (2005) United Nations Development Programme and Sustainable Development in Nigeria: A case study of Ebonyi state. (unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Nigeria, NSUKA). Amirize, B.(2005) ( )& # ' > . Owerri: Springfield Publishers ltd. Anyanwu, C.N. (1992) ( & # : :! # # & Ibadan: Gabesther Educational Publishers Ltd. Nyerere, J.K. (1978) “Development is for man, and of man” in B.L Hall and Kidd J.R (ed) Adult learning: A design for action. Oxford: Pregaqman Press. Ogili, E.F. (2004) ( )& # % : +% . Enugu: Adels Foundation Publishing. Okoli, M.U. (2005) < =& + & , + . + ( # & +## . Onitsha: Abbots Books ltd. Onyeozu, A.M. (2007) 6 !( )& # . Port Harcourt: Davidstones publishers ltd. Oyebamiji, M.A & Adekola, G.(2008) 4 %( )& # : ! . Part Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press. Todaro, M. (1973) 7 % )& # World. London: Longman Torutein, K. O. (2011) Community Development: The Key to Rural Transformation. Yenagoa: Favour Arts & Print. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 47 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 BUILDING COMMUNITY CAPACITY USING ‘DOMAIN APPROACH’: REFLECTION FROM NGO’S COMMUNITY IN NIGERIA By JOHN M. PATRICK, PhD jopatmoo@yahoo.com Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Abstract This paper provides an approach for building community capacity using two case examples of how two Non-Governmental Organisations in Nigeria build the capacity of communities in oil producing communities in Niger Delta region and rural communities in Lagos State. The paper uses the Domain approach in evaluating community development programmes of NGOs with focus on the nine domains of community capacity building. The qualitative survey method was adopted using Focus Group Discussion, Key personality interview and observation for data collection. From the evaluation it was observed that the activities of the NGOs in the various communities capacitate the people and created effective forward and backward linkages in the development of the communities with the people well empowered to take advantage of economic activities in their community and actively participating in the development process of their community. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 48 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Since the state declared its avoid intention to withdraw form actively participating in the economic sphere with the concomitant policy of privatization perhaps except that of acting as regulatory agency, Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have been playing a significant role, acting as a development agency and the drivers of community development. NGOs have been able to play this role because of its easy access to development fund, less bureaucratic nature, the adoption of participatory approach to development and its emphasis on people driven development. NGOs by the manner of their activities are classified as the third sector after the government and the private sectors which are regarded as the first and the second respectively. According to Shephard (1998) NGOs are the cornerstones of modern rural development and Narayan, Patel, Schaff, Rademacher, and Koch Schulte (2000) observe that NGOs respond better to local needs, priorities and possess expertise that can assist in strengthening local livelihoods. NGOs have been assisting in promoting sustainable development either as an explicit focus, or as an adjunct of output oriented investment in partnership with national, local government or rural communities (Patrick, 2010a). In Nigeria, NGOs as drivers of development provide essential services in collaboration with the people, government and corporate organisations. It provides vocational and adult literacy education, environmental education, health and agricultural education services including the empowerment of people and the reduction of poverty according to Idowu and Adesina (2006). Duke (2004) identifies five discernable areas where NGOs intervene in community development process. These are: livelihood skill development and adult literacy, promotion of self help, development of entrepreneurship and provision of micro credit, environmental and agricultural education, and democracy and good governance. These actions are said to result in what may be called community resiliency, community competence and community capacity. Community resiliency according to Plaat and Barrett (2006) is the ability of a community to not only respond to adversity but in so doing reach a higher level of functioning. According to Sonn and Fisher (1998) as cited in Plaat (2006), resiliency is the capacity for successful adaption, positive functioning and competence irrespective of stress, trauma and high risk experienced by community. Cottrel (1976) and Eng and Parker (1994) write about community competence. According to Cottrel community competence is the process through which groups, communities, and people work together to identify the problems and needs of their community. Whereas community capacity like community development describes a process that increases the assets and attributes that a community is able to draw upon in order to improve their lives (Laverak, 2006). To what extent have NGOs been able to build community capacity in Nigeria? Drawing from the nine domains approach developed by Laverack (2001): this paper assesses how NGOs in Nigeria engage communities to build their capacity for self reliance and sustainable development. The community capacity development programmes of two NGOs in Nigeria are evaluated in this paper. The NGOs are Community Development Partners (CODEP) and Idea Builders Non Governmental Organization (IBNGO). $ ' A qualitative survey was conducted in operational areas of the NGOs used for the study. The choice of the two NGOs (Community Development Partners (CODEP) and Idea Builders Non Governmental Organization (IBNGO)) for this study was informed by the fact that the NGOs were concerned with the most pressing problems of the two regions the problem of poor community capacity to participate in the oil economy in the Niger Delta and the poor women capacity to participate in an increasing urban economy in Lagos State. Thus the two NGOs were purposively sampled from the various NGOs with focus on building community capacity for sustainable community development. Similarly, Lagos and Rivers States were purposively selected. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 49 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The population for this study was drawn from the participants of the two NGOs community basic capacity building programmes. This consists of 334 participants and 2 programme officers in CODEP; and 300 participants and 2 programme officers for IBNGO. Thus we have a total of 636 persons as the population for this study. A total of 107 persons were sampled from the population representing 16.82 per cent of the population. The key instruments for data collection were Focus Group Discussion (FGD), key informant interview and observation. We conducted two FGDs comprising eight persons per group in each of the six selected communities in the operational areas of the NGOs. Of the two groups of CODEP, one was made up of men and women who were 45 years old and above while the other was made up of youths who were between 25 years to 40. Conscious efforts were made, though unsuccessfully, to ensure gender balance. We set out to have four men and four women in each group. This was not possible as most women were away to the farms. The number of women that participated in each FGD ranged from two to three. On the other hand in the case of IBNGO all the participants were women aged between the ranges of 25 years to 55 years old. All the participants in the FGD were randomly selected from the participants of the NGOs community based capacity building programmes. The theme of the discussion in the Focus Group Discussion were based on the nine domain of capacity building with emphasis on how it relates to community capacity building for participation in the oil economy in the Niger Delta for CODEP and for IBNGO with focus on building rural women capacity to participate in growing urban economy. The Focus Group discussion was complemented by nine unstructured key informant interviews with the Programme officers of NGOs. Specifically, the Programme Officers were interviewed to find out the objectives and the # of the programmes of their respective NGOs. The communities used for this study were purposively selected. For CODEP Omoku, Rumueme and Rumukurushi were selected; while for IBNGO Ajegunle, Ijora and Ikorodu Okota were selected. 0 3 The domain approach to community Development is recent but some literature are bound which provided the theoretical foundation of this approach. These are Rifkin, Muller and Bichmann (1988); Eng and Parker (1994); Goodman (1998); and Bopp, Germann, Bopp, Littlejohn and Smith (1999). Others as cited in Laverack (2006a) and (2006b) are Gibbon, (1999) and Laverack, (1999). The domain approach was designed to unpack complex concepts in the process of planning, implementing, and evaluating programmes for community capacity building. Different scholars have identified various domains with minor differences for evaluating programmes for community capacity building. The term domain here refers to the areas of influence that allow individuals and groups to better organize and mobilize themselves toward social, economic and political changes. Rifkin, Muller, and Bichmann (1988) identified the following domains in community participation: leadership, organization, resource mobilization, need assessment and management. Eng and Prker (1994) identified participation, social support, management, social relation and conflict containment as the domains of assessing community competence; while Goodman (1998) identified participation, leadership sense of commitment, understanding of community history ,values and resources, critical reflection, social and inter organizational networks and skills as the domains for assessing community capacity. Bopp, Germann, Bopp, Littlejohn and Smith (1999) identified similar domains of community capacity with Goodman (1998) except that communication, shared vision and learning are added by Goodman . Based on the works of earlier scholars, Laverack (2001) expanded the domains to nine discernable areas. These are improving participation; developing local leadership; increasing problem assessment capacities; enhancing the ability to ‘ask why’; building empowering organizational structures; improving resource mobilization; strengthening links to other organizations and people; creating an equitable relationship with outsiders agents; and increasing control over programme management. The nine domains have been used by community development practitioners in programme context. The essence of community development practitioners to use the domain approach is to facilitate the movement of people along a continuum such that changes in power relations at the w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 50 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). personal and small groups’ levels are integrated into community organizations and partnerships for development. The use of domain approach in the programme context promotes community oriented social and political changes for development. It provides qualitative data for the analysis of community development programmes as well as provides information for stakeholders and community members to assess programmes facilitated in their community. ( 5 > CODEP is a private, voluntary and Non Governmental Organization engaged in a working collaboration with the government/private sectors, co operative societies, Community Based Organizations (CBOs) and other development agencies towards improving the social and economic wellbeing of communities in the Niger Delta that are affected by oil exploration activities. These communities are characterised by environmental degradation, lack of economic and social infrastructures, poverty, youth unemployment, inter communal conflict, violence and constant attack on the oil infrastructure as a result of several years of neglect by the government and the oil Multi National Companies (MNCs) which they play host to. On the basis of these characteristics CODEP undertook several community capacity development programmes for oil bearing communities to enable them participate and share in the benefit of the oil economy and for them to become self reliant and actively participate in their own development. The CODEP initiative can be assessed using the nine domains of community capacity building by Laverack (2001). ) CODEP adopted participatory development methodologies with emphasis on the people leading their development process, people identifying their problems and needs, people initiating programmes and projects to meet these needs. In the various workshops and training sessions for the communities, the principle adopted by CODEP is the participatory shares learning methodology (PSLM) according to their programme officer in the key personality interview. This methodology is based on learners sharing their experiences rather than the teacher teaching. Small group discussions and practical demonstrations were used to share experiences and reinforce skill. In the FGD it was observed that in the PSLM, learners determine the learning objectives, and exert control over the content and methodology. As part of the drive to promote local participation in the oil and gas sector, CODEP initiated and embarked on several capacity development programmes in oil bearing communities in Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni and Obio Apkor local government areas in the Niger Delta region. Some of the programmes according to the programme officer in the key personality interview are: Adaptive Technical/Vocational Skill Acquisition Programme, Computer Application and Maintenance Programme, and Entrepreneurship Development Programme. These programmes were geared towards developing the livelihood skills of the people to enable them take up employment in the oil sector or to become self employed and employers of labour. In the FGD several testimonies were given on how these schemes have helped the local community. A participant said as a result of the scheme in their community 18 of the trainees have established their own business such as welding workshop, computer (business) centre, bakery and other small scale businesses. This according to the participants has not only enabled the community members to access these services internally but has empowered the youths to participate in the oil sector. Furthermore, the government policy of local content in oil and gas sector particularly in area of manpower needs would have eluded the local community members if they do not have the necessary skill personnel in such areas like underwater pipeline welding, electrical technicians, scaffolding, Manson, pipefitting, marine technology and safety. ) According to Laverack (2006), developing local leadership entails working with and building on the existing strengths and community leadership. CODEP engaged youth leaders, women leaders, and community leaders in penetrating the communities according to the programme officer in the key personality interview. The NGO organized leadership training workshops for youths and other w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 51 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). community leaders. These workshops according to the FGD participants enabled them to develop a better interpersonal relationship and a better mind frame for community leadership. Furthermore the engagement of the local people in taking leadership role in matters that concern them enabled them to become activist in matters of environmental justices and human right. The community leaders were engaged by the NGO as organizers, coordinators and programme leaders in training sessions and community organizations mediated by the NGO in the community. > + ) In penetrating the communities, CODEP realized that some communities lacked strong community structures. In these communities, CODEP used fitness group and neighbourhood activities to lay the framework for existing community organizations with emphasis on building social capital and internal cohesion among community members. CODEP worked through CBOs in all the communities where it has intervention programmes according to a programme officer in the key personality interview. Its initiative helped to develop strong CBOs which are now capable of carrying out advocacy programmes and income generating activities for the benefit of its members and the community at large without outside intervention.. CODEP was able to do this through its Community Economic Development Framework initiative. # ) The participants in the focus group discussion pointed out that through the programms of the NGO their communities have been able to identify a great deal of their community problems most of which they alleged to have been created by the government, oil companies operating in their community and their community leaders who collaborate with the government and the companies to rob the people of the oil economy. They pointed out that some projects sited in their communities were not considered useful to the community and not been used by them because there was no proper need assessment during the design of the project. The failure to do proper need assessment is the underlining reason for the failure of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) projects initiated by oil multi national companies in the Niger Delta according to Patrick (2010b). participants in the Focus Group Discussion observed that CODEP engaged their communities in a broader form of need assessment, one that incorporates their immediate needs and pressing problem, such as ecological problem, prostitution among teenage girls, water pollution, absence of basic vocational skills, health and nutrition, educational needs, roads and drainage, electricity, supply of portable drinking water, and the problem of livelihood. The participants in the Focus Group Discussion observed that CODEP with the local people formed a team that is responsible for community development project impact assessment and evaluation of project identification, conception, sustainability and functionality. 5 # B + 1 + 2) It was pointed out by the participants in the Focus Group Discussion that CODEP in the various communities where it carried out intervention programmes worked with small groups doing what is called community audit and analysing why the communities have not benefited immensely from the oil exploration, the courses and effects of oil pollution, the responsibility of community leaders, how they can enter a memoranda of understanding with the oil companies, reasons for project failure and poor project execution and contractors obligation in community project execution under corporate social responsibility. This the participants pointed out has helped the community members and their leaders to increase their level of critical awareness, to ask questions, and have understanding of the activities of oil companies operating in their communities, this also enable the community members to demand from contractors executing CSR projects the terms of contract, question poor quality jobs and contract failures. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 52 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). # ) It was observed that the NGO came with some resources that were largely tied to conventional community development outcomes. The NGO funded some community development initiatives within the communities such as the construction of landing jet, neighbourhood water scheme, and construction of six classrooms blocks. In all of these projects, the people contributed labour, land, and other resources that can be locally sourced within the communities. The participants in the Focus Group Discussion pointed out that voluntarism was encouraged by the NGO, clubs and associations were encouraged to contribute to the development of the community; while at the level of individual the attitude of selfless service was fostered. It was observed that the NGO and the community members worked together to attract fund from oil multi national companies under the CSR scheme for community development. Most of the projects funded under the collaborative effort of the community, the NGO and the MNCs were managed by the community members and the NGO. ) It was observed that CODEP helped the community development committees of the various communities where it operated to maintain a network of development partners involved in development intervention in oil bearing communities. Some of the partner agencies are: United Nation Development Programme (UNDP), Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC), British Government Department for International Development (DFID), International Institute of Environmental and Development (IIED), International Network for Sustainable Energy (INFORSE), and a host of MNCs. CODEP networking with Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC) embarked on Youth Technical Scheme (YTS) in which it trained over 1320 youths in three states in the Niger Delta. @ # + ) It was observed that CODEP played an important role in helping communities to mobilise resources and foster linkages with development agencies and MNCs. The NGO assists in fostering better community relation with development partners and enable local people gain access to politicians and policy makers. CODEP further supports the communities with training workshops on skills of negotiation with MNCs, interpersonal skills development, and conflict resolution. Participants in the Focus Group Discussion pointed out that CODEP maintained critical self reflection in its own role with the communities through a system of evaluation that is participatory with the community members involve in the evaluation of the activities of the NGO. ) Participants in the focus Group Discussion communities’ capacity for self reliance and members initiate and take control of their community under the CSR scheme of oil intervention agencies. observed that through the activities of the NGO the sustained development is enhanced; the community development process, managing projects sited in the MNCs, government projects and other development The overall impact of the CODEP activities in the communities where it operates are enormous, its activities have increased the ability of the community members to solve their personal and community problems, this increase their social cohesion and ability of the communities to organise themselves for development. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 53 March, 2013 > JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ( # + ! Lagos State is a cosmopolitan single city state with several indigenous settlements that are rural in nature but with urban character. With the increasing commercial and industrial activities in the state, agricultural activities are at the decline. Lands which are used for agricultural purposes are now converted to industrial and residential estates. Women farmers in the Lagos suburbs are the most affected by this trend with the loss of their farm land, eroding of their major livelihood and the demand of the urban life style. These have increased the level of poverty among the rural women in the state. It is against this backdrop that Idea Builders an NGO undertook several initiatives to develop the capacity of women farmer in the suburbs of Lagos to enable them participate fully and share in the benefit of increasing level of urbanization sweeping across Lagos State. The objectives of IBNGO are: to empower women to succeed and attain higher levels of productivity; to support micro scale entrepreneurship among women and young people; and to promote agriculture as a commercial enterprise among young people, women and the community. The mission of the NGO is to build the capacity of people, and to foster community development partnerships using micro enterprise development, capacity building, community renewal and advocacy. The Laverack (2001), nine domains approach was used to assess IBNGO’s initiatives for rural women capacity building. ) Participants in the Focus Group Discussion pointed out that special effort were made by IBNGO to ensure women participation in the urban economy. It was pointed out that IBNGO adopted the strategy of women mentoring women using a community of empowered women living lives worthy of emulation to inspire rural women. The programme was aimed at establishing connection and building a sense of responsibility of rural women and local communities. High profile business and professional women from the city centre were brought to the suburbs to walk and talk with the women to inspire them, break inferiority among the rural women and enable them explore business and professional opportunities that are bound in the city centres. The other component of the women mentoring women that helped to ensure greater participation are mentee leadership programme, mentor dialogue, mentor talkshop and annual gala for the rural women according to a respondent in the key personality interview. These programmes according to the participants in the Focus Group Discussion helped to develop the rural women confidence in business, break their inferiority complex and challenge them to take initiatives to improve their socio economic condition. It also help to reduce the level of dependence of the rural women on men and their level of vulnerability to male control and low community participation. ) IBNGO was said to use the mentee leadership programme and the mentor dialogue programme to develop local leadership among rural women farmers in Ijora, Ikorodu and Epe communities in Lagos State. These programmes became avenues for the rural women farmers to imbibe necessary leadership skills and to aspire to leadership positions in their respective communities according to respondent in a key personality interview. The mentors according to the participants in the Focus Group Discussion became the role models with most of the rural women wishing to be as enterprising as these urban women or that their female children could be like these urban women. > + ) It was said that IBNGO realized the absence of strong community economic structures; consequently the NGO encouraged the formation of women co operatives and ensure that women work in groups and are identified by their women groups in the community. The participants in the Focus Group Discussion observed that farmers were thought the importance of collective strength and the advantages of applying knowledge gained in the various training to improve their level of productivity. The women were also given cooperative education after which they were made to form cooperative societies. Majority of the participant in the Focus Group Discussion agreed that with the help of the w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 54 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). NGO rural farmers in Ikorodu, Epe, Okota and Ijora communities were able to develop skill of dialogue and trust among themselves as well as develop informal micro credit arrangement that help low income people. # ) The inclusion of programme that directly addresses peoples’ needs identification, the inclusion of the people themselves in the need identification process during the period of penetration and before the commencement of intervention programme increases the people’s capacity for need assessment. It was said that IBNGO was able to increase the people’s capacity through a programme of knowing your community problems, opportunities, and potentialities. This programme affords the rural women farmers opportunity to discuss the problems of their community, and identify the opportunities and the potentialities therein that they can exploit for their individual and community development according to respondents in the key personality interview. 5 # B + 1 + 2) Rural women are often not considered and their opinions not sort by the community and the local government in most decisions because of the patriarchal dominance and other societal exigencies of the rural communities in western Nigeria. In view of this, IBNGO organized group discussions among women to analyse the condition of womanhood in the community and to enable them have a voice to critically question existing social order. Participants in the Focus Group Discussion observed that as a result of this discussion session’s women began to ask why most women are poor, unhealthy; their services are not priced well and valued by the society as well as demand for affirmative action for women. They also asked why government has failed to meet the broader needs of women in the rural areas such as women representation in governance, girl child education, the provision of improve farm inputs, storage and processing facilities. # ) The major constraint identified by the rural women farmers in Lagos State is the poverty of resource for rural women farmers according to a respondent in a key personality interview. It was observed that the NGO helped the farmers to identify their resource needs and assist them to source for these resources internally and externally particularly improved farm inputs and access to land. The farmers through the collaboration of the NGO with Research Institute Umudike, International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Lagos State Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) and other agencies obtain agricultural grant and support from National Root Crops. The participants in the Focus Group Discussion observed that through the resource mobilization, the women were able to improve their outputs, increase their income and contribute to their family life and community development. The rural women were thought how to process most of their agricultural products for immediate use by the urban resident. The farm products processed were pineapple, maize, tomato, okro, pepper and cassava. These products were processed to pastries of various forms for local use and for supply to the city centre according to the participants in the Focus Group Discussion. ( ) It was said that IBNGO entered partnership with international and national Non governmental Organizations, Community Based Organizations, and Multi National Corporations like: Vital Voice Global Partnership, Sharing Skills Changing Life, Exxonmobil, and Fidelity Bank to bring the problems of the rural women farmers to the fore. Also through IBNGO’s foreign voluntary scheme the rural farmers were exposed to improve farming techniques and processing as well as foreign organizations that provide intervention programmes for rural women farmers. Furthermore the women were linked to firms that need their product and how to market their products online according to respondent of key personality interview. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 55 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). @ # + ) It was said that IBNGO assisted rural women farmers to have critical self reflection of their role in their communities. The participants in the focus Group Discussion pointed out that the NGO tries to enable the rural farmers to market their products, foster good relationship with their middle men from the urban centre. The NGO seeks to promote women rights and feminist advocacy against domestic violence and political apathy. It mainstreamed gender and development policies at the rural communities and linked the rural women to other women development organisations like the National Council for Women. ) It was said that the various women organizations animated through the leadership and community organizing process became self organizing and demonstration farms and processing centres established by IBNGO were handed over to the rural women to manage. The NGO gradually withdraw from the management of the women development centres and the rural women engaged in the train the trainer became the trainers organizing training session based on the principles fostered by the NGO. The training centres became centres for women meeting in the community according to respondents in the key personality interview. The overall impact of the IBNGO community capacity building was feminist oriented and gender biased with emphasis on women right, women empowerment and the internationalization of rural women. # The problem of both rural and urban communities in Nigeria has been how to ensure sustainable development. This is as result of numerous problems such as poverty, ignorance, disease, environmental degradation, lack of basic infrastructure, and poor community leadership. Given the fact that sustainable community development is a contestation in all respects because of its political underpinnings, the imagined world of the future, perspective on the causes and remedies of social problems; the domain approach provides a wide perspective to understand community problems and to capacitate individuals and communities to address their individual and community problems. Capacity building at community level is the process by which people can gain the skills they needed and establishing strong organisational structures and linkages that ensures sustainable community development. Building community capacity by using the approach outlined in this paper provided a means for strengthening locally based organisations and empowering people to enthusiastically participate in their development process to improve themselves and the life of their community in general. This approach helped people to be more aware of their strengths and weakness to manage their community development project. The experience of CODEP in the Niger Delta region shows that building community capacity will increase community dialogue for fostering participatory development in which community members will play an active role in their development process. Secondly, it is evident that CODEP’s capacity building programme fosters a good corporate community relations and a better partnership for development between host communities and oil MNCs. On the other hand, it is evident from IBNGO’s experience that mentoring is a plausible strategy for capacitating rural women to enable them take an active role in community development process and to question the myth that are been used to oppress them.. Secondly, the IBNGO’s experience exemplifies the basis of integrating rural economy into urban economy thereby ensuring forward and backward linkages in a national economy for sustainable development with women at the fore of the development process. Thirdly, the IBNGO’s experience shows a better way of encouraging and conscientizing women for development and integrating rural women into urban life style. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 56 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Community development practitioners and the NGOs community should regard community capacity not as something new, but a refinement of community of practice for the NGO community. The use of domain approach by NGOs to build community capacity helps to ensure the effective engagement of community members in intervention programmes that are designed to empowerment people to lead their community development process and to take responsibility for their individual and collective development in their community. The experiences of CODEP and IBNGO in the Niger Delta region and Lagos State respectively show that the key to sustainable community development is human capacity development and the ability of any community to increase its assets and attributes and to draw upon these to improve the lives of people. From the findings it can be argued that NGOs in the various communities capacitate the people and created effective forward and backward economic linkages fostering the development of the communities and empowering people to take advantage of economic activities in their community. $ Bopp, M., Germann, K., Bopp, J., Littlejohn, L. B., & Smith, N. (1999). + !( ( # % ( ! . Calgary: Four worlds Development. Cottrell, L. S. (1976). The competent community. In Kaplan, R. W. & Leighton, A. (Eds.) 7"# ' New York: Basic Book. Duke, C. (2004). Adult education and poverty reduction: a global priority. + 7 )& # , 63, 15 77. Eng, E. & Parker, E. (1994). Measuring community competence in the Missipi Delta: The interface between programme evaluation and empowerment, ; 7 L $ 21 (2), 199 220. Goodman, R. M., Speers, M. A., Mcleroy, K., Fawcett, S., Kegler, M., Parker, E., Rathgeb, S., Sterling, T.D., & Wallerstein,N. (1998). Identifying and defining the dimensions of community capacity to provide a basis for measurement ; 7 A & $ 25 (30 ), 258 278. Idowu, B. & Adesina, O. (2006). National Non Governmental Organisations’ activities and the realization of the Millennium Development Goals in Nigeria. In NNCAE Adult and Non Formal education in Nigeria emerging issues. ' ! % :! : ( % + 7 C Annual Conference Held at University of Ibadan. 250 259. Lavervack, G. (2006a). Using a ‘domains’ approach to build community empowerment. ( )& # 5 $ 41 (1), 4 6. Laverack, G. (2006b). Evaluating community capacity: Visual representation and interpretation. ( )& # 5 $ 41 (3), 266 276. Laverack, G. (2001). An identification and interpretation of the organisational aspects of community empowerment ( )& # 5 $ 36 (2) 40 52. Narayan, P., Patel, R., Schaff, K., Rademacher. A., & Kovh Schulte, S. (2000). M % # ( D New York: Oxford University Press. Patrick, J. M. (2010a). Evaluation of poverty alleviation programmes of selected NGOs for community development in Rivers and Lagos State. PhD Dissertation University of Port Harcourt. Patrick, J. M. (2010b). Corporate social responsibility practice in Nigeria: Implication for Community development. ' ! %. ( % 3 )& # University of Ibadan. Plaat, V. and Barrett, G. (2006). Building community capacity in governance and decision making. ( )& # 5 $ 41 (1) ,25 36. Rifkin, S. B., Muller, F. & Bichmann, W. (1988). Primary health care: on measuring participation$ $ 9, 931 940. Shephard, A. (1998 * & # London: Macmillan. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 57 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 AL*‘ISRA’ WAL MIcRAJ IN TAFSIR AL*JALALAYN AND FĪZILAL AL*QUR’AN: LESSONS FOR MUSLIMS IN THE 21ST CENTURY By ABDUR*RAZZAQ MUSTAPHA BALOGUN SOLAGBERU, Department of Islamic Studies Kwara State College of Arabic and Islamic Legal Studies, Ilorin. Phone No: - 08034756380/08058759700 e-mail: - Abstract This paper studies the views and approaches adopted by scholars of different ages to the issue, substance and significance of Al-Isra wal-Micraj (The Miraculous Night Journey) or better put, the spiritual journey of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) into heaven; with the researcher providing lessons thereon for the Muslims in the 21st Century. The views of the scholars to be studied are contained in Tafsir Jalalayn written by the duo of Jalal al-din Muhammad bin Ahmad al-Mahalli and Jalal aldin as-Suyuti. Also in another work authored by Sayyid Qutb which is known as Fizilal al-Qur’an, both works analyse and provide explanation on Al-Isra wal-Micraj. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 58 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). + 8. 8- > (The Miraculous Night Journey) is the spiritual journey of Prophet Muhammad (SAW) into the heaven. This journey is one of the great miracles of the Prophet Muhammad which has been perceived differently by people of manifold views of various ages. It is believed that some time before the Hijrah, the Prophet experienced what was later known as 8. 8- >. It was a night journey from Makkah to Jerusalem and the ascent from Jerusalem to heaven. The event is generally referred to as “the night of the journey and the ascension or < 8. 8- >, it is the reference point of Surat al Isra (chapter 17 verse 1 of the Qur’an). Although, the actual date of theevent is not certain, however, it is often celebrated on the 27th Rajab (the 7th month) of lunar calendar. It was believed that during the journey, the Prophet was given the five daily ritual prayers (Cyril, 2005). The event is of great importance to Muslims not only because the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) took a journey to Jerusalem and later ascended to heaven and returned the same night, but the five daily ritual prayers, which is the second pillar of Islam, and a demarcating factor between Muslims and non Muslims were given to the Prophet at that journey. It has to be added that the arbitration of sound reason must inevitably lead to the truthfulness of this event if it is illuminated by true faith. Otherwise, according to Ad Dureini (1988), “it is difficult for reason or even impossible, if it resorted to the superficial usual human criteria to attain this truth”. Ad Dureini further submits that perhaps this is what led some to plunge into doubt as to the manner of this Isrā’. Did it occur with complete humanity of the greatest Apostle? Or was it with the spirit alone after it was extracted from the body? Or was it a mere dream vision or was it an indication of the theory of the “Oneness of being”, as some contemporary writers who wrote about the life of Muhammad such as Muhammad Hussain Haykal, would want us to believe (Ad Dureini, 1988). Considering the magnitude of the event to the Muslim 6 , most scholars of Tafsir (Qur’anic exegetes) attach importance to the issue to the extent that they discuss it in their various books of Tasfir. This paper therefore studies the views and approaches adopted by scholars of different ages to this issue, with this researcher providing lessons thereon. The views of the scholars to be studied are contained in Tafsir Jalalayn and Fizilal al Qur’an. Before the discussion on the views of scholars in the two works, regarding 8. are to introduce the two works. C 0 8% 8- >, we D3 Tafsir al Jalalayn and Fizilal al Qur’an are written by different scholars at different time. For the purpose of illustration, Tafsir al Jalalayn literally means Tafsir or explanation of Qur’an by two great (scholars). As the name indicates, the work is a product of two great scholars. In other words, it is a product of both teacher and his student. Abdul (1977) asserts, the fact that the work is attributed to Jalal al din as Suyuti does not erase the historical fact that his master called Jalal al din Muhammad bin Ahmad al Mahalli, commenced the work and before the completion he died. He started the work from Surat al Fatiah (first chapter of the Qur’an) before he died. His student and disciple Jalal al din Suyuti completed the work from Surat al Baqarah to Surat al Israi (chapters 2 17 of the Qur’an) (Maktabat al Jamhuriyah al ‘Arabiyyah, 1337 A.H). For Al Mahalli, he was a native of Mahalli, one of the cities in Egypt, his full name is Jalal al din Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al Mahalli ash Shaf i mastered a number of disciplines such as Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) Usul (principle of Islamic jurisprudence) Nahw (Arabic grammar) Ilan Kalam (Science of Islamic Monotheism or theology) Mantiq (logic) and a host of many others ( Dhahabi, 1976:333). His teachers included Badr Mahmud al Aqsrani, Burhan al Bayjuri Ash Shamsu al Bisali and al Ala al Bukhari among many others. Dhahabi (1976) goes further to w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 59 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). explain that al Mahalli ash Shaf i was offered the post of Chief Judge of Area which he rejected. However, he preferred to be a teacher and took trading as a means of getting ends meet. A number of works are credited to him, such as Sharh Jamic al Jawamic fi al ‘Usul Sharh al Minhaj fi Fiqh ash Shaf iyyah and Sharih al Waraqat fi al ‘Usul ( Dhahabi, 1976:334). As mentioned in Ahmad (1983), Al Mahalli was born in 791A.H. or 1386C.E. and died in 864A.H. or 1459C.E. at the age of 73 years. Jalal al din al Suyuti was Abu Fad, Abd al Rahman bin Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad al Suyuti ash Shaf ii. He was a native of Egypt, born in 1445C.E. (849A.H.). A number of works on different disciplines are credited to him. The works include al Itiqan fi cUlum al Qur’an ad dur Al Manthur, Majma al Bahrayn wa Matla at Badrayn among many others ( Dhahabi, 1976:352 3). al Suyuti later became a Professor of the Madrasa (school) of Shaykuriyyah in Cairo. After completing the work commenced by al Mahalli he named it Tafsir al Qur’an al cazimi li Imamayn al Jalalayn (Maktabat al Jamhuriyah al ‘Arabiyyah, 1337 A.H). From the work of Ahmad (1983), it was gathered that al Suyuti died in 1505C.E. or 911A.H. This work of Tafsir of two volumes is described by Denffer as a hardly book of Tafsir”. The other work, Fizilal al Qur’an, meaning “In the shade of the Qur’an” was authored by a renowned great scholar named Sayyid Qutb, born in Mosha village in the district of Asyut in 1906. His parent names were Ibrahim and Fatimah, father and mother respectively (Agbetola, 1981). At tender age of 9, he studied the meaning of Glorious Qur’an, and later entered the ‘Azhar College before proceeding to Dar al Ulum in 1929 and finally graduated from University with B.A. Education in 1933. Noted from Adeyemo (2005), Qutb was employed by Ministry of Education and assigned to Educational Inspectorate before he went to United States in 1949 for further studies, with the sponsorship of the Ministry. He spent two years before he returned to Cairo. He attended lectures of Sayyid Hassan Banna before he was assassinated in 1949 (Ahmad Abd al Hamid Ghorab, 1980). Qutb did not join the ‘Ikhwan al Muslimum then, as a matter of fact, he developed much interest in the ‘Ikhwan when he was in the United States pursuing his master’s degree and learnt about the assassination of Hassan Banna, and there was jubilation in many places of America over the assassination. Upon the news about enemy of West being killed. He thenceforth resolved to join the ‘Ikhwan and partake actively in its activities (Adeyemo, 2005). Later, Sahabah (nd) says he finally joined the Muslim brothers i.e. ‘Ikhwan al Muslimun formally in 1953 and wrote many books, some of these books earned him fame as well as persecution. As a result of his writing, Donohue and Esposito (1982) report that he was sentenced to prison on suspicion that he was plotting to overthrow Nasir’s government. He served ten years in prison 1954 1964 and in 1964, he was set free but only to be re arrested and imprisoned again and later executed on 29th August 1966. It was during his imprisonment that he wrote a large part of the work Fizilal al Qur’an (Salahi and Shamis, 1979). C 0 8% D4 Having discussed about the authors of the two works, there is need to introduce the two works. Starting with Tafsir Jalalayn, which can be described as one of the products of medieval period on Islamic literature in general and the science of Tafsir in particular, despite the fact that the work was written by two authors i.e. al Mahalli and as Suyuti, the difference is not pronounced, as the latter followed the method initiated by the former. As he stated in the introduction, the language employed in the Tafsir was concise and brief. The motive of the writing was to let people understand the divine message, therefore depending on reliable sources, explaining what is necessary, and in some occasions, drawing attention in a brief manner to different modes of Qur’anic recitation, especially, the famous ones, and by leaving out discussion on some details which he considered as irrelevant, especially, the language analysis which can be better studied in Arabic grammar books. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 60 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Hardly could a reader of Tafsir Jalalayn notice any major difference between the views of the two scholars, except in few areas, which according to Dhahabi (1976:336 7) are less than ten areas. A typical example is ar Ruh “spirit”. For instance, in Surat as Sad (Chapter 38:72) Allah says: 2 % . & % # # * ( * % - # ) Yusuf Ali, 1989). $ The word Ruh is defined by al Mahalli to mean a little body or substance through which man lives by penetrating into it (Maktabat al Jamhuriyah al ‘Arabiyyah, 1337 A.H). Shaykh as Suyuti maintains the stand of his teacher al Mahalli, only to but all words in Surat al Isra Surat 17:85 where Allah says: / * % < ( ! # , %/ % # , ! ) Yusuf Ali, 1989). # Commenting on Ruh, as Suyuti remarks “You cannot comprehend its knowledge”. The essence of brining in this example is to illustrate and to cite the few areas where differences can be hardly noted in the work of Tafsir Jalalayn. The concise style of explaining the Qur’anic verses adopted by the scholars notwithstanding, the Tafsir al Jalalayn is one of the most widespread and widely read works on Tafsir, it has been published many times. It has also attracted the attention of scholars who had worked on it by either writing commentary or glossary on it. Of such works are Hashiyat al Jumal and Hashiyat as Sawi ( Dhahabi, 1976:337). Other works on Tafsir al Jalalayn is a work of Shamsudin Muhammad ibn al Alqam entitled “Qabs an Nayran written in 952A.H. and another one entitled “Hashiyat Musamat bil Jamlayn written by Nur ad din Aliy ibn Sultan Muhammad al Qari (d. 1010A.H.) and another work entitled “Majma al Bahrayn wa Matla al Badrayn” written by Jalal ad din Muhammad ibn Muhammad al Karkhi. ( Dhahabi, 1976:337 8). Professor Muhammad Qutb, a brother to the author, wrote a lengthy introduction on the work and enumerates the reasons behind the work. Among such, is to give Islamic method of education to the individual as well as the society through which Qur’anic instructions would be known to further enrich the contemporary Islamic revivalism (Salahi and Shamis (1979:xv). Consequently, the Muslim community would be best nation ever raised as Qur’an describes it (Qur’an 3:110). To some people, the work Fizilal al Qur’an was a product of Pan Islamism created by Jamal ul din Afghani (at 1838 1897) later followed by Muhammad Abduh (1849 1905) Rashid Rida (1865 1935) and Shaykh Hassan al Banna (1906 1949). This assertion was confirmed by the fact that Sayyid Qutb was among the members of ‘Ikhwan al Muslimun arrested by the government and condemned to death (Jamellah, 1978). Whatever might have been the case, Sayyid Qutb could be said not to be fortunate enough to be studied by both Muslims and non Muslims alike, which made some non Muslims not to consider Fizilal al Qur’an as Tafsir, because he was a victim of a tyrant regime and died as martyr in 1965 Hamid (1982). Explaining further, Hamid maintains that Sayyid Qutb does not neglect the literacy aspect of the Qur’an and at the same time, he does not over emphasis it. The recent publication of Fizilal al Qur’an by Dar ash Shuruq, based in Cairo is in six volumes. . + + 4 + 8' ? The fact that the two works are produced at different times with different perceptions of the authors, and under different circumstances; account for different understanding and approaches in their works on al Qur’an. It must be recalled that Tafsir al Jalalayn represents the medieval view on the issue of Isra’ wal Mi raj. The concept is explained by Jalalayn, giving a Prophetic tradition in which the Prophet was reported to have said that al Buraq (an animal white in colour, bigger than a donkey, smaller than a w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 61 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). mule, who could place its hooves far as its sight reaches) was brought by Angel Jibril who asked him to mount on it and come to Baint al Maqdis in Jerusalem, he then tied the al Buraq and from there, he was ascended by Angel Jibril (Gabriel) to heaven where he met with a number of the previous messengers of God, at different stages, and each of the Prophet welcomed him and prayed for his well being. And at the completion of the seventh stage, he was taken to Sidratul Muntah when God inspired on him and he was given fifty compulsory daily prayers and when descending and reaching the stage where Prophet Musa was, he was advised by Prophet to go back and seek for reduction in the numbers of prayers. He followed the advice and he continued going and coming back to Musa getting the number of prayers reduced by five till the fifty prayers were reduced to five (Maktabat al Jamhuriyah al ‘Arabiyyah, 1337 A.H: 233 4). He also explained further that Isrā and Mi rāj cover the meeting with the Prophets and to see some signs of Allah and also to have conversation with Allah. This is the presentation of Jalālayn. In its own view, Fīzilāl al Qur’ān gives more information about the Isrā wal Micrāj. It explains that there are more than one narration on the issue, making the issue itself to be a controversial one, especially as regard whether the journey was by soul or by body. Fīzilāl al Qur’ān also examines another area which seems to be controversial, that is, from where the journey started; he bases it on report by some narrators that the journey started at the sacred mosque of Makkah while other reported that it started at the house of Umm Hāni. Considering the location of the house of Umm Hāni, which is part of the Mosque to the matter of where he commenced the journey, is settled. Fīzilāl al Qur’ān also narrates that the journey commenced after the night prayer ( Ishā) and when Prophet returned and narrated the story to Umm Hāni who advised him not to tell people because they would regard him as a liar. But the Prophet came out and said what had happened to him in the night, some people who were not firmly believing denounced Islam, but people like Abu Bakr the first Caliph (632 634C.E) got title Sadīq (he who accepts things to be the truth) because he believed in it. Prophet was asked some questions about the caravan of the Makkah people which he explained accordingly yet they did not believe (Sayyid Qutb, 1982). In the same vein, Sayyid Qutb in the Fīzilāl al Qur’ān explains that the situation did not warrant any controversy, especially if one understands the position occupied by Prophets of Allah. According to him, Allah can have contact with any of His Prophets in any form He so decides. He explains further that the reaction of the Prophet to his people’s attitude to what he claimed did not move him an inch and did not prevent him from coming out with what he believed in, and he was not afraid of what his revelation might cause to the people. Sayyid Qutb therefore offers advice to the preachers asking them to emulate the stand of the Prophet and be ready to say the truth whatever might be the people’s reaction. Another thing pointed out by Sayyid Qutb is that the Prophet did not consider his journey as a miracle to him in order to get his mission confirmed and believed by the people. According to him, the spread of the Mission of Islam does not require the use of any miracle, rather, it is on the natural course, and his open proclamation on ‘Isrā wal Micrāj was not meant to be projected as a miracle that Islam depends on for its efficacious, rather, the proclamation is based on divine. Further explanation is given on the verse of ‘Isrā wal Mi rāj, the author draws the attention of his readers to the use of “ Abudihi” meaning “His servant”, which is used in the same verse, to protect the Muslim Community from taking the personality of Muhammad (SAW) above what he was as some religious groups like Christians have done for Prophet Isa i.e. Jesus, because of the miracles that are connected with his birth and death. According to Sayyid Qutb (1982), referring to Muhammad as servant will not make Muslim to arrogate divinity to Muhammad (SAW). Sayyid Qutb perceives the essence of starting the night journey from Makkah to Jerusalem then to heaven as a form of inter relation in the basic belief among different Prophets of Allah in the unity, since the time of Prophets Ibrahim, Ismaīl to Prophet Muhammad (SAW) the seal of all Prophets. The w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 62 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Isrā wal Mi raj also linked together various sacred places of divine religions, as it also announces that the seal of all the divine messengers has arrived, and by that, it combines all the divine missions together, and Sayyid Qutb finally submits that the significance of the night journey is even more than what human being can comprehend. For the fact that ‘Isrā wal Mi rāj is one of the signs of Allah. 3 Going by the submissions of the authors of the two Tafsīr works on the episode, one discovers their areas of interest. For instance, the Tafsīr al Jalālayn emphasizes the phrase in order that we might show him some of our signs” (Qur’an 17:1, Translation: Yusuf Ali, 1989)) by bringing in a Prophetic tradition which explains what the Prophet witnessed during the night journey such as meeting with many previous apostles of Allah, the Tafsīr Jalālayn suggests that Isrā wal Micraj took place in physical form. As a matter of fact, Tafsīr al Jalālayn does not perceive the issue as a controversial one, as it limits itself to one single view. Perhaps, it does that in compliance with its resolution stated at the introduction of the work that all unnecessary details would be avoided. In the final analysis, Tafsīir al Jalālayn can be said to have satisfied the yearnings of the people of his period, considering the level of human civilization cum technological development of the time. Considering the submission of Sayyid Qutb in the Fīzilāl al Qur’ān, we discover that it is very comprehensive. A number of issues are put into consideration and discussed, starting with the controversial nature of the episode, the significance of certain words such as Abduhi “His Servant” the implication of the episode on the community as a whole and lessons to be derived from the incident. Perhaps, Sayyid Qutb enriched his Tafsīr with such pieces of information as a result of environmental influence, i.e. the period he lived; his Tafsīr therefore satisfied the need of the modern age to some extent. ! + 4 Going through the works, one is given to know that there are certain lessons which are to be deduced. The Muslim of this generation can benefit from the contents of both Tafsīr Jalālayn and Fī zilal al Qur’an. The fact that the two works were written at different period make the authors to interpret the issue of Isrā’ wal Macraj differently, basing their submission on their environment influence and exposure. Meanwhile here are some noted lessons to be derived from the two works: i. ii. iii. iv. v. The issue of Isrā’ wal Macraj was a miraculous act that requires absolute belief. Muslims of the 21st century have no excuse to doubt it because of the technological development which the current has attained. The issue of Isrā’ wal Mi raj has to do with spiritual attainment which implies that God can communicate with any of His creatures at anywhere and in whatever mode He likes. Furthermore one should learn from the works that spiritual attainment is a grace which Almighty God can bestow on any of His servants. The institution of ritual prayer Salat is very important to the extent that it was institutionalized during the Night spiritual journey. The Muslim preachers should emulate the stand of the Prophet and be ready to say the truth whatever might be the people’s reactions as done by the Prophet while narrating his experience about the Night spiritual journey. The Muslims should not link the spread of Islam or success of their preaching to performance of any miracle, because the Prophet did not consider his journey as a miracle or as a means of confirming his w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 63 March, 2013 vi. vii. viii. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). mission. Furthermore, he did not project the Night journey as a miracle that Islam depends on for its efficacious. The adoption of Abuduhu’ “His servant” for the Prophet is a another means of installing discipline of humility in the minds of individual Muslim as well as protecting the Muslim community from taking the personality of Muhammad (SAW) as semi god or ever above that, as some religious groups especially the Christians have done for Prophet Isa (Jesus) as a result of his miraculous birth and death. Taking off the journey from Makkah to Jerusalem and then to heaven is presented as a form of inter relation in the basic belief among different Prophets of Allah i.e. different religions. Added to that, it also linked together various sacred places of Divine religions, as it also combined all the Divine missions together. Finally, the significance of the Night journey is more than what human being can comprehend. The Isrā wal Mi’rāj is one of the concept that affects the belief of Muslims and it has generated a lot of controversy from its onset till the present age. Many Muslim scholars of Tafsīr have interpreted it in different forms. Special attention was given to two different works on Tafsīr. The works Tafsīr al Jalālayn by both authors al Mahalli and as Suyuti in one hand and Fīzīlā al Qur’ān by Sayyid Qutb. Each of the works gives its own understanding of the concept, and the study reveals the uniqueness of the two works. The environment they lived and period of their writing reflect in their submission. In the final analysis, we discover that the two works are educative, relevant and of great use. That notwithstanding, the academic interest of the scholars are reflected in the works, suggesting the need for joint authorship of Tafsīr by scholars of different specializations. By so doing, the Tafsīr will be abreast of time and relevant at all time as the Qur’an is meant for Abdul, M.O.A. (1977). The Holy Book of Islam. Lagos: Nigerian Islamic Publications Bureau. p. 111. Abdullah Yusuf Ali (1989). The holy Qur’an: text, translation and commentary. USA. Brentwood Maryland: Amana Corporation, p. 176 Abdullah Yusuf Ali (1989). The holy Qur’an: text, translation and commentary. USA. Brentwood Maryland: Amana Corporation p. 698 Abū Husayn Muslim bn Hajjāj bn Muslim al Qushayrī an Nasābūri, Sahīh Muslim in Sālih bn Abdul Aziz bn Muhammad bn Ibrahim al Ash Shaykh (2000) Mawsū at al Hadith ash Sharit, kutub as sittah. Saudi Arabia, Riyahd: Darus salam, 1421. pp. 705 6. Adeyemo, L.K. (2005) “Modern Tafsir Sayyid Qutb as a Trailblazer” in Al Ijtihād. 5 % . 9 % ! # Kano: Nigeria, The International Institution of Islamic Thought. (III T). Vol: 5 No:1 (January /Dhul Hijjah 1426) pp. 50 51. Dhahabi M. H. (1976) At Tafsir wal Mufassirūn. np, 1396. vol:1 pgs.333, 334 Agbetola S. A. (1981) “Sayyid Qutb on the Social Crime – Stealing. . 5 Vol. xx, No.2, p. 87. Ahmad Abd al Hamid Ghorab (1980). “Al Imam Hassan Al Banna’s contribution to Islamic Education”. Unpublished Seminar Paper (Dept. of Islamic Studies Bayero University, (Kano), 6th Feb., p.3 Ahmad V. D. (1983) cUlum al Qur’an. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation. 1403. p. 139 Ahmad V. D. (1983) cUlum al Qur’an. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation. 1403. p. 139 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 64 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Al Hafiz Zakinddin Abdul Azim al Mundhiri, (Com) The Translation of the Meanings of Summarized Sahih Muslim (Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, Darusalam Publishers & Distributors, nd) pp. 74 77. Cyril, G. (2005) The concise encyclopaedia of Islam. Revised Edition. London: EPP Book Services, pp. 344 5 Fathi Ad Dureini (1988), “The Miracle of the Night Journey was a Turning Point in the Direction of the Course of the Message” in Rissalat al Jihad. + ' * % 2 . ( , p. 36 Hamid, A.A.A. (1982). “Some Aspects of the Modern Trends in Tafsīr in Abubakar Mustapha (ed). “Dirasat Islamiyyah”. Kano: Department of Islamic Studies, Bayero University. p. 6. Maktabat al Jamhuriyah al ‘Arabiyyah (1337 A.H) Jalāl ad din al Mahalli and Jalāl ad din as Suyuti, Tafsir al Qur’’ān al Asīmi. Cairo. p.2. Maktabat al Jamhuriyah al ‘Arabiyyah (1337 A.H) Jalāl ad din al Mahalli and Jalāl ad din as Suyuti, Tafsir al Qur’’ān al Asīmi. Cairo. vol: I p. 234 Maktabat al Jamhuriyah al ‘Arabiyyah (1337 A.H) Jalāl ad din al Mahalli and Jalāl ad din as Suyuti, Tafsir al Qur’’ān al Asīmi. Cairo. vol: II p. 139 Maryam Jamellah (1978). Islam in Theory and Practice. Lahore, Pakistan: Mohammad Yusuf Khan & Sons. pp. 232 234 Muhammad Husain adh Dhahabi (1976) At Tafsir wal Mufassirūn. np, 1396. vol:1 p. 334 Sahabah (nd) Sayyid Qutb: The unique Qur’anic Generation”. Kaduna: Saru Media,) p.1 20. John J. Donohue and John L. Esposito (1982) (eds) Islam in Transistion, Muslim Perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press. 1982, P. 123. Salahi, M. A. and Shamis, A. A. (1979) In the Shade of the Qur’ān of Sayyid Qutb. London: M.W.H., London Publishers. vol: 30, p. Xi Sayyid Qutb (1982), Fīzilāl al Qur’an Cairo: Dar ash Shurūq, 1982/1402 Sayyid Qutb, Fizilāl al Qur’ān. Cairo: Dar Shorde. 1982/1402, Vol. IV, p. 2210. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 65 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 EVALUATION OF ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS ON SALES REVENUES OF THE FOOD BEVERAGES AND TOBACCO SECTOR IN NIGERIA: A STUDY OF NORTHERN NIGERIA FLOUR MILLS PLC. By ABDULLAHI, DAUDA Department of Business Administration and Management, Nasarawa State Polytechnic. P.M.B. 109, Lafia, Nasarawa State. e-mail: daudaabdullahi53@yahoo.com 08065395981 & OMADEFU, PIUS OSEDE Department of Business Administraation and Management, Nasarawa State Polytechinc, Lafia, Nasarawa State. & GONI, IBRAHIM Department of Public Administration, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 3# *> & & % *> & 9 ! % ! & %% & # # & # ! ! # & #* & & %% ! & & # $ # # $ # % & : B & % ! ! :! ! % . 8& 4 . %% % *& ! # % * ! . % * % %% w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m ## Page 66 / March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The role play by advertising in the sales growth of an organization cannot be treated with just a wave of hand. Advertising provides an ability ground for firms to create awareness about their products and services. According to Olusegun (2006), advertising must be honest and follow ethical standards and must not be perceived by the target consumers as lie; otherwise it can batter the image of the company and hinders it from building brand loyalty in the minds of the consumers. Advertising is the most and popular promotional mix element used by organizations to persuade, educate and inform current and potential consumers about the features of a product or service and how such products and services can meet consumers’ needs. Hardly can a business organization meet its objective of sales promotion without employing advertising as an instrument of attaining such a goal. Okejr (2008) observed that a good advertising message should not be boring but rather reflect the Life Cycle of the product. He further stated that adverting must be exposed in the right medium as this will aid the organizations to reach the right people with the right message. Like most manufacturing companies in Nigeria, the Northern Nigeria Flour Mills PLC depends heavily on adverting than any other promotional instrument to attain its target in terms of sales. Therefore, it is not surprising that the advertising budget of Northern Nigeria Flour Mills PLC over the years has not been in one position. Despite the supposed indispensible role of advertising in promoting sales, the veracity of such an intuition has not been empirically established over the years. As it the trend globally, companies in Nigeria also rely on sales promotion to get their existing and potential customers in formed about their products and services. Among all the instruments of sales promotion in Nigeria, advertising has grown over the years to become the most prominent and easily understandable to companies and the general public (Haruna, 2005). Studies made by Akanbriand & Adeyeye (2011) have observed that in Nigeria, advertising is more prominent among manufacturing companies, especially those in the food, beverages and tobacco sector as awareness regarding their products can reach the consumers more rapidly through advertising media. The study asks the following important question: To what extent do advertising affect the sales of Northern Nigeria Flour Mills PLC? Consequently, the objective of this study is to evaluate the effect of advertising on sales of Northern Nigeria Flour Mills PLC. &() Advertising has no significance effect on the sales growth of Northern Nigeria Flour Mills Plc. The study is embarked upon at the right time because its findings will explain the perceived relationship between injecting more funds into product advertising and the growth in organizational sales. Similarly, the finding of the managers of manufacturing companies in Nigeria, especially those in the food, beverages and tobacco sector cannot be quantified in that it will provide evidence with respect to the justification of managers increased resource commitment to advertising in Nigeria over the years. Finally, the outcome of the study may also be of immense utility to shareholders whose primary goal is to maximize their wealth. The findings of the study will aid shareholders in their bid to monitor managers and ensure the maximization of shareholders’ wealth is incurred by managers on behalf of the shareholders. ! $ + The meaning of advertising cannot be definite as it means different things to different people depending on their perceptions of what it is. Wright (2000) optioned that advertising is a short term incentive to the trader or consumer to induce the purchase of a product. Hollowy and Hand cock (2002) viewed advertising as marketing activities other than personal selling, publicity and public w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 67 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). relations that stimulate consumer purchasing and dealers’ effectiveness, such as displays, shows and exhibitions, demonstrations and various non recurrent selling efforts not in the ordinary routine. (#? 3 In the past many people thought that advertising could be carried out without any aims and objectives. Studies have shown this to be a wrong notion. For advertising to be regarded as having aims and objectives, it needs to possess some of the followings: Tellis (2000) opined that advertising is to encourage purchases by temporarily improving the value of a brand. The main objective of advertising is to translate favorable attitudes into actual purchase, improve attitude towards a brand and nurture brand loyalty at all times. Donald (2000) stated that regardless of the exact technique employed, advertising should attempt to accomplish four fundamental tasks: i. Advertising objectives should relate to overall marketing and should be clearly measurable. This requires that the promotional strategies should adequately define what the promotion wishes to accomplish; ii. Advertising technique should be used to supplement sales and advertising efforts; iii. Advertising like other promotional forms should attract attention among those people they are intended to influence; and iv. Advertising should generally persuade the target audience to place an order i.e. to really close the sale and perhaps assume it has been done. There must be a readily recognizable link between the promotion and desirability of buying the particular product. According to Adeleye (1998), advertising has three objectives: i. ii. iii. 0 ) some firms, especially those involved in direct response can define and measure their advertising objectives in terms of unit or Naira sales or specific sales. Leads and Shultz (1990) contended that setting sales as the advertising objectives is the most acceptable way of measuring advertising impact. > ) When advertising objectives cannot be defined directly in terms of final sales, some types of behavioral activity by consumers may be used as a measure of the impact of the advertising campaign. For example, some advertisers try to get their target audience to take a specific action short action short of making a purchase such as requesting for more information, or visiting a retail outlet. ) Firms do set and measure their advertising objectives in terms of either awareness, knowledge, preferable, or some other mental effect on the consumer. The observation made by Adeleye(1998) shared the same opinion with Kotler(2000) in which he postulated the most advertisers try to measure the communication effects of an advertisement i.e its potential effects on awareness, knowledge or preference apart from sales effect. Customer awareness and enhanced product patronage for the advertising firm. This is the dimension upon which the study rests as it is aimed at ascertaining the veracity of this theoretical expectation. 3 It is undoubtedly true that many products and services would remain unsold were it not for advertising campaign. Only major firms can afford to produce advertising campaign because of their high cost and such firms compete fiercely, utilizing expensive media. Thomas (1991), opined that one of the functions of advertising is to create differentiation among brands that are otherwise difficult to distinguish. Schmalensee (1976), argued that established firms achieve a significant market advantage. This occurs because their advertising effectiveness and product appeal have been enhanced by consumer experience with the product as well as the simple aggregate volume of competing advertising messages. Thus, established firms can impose higher advertising costs on new entrants by increasing w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 68 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). their own advertising barrier to entry, more market power and higher profits. This can be said to be true of the Nigerian Bottling Company Plc because of consumer experience with their product appeal to the minds of their customers. This is an undisputable fact because major firms such as NBC and Seven Up Companies within the Food and Beverages sector had eliminated other competitors from the market through advertising intensity and the commitment of huge advertising financial resources to advertising programmes. Adewale (2004) postulated that advertising performs the following functions: it informs the public or potential buyers about the existence of a product or services and where it can be obtained; it educates the consumers about the use of the products; it encourages the company to improve its product qualities or services qualities if it is to bring new goods and services to the attention of the attention of the buying public and to build good will between producers and customers. Bisi (1992) stated that advertising is used to clarify the negative opinions people have about a product which may be as a result of what they have heard other people say about the product. The writers on the functions in advertising shared similar opinions especially that advertising is used to influence consumer behaviour by persuading them to buy. 3 The main advertising approaches according to Kotler (2000) are: i. ) advertising tries to convince consumers that a product or service is really worth buying and is better than other similar product. ii. ) Advertising simply offers consumers information about products and/or service. Many firms, or even an entire industry, may get together to produce co operative advertising. For example, and advertisement for Dewar’s Scotch whisky, produced by the importing agent, advertises all the outlets, where the Whisky may be purchased. iii. ) Advertising is where one firm tries to outdo others competing for buyers using the most expensive medium i.e television and showing its ads as often as it can afford. iv. ) Advertising, a firm produces small promotional articles which are given away freely to potential customers. These might include pens, pencils, dairies, key rings and a vast of array of stickers. v. ) Advertising a firm has no choice but to advertise even if it had no intention of doing so. This can be regarded as ‘forced advertising’ brought upon the firm by competitors who wish to prevent it from getting a hold on the market. This is costly as firms must act fast and advertise in order to wade off such attacks (Abiraji, 1998). ' 3 5 Advertising is designed to create awareness, stimulate loyalty to the company, or create a favorable attitude towards a product. Even though advertising may not directly precipitate a purchase decision, advertising programs must be held accountable. Thus, the business advertiser must be able to measure the result of current advertising in order to improve future advertising and must be able to evaluate the effectiveness of advertising expenditures against expenditures on other elements of marketing strategy (Akanbi & Adeyeye, 2011). According to Martin et al. (1988), measuring effectiveness means assessing advertising’s impact on what “intervenes” between the stimulus (advertising) and the resulting behaviour (Purchase decision). The theory is that advertising can affect awareness, knowledge and other dimensions that more readily lend themselves to as James and David (1982) observed, companies are generally interested in finding out whether they are over spending or under spending on advertising. Researchers try to measure the sales impacts through analyzing either historical or experimental data. John and Judy (1996), observed that a growing number of researchers are striving to measure the sales effect of advertising expenditure instead of settling on communication effect measure. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 69 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Millward Brown International has conducted tracking studies in the United Kingdom for many years to provide information to help advertisers decide whether their advertising is benefiting their brand (Nigel, 1994). In summary, advertising effectiveness can be measured through a number of parameters, depending on the nature of the product and the advertising medium employed. Most studies measure the effectiveness of advertising by concentrating on its communication effect (its effect on knowledge or preference) while others measure such effectiveness from the viewpoint of sales revenue in relation to the expenditure on advertising campaigns. 3 > According to Olusegun (2006), the issue of the appropriate amount of financial resources to be committed to advertising has been a subject of debate in the market arena. He further argued that companies are in a quagmire in that if they spend too little on advertising, the effect will be a negligible and if they spend too much, the sum of the money could have been put to better use. Some critics opined that large consumer package goods firms tend to over spend on advertising as a form of insurance against not spending enough, and industrial companies underestimate the power of company and product image building and tend to under spend on advertising (David & James, 1982). According, to Donald et al (1984), there are five factors to consider when setting the advertising budget. i. ii. iii. iv. v. ) New product typically receive large advertising budgets to build awareness and to gain consumer trials. Established brand usually are supported with lower advertising budget a ratio to sales. ' # ) High market share brands usually require less advertising expenditure as a percentage of sales to maintain their share. To build share by increasing market size require larger advertising expenditure. On a cost per impression basis, it is less expensive to reach consumers of a widely used brand than to reach consumers of low share brands. ) In a market with a large number of competitors and high advert spending, a brand must advertise more heavily to be heard. Even simple clutter from advertisements not directly competitive to the brand creates a need for heavier advertising. 3 @ ) The number of repetition needed to put across the brand’s message to consumers has an important impact on the advertising budget. # ) Brands in a commodity class (Cigarettes, beer, soft drink) require heavy advertising to establish differentiating image. Advertising is also important when a brand can offer unique physical benefit or features. Marketing scientists have built a number of advertising expenditure models which usually call for a larger advertising budget. Most of the models show that the higher the sales response rate, the higher the sales decay rate ( the rate at which customers forget the advertising and brand) and the higher the untapped sales potential. Unfortunately, this model leaves out other important factors such as the rate of competitive and the effectiveness of the company’s ads. Advertisement embarked upon by companies are functions of the nature and the conditions of the products for instance, products at the declining stage, introduction of new products etc and these call for huge budge structure by the company. According to Kofter (2000), advertising is any non personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsor. Advertising includes not only business firms, but also museums, charitable organizations and government agencies that direct messages to target public. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 70 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Advertising can also be defined as any paid non personal communication about an organization, products, services or ideas by an identified sponsor (Bennet, 2006). Engel (2000) stated that advertising informs customers about a product and sells the product. Many companies have their individual objectives for using advertisement. The main objective is to inform and sells the products or services. Thus, according to him, the main objective of advertising includes to present products and ideas create awareness, alert and sensitize all members of the marketing channel; and reduce customer dissonance. Frank (2005) stated that advertising is aimed at persuading people statues (Kazumi, 2005) . Modern commercial advertising is the persuasive force that aims at changing customers’ behaviour. This is important because consumer wants and needs change as their economic positions improve and as they pass through different stages. i. ii. iii. iv. v. Objectives of Advertising (from these extracted) Functions of Advertising ( from these extracted) Types of Advertising ( from these extracted) measuring advertising effectiveness (from these extracted) Deciding advertising budget (from these extracted). ' This study utilized correlation at research design as an approach for the study. The choice of this study design is significant because the study attempted to establish relationship among variables. Thus, since the study intended to establish the effect of advertising on the sales of Northern Nigeria Flour Mills Plc., the best suitable design for the research work is the correlation design. The population of this study is made up of the fifteen companies listed under the food, Beverages and Tobacco sector of the Nigerian stock Exchange as at 31st December, 2009. The Northern Flour Mills Plc. was purposely chosen as a sample by this study because of the unique attention it gave to advertising. The study used mainly the secondary data. The data was purely gotten from the annual report and account of the Northern Nigeria Flour Mills PLC ranging from 1999 to 2008. The study covered a period of ten years. The choice of the period for the study was necessitated by the adequate attention given by the company on advertising of its products. 3 This study intended to employ the utilization of ordinary least square (OLS). The adoption of this statistical technique arose because of the involvement of more than one independent variables i.e. advertising costs and total assets as control variable. Therefore, multiple regression analysis was used for the analysis of the results for this study. ' The model of this study is based on the simple linear relationship. The assumption is that advertising should have some kind of effect on sales. This relationship can be modeled as shown below: = + + 01 Where is the total sales for the company, and are intercept and coefficients to be estimated; is the advertising costs of the company and is the random disturbance term. The influence of the total assets of the company cannot in generating sales cannot be totally ignored. As a result, total assets will be treated as a control variable as depicted below: = + + + + 02 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 71 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Where , , , and are as defined above is the coefficient of the control variable and total assets of the company. Therefore, hypothesis of this study would be tested using equation (2). is the $ Bellow is the discussion of the results of the analyses. # *) = 3522355. 4226902. 5500508. 378695.0 1814972. 0.481263 1.768329 (3 1425180. 1426571. 2358347. 703491.0 603710.0 0.058234 1.579461 $( 76876.90 62953.50 149640.0 104406.0 76894.60 1.211836 4.132714 3 5470.200 3799.500 15765.00 242.0000 4935.099 0.962087 2.899205 C @ 8> # # 1.018111 0.601063 0.846456 0.654929 2.982178 0.225127 1.546920 0.461414 35223554 2.96E+13 14251795 3.28E+12 768769.0 5.32E+10 54702.00 2.19E+08 10 10 10 10 ' ' ' A ' + @ (# ) Computed using Eviews v7 The table above shows the descriptive statistics of the variables used in this study. The mean value of total sale is 352235, total assets is 1425180 that of profit is 76879.90 while that of advertising cost is 5470.20. The maximum value of total turnover is 5500508 which happened to be in the year 2008 while its minimum value is 378695 which happened to be in 2004 when the company recorded low sale. The company recorded its highest value of asset in 2008 with the value of 2358347. The maximum value of profit and advert cost are N1, 496,4000 that of advert cost is 1,5765,000. The deviations from the mean of the various variables are 1814972, 603710, 76894.6 and 4935.009. Total sales and profitability exhibits a negative skewness of 0.48 and 1.211 respectively, i.e. they have left long tail. On the other hand total asset and advert cost shows a skweness of 0.058 and 0.962 meaning they have right long tail. The value of Kurtosis for all the variable implies that they are all has flatness. Dependent Variable: TS Method: Least Squares Date: 05/08/13 Time: 17:00 Sample: 1999 2008 Included observations: 10 Variable C AC TOA PRO Coefficient Std. Error t Statistic Prob. 961630.1 149.7481 1.174145 0.887206 1518591. 145.1342 1.173148 6.818918 0.633238 1.031791 1.000850 0.130110 0.5499 0.3420 0.3555 0.9007 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 72 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). R squared Adjusted R squared S.E. of regression Sum squared resid Log likelihood F statistic Prob(F statistic) 0.527980 0.291970 1527200. 1.40E+13 154.0247 2.237106 0.184460 Mean dependent var S.D. dependent var Akaike info criterion Schwarz criterion Hannan Quinn criter. Durbin Watson stat 3522355. 1814972. 31.60494 31.72598 31.47217 2.598994 The result of the ordinary least square is shown in the table above. The test for the presence of stationality was not done because the sample period is ten years thus presence of unit root will not affect the robustness of the result. The R squared which measures the extent of the relationship that exist between total sales, advert cost, profitability and total value of asset is 52%. It implies that the remaining 48% is explained by other variables not included in this work. From the table it can be seen that a unit increase in the value of advert will increase sales by 149.74, a unit increase in total asset will also increase total sale by 1.17 while a unit increase in profitability increases total sales by 0.18. However, the result above is not statistically significant as shown by low F statistic of 2.237 and the value of probability which is 0.18 i.e. 18%. Since 18% is higher than 5% test value the model is not fit, thus there is no significant relationship. The value of Durbin Watson and Breusch Godfrey test of serial correlation test indicated the presence of serial correlations. The finding in this work is contrary to that of Akanbi and Adeyeye which was published in 2011. This study examined the relationship between sales and advertisement of Northern Nigeria Flour Mills. The study found that there is no significance relationship between advertising and sales of the company. Also, the amount being allocated to advert will not be sufficient in increasing its sales growth. Therefore, it is concluded that the amount of money spent on advertisement has not significantly enhances the sales of the company. This finding implies that management of the company has been ineffective in increasing the sales growth of the company. This is possibly as a result of using a wrong medium to advertise the products of the company since the priority expectation is that increase in advert should increase sale of the company. $ In view of the above, the advertising policies of the company has failed therefore it is recommended there is a need for the management to overhaul its advertisement policy. Management should use a combination of different approaches like internet advert, newspapers, radio and promotions to enhance its sales. The management of the company also needs to increase the amount of fund being allocated to advert and make sure it is properly utilized. $ Adeleye, A.S. (1998) - / ! # # # . Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited Adewale, O. (2004) * # #. Abeokuta: Kappco Nigeria Limited Akanbi, P.A. & Aseyeye (2011) The association between advertising and sales volume: A case Study of Nigerian Bottling Company PLC. 5 %7 ! ! 7 - ! 57 7- C C 8 C Bennet. (2006). ' - ! . A strategic Approach Yankee Clipper Books, Windsor, CT, USA. Bisi, A. (1992). Advertisement; How needful? A A 5& & ! ## 8 ? w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 73 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). David, A.A & James, M.C. (1982). Are you over advertising? 5 % & ! 3 + ! @ # * $ #! 8 Donald, P.M. (2000). # % %% & & !. A comprehensive and practical guide. London Kuluwer Harrap Handbooks. Engel, A.F. (2000). ' ! . Hamewood: McGraw Hill. Frank, J.K. (2005). + & !. Pearson Educational Limited, UK. Haruna, M. (2005). Assessment of the effectiveness of advertising as an element of promotional tools in marketing. (A study of united Nigeria Textile Ltd). ' * A + -A+ $ + A 6 & $N $:! Holloway, J.R and Handcock. (2000). - / ! ! ! & . London. John Wiley and sons. John, W.K and Judy, B.(1996). An expert approach to sales promotion management. 5 % & ! 5 @5 Kazimi,S.H.(2012). + & ! # . Excel books, UK. Kotler, p.(2001). - / ! - ! The Mellinium Edition, India: Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, printice Hall, New Delhi 1100064. Leads and Shultz, D.E.(1990). - / ! ' * 3 . John willy New York. Martin, S.R. etal (1988). Evaluating the effects of Advertising and Sales promotion campaigns, . - / !- ! ,# Nigel, H. (1994). The link between TV and awareness and sales. New evidence from sales responses modeling. 5 % - / 3 5 Okeji, M.I.F.(2008). Is effective advertising an effective marketing tool in Nigeria? Evidence from food and beverages industry. 5 %+ $: & $ %% $ M $: 5 C Olusegun, O.A. (2006) Branding and Advertising. 5 %# * 3 - / !M $ C$ #! Schmalensee. (1976) Cited in Carl, E.F & David C.C Advertising and profitability: A simultaneous Equation model. 2 / ! # # $)# %7 $4 <! ( ! % ( A + $6 & %+ * Tellis, G.J. (1989) Advertising Exposure , Loyalty and brand choice. Journal of Marketing Research Thomas, L.H. (1991). / H ! # * . New York: John Willey. Wright, J.S (2000) + & ! MC Graw Hill Publishing Ltd. New York. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 74 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 INFLUENCE OF PARENTING STYLES ON CHILDREN’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT By DR. (MRS) IJEOMA M. OPARA Department of Educational Psychology Guidance and Counseling University of Port Harcourt ijeomaopara64@yahoo.com (08035475322) & DR. BRUNO U. D. ONYEKURU Department of Educational Psychology Guidance and Counseling University of Port Harcourt dombruno1@yahoo.com (08033558050) Abstract The study investigated the influence of parenting styles on children’s cognitive development. A research question and three null hypotheses tested at 0.05 Alpha level guided the conduct of the study. The study adopted an ex-post facto design. The sample for the study comprised a total of 1,200 primary six children aged between 10 and 12 years which was drawn through stratified and purposive sampling techniques. The instruments for data collection were Parenting Styles Questionnaire (PSQ) and General Ability Test (GAT). PSQ and GAT were developed by the researchers. The two instruments were validated by experts in Educational Psychology and Measurement and Evaluation. The reliability of PSQ was established using Cronbach Alpha technique with reliability coefficient of 0.76 for authoritarian items, 0.85 for authoritative items, 0.72 for permissive items and 0.68 for uninvolved items while GAT has reliability coefficient of 0.89 which was determined using Kuder Richardson Formulae 20 (KR20) Data analysis was done using mean, standard deviation, two-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and scheffe test. The results of the study implied that parenting styles influence children’s cognitive development. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations were made including that parents should endeavour to use authoritative parenting style for their children’s upbringing. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 75 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The family has been recognized as the first agent of socialization where young children acquire the beliefs, motives, values and behaviours of the society (Shaffer, 2005). It is also in the family that children acquire the knowledge, skills motives and aspirations that should enable them to adapt to their environment and function effectively within their communities. A child’s developmental process is influenced by a mixture of all the stimuli he comes into contact with, such as people and situations. Since parents are normally a fixed presence in a child’s life, they tend to have the most significant impact on whether his development is positive or negative. Development in its most general psychological sense refers to certain changes that occur in human beings or animals between conception and death (Woolfolk, 2001). The changes can be in form of physical, moral, social, emotional cognitive and so on. The basis of this study is on cognitive development. Cognitive development refers to how a person perceives, thinks and gains understanding of his or her world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors. Among the areas of cognitive development are information processing, intelligence, reasoning, language development and memory (Wells, 2003). Shaffer (2005) refers to cognitive development as age related changes that occur in mental activities such as attending, perceiving, learning, thinking and remembering. Much of the theories involving cognitive development are attributed to Jean Praget. Praget theorized on how children use their minds for learning and acquiring new skills. How one responds to and discipline his/her children greatly affects how they develop both cognitively and socially. One of the major functions of the family is to give support and protection to the members of the family, in their period of dependency including school life. These care and support are known as parenting which can take different dimensions in different families (Ordu, 2009). According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (n.d) parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional social and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship (Davies, 2000). Parenting styles are only a small piece of what it takes to be a “good parent”. Parenting takes a lot of skill and patience and is constant work and growth. Nowadays parenting is not done by only biological parents but including governments and society who take care of the orphans, abandoned children and adopted ones (Bernstein, 2008). Parents are expected to make decisions about their child’s education. Parenting styles in this area diverge greatly at this stage with some parents becoming heavily involves in arranging organized activities and early learning programs. Other parents choose to let the child develop with few organized activities. It is essential to understand parenting styles as well as how these styles contribute to the behaviour and development of children including the cognitive development. Hence, Ordu (2009) defines parenting styles as the distinctive pattern adopted by a family or parents in terms of children up bringing in a family. Such styles include authoritarian, authoritative, permissive and uninvolved which has great influence in the overall development of a child. Each style, according to Baumrind in Eriega (2006) tends to have a different effect on children’s behaviour. Berger (2008) opines that parenting styles influences childrens daily lives and can modify the fundamental character of their lifelong perspective. With the wide variety of parental beliefs regarding how children learn thrive and behave, there are an equal number of theories on parenting styles and interaction (Berger 2008). Baumrind in Berger (2008) identifies a variety of parental characteristics including the level of parental affection and warmth, differences in discipline strategies and parental interaction. Authoritarian parenting has high behavioural standards, strict and sometimes physical punishment and uses less communication than other styles of parenting (Berger, 2008). In this style of parenting, children are expected to follow the strict rules established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment. These parents have high demands, but are not responsive to w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 76 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). their children. Baumrind (1991) opined that these parents are obedience and status oriented and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation. Authoritative parenting is also known as balanced or democratic parenting. These parents practice both high control and high responsiveness. This parenting relies on positive reinforcement and infrequent use of punishment. Parents are more aware of a child’s feelings and capabilities and support the development of a child’s autonomy within reasonable limits. Authoritative parents generally have children who are confident and happy because they understand the boundaries in their lives and know that they are loved for who they are. They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible and self regulated as well as cooperative (Baumrind, 1991). Permissive or indulgent parenting is most popular in middle class families. People who practice permissive or indulgent parenting have low control and high responsiveness. Shaffer (2005) defined it as a pattern of parenting in which otherwise accepting, adults make few demands of their children and rarely attempt to control their behaviour. They are nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behaviour, allow considerable self regulation and avoid confrontation (Baumrind, 1991). Uninvolved or neglectful parenting style is characterized by few demands, low levels of responsiveness and little communication. These are parents who do not set rules or limits with their children and are also not involved in their child’s lives. In extreme cases, this parenting style might encompass both rejecting neglecting and neglectful parents, although most parents of this type fall within the normal range. Uninvolved parents do not participate with their children or take their needs into consideration. Children of uninvolved parents tend to be impulsive and anti social since they do not know how to get their needs met. Researchers have conducted numerous studies which led to a number of conclusions about the impact of parenting styles on children. That authoritarian parenting style generally leads to children who are obedient and proficient, but they rank lower in happiness, social competence and self esteem. Authoritative parenting style tends to result in children who are happy, capable and successful (Maccoby, 1992). Permissive parenting style often results in children who rank low in happiness and self regulation. These children are most likely to experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school. Uninvolved parenting style rank lowest across all life domains. These children tend to lack self control, have low self esteem and are less competent than their peers. A great deal of literature published before 1990s examined the effects of parenting styles on children’s outcomes particularly establishing the benefits to children of authoritative parenting as opposed to the negative outcomes produced by authoritarian and permissive parenting (Demo & Cox, 2000). Most of the existing studies that examine the relationship between parenting styles and children’s cognitive development are comprised of families with adolescents (Aunola, Stattin & Nurmi 2000; Dornbusch, Ritter, Liederman & Roberts, 1987; Leung & Kwan, 1998; Leung, Lau & Lam, 1998) or college students (Hickman, Bartholomae & Mc Kenry, 2000; Kawamura, Frost & Harmatz, 2002). There is a need, then to study families with younger children so that parents better understand their childrens development in light of their own parenting practices and fully realize the implications of these practices on their children current and future academic success. Based on these, there is need to investigate if different parenting styles influence children’s cognitive development. This study excluded uninvolved parenting style because the children were not identified with the parenting style. The purpose of this study is to find out the extent parenting styles influence children’s cognitive development. The following research question guided the conduct of this study. 1) To what extent do parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative and permissive) influence male and female children’s cognitive development? The following null hypotheses tested at 0.05 alpha level guided the study. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 77 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 1) Parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative and permissive) do not significantly influence children’s cognitive development. 2) There is no significant difference in the cognitive development of male and female children. 3) There is no significant interaction effect of parenting styles and gender on children’s cognitive development. ' The study adopted an ex post facto design. The population of the study comprised all public primary six pupils in Obio Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State. A sample of 1,200 primary six pupils who are between 10 and 12 years was drawn from the population of 3,710 primary six pupils (source: Obio/Akpor Local Government Council) using stratified and purposive sampling techniques. Two instruments named Parenting Styles Questionnaire (PSQ) and General Ability Test (GAT) were used in collecting data for the study. PSQ and GAT were developed by the researchers. PSQ has 20 items and was in a four point Likert scale of Strongly agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD) as a response options GAT has 30 items in multiple choice of 5 options. Face and content validity of the two instruments were established by experts in Educational Psychology, measurement and evaluation. The reliability of PSQ was established using Cronbach Alpha technique with reliability coefficients of 0.76 for authoritarian items, 0.85 for authoritative items, 0.72 for permissive items and 0.68 for uninvolved items while GAT has reliability coefficient of 0.89 which was determined using Kuder Richardson Formula 20 (KR 20) which provides an estimate of what is called internal consistency. The researchers administered the instruments personally and filled copies were collected on the spot. Data analysis was done using mean, standard deviation, two way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and scheffe test. Mean and standard deviations were used to answer the research question while two way ANOVA and scheffe test were used to analyse the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. $ The results of the data analysis were presented in the tables below. Data analysis was done in relation to the research question and null hypotheses. # *) Mean and standard deviation of the influence of parenting styles on male and female children’s cognitive development. Parenting styles Authoritarian Authoritative Permissive Gender N x SD N x SD N x SD Male 141 58.91 10.11 156 60.61 7.27 130 53.27 9.20 Female 275 61.03 8.54 306 61.09 7.75 192 60.17 8.18 Total 416 59.66 9.81 462 60.93 7.59 322 58.40 8.69 As shown in table 1, the total mean scores of influence of parenting styles on male and female children’s cognitive development for the authoritarian authoritative and permissive are 59.66, 60.93 and 58.40 respectively. The mean score for the male and female children from authoritarian parents are 58.91 and 61.03 respectively. For the authoritative parenting, the mean score of male and female children on cognitive development are 60.61 and 61.09 respectively while for the permissive parenting, the mean score of male and female children on cognitive development are 53.27 and 60.17 respectively. From the above, it could be deduced that authoritative parenting style had the greatest influence, next the authoritarian and lastly the permissive. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 78 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Also in all the parenting styles the females are slightly favoured more than the males. # ,) Summary of 2 way ANOVA on the influence of parenting styles on male and female children’s cognitive development. Sources of variation Parenting Sum of df squares styles Means of F-cal F-critical Result square 2727.655 2 1363.828 19.54 2.99 S Sex (Row) 2714.168 1 2714.168 38.88 3.84 S Interaction 2994.010 2 1497.005 21.44 2.99 S Within cells 83351.422 1194 69.809 Total 90517.812 1199 (PS) (column) (PS X Sex) * Alpha level 0.05 Table 2 revealed that the F calculated for the parenting styles (PS) (column), Sex, (Row) and interaction of parenting styles (PS) and sex are 19.54, 38.88 and 21.44 respectively. They are greater than their corresponding critical F values of 2.99, 3.84 and 2.99 at 0.05 level of significance with degrees of freedom of 2 and 1194, 1 and 1194 and 2 and 1194 respectively. Therefore, null hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 were all rejected and the alternate accepted. This indicated that the influence of parenting styles on the cognitive development of male and female children was significant. The result also revealed that the interaction effect of parenting styles and sex (gender) on cognitive development of children was also significant. # -) Determination of direction of mean differences using Scheffe’s test Parenting styles N x Paired x F-cal Authoritarian 416 59.66( x 1) x 1v x 2 2.52 Authoritative 462 60.93( x 2) x 2v x 3 8.70 Permissive 322 58.40( x 3) x 1V x 3 2.07 F-critical Result group NS 2.99 S NS Table 3 revealed that the calculated F values for compared group means 1 and 2 (ie authoritarian and authoritative), compared group means 2 and 3 (ie authoritative and permissive) and compared group means 1 and 3 (ie authoritarian and permissive) are 2.52, 8.70 and 2.07 respectively. The compared group means of 1 and 2 and compared group means of 1 and 3 were not significant because they were all less than the critical F values of 2.99. But the compared group means of 2 and 3 was significant because it was greater than the critical F values of 2.99. Therefore, the result indicated that the direction of difference came from authoritative and permissive parenting styles. Findings from this study revealed that there was a significant influence of parenting styles on children’s cognitive development. In this case, authoritative parenting style had the greatest influence which is the best followed by the authoritarian and lastly the permissive. This study is in line with the study of Spera (2005) who investigated the relationship among parenting practice, parenting styles and adolescents’ school achievement. He found out that each of the parenting styles had influence on the students’ w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 79 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). academic achievement. The difference in the two studies was Spera used adolescents while the present researchers used children of primary level. The result also revealed that the influence of parenting styles on the cognitive development of male and female children was significant. The mean scores of the female children of the three parenting styles were greater than the mean scores of the male children based on their cognitive development. This implies that female children were more favoured in the three parenting styles. The result also revealed that the interaction effect of parenting styles and sex (gender) on cognitive development of children was also significant. This means that the combined efforts of these variables, parenting styles and sex play a significant influence on the cognitive development of children. With a Post Hoc comparism test conducted with Scheffe test, there was no significant mean difference between authoritarian parenting style and authoritative parenting style and between authoritarian parenting style and permissive parenting style, while there was a significant mean difference between authoritative parenting style and permissive parenting style. This implies that authoritarian and permissive parenting styles are not good rearing pattern for the improvement of childrens’ cognitive development. In support of this, Ordu (2006) opined that children of authoritarian parents always suffer low academic achievement because of lack of emotional control and concentration towards their studies; while those of permissive parenting have luke warm attitude towards their school as a result of their much pampering by their parents and this according to him, affects their achievement in the school. 0 From the results of this study, the following implications were highlighted. The result of a significant influence of parenting styles on childrens’ cognitive development implies that parenting should rely on positive reinforcement and infrequent use of punishment which will aid children to be self confidence and assertive in their learning environment. Finally, the result of a significant difference between male and female cognitive development implies that in rearing children their sex (gender) should be considered to know the type of parenting/rearing style that will favour them. $ The following recommendations are made based on the results of the study. • Parents should endevour to use authoritative parenting style for their childrens’ upbringing. • Parents should avoid using authoritarian and permissive rearing styles for it will affect their children negatively. • Parents should vary their parenting styles based on sex/gender of their children. From the results of the study, the following conclusions were drawn. • Parenting styles influence childrens’ cognitive development. • The sex/gender of the children also influences their cognitive development. $ Aunola, K., Stattin, H., & Nurmi, J. E. (2000). Parenting Styles and adolescents’ achievement strategies. 5 %+ $ C $ C 8CCC Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting styles on adolescents’ competence and substance use. 5 %7 + $ ?8 Berger, K. B. (2008). & # !# ! % # (7th ed.). New York: Worth publishers. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 80 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Bernstein, R. (2008). “Majority of children live with two biological parents” retrieved from http://www.census.gov/children on 14th April 2012. Davies, M. (2000). The Blackwell encyclopedia of social work. ISBN 978 0 631 21451. 3 & % #,@@* / ! @# ! +# C C Demo, D. H. & M. J. (2000). Families with young children: A review of research in the 1990s. 5 % ! % ?C$ ?8 Dornbusch, S. M., Ritter, P. L.; Leiderman, P. H., & Roberts, D. F. (1987). The relation of parenting style to adolescence school performance. ( )& # $ C 8 C Eriega, E. G. (2006). 6 ! & # # ! . Port Harcourt: Abe Publishers Ltd. Hickman, G. P., Batholomae, S., & Mc Kenry, P. C. (2000). Influence of parenting style on the adjustment and academic achievement of traditional college freshmen. 5 % ( ! )& # $ $ 8 Kawamura, K. U., Frost, R. O., & Harmatz, M. G. (2002). The relationship of perceived parenting styles to perfectionism. ' . & ) %% C C$ 8 C Leung K., Lau, S., Lam, W. L. (1998). Parenting styles and academic achievement: A cross cultural study. 8' L $ $ 8 C. Leung, P. W. L., & Kwan, K. S. F. (1998). Parenting styles, motivational orientations and self perceived academic competence: A mediational model. 8' L $ $ 8 Maccoby, E. E. (1992). The role of parents in socialization of children: An historical overview. )& # ' ! $C $ ?8 Ordu, S. N. (2009). ' ! %; ! & # . Port Harcourt. Emhai Publishing Co. Shaffer, D. R. (2005). # & # . U.S.A: Wadsworth. Wells, K. R. (2003). Piagets theory of cognitive development. 3 & % #,@@ * 99 @ & @ ! & & # +# C C Woolfolk, A. (2001). 7 ' ! U.S.A: Allyn and Bacon. 8th edition. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 81 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 TEACHERS’ ADHERENCE TO THE PRINCIPLES OF TEST ADMINISTRATION IN BAYELSA STATE By DR (MRS.) OFFOR IBEBIETEI TEMPLE Department of Educational Foundations Faculty of Education Niger Delta University Bayelsa State ibebeteitempleoffor@yahoo.com GSM: 08037504090 3# This paper investigated teachers' adherence to the principles of test administration in secondary schools in Bayelsa State. The reliability coefficient of 0.69 was obtained using Person Product Moment Technique. Multi-stage sampling design of the study was analytic descriptive design. The instrument for the study was a 15-item questionnaire, titled Principles of test Administration (POTA) development by the researcher; a technique was used to sample 1,000 teachers who responded to the questionnaire. Data analysis was done using mean, standard deviation and t- test. The findings show no significant influence of gender on teachers' adherence to the principles of test administration with t-calculated value of (1.75) while there was a significant influence of teaching experience and teachers' qualification on teachers' adherence to the principles of test administration with t-calculated values of 48.1 and 46.7 respectively. Among others recommendation was made that teaching should be professionalized and more experience teachers should assist less experience teachers in administrating test. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 82 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The same care that went into the preparation of the test, in terms of construction to match the purpose, course objectives and course content, as well as selection and assembling of the test items, should be carried over into test administration. Test administration refers to the processes and conditions encountered before, during and after given test or examinations to students (Onunkwo, 2005). There is need that test be administered in environments which are devoid of both internal and external disturbances. This makes marks/scores generated through the exercise to be meaningful, valid and reliable. Tests or examinations that is carelessly administered is bound to yield scores that are misleading and do not depict the candidates real ability. In view of this, test administration is an issue to be taken seriously in our educational system. Testing provides information about the examinees ability and performances. It also enables meaningful observations and comparisons to be made of the kind of behaviour learners acquire during the teaching learning process (child, 1997; Farrand 2000). Teachers are solely responsible for administering test in our secondary schools. It is therefore necessary for them to adhere to the principles of test administration. Across the world a number of scholars have documented literature regarding the principles of test administration in schools. Gronlund and Linn (1990) maintained that test administration becomes simply if the following test administration procedures are followed. • The pupils are motivated to do their best. • Test administration directions are followed closely. • Time is accurately kept. • Any significant events that might influence test scores are recorded and. • Testing materials are collected promptly. The paramount guiding principle in administering any classroom test is that the examinees should be given a fair chance to demonstrate their achievement of the learning outcome intended. Examinees perform their best in a physically and psychologically conducive environment. The factors that might interfere with the validity of the measurement must be controlled. Good test administration practices rest in the hands of the examiners, who should ensure the testing exercise runs smoothly. The period before the test, during the test and after the test should be properly managed. Onunkwo (2005) posits that the following should be done before, during and after the test. 4 # E A • Examination rooms or halls which can contain the candidates effectively should be provided. • Adequate number of seats/ chairs should be made available. • The testees or examinees must be informed the date of the test or examination. • The candidates should be informed about the materials to come with to the examination or test. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 83 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 4 A • Examiners and invigilators should report to the venue about three hours before the scheduled time. • Where all the candidates are seated, they should be counted to make sure they are complete. • Question papers and answer sheets should be counted to make sure they go round the candidates. • The examiners should be sure that every candidate has all the materials needed for the test or examination. 4 A E • The examiners pick the starting time and ask the candidates to turn over their question papers and start. • Write the start and stop time on the board. • Candidates should be made to mind their respective works. • Candidates should not be allowed to leave the halls within the first half of the testing period as well as towards the end of the exercise. • Candidates who want to ease themselves can be permitted but escorted. 4 A • • • At the expiration of the time for the test or examination, all candidates should be asked to stop writing, stand up and put their pens down. The invigilators go round to collect the answer sheets No candidates should be allowed to move out during this period. The issues of adherence to the principles of test administration in administering test had been emphasized in many countries. Oguang (2007) in Rukundo and Magambo (2010) in his study conducted on behalf of Uganda National Examination Board (UNEB) stipulates that the process of examination administration is an uphill task, as it is sometimes marred to irregularities. He went further to mention that an examination supervisor is the overall officer responsible for the smooth and proper conduct of the examination. The situations in Nigeria and in Bayelsa specifically do not greatly differ from other countries. In Nigeria, different approaches of test administration are adopted by different examination bodies. A number of workshops have been organized on continuous assessment in order to achieve good test administration practices. In addition, punitive measures for those individuals who commit offences during examinations or test processes have been put in place. The punitive measure ranges from imprisonment to monetary fines (Jegede, 2003). Empirical studies at the disposal of this researcher upheld different views on how teachers adhere to the principles of test administration, probably been influenced by their various attributes or characteristics. Noah (2004) conducted a study in Northern Cross River State on the assessment of the application of testing skills among secondary school teachers. A total of 420 teachers were used, 36 item questionnaires was used. A significant difference was found between ma1e and female teachers, professiona1 and non professiona1 teachers, but no significant difference was found between experience and less experience teachers in the application of testing skills. Edem (2001) carried out study on the effect of qua1ification and experience on test planning and w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 84 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). administration. He found a mean of 51.54 for experience and 47.04 for less experience teachers. Evans (1988) and Contorn (1995) in Edem (2001) were in agreement with Edem as they condemned the employment of non professional teachers to teach in our secondary school. # In Nigeria at large and in Bayelsa specifically, test administration has become a dreadful word among teachers in our secondary schools. The genera1 attitude of teachers towards test administration is poor. The ineffectiveness in administering test has lead to one form of cheating to the other. This has resulted to scores which are not rea1 scores of the candidates. Some teachers used students and non academic staff to administer their own test or examination. These exercises are dangerous and detrimental to the learner specifically and to the entire educationa1 system at large. In spite of this prevailing situation among teachers in our secondary schools, there are some teachers who are willing to administer test themselves without compulsion. The aforementioned comments were the researchers’ personal observations. Therefore this calls for a need to seek information from a wider range of teachers for better generalization. The researcher therefore felt that, certain attributes or characteristics of the teachers may have influence the way teachers adheres to the principles of test administration in our secondary schools. Against this background the problem of the study therefore is to determine how secondary school teachers’ attribute/characteristics (gender, teaching, experience and qualification) influence their adherence to the principles of test administration. The main purpose of this study is to find out how secondary school teachers attributes/ characteristics have influence their adherence to the principles of test administration in Bayelsa State in specific terms the study will determine: • The influence of gender on teachers' adherence to the principle of test administration. • The influence of experience on teachers' adherence to the principles of test administration. • The influence of qualification on teachers' adherence to the principles of test administration $ % The following research questions guided the conduct of the study • To what extent does gender of secondary school teacher influence their adherence to the principles of test administration in Bayelsa State? • To what extent does teaching experience influence secondary school teachers adherence to the principle of test administration in Bayelsa State? • To what extent does teachers' qualification influence teachers’ adherence to the principle of the test administration in Bayelsa State? w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 85 March, 2013 $ JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). & The following null hypotheses tested at 0.05 level of significance also guided the conduct of the study. • There is no significant influence of gender on secondary school teachers' adherence to the principles of test administration in Bayelsa State. • There is no significant influence of teaching experience on secondary school teachers’ adherence to the principles of test administration in Bayelsa State. • There is no significant influence of teachers’ qualification on secondary school teachers’ adherence to the principles of test administration in Baye1sa state. ' The design of the study was analytic descriptive design, as information was collected from a sample of the population and the findings were generalized to the entire population. The population for the study consisted of all the public secondary school teachers in the 12 educational zones in Bayelsa State, which are 3092 in number. A sample of 1000 teachers where used for this study. Multi stage sampling technique was used to sample out the 1000 teachers. Multi stage sampling— involves successive sampling (Isangedighi, Joshua, Asim and Ekuri 2004). A simple random sampling was used to sample six educational zones from the 12 in the state. The six zones had 80 secondary schools, which the 1000 teachers were drawn from using stratified random sampling. Teachers attribute were categorizes under, gender (male and female) years of experience categorized from (1 5 years as less experience and 6 years and above as experience teachers). Teachers’ qualification into professional teachers (those with educational background) and non professional teachers (those without educational background) The instrument used was a 15 item questionnaire, titled Principles of Test Administration (POTA) developed by the researcher. The instrument was validated by 3 experts in measurement and evaluation in the Department of Educational Foundations, Niger Delta University. A reliability coefficient of 0.69 was established using Pearson Product Moment technique. Data analyses were done through the application of mean, standard deviation and t test. $ The results of the research questions and corresponding null hypotheses were presented in the same table respectively. $ % ( ) To what extent does gender of secondary school teachers’ influence their adherence to the principles of test administration in Bayelsa State? & * There is no significant influence of gender on secondary school teachers’ adherence to the principles of test administration in Bayelsa State. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 86 March, 2013 # JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). *) ) Male Female 641 359 F 50.8 50.3 0 998 4.55 4.22 8 3! 1.75 8 $ 1.96 $ No significant Table 1 shows the mean scores of male and female teachers on adherence to the principles of test administration as 50.8 and 50.3 respectively. Indicating that male teachers have a slightly higher mean than female teachers but when the scores were subjected to a t test analysis it was found that, there was no significant influence of gender on secondary school teachers’ adherence to the principles of test administration. $ % + To what extent does teaching experience influence secondary school teachers adherence to the principle of test administration in Bayelsa State? & , There is no significant influence of teaching experience on secondary school teachers’ adherence to the principles of test administration in Bayelsa State. # ,) 8 5A 3 5A Less experience Experience 3 350 650 F 40.7 50.3 3.3 2.4 998 8 48.01 8 1.96 $ Significant Table 2 shows the mean scores of less experience and experience teachers on adherence to the principles of test administration as 40.7 and 50.3 respectively. The mean score of experience teachers being higher than those of less experience teachers, indicating that experience teachers adhered to the principle of test administration more than less experience teachers. When the scores were subjected to a t test analysis a significant difference was found, meaning that there is a significant influence of teaching experience on teachers’ adherence to the principles of test administration. The calculated t value was greater than the critical t value and therefore the null hypothesis was rejected. $ % ) To what extent does teachers’ qualification influence teachers’ adherence to the principle of test administration. & There is no significant influence of teachers’ qualification on teachers’ adherence to the principles of test administration. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 87 March, 2013 # JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). -) 8 @ % Professional Non Professional 730 270 F 55.9 40.1 ( 3.7 5.1 998 8 46.57 8 1.96 $ Significant Table 3 shows the mean scores of professional and non professional teachers on adherence to the principles of test adherence. The mean scores of professional and non professional teachers were 55.9 and 40.1 respectively, indicating that professional teachers adhere to the principles of test administration more than non professional teachers. When the scores were subjected to a t test analysis, significant influence of teachers' qualifications was observed as the t calculated was greater than the critical t value. 0 The results indicated that male teachers had a slightly higher mean than the female teachers but when the scores were subjected to a t test analysis, it was found that there was’ no significant influence of gender on secondary school teachers adherence to the principles of test administration in Bayelsa State. However this was in disagreement with the study of Noah (2004) in Cross River State, who discovered a significant influence of gender on teachers' application of testing skills. The mean scores of teaching experience showed that experience teacher’s had a higher mean than less experience teacher's. When the scores were subjected to a t test analysis, it was also discovered that, there was a significant influence of teaching experience on secondary school teacher's adherence to the principles of test administration in Bayelsa State. This was in consonant with the studies of (Edem 2001) and also Evans (1988) and contorn (1995) in Edem (2001). While the findings were in disagreement with Noah (2004). The mean score for teacher's qualifications showed that, those teachers’ who were not professionals has a lower mean than the professional teachers. When the scores were subjected to a t test analysis it was discovered that there was a significant influence of teachers’ qualification on secondary school teachers' adherence to the principles of test administration. This was in agreement with (Noah, 2004; Edem 2001; and Evans 1988) and contorn (1995) in Edem (2001) as they condemned the employment of non professional teachers to teach in our secondary schools. On the basis of the findings the following conclusions were made. There was no significant difference on male and female teachers’ adherence to the principle of test administration. Experience teachers adhere more to the principle of test administration than less experience teachers. Professional teachers adhere to the principle of test administration more than non professional teachers. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 88 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ • Based in one foregoing, it is hereby recommended that government should organized regular seminars and workshop in training teachers on how to administer test • Highly experienced teachers should assist less experienced teachers in administering test • Non professional teachers should be encouraged to enroll in relevant teachers education programme in schools $ Child, D., (1997). ' ! $ (6th ed.) London, New York: Continuity. Edem, U.U., (2001) %% % HB % % # % . ! 1998/99 5 4 7" ( * # ( A.B.ED Project University of Calabar Unpublished Farrant,. J.S., (2000), ' # ' %7 $ London: Longman Isangedigh, J.A. Joshua M.T. Asim A.E & Ekuri E.E (2004). 3 7 Calabar. University of Calabar Press. Jegede, O.T, (2003) ( / ! * % " # ! . 1992 information Latin (1). Gronlund, N.E & linn, R.L, (1990), & ! : York: Macmillan Noah, LA. (2004) + % ## % ! / ! & % ! An Unpublished M.Ed thesis University of Calabar. Onunkwo, G.L. N. (2005). , # # # $ $ Onitsha: Vigo Publisher. Rukundo, A. & Magambo, J (2010) Effective test administration in schools: Principle and good Practice for test Administration in Uganda, +% $ 5 % 7 1 (7) 166 173. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 89 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 AN ANALYSIS OF HISTORICAL VALUES FOR OBJECTIVE INQUIRY By N. J. OKOLI, PhD Department of Educational Foundations, University of Port Harcourt B. N. NYEWUSIRA Department of Educational Foundations, University of Port Harcourt. CHITURU NYEWUSIRA Department History & Diplomatic Studies, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education. Abstract Objectivity in research is one of the sundry challenges facing most disciplines in the field of Arts, Humanities and Education. Historians have had their share of criticisms for the inherent subjective nature that is intractable in historical inquiry. This paper is an attempt at establishing that historiographers and historians can explore the tenets of historical values in strengthening objectivity in historical inquiry in education. The work therefore examines the concept of historical values and how it is connected to history of education. Forthrightly, the paper highlights the overt pitfalls of value judgment but also explicates how the historian can reinforce the covert potency of value judgment via history of education to accomplish the desired objectivity in historical inquiry. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 90 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). In an era of increasing quest for scientific and empirical modes of research, the task of how to sustain objectivity in the use of historical values for inquiry has ever more become essential. Sherman and Kirschner (1976) attest that at the turn of the last century, educational historians had a clear and compelling conception of their task: to trace in a scientific manner the origin and evolution of public education. This suggests that before the aforesaid century, less emphasis was placed on scientific approach to studying history of education. Usually, the possibility of arriving at judgments through the impulse of “my belief” or “my opinion” or “my value” was perceived to be affecting the results of inquiry, but then such can now be checkmated through sound and objective value judgment. To this end, an appraisal of the uses of historical values for objectivity in historical methods of educational research has become imperative. In view of this, some key questions that systematically provide the framework for our understanding of the potency of historical values for objectivity in historical inquiry are: 1. What is the use of historical values? 2. What is the relationship of historical values with history of education? 3. What are the pitfalls of historical values in making value judgment? 4. How can history of education reinforce objectivity through value judgment? " . & Values and facts are closely related in historical studies and common to them is that they are subject to critical analysis, interpretation and judgment. There is this perspicacity that the values held by different individuals and groups affect greatly what most people believe to be fact. Society and institutions have what they consider desirable and valuable. Sometime these values constitute information that comes across historical studies. According to Sherman and Kirschner (1976), examples abound in which different individuals and groups were led to discover facts or facets of a complex historical situation through inspiration given to their research by certain sense of or set of values. The implications of this for historical studies are many because in historical studies, judgments about values are inevitable. For one, if such judgments are based on personal perceptions of the historian doing inquiry, then historical studies are in danger of subjectivity. Also, the danger associated with attempts to make judgments (ethical and moral) about values is that such judgments could be prone to bias. Nevertheless, it is also manifest that such judgments can be based on rational grounds (Sherman and Kirschner, 1976). According to Parrington (1980), history of some sort or another has been used in most human societies to promote group solidarity and pride or to strengthen beliefs, values and moral habits. It is undeniable that we can learn much about history and historians from a study of diverse interpretation of the values of some events, movements or people but the central question is whether historians can make judgments about values without compromising facts that relate to such values. To establish this is no easy business, but to reject it is an unnecessary gesture of despair. Parrington (1980) argues that value judgment is possible in history, noting that the criterion for value judgment should be explicitly articulated, rather than implicit, unconscious, unexamined and very likely, inconsistent and eclectic. Thus, the obvious advocacy here is critical rationality, particularly with the more scientific rationality as a way of subjecting prejudice or bias. So, for the historian it becomes imperative that when interpreting historical values or facts he should cherish and foster rationality as best as he can. According to Carr (1961), historical facts presuppose that some measure of historical interpretations always involve value judgment. Thus, values as they relate to methodology in history of education attract the uses of judgment, analysis, evaluation, critical assessment etc, without skewed tendencies, in understanding the various components of history of education. Most scholars have been critical of the involvement of history in making judgments or evaluations. According to Sherman and Kirschner (1976), if no evaluation is permitted in terms of norms or values, w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 91 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). how can history be useful? Since all events cannot be described, the historian can and should be scrupulously objective in stating the evidence about events and issues. In the desire to use historical knowledge as means of satisfying order desires, history cannot escape critical evaluation of norms or values in terms of their contributions to human good and this is what the use of historical values ultimately represents. $ . C + & 5 In attempt to illustrate the relationship of historical values with history of education, Sherman and Kiershner (1976) observe that history of education helps to know when and how educational movements have appeared and, in some cases, continue to prevail in school. They further maintain that history of education helps to evaluate not only lasting contributions but also the fads and bandwagon schemes that have appeared on the educational scene only to be discarded. That is to say that an inquiry into the evolutions of educational movement will surely imply the evaluation of the values behind such educational movements. In history, the events of the past are used in the present to solve the problems of the future. This is what Alagoa (2009) in his work “the use of hindsight as foresight” aims to harp and illustrate. Alogoa (1979) thus describes as a misleading the objection stemming from the alleged unreliability that the historical accounts of the past consists of no values. To the historian, the product of his inferences from the interpretation of his document primarily constitutes knowledge of the past ideals and values of his society and institutions. These ideals and values in turn provide broad basis for a balanced value judgment. History of education does not just capture different aspects of education or the development of education it aims at bequeathing some ideals and values to society. According to Kosemani and Okorosaye Orubite (1995), the educational system of any country or society is normally designed to satisfy its basic philosophy of life in its ideals, preferences and objectives. They also refer to O’Conor as noting that educational system in any society is been geared towards developing in its future generation certain skills and attitudes that are judged desirable in that society. The point here is that if value judgment in doing history of education is absent it becomes impossible in interpreting or determining those skills, attitude, ideals that are desirable to society. In trying to inquire of the possible implications of such ideals for the society and the institutions of education, value judgment becomes inevitable because the consequences and the desirability of such ideals must necessarily be established for the benefit of the educational system in particular and the society in general. Hence, the historian’s exploration of the meaning of values as a term is to be applied only to those objects of values which are judged to be desirable. Furthermore, it behooves of the teacher of history of education, to ensures that values transmitted to students are thoroughly appraised and that they are objective, apersonal and publicly verifiable. Such values must have wide acceptance to the educational system and to the wider society. By providing value judgment on an educational system, history of education deepens and widens knowledge in education. The Inquiry and evaluation or interpretation of information on any educational system helps us to understand the values that led to how the system emerged. Such interpretation also enables us to know what problems of values such system of education encountered, the solution proffered towards solving such problems, the effectiveness or otherwise of those solutions, the alternatives to the solutions and the consequent outcome of those solutions on the educational system. These steps become imperative in history of education because solutions to educational problems are not found in the surface value. They require inquiry and in depth analysis in order to clearly comprehend the root and intricacies of such problems, especially where such problems stem from the value systems. In this case, detailed interpretations of every facet of values and facts relating to the problems are not only necessary but indispensable. Moreso, there are theories and practices of education which are questionable in educational systems. Judging the results of such theories and practices in the study of history of education, in the w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 92 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). light of their values is no less important. If theories and practices are objectively interpreted, they make more meaning and relevance in educational sense. If the claims of theories and practices are interpreted without appropriate value judgment then they could only remain ambiguous or even detrimental to the system. Equally, failure to adopt and use analytical methods for inquiry into the historical values and facts of theories and practices translates to a negligence which could compromise the overall content of the eventual culture transmitted to or inculcated in the students. The use of habits of analysis and constructive value judgment are inestimable when studying policy making and implementation in history of education. For instance, when Okorosaye Orubite (2008) made a historical comparison of the past schemes of Universal Primary Education (UPE) and the present Universal Basic Education (UBE) it was through a disciplined inquiry into the chequered past of the UPE that clearly informed part of his conclusion that the goals of UBE to enthrone meaningful educational and national development cannot be attained except the country’s poor value systems that are intrinsically responsible for the ‘PHD’ (Poverty, Hunger and Disease) syndrome in Nigeria are minimized. The validity of the position of Okorosaye Orubite is in his ability not to separate values from inquiry but to situate his judgment on the remote and adverse values that make the actualization of educational programmes like the UPE and UBE difficult. In history of education, value judgment mostly propels educational historians to actions. Consequently, actions as products of objective value judgment help educational historians to reduce the chances of running into hitches in the future or better still prevents them from making the same mistakes of the past or yet still provide outright solutions for the future. As Okorosaye Orubite in Kosemani(1995) notes, measures aimed at the future improvement of an educational system are usually prescribed. However, it is also germane that such measures are better appreciated if the values associated with them are weighed or thoroughly investigated by the historian. It is also noteworthy that education, as Kosemani (1995) observes, is not independent of its environment. This thus involves inter disciplinary approach in doing history of education. If the role of history in education process is to be understood, attention must be paid to the external influences that shape the educational arrangements a society has made; to the ways in which these external influences impinge upon each other and at the same time upon education; and to the ways in which education itself influences society. The social composition of an elite educational institution, for example, is the consequence of the interaction of economic factor, of patterns of social stratification, of the political decisions of established authorities, and so on. In this case, the historian is bound to make inquiry and subsequently pass judgments on political, economic, sociological and philosophical values of the environment to determine how they affect educational development in the society. The foregoing simply establishes that value judgment is an overwhelming integral tool of history of education towards its fundamental task in the appraisal and documentation of events and phenomena that inform educational practices and systems. . C It will be sheer ignorance or pretence for historiographers and historians not to admit that the use of values in doing history has its challenges. According to Fadeiye (1986), the matter of value judgment in history has led to the debate as to whether or not history can be objective. If we say that somebody is objective or impartial, we mean that he is detached from the object of study and does not allow his emotions to affect his presentation or judgment. Such a person should not also take sides in an issue. Therefore, the possibilities are that we may not totally eschew bias, prejudice or sentiment in the interpretations of values or facts as they relate in doing history of education because certain factors, as noted below, tend to make objectivity difficult in history. One hiccup which makes objectivity difficult is the conflicting or differing interpretations of values by historians of the same event or subject. These conflicting interpretations in history are brought about by different phenomena like personal bias, group’s interest, new evidence, the use of w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 93 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). imagination by individual historians etc. Likewise, the historian can hardly do without bringing to his interests, beliefs and values which tend to have some notable influence on the values he judges to be important. In other words, whatever acts of purification the historian may perform, he yet remains human, a creature of time, place, circumstance, interests, predilections, culture etc. Objectivity may also be elusive in history because by nature man is bound to be subjective. The historian, when judging certain values could be indirectly observing himself. As a lot of his thinking, writing and assessment of educational events depend on family, environmental and socio political backgrounds, he thus finds it difficult to detach himself from nature or the community or society that he is observing. Again, there is the argument that since all people have a view, then historical explanations arising from such views could be prune to bias or prejudice and therefore cannot provide the platform for objective judgment. Another glitch to objective judgment is the fact that each generation strives to judge its own values in the face of new facts or different understanding of the known facts. This idea of each generation judging its values tends to make objectivity very difficult in history. Osokoya (2007) establishes that going through the Greco Roman times, the Middle Ages, the Humanist Era and the times of rationalist writings, historiographers have always reflected the variations in the values of these different generations. Yet, one other snag to objectivity in history is the fact that history is usually written from a certain point of view and it can only make sense from that point of view. Everything in historical values depends upon the principles used to control the selection of a viewpoint. The principles in turn depend on the interests and perplexities of the historian himself, such that historical values are necessarily interpreted from such standpoint. Equally, a critical dilemma to objectivity in history is the dearth of natural language. The historian does not use terminologies which are given precisely fixed and officially standardized meanings unlike the scientists. As such, the historian cannot aim at the impersonality of the natural science in attempts to analyze historical values. The dialectics of whether the historian can be squarely objective rages on but the bottom line, as Osokoya (2007) asserts, is that there is nothing like total objectivity in doing history. Thus, objectivity in absolute terms is unattainable in history. " & 5 (#? . C Despite the palpable pitfalls in the use of value judgment to accomplish objectivity in inquiry, history of education still provides a veritable platform for the use value judgment for functional inquiry. History of education gives the teacher lasting insight and habits of analysis which would benefit him professionally. By understanding history of education the teacher should behave like a historian. The way to do this is that the attitude of objective interpretation of historical values has to be inculcated into him. Only the teacher who has this exposure can in turn inculcate them to students (Osokoya, 2007). History of education is also directly useful for the student because it exposes him on how not to memorize historical knowledge alone but on how he should perceive, understand and weigh values. The discipline also teaches students that value judgment can be tested for validity. According to Sherman and kirschner(1976), history of education is a basic means of getting students to perceive, to understand, and to weigh the values which are at stake in most fundamental problems confronting education today. History of education provides students with a number of examples of educational systems for critical examination and comparison. In fact, Osokoya (2007) observes that history of education develops the ability to think critically and to make judgments about various human situations. For us to revive the power of interpretation and skillful analysis in comparative studies, then critical thinking, like w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 94 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). other aspects of historical understanding, requires a greater depth of study that is synonymous with history of education. History of education does not only ensure the development of right attitudes and methods analysis of values, it endeavours to see that such attitude are instilled in teachers and students and that they (students and teachers) largely accept this right attitude. It is when such attitudes are found in the teacher and the student that the tendencies of bias and prejudice can be checkmated in the process of making value judgment on educational issues requiring inquiry. (#? @ It is noteworthy that the use of value judgment in inquiry calls for much preponderance, if objective attitude in historical research and studies must be sustained. But then, the objective historian should not be one who literally attempts to apply the objectivity of natural science in doing history. The objective historian is one who insists on dispassionate interpretation and analysis of the values of society and institutions in his presentation. The historian can dispassionately study human history to a point and that like the artist; he can observe human society/institutions without putting a little bit of certain perspectives like personal values, interests, and beliefs. Hence, the challenges in the use of historical values for objectivity are apparently surmountable. Therefore, those who make use of judgment of values and facts in history of education can justifiably continue to do so only through an objective mindset. Consequently, it is expected that the natural scientific ideal of impartiality be reflected in all aspects of historical inquiry. Objective value judgment must take preeminence over and above subjective value judgment. That way, the process and outcome of inquiry via historical values will be efficient, reliable and ultimately useful in the study and practice of education. In this discourse, efforts have been made to explain the use of values judgments in historical studies and inquiry. The work has demonstrated that value judgment is tenable in inquiry despite the patent subjectivity associated with historical analysis. The paper therefore submits that the study of history of education can refocus teachers and students on how to use the right tenets of value judgments for objective historical inquiry. $ Alagoa, E. J. (2009). % ! % ! . Port Harcourt: Onyoma research publications. Alogoa, E. J. (1979). # H , # & ! # Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press. Carr, E. H. (1961) 2 D England: Pengain Books Fadaiye, J. (1986). ; ! # % ! Illega: Conscience books. Kosemani, J.M (1995) 7 . In Kosemani, J. M. (ed Comparative Education: Emergent National Systems. Port Harcourt: Abe publishers. Okorosaye–Orubite A. K. (1995). ! % # & . In Kosemani, J. M. (ed) Comparative Education: Emergent National Systems. Port Harcourt: Abe publishers. Okorosaye Orubite (2008). 4 & # 6'7 & A 7 6A7 # % : ! D Port Harcourt. School of Graduate Studies Seminar Series. Osokoya, I. O. (2007). 2 ! ! , A guide to advance study. Ibadan: Laurel Educational Publishers. Sherman, R. and Kirschner J. (1976). 6 ! % . USA: Schenkam publishing co. Parrington, G. (1980). % USA: NFER Publishing Company. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 95 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME IN NIGERIA: STANDARDIZING THE ADMISSION AND TRAINING PROCESS OF ISLAMIC STUDIES TEACHERS By DR. (MRS.) ABDULLAH UMMULKHAYR LABAKE Frmr. Lecturer in Islamic Education Department of Curriculum Studies Faculty of Education University of Lagos Akoka. Yaba. Nigeria Abstract The study is on finding a lasting solution to some of the problems associated with standardization of admission and training process of Islamic studies’ teachers. It however focuses on the examination of the entry qualifications of these teachers, since it has been established that a relationship exists between entry qualifications and academic success of students. This study examines the actual and the expected criteria for admission process into Islamic teacher education programme at the university level, as it relates to the objectives of Islamic teacher educational goals and moralizing at university level and further discusses the relevance and standardization of courses and objectives, and finally suggests systems and models for effective teacher preparation in the next decades. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 96 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). It is an indisputable fact that teachers hold the key to the success of any educational programme; hence the Nigeria 1969 curriculum conference described the teacher as the “key man” in Nigeria’s educational industry. Several other studies like Baloch (1980), Akorede (1980), Ennemmo (1987) and Abdullah (1999) have emphasized that the education and preparation of teachers, no doubt, is the most crucial and most challenging problem involved in the reconstruction of any educational system. Similarly, the Federal Republic of Nigeria (National Policy on Education) (2004) recognizes the fact that “no education system can rise above the quality of its teachers.” However, the argument that the Nigerian educational system is dwindling to an uncertainty level for teachers’ low professional and academic competence has been a subject of serious debate by various groups. In 1987, several defects were identified in teaching preparation after some groups of educators in Nigeria examined the challenges of teacher education programme in the 6 3 3 4 educational policy. In a similar vein, Bidmos (1991) rightly observes that the teaching of Islamic studies particularly in the secondary school is seriously handicapped by lack of trained teachers; in spite of the commitment expressed by the government to the provision of such teachers. The main recommendations were that all teachers’ trainers be aware of the objectives of the 6 3 3 4 system as intended in the National policy on education and the Islamic teacher educational goals. (Macauley, 1987, Bidmos 1991). Research trends in about three decades ago, have been on the expectations and the actual of teaching learning processes at primary and secondary schools. This study assumes that by now less time should be spent on researches at these levels, if teacher trainers had matched the findings on the expectations and the actual with the objectives of teacher preparation. For instance, the in service teachers are labelleed as one of the sources of misconceptions; lacking basic process skills which they are supposed to teach their students; having low medium reasoning ability; poor in communication and Islamic studies content, possessing inadequate teaching competencies, and unconcerned about guided discovery approach and learning simple Arabic. This implies that one source of these labels may be identified with teacher preparation. Abdullah (1990) has called attention to improving research on teacher quality in Arabic and Islamic studies. The needed research include among others: studies of subject matter, knowledge of Arabic and Islamic studies teachers that provide more detailed information on content preparation and descriptive studies of college and university teacher education programmes in Arabic and Islamic studies that focus on how to teach higher order skills and integrate “moralizing” into preparation for teaching. Despite these observations among the in service teachers not much attempts have been made to trace the source to the training of Islamic studies teachers at University level. 3 5 " ! Over the years, research findings and abundant evidence have shown in Nigeria that the enrolment in Teacher education programme has been on a steady decline across all arts subjects in general and Islamic studies education in particular. Admissions into Teacher education at University level are basically through the University Matriculation Examinations (UME), Advanced level and National Certificate in Education (NCE). The UME has four years to undergo training of B.A. Ed. While the NCE requires generally three years but two years in the supervising University. The total score obtained from English, Islamic studies and two relevant arts subjects are used as criteria for considering the candidates. Other factors considered include catchment area and educationally disadvantaged state. The NCE holders are considered based on the aggregate score on Education and any two teaching subjects. While the scoring of UME is controlled, the scoring system of the NCE varies from one college to the other. These are referred to as direct entry candidates. It should be noted that many of the NCE candidates are ill prepared due to the w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 97 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). rush of meeting the requirement of the policy that makes NCE the least qualification into the teaching profession in Nigeria. It is reported by Fagbulu (1987) that principals of some secondary schools are having doubts as to the competence of some NCE teachers now being produced to teach. Therefore, the grading systems of some colleges of education require some re examination. This has not provided equivalent and representative opportunity for all NCE holders seeking admission into the university. The pertinent question to ask is how do we upgrade the quality of the NCE holders being considered for admission when we know that there is no uniform examination board that controls their final examination? Again, how do we standardize and certify uniformity in the general and academic content received by the NCE holders? Answers to these emergent questions become mandatory since there is a general contention that the NCE holders lack adequate academic content and communication skills required for their pedagogical roles. At present, the admission into Islamic Teacher Education through UTME is dwindling by a rising tide of initial lack of interest by the UTME candidates. Many candidates that come later into the programme are those rejected by other faculties, thus implying that there is no initial interest to study Islamic Education programme. Lack of interest in the course is further evidenced by the low percentage of the number of candidates who applied for the course initially. The lack of interest for Islamic education programme may be a chain reaction between inadequate preparation of students in Islamic studies at primary and Secondary Schools and Teachers’ inadequate preparation for job performance. There is the contention that the mode of admission of postgraduate students into Islamic education is not the same as that of N.C.E. holders in addition the simple arithmetical law as presented by Fagbulu (1987) on the non equivalence of the academic and professional qualifications of both 4 years B. Ed. degree course and those of PG diploma requires some re visitation. To my knowledge, the PGDE seems to have knowledge of the subject matter as presented in t = t Xta x Where t = duration of the courses a = the education content x = the teaching subject content In addition, the PGDE candidates undergo some examinations before being considered for the diploma course. It may get to a point where all faculties of education in Nigeria Universities will receive entries from the N.C.E. graduates only into the B.A. (Ed) degree programme. Therefore, it becomes most important that we consider national remedial courses for “O” level students interested in Islamic Education, for those whose score fall between 150 and 200 instead of compounding and stretching the problems and resource respectively by the existing structure. 3 It is evident that except for Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria which takes particular interest in ensuring that the candidate for Islamic teacher education is a practicing Muslim (who exhibits a good character and possesses the required school certificate qualifications) other institutions did not consider Islamic religion and moral probity as essential criteria for admission. Their admission criteria into the course are related primarily to intellectual abilities. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 98 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). In view of the peculiar role of the prospective Islamic Studies Teacher, who will be responsible for developing not only the cognitive potentialities of the student but also the affective (i.e. moral and spiritual qualities) the criteria for admission into Islamic teacher education programme, must, in addition, provide for moral and spiritual qualities such as devotion to Islam, firm faith, human sympathy, sense of equality, justice and moral integrity. These traits should be discerned in an individual who chooses to be an Islamic Teacher. The pertinent question to as now is for the in service teachers, how do we match the objectives of teacher preparation to that of Islamic education at university level? (#? 5 E' The programme for preparing Islamic Studies Teachers at the University level for secondary schools in Nigeria is with few exceptions, identical but not completely in consonance with the ideals of Islamic Teacher educational goals. Exposing students to theoretical concepts in Islamic studies courses and education courses at the faculty of education with little or no focus on the students’ Affective achievement in practical terms as it relates to moral and spiritual development. In other words, more attention is being paid to students’ cognitive achievement at the expense of the affective and psychomotor domains of education. And whereas, Islamic education by definition aims at the balanced growth of the total personality of man through the training of man’s spirit, intellect, the rational self, feelings and bodily senses. The ultimate goal of Islamic education is the realization of success both in this world and in the hereafter.” This is the orthodox and generally acceptable definition of education from the point of view of Islam as submitted by the first world conference on Muslim education in 1977 at Makkah, Saudi Arabia. Although the arrangement in the Universities is not unjustified, the output of such systems has little impact on the demands of today’s needs; one of which is Sanitizing the society through moral and religious education aimed at developing and purifying the mind of the learner. In Nigeria, the philosophy and objective of Teacher Education programme focuses mainly on the issue of enquiry, sciencing and creativity in Teachers. This is particularly evident in the purpose of teacher education as contained in the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004), thus: i. ii. The spirit of enquiry and creativity in Teachers,; and The provision of intellectual and professional background, adequate for their assignment, enabling them adaptable to any changing situation not only in the life of their country but in the wider world (NPE, p. 25). It would be observed that while Islamic education embraces all of the above purposes of Teacher Education, the system, in its uniquely comprehensive and practical terms demands for a more pragmatic approach to the issue of Teacher preparation. This is because Islamic educational concept does not focus on worldly achievements alone but projects into the life hereafter which is the sole determinant of man’s success based on his deeds on earth. This submission therefore posits that any Teacher Education programme designed for Islamic studies teachers must focus on this concept Islamic education is based mainly on “revealed knowledge” although that does not mean that no respect is accorded to “acquired knowledge”. Hence any system for preparation of Islamic studies Teachers should have as its goals the following objectives as enumerated by Baloch in 1980. 5 1. 2. Promotion of the acquisition of more and more new knowledge, insights, skills and understanding and the motivation of search and the research required to discover the unknown thereby recognizing Allah as the Supreme Creator of all those eternal laws operating through the entire creation. Motivate and encourage the righteous and judicious use of the knowledge acquired by the teacher for exemplary development of an individual’s conduct and character. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 99 March, 2013 3. 4. 5. 6. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Produce a good teacher whose experience is measured in terms of his/her faith and beliefs, personal qualities of conduct, character and professional competence. Produce teachers who have acquired a balanced education and who are ready to impart it to others not mainly for monetary gain but for the good and welfare of the society, and also merely for the pleasure of Allah. Develop in teachers the skill to guide each student in developing natural talents and personal skills which he has been endowed with by Allah and which he owes as a trust from him and for which he is accountable to him. Develop in them pedagogical skills, making full use of each subject of research method and modern teaching devices. It is evident from the above enumerated goals that Islamic Teacher Education is a comprehensive and functional system whereby the teacher, who is the central focus is. a. well read in Islamic material and possesses an insight into Islamic beliefs and fundamental judgments. b. has true academic and intellectual capacity that is, possesses good grounding in the sciences of Islam. In addition to these, Abdullah (1999) submitted that the Islamic studies teachers should possess the moral ability to be able to educate his students not merely by verbal enunciation of precepts but through a shining example of virtuous conduct. Consequently, in an ideal Islamic situation, teachers of other subjects, too, must be men and women with moral beliefs for their function to impart what they teach in a religiously healthy way which promotes growth, knowledge and development of the mind. This is because the moral attitude of the teacher has undoubtedly, a far reaching effect upon the mind of his young learners. The main purpose of teacher education is obviously to produce “good teachers”. According to Baloch (1980), in his article on “Reconstruction of Teacher Education” in Curriculum and Teacher Education, a good teacher in a given Islamic educational system succeeds in educating a pupil, so that, according to the level of his maturity, the pupil: a) develops faith in Allah, the supreme Creator of all; b) acquires the kind of knowledge and understanding which enable him to think and develop a spirit of inquiry in order to develop the laws of the Supreme Creator operating in the universe, and c) is motivated to use his knowledge, skills and understanding to improve himself and society. An approach often used in education to measure teachers’ effectiveness is to take into account the general education and the academic content that are mandatory for teachers. The blend of the content and pedagogy is referred to as pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1988) which is a unique feature that distinguishes student teachers from the arts majors. This body of knowledge provides teachers with an understanding of how particular subject matter, topics, problem and issues are organized, represented and adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners and then presented for instruction (Clermont, Borko and Krajak 1993). These aspects can be assessed through quantifiable indicators of teachers performances, skills, teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter, pedagogical skills etc. When Islamic studies is taught not merely as an academic discipline to student teachers but as a bundle of knowledge that seeks to instill the fear of God and inculcate lofty moral ideals in the individual through development of the learner’s mind and its purification thereof, not only are skills such as communication, management, organization, interpretation attitudinal and adequate knowledge of subject matter inherently achieved by the trainees but virtues such as honesty, truthfulness, chastity and so on are developed. In essence, it is no more effective to train arts teacher by simply lecturing him in courses than it is to train a pure Islamist. As observed by Beard (1970), the trainee at this level should be given adequate opportunity to practise what he has been taught not only to discover his own particular w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 100 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). abilities and failings, but to recognize the fact that Islam is a way of life and that its tenets must be adhered to both in principle and practice. This is against the backdrop that the most important quality of an Islamic Teacher is not what he knows, but what he is. It is what people become that is important, and the organizational climate has a bearing on this. Therefore the organization climate for preparing Muslim Teachers must be truly Islamic in character. For instance, the institution must have a mosque where Muslim students and other members of the Muslim community can perform Salat, Jum`ah service, hold Tafsir Lectures, conduct marriage ceremonies and other Islamic activities. However, even though this alone may not guarantee a high and conducive organizational climate for Islamic Teacher preparation; other strategies such as interpersonal relationship can be employed. For instance, people could help one another to avoid reprehensible actions and encourage performance of desirable ones. Performance of Ibadah should be guaranteed through provision of suitable facilities for such purpose. Likewise, time must be allocated for Salat and the Teacher Trainers themselves must manifest strict adherence to the rules of Islam both in word and practice within and outside the institution. A major pertinent question which is central to the issue addressed in this paper is, how relevant and adequate is the content to the practice? $ While there is evidence to show that a uniform approach for training Islamic teachers does not exist at the University level, the relevance of the course content to the practice at Secondary School level is quite paramount. It has been found that Islamic Teachers at Primary and Secondary levels do not demonstrate adequate knowledge in Islamic Studies and Arabic Ahmed (1994). Similar observations during Teaching practice programme have been made on Teachers’ inadequate mastery of the subject matter. It is the general contention that the pre service Islamic teacher performs poorly in the content area both in theory and practice. ( ) (1) What are the Islamic Studies and Arabic courses which the trainees receive during training? (2) What are the determinants and the validity of these courses objectives and outlines? (3) Do all Islamic teacher trainers appraise the pre service/in service Teacher’s performance and the relevance of the courses at the end of each programme? (4) Do the student teachers complete the content in Islamic studies? (5) Do all those involved in the training of teachers utilize research findings in Islamic education to improve the course objectives and review the course outlines? The analyses of course content received by student teachers during training indicate no significant difference from the Islamic majors. However, the courses and their outlines require some validation by all teacher trainers and curriculum developers as to make their training meaningful at classroom level. Secondly, the exposure of Islamic teachers to proliferation of courses requires some re thinking. The course undertaken must stress common principles and structure with the planning and implementation of the Senior Secondary School Islamic Studies Curriculum Package. It is not uncommon to find courses which though are required but can be compressed as a unit course or incorporated into subject method as revealed in the course outlines. Another observation is the level of operations of these student teachers as to know when certain courses should be offered. Here, it w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 101 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). should be recognized that many students entering the University are less formal operational (Ehindero, 1985) due to the experiences they received at the previous schools. Thirdly, during the present researcher’s field trips, it was discovered that except for ABU’S arrangement, all other Universities do not have a single department or faculty of Islamic Teacher Education. In other words, Islamic Studies content is obtainable from the faculty of Arts while Education and methodology courses are offered in the Education faculty. The resultant effect of this arrangement is that there is little or no harmonious blend of courses rooted in Islamic tradition and courses followed in some modern systems of education. For instance, Islamic studies students are exposed to courses in educational psychology and philosophy; and whereas some of the theories propounded by modern educational psychologists and philosophers are not without some loopholes. Consequently, a careless and uniformed student may sip in the whole information as the absolute truth and whereas it cannot be said to be completely free from criticism in Islamic circles. For example, the Islamic teacher cannot adopt the attitude of Rousseau, who discussing education in early childhood said: “…the first education should be purely negative. It consists not in teaching virtue and truth, but in preserving the heart from vice and the mind from error”. It would be observed that the view expressed above contradicts the Islamic theory of character building. According to the Qur’an, man is born with a good % (i.e. nature or disposition) clearly, this belief in the goodness of the % will have practical implications for the methods the teacher will adopt. Therefore, Roussean’s view cannot be useful to the Islamic teacher. The course work for Islamic Teacher preparation can be formulated by a harmonious blend of courses rooted in Islamic tradition and courses followed in some modern systems of education. While courses in history and philosophy of education or in methodology for student teachers can be developed on the basis of the Islamic tradition; further research will be necessary for the preparation of a Muslim teacher. Answers will have to be found to such questions as what are the characteristics of a Muslim teacher. This particular question was answered in part by Bidmos (1991) when he summarized the qualities of an Islamic Studies teacher to include among others, the following: Grasp of the content, knowledge of the Glorious L H , proficiency in Arabic language, practical demonstration of what is taught, moral probity and versatility. Further questions on how these characteristics can be developed? What special methodologies are needed to develop the students’ spiritually should be answered seeking guidance from the L H and and our own experiences. The selection of courses from modern educational system should be mainly from such areas as educational psychology, methods of teaching and measurement. But the content of each course will have to be selected with reference to their established value and utility. Also, we shall need both ingenuity and competence if we are to blend these contents successfully with those of Islamic tradition and relate them to our community needs and environment. $ The study has examined critical issues in the admission and preparation process of Islamic teacher at University level. To avoid total extinction of Islamic Education programme, the entry qualifications into its programme require special attention and control. First and foremost, the admission criteria into Islamic teacher Education programme should be reviewed to provide for moral and spiritual qualities of the candidate. In other words attention should not be focused only on intellectual or cognitive abilities of candidates alone but more importantly on whether the candidate is a practicing Muslim (who exhibits good character). This is in view of the peculiar role of the prospective Islamic studies teacher, who will be responsible for developing not only the cognitive potentialities of the student but also the affective and psycho motor. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 102 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The pedagogical content knowledge received by Islamic student teachers should be reviewed based on the current objectives of Teacher Education, Islamic Education and the research findings of Islamic studies teaching at all levels. For Islamic studies teaching to be effective in schools, a complete system for Islamic Teacher preparation is necessary. Taking parts and dealing with them in isolation may result in a waste of effort and even in frustration. Islamic Teacher preparation should not be a carbon copy of the programmes in the West or anywhere else. Muslim teachers, in addition to caring for the minds and bodies of their students, are also responsible for inspiring their souls. Consequently, teacher preparation for Islamic studies must respond to this additional responsibility first, by reviewing the admission criteria to provide for the background faith of the candidate and secondly by including additional relevant courses in the programme. Also, there is the need to establish a conducive organizational climate that will make the practice of the religion itself feasible. In other words, there could be established what can be called an “Islamic laboratory” which exposes student teachers to “Islamic practicals”. Furthermore, there is the need to modify and improve upon student teaching practice such that the teaching practice supervision should not be carried out by non Islamic educationists or lecturers as it is presently rampant in the Universities, Suffice it to say that it will be practically difficult for a non Islamic educationist to supervise an Islamic student teacher effectively. This is because of the technicalities involved in the course content particularly in the aspect of textual study of the Qur’an and Hadith. Furthermore, voluntary service for O could be organized among students and proper evaluation techniques adopted to cater not only for students’ cognitive achievement in Islamic studies, but also their achievements both in the affective and psycho motor domains. Central to this, is the need for provision of in service educational programmes for teachers. A careful institution of self assessment of the relevance and standardization of the academic content and pedagogy at college and University levels will have the greatest potential for improving Islamic Teacher Education in Nigeria. This may provide aggregate data not only on resource but on the relationship that should exist between NCE and B.A. (Ed.) awarding institutions. This research of intentions, outcomes and transactions (stake, 1997) of such courses will suggest a framework for admission and training processes for Islamic Teacher Education. To improve the enrolment for Islamic Teacher Education programme, the Private Arabic School Curricula should be re visited. Interestingly enough an intervention has been designed by Adedeji (2006) recently and tested and found good enough to make the products of Islamiyyah schools useful to themselves and to the nation. Consequently, the curricula of some Private Arabic Schools such as Markaz, Agege, Lagos State have been upgraded to include English Language and some other courses followed in the modern system of education. This, no doubt, calls for commendation. With proper valuation of their academic programmes, the products of such Arabic Schools should provide good intakes into the Islamic Teacher Education Programme in Nigerian Universities. This is because, by virtue of their training not only are they sound in Islamic Studies but are well grounded in Arabic language. It is suggested that the entry mode of the Private Arabic School products and the NCE holders into the B.A. (Ed) degree programme should be normalized and made uniform. That is either the grading system is controlled and certified by a National Board for Teacher Education or an entrance examination body be conducted. The educational parastatals and Islamic education organizations should re orientate their programmes towards promoting “Islamizing and moralizing” at the university level. Sponsorships and training of teacher trainers on effective management of Islamic teacher preparation should be encouraged. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 103 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ Abdullah, A. R. S. (1982): Educational Theory: A Qur’anic Outlook, Makkah: Ummul Qura University. Abdullah, U. O. (1999): Input Output Curriculum Factors in the Preparation of Islamic Studies Teachers for Secondary Schools in Nigeria. (Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Lagos, Akoka). Abdullah, U. O. (1989): An Evaluation of the Junior Secondary School Islamic Studies Curriculum Implementation in Lagos. (Unpublished M. Phil. Dissertation, University of Lagos, Akoka). Ahmed, A. S. (1991): A History of Maghrib, Ibadan, Nigeria (n.p). Ajeyalemi, D. and Adegoke, B. (eds.), (1994): Fundamentals of Curriculum Development. Lagos: NERDC Press. Ali, A. and Aigbomian, D. (1991): Level of content competence in physics Attained by prospective B.Sc. (Physics Ed.) and other physics teachers for Teaching Senior Secondary School Physics in Nigeria STAN 27 (1) April. 63 72. Akinpelu, J. (1983): Values in Nigerian society: The perspective in Moral Education. Ibadan: Evan Brothers Nigerian Publishers Ltd. Al Afendi, M.H. and Baloch, N.A. (eds.) (1980): Curriculum and Teacher Education, Jeddah:King Abdut Aziz University. Bandman, B. (1967): The place of Reason in Education, Ohio: Ohio State University. Bidmos, M.A. (2003): Islamic Education in Nigeria. Its philosophy and Research Methods, Lagos: Panaf publishing, Inc. Busari, O. O. (1991): The Effects of Enriching Two Main Instructional Strategies with concept Mapping and problem solving on Senior Secondary School Students’ Condition in Chemistry (Unpublished ph.D. University of Lagos, Akoka. Clermont, C.P. Krafoik J.S. and Borko, H.(1993): The influence of an Intensive In service Workshop on Pedagogical Content knowledge Growth Among Novice Chemical Demonstrators. JRST 30 (1) 21 43. Ehindero, O.J. (1985): Formal thought processes among secondary school students and pre service teachers educational perspective (1) 33 41 Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004): National policy on education. Lagos Federal Government Press. Fagbulu, A. M. (1987): Colleges of Education and the National Policy on Education, Education Today 1 (1) Dec. 30 40 Oderinde, B.B. (1985): Students’ perceptions of an NCE programme. Educational perspective 1(1) 140 154. Shulman, L. S. (1988): Knowledge Growth in Teaching. (A Final Report to the Spenser Foundation) Stanford, C.A. Stanford University. Stake, R. E. (1967): The Countenance of Education Evaluation. Teachers College Records. 68. 523 540 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 104 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 ASSOCIATED CHALLENGES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN NIGERIA By IYA ALIYU GANA Department of Education, University of Maiduguri e-mail: iyaaliyu2009@yahoo.com Abstract Curriculum is central to education at all levels in the world. It is indeed an instrument for realization of educational goals. English language is therefore used as a medium of instruction in Nigeria and the world over. The paper focuses on the issues and challenges associated with teaching and learning English language in Nigerian secondary schools. Such challenges which include being able to teach effectively, professionally trained, using variety of approaches and instructional materials, understanding the level of the students, making full preparation and proper planning. The paper also tries to look into some of the issues which include inadequacy of teaching materials, lack of well stocked libraries and language laboratories, over-crowded classes and overreliance on English Language course book. The paper, however, concluded without making recommendations that advocates for Government increased funding of education and the stakeholders in education to cultivate the habit of maintenance culture. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 105 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). English Language is regarded as the backbone of all other subjects taught in secondary schools. This is because it is the medium of instruction in most secondary and institutions of higher learning in Nigeria. In fact, English Language is one of the few core subjects recommended for secondary schools as stipulated in the National Policy of Education (2004). It is therefore, an essential pre requisite for further education. At least a credit pass in English is a requirement even for science based students. Because of the emphasis placed in passing English language at the ordinary level in Nigerian educational system, it is essential that the language is properly taught so that student can have effective mastery of the subject matter. The mass failure of students in Senior Secondary Certificate in Examination (SSCE) has attracted and generated concerns, criticisms consequent upon that, some have pointed that one of the possible causes of unsatisfactory performance of secondary school students is the Poor English proficiency, due largely to poor reading culture. Falayajo (1997) and Akinnaso (2001) argue that poor English foundation, right from the primary level could be responsible for the poor secondary school performance. Over populated classrooms and lack of motivation as a result of poor socio economic background among others contribute to the poor performance. 5 ! Generally, learners’ needs are theoretically of great importance in current learner centered approaches in teaching and particular in language teaching. Needs analysis is very fundamental to the planning of an effective language educational programme (Richards, 1990; in Jibawo, 2005:174 175). While the selection and presentation of the English Language curriculum are for academic and communicative purposes, only little emphasis is placed on communicative skills in the social contexts within and outside the school premises. Apart from examination purposes, curriculum issues arising from the National Policy on Education (NPE) among others, include appreciating language as a means of promoting social interactions, natural cohesion and preservation of culture < < ! ! . Consequently, the English curriculum does not only provide contents but also allow English as second language (ESL) teacher to apply necessary linguistics insights and to develop necessary activities that will help their students (ESL Learners) to acquire the basic language skills. Thus, linguistics insights help (ESL) teachers to interpret and characterize language learning in terms of productive and receptive skills both of which are needed for linguistics competence and communicative competence. 5 ! ! There are so many challenges that are associated with English language teaching and learning in secondary schools in Nigeria. They are as stated hereunder: Teachers who are not professionally trained in a particular area or specialization (i.e. English Language) should not be allowed to teach the subject. For a teacher to be able to help students excel in their language learning process, he or she must be grounded in the language he/she teaches. English language is not a subject that any teacher can teach haphazardly. Therefore, the teachers who handle English Language must be specialists, well trained and equipped with necessary skills w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 106 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). needed for the job. In view of this, Brumfit (1985) explains that one of the qualities a language teacher should posses is to be professionally trained and well informed. # ! " One of such challenges includes the differing levels of the students’ foundation. The constant assessing, leveling, grouping and working within the academic skill levels of every learner are difficult and challenging tasks. A teacher needs to understand the children he teaches in the classroom. He has to understand the differences that exist among his children in the class (known as individual differences). Individual differences are another principle of learning which the language teacher should have at the back of his mind in planning his lessons. Azikwe (1998) observes that no two children are the same physically, mentally and intellectually. Some children are fast learners, while others are slow learners, some learn faster doing things, others learn faster listening, some are introverts, and others are extroverts. Some are good at memorization, others are good at discovery. With this view about the children and to accommodate individual differences and variety, the conscientious teacher should therefore selects, goals, contents, methods and evaluation strategies that will involve every member of the class and serve the purpose of every learner. @ c. ' The inadequacy of instructional materials constitutes a challenge to teaching of English as a second language. Large numbers of students require a large number of resources. Instructional materials make teaching and learning practical and meaningful. Materials help to concretize the learning process. It offers the learners and their teachers a good opportunity to relate theoretical knowledge to practical experience in the class. In a situation where teaching aids are not available, necessary materials should be improvised by the teacher. In line with the above, Stevens (1972) contributes that in preparation of the lesson, teacher has to make or improvise the instructional materials needed for his work when the need arises. Adequate facilities need to be provided in schools’ libraries and language laboratories for effective and efficient teaching and learning of English Language. In the 60s and 70s many secondary schools had native speakers of English as teachers who taught, encouraged and developed communicative tendencies in learner and even created an enabling English Language speaking environment through discipline and hard work in listening, speaking, reading and writing. The development was supported with libraries stocked with good reading materials. Ajayi (2002) says: + # $ %% & ! % ## & % # "# & & & & & & * $ ! $ # # * % ! * % ! ! ! ! ! ( 8$ 5 # ! 5 ! The over reliance on English course books in teaching and learning situation in Nigerian secondary schools is clearly stated. According to Ohia and Adeosun (2002); It is not uncommon among teachers to get into the class and ask the students to open to page…..of……text and rely entirely on the text throughout the duration of the lesson. Also, in support of this, Ndahi (1977) writes on the suitability of textbooks in meeting the dictates of English curriculum, says that a lot of textbooks in use are poorly organized. According to w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 107 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). her, materials to be taught are not usually arranged in order of difficulty and topics grouped together are unrelated and materials are somehow irrelevant to the communicative needs, interest and environment of learners. The National Policy on Education (NPE, 1981) also says; Most of our textbooks at present are unsuitable, inadequate or expensive. New curricular call for appropriate textbooks and reference books. Apart from over reliance, English course books also exhibit a characteristics of over emphasis and superiority of a particular teaching method over the others. Language teaching and learning needs variety of approaches and strategies. Rivers (1980) opines that to make the lesson effective, the English Language teacher should pick and choose different approaches that are the best for teaching foreign language to second language learners. After understanding the learners, a combination of method should be employed. Also, in line with above Lafayette(1980) cites that effective learning of foreign language is not based so much on the dominance of a particular method. He says that, the teacher role in learning of foreign language is very important. This involves his ability to select and make use of approaches and techniques for the achievement of objective for learning the foreign language. The teacher should always use effective, stimulating and attention catching devices for the purpose of variety of approaches in English Language lesson. ( 8 + Teaching English as foreign language is a very challenging experience. In a large classes or over crowded classes, students are varied in their abilities, styles, levels and preferences. Some professionals may consider a class of fifteen as a large class, whereas some may consider more than thirty as a large class (Palmer, 1999), Olaoje (1994) suggested that in large English classes in Nigeria, where each lecturer has ninety or more students in the classroom, there are limited resources and equipment. Teachers find it had to teach very large classes. A large number of lecturers have very passive students who sit back and relax and do not participate in active learning. Valerien (1991) emphasized that not only do large classes affect the quality of teaching delivered, but they can also affect the concentration of the students who are trying to learn in the classes. Large classes require a lot of efforts from the teacher to discipline the students. In large English classes, it is best to divide the students into groups. ! ( 5 Many students seem not to take cognizance of the aims of teaching oral English. Students seem not to be very serious when exposed to speech work. According to Oyinloye (2002) some Nigerian students seem to be deficient in oral communication when it comes to speech work in English language. For one to be proficient enough in English Language, there is the need to acquire the basic skills in language teaching in general and skills for oracy in particular. William (2004) posits that problems lie with the foundation at the primary school level, where there seemed to be no proper foundation for the skills of oracy. He went further to identify three reasons why pronunciation should be tackled by systematic teaching in language context. The first reason concerns the age at which the student begins to speak the second language. He posits that, except during the pre school period, any individual learning to pronounce words in a second language cannot do so with anything approaching native like accuracy unless he is taught systematically. The second reason according to him borders on unconscious interference of the mother tongue, which occurs at both the productive and receptive levels. The third reason is to create awareness for the stress patterns and intonations or pitch. A learner may know the grammar and vocabulary of the target language while his use of its stress pattern may be strong. Similarly, Roach (2000) opines that an important purpose of oral English course is to explain how English sounds are pronounced by exposing sounds the learners to its standard form, especially to the native speakers model or near native speakers model. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 108 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Oral English teaching needs to be done right from primary school for proper foundation. Emphasis should be placed more in oral English teaching in schools. Students should be encouraged to read novels, plays and study poems to widen their knowledge. Oral English should be taught as a course or subject in all classes. Preparation and planning is very important in teaching and learning process. If a teacher is to function well in the class, there is need for him to have adequate preparation and proper planning before he goes into the classroom to teach the children. All effective instructional episodes require careful planning. The audio visual materials for instance, should be seen as an integral part of teaching which requires planning by a language teacher. Stevens (1972) reminds that a teacher should prepare his lesion meticulously in advance. This is because the entire process of education is being viewed nowadays as a system on interrelated parts. Fagbula (1972) also says that before a teacher leaves home for school in the morning, he should find time to prepare his work thoroughly. Good planning enables the teachers to state their objectives clearly, select the media and evaluate the learners in the lesson. Adequate preparation and careful planning enables the teacher to deliver his lesSon successfully. So far this paper has attempted to share some of the challenges associated with teaching and learning of English Language among secondary school students in Nigeria. Every stakeholder in language teaching, especially English, who realize the potentialities of a language (English) in contributing to the growth of individual and nation, should realize that the attainment of educational goals of English as second language in Nigeria must be a paramount concern to him or her. This is because the status of English in Nigeria is not controversial, hence teachers and course book writers should endeavour to create the enabling resourceful and effective contents and adequate exercises as well as appropriate methods aimed at developing the learners beyond school. The curriculum planners, teachers and linguists therefore, seek to re examine the aims, goals, objectives, methods and learning materials (contents and instructional materials) in order to make the curriculum outcome a reality. $ 1. Professionally trained language teachers should be recruited and employed to teach English language in secondary schools in Nigeria. 2. The language teachers have to be resourceful in terms of methods, approaches, technique and instructional material for effective teaching and learning process. 3. Adequate preparation and careful planning is very important in the teaching process. The teacher has to prepare and plan well before going to the class to teach. This will make the teacher to be fully equipped will knowledge, skills, and essential resources, for language learning and teaching. $ Ajayi, I. (2002). G: # # 7 % 7 ! H' % 7 ! P In Adebayo I, Isiugo Abanihe, I. and Ohia I.N (Eds). Perspectives on Applied Linguistics in Languages and Literature. Ibadan: Stirring –Horden Publishers, Nig. Ltd. Akinnaso, F.N. (2001). Literacy and individual consciousness. In E. Cushman, E.R. Kintgen, B.M. Knoll, M.Rose (Eds). Literacy: A critical source book, PP.135 155. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Azikwe, U. (1998). < ! ! ! !. Onitsha: Africana Fep Publisher Ltd. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 109 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Brumfit, C.J. (1985). < ! ! !% # # # . Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd. Fagbulu, A.M. (1972). + & # % . London: Evans Brothers Ltd. Falayajo, W. (1997). ' # % % : ! , 6:7 (1@6:.(74 ! % ! & # ! A seminar paper presented at the international centre for educational evaluation. University of Ibadan. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education (Revised) Lagos: Federal Ministry of Education. Jibawo, A.V. (2005). G ! % 7 ! ! ! % % . C :! ,+( P In Dada, A., Abimbade, A. and Kolawale, O.O. (eds). Issues in language, communication and education. Ibadan: Constellations Books. Lafayette, R.C. (1980). ) %% % ! ! . In FM Arittner (Ed). Learning a second language seventy ninth year book of the national society for the study of English. Chicago: NSSE, 67 68. Ndahi, K.S. (1977). G # %! ! % 7 ! ” in Nigerian Language Teacher. Vol.10, No.2. Ohia, I.N and Adeosun, N. (2002). ESL coursebooks and self instruction: A pedagogical evaluation in Adebayo I., Isiugo Abanihe, I and Ohia, I.N (Eds). Perspectives on applied linguistics in language and literature. Ibadan: Stirling Horden Publishers (Nig) ltd. Olaoje, I.A. (2003). The role of language education in implementation of the ube programme + 5 %A 7 : ! . Abuja UBE Forum No.3, PP.1 2. Oyinloye, G.O. (2002). Language education and language teaching methods. Ado Ekiti: Green line publishers, Nigeria. Palm, J.C. (1999). ! !$ ! 7 ' atest SIG August Newsletter No.14, Viewed 27 August 2006. (www.unaves/espsig/palmer14html). Rivers, W.M. (1980). ' ! ! * % ! ! # ! ! In F.M Grittner (Ed.) Learning a second language, seventy ninth year book of the national society for study of English. Chicago: NSSE 44 60. Stevens, P. (1972). < ! ! ! In Thomas A. Sebeok (Ed). Current trends in linguistics. G. Huge Monton. Valuerian, J., (1991). Innovations for large classes. A guide for teachers and administrators, educational studies and developments, No.56, UNESCO. Williams, D. (1990). 7 ! ! ! !. An integrated approach. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 110 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SELECTED BODY COMPOSITION VARIABLES IN MALE AND FEMALE ATHLETES OF UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN, NIGERIA. By DR. EKPO, G.U.A Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt. & OGUNLEYE A. VICTOR, Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. ogunleyevictor2003@yahoo.com (08168811320) Abstract This study is directed towards comparing some selected body composition variables in male and female athletes of University of Ibadan. A total of ten athletes, five males and five females volunteered for this study. The height, weight, skinfold and girth measurements of the participants were taken. Descriptive statistics of mean, standard deviation and anthropometric equations were used to describe the data. Parametric statistics of students t-test was used to compare both groups to see if any significant difference exists between them. The result obtained showed that there was a significant difference between the participants determined values in the variables investigated. It was concluded that differences exist between body composition variables of the participants. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 111 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Body composition refers primarily to the distribution of muscle and fat in the body, and its measurement plays an important role in both sports and health. Excess body fat may lead to obesity and increases the risk of getting many diseases in sports, excess fat hinders performance as it does not contribute to muscular force production and it is additional weight that requires energy to move about (Elizabeth, 2003). Body composition consists of fat and non fat components. The fat components are usually called fat mass or percent body fat. The non fat component is termed lean body mass. Total fat in the human body is classified into two types, essential fat and storage fat. Essential fat is needed for normal physiological function. Without it, human health deteriorates. This type of fat is found within tissues such as muscles, nerve cells, bone marrow, intestines, heart, liver and lungs (Ogunleye 1999). This essential fat is 3% in men and 12% in women. The percentage is higher in women because it includes sex specific fat, such as that found in the breast tissue, the uterus, and other sex related fat deposits (Hoeger and Hoeger, 1999). They further stated that the amount of storage fat does not differ between men and women, except that men tend to store fat around the waist and women around the hips and thighs. The techniques to assess body composition include skinfold measurements, girth measurement underwater weighing, Biolectrical impedence, Bod Pod (Air Displacement), Dual Energy X Ray Asorptiometric (DEXA), Near Infrared Interactance (NIR) Futrex 5000. > Men and women are known to differ in body strength, particularly of the upper body (Nindle, Water, Clerys, and Katch 2001). A partial explanation for the strength disparity between genders is that men have more of their muscle mass in the upper body. They found out that the men and women differ with respect to the relative proportionality of leg regional adiposity was observed for women (a range of 27 34%) than men (a range of 18 19%), with women exhibiting an accentuated relative deposition towards the arm region. When expressed as a percentage of total fat mass, men had a greater percent deposited in the trunk than women (51 Vs. 45% respectively, whereas women have a greater % deposited in their legs (39 Vs. 35% respectively), and arms (16 VS. 15% respectively) than men. The above observation was made on a ratio score based on body mass or fat free body mass. According to these authors, when men and women were matched before testing for body size and composition and training status, the results revealed that males are still stronger. They pointed out that the statistical method of ratio scaling (equating for sex difference in body size) might not truly equalize women and men in terms of the underlying physiology. The purpose of this study is to ascertain the differences that exist between the body density, absolute fat, percent body fat and muscle mass of male and female participants. Also to ascertain whether male store fat around the waist and women around the hips and thigh. @ The participants who volunteered for the study were 5 male and 5 female athletes of university of Ibadan. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 112 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ E5@ The following instrument and equipment were used to collect the data needed for this study. 1. # + ) Calibrated from 5.0cm to 2.5m was used to obtain the nature measurement. 2. : Used for the measurement of the skinfold of the various sites of the measurement of the skinfold of the various sites of the body required for this study. 3. 3 # A) Used when measuring lengths and breadths where the participants were required to be seated (on the box). 4. 3 : was used to accurately locate a number of skinfold site, mark distances from bony landmarks and to measure body girths. 5. 4 : was used to measure the body weigh in kilogram. 6. ' : was used for indicating the body landmarks of the participants. . ) The instruments used for the study were standardized instruments. ! ) University sports centre (Gymnasium). ( ) On reporting for the test, participants were made to rest for 30 minutes after which their age, stature and body weight were taken. Thereafter, the skinfold measurement and body girths of the participants were taken after the identification of their bony landmarks. All body composition measurements were taken on the right side of the body of the participants. The Order or measurements were as follows: Stature Body weight Skinfold Body girths. All the participants were informed about the nature and purpose of the measurements. Research assistants helped to record and observed the participants. The recorder verified the accuracy of site location and ensures the correct sequence of measurement sites. The recorder repeats the value as it was being recorded thereby enabling an immediate check. All measurements were taken three times and the median values were used for data analysis. All Anatomical landmarks for skinfolds and girths measurement of the participant were taken at the right side of their body: The following measurement was taken: Skinfold Triceps, subscaular, supraspinale Abdominal, front thigh, medical calf. Girths Arm (relaxed) wrist, chest, waist, gluteal, thigh), calf (Maximum), Ankle (minimum). . # 8 Body density, Absolute fat, recent body fat, muscle mass. 3 8 Equations by Withers (2005) and Martin (1990) were used to compute body density, percent body fat and muscle mass. The means and standard deviations of the variables were calculated for the two groups. Frequent counts and percentages of the two groups were calculated to determine where fat are mostly stored in the body of the two groups. Parametric statistics of student’s t test was used to determine whether there was any significant difference between the two groups on the variables under study. Statistical significance was set 0.05 alpha levels. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 113 March, 2013 $ JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). G3 Table 1: Characteristics of the Participants Used in the Study 3$ 3 3 5 Male 1 2 3 4 5 X 45 21 years 21 years 25 years 24 years 21 years 21.8 years & 3 "$5 72kg 60kg 67kg 73kg 64kg 55.6kg 1.75m 1.64m 1.71m 1.65m 1.62m 1.63m Table 1 shows the age distributions and anthropometric characteristics (weight and stature) of the participants with a mean of 21.8 for age, 55.6kg for weight and 1.63m for the stature respectively. Table 2: comparison of anthropometric variables of participants ' 8 ' Variables Body density Percentage Body fat Absolute Fat Muscle Mass 0 ' 0 $ 8 8 # 1.08 1. 07 2.83 7.07 8 2.31 6.94 3.99 12.59 5.88 2.05 8 2.31 9.80 2.7 30 5.71 3.08 9.91 2.8 9.91 1.63 8 8 2.31 2.31 3.07 2.31 Significant Difference ” ” ” H 6 6I Table 2 shows the descriptive and inferential statistics of mean, standard deviation and t test of the variables for the two groups of participants. The student’s t test was used to compare the variables between the two groups. The result show that there was a significant difference between the two groups in all the variables investigated body density t0 = 6.94 (t0=2.31, df = 8 p< 0.05), percent body fat t0 = 2.31, df = 8 p< 0.05), Absolute fat t0 = 3.07 (t0 = 2.31, df = 8p < 0.05). Muscle mass = 2.48) t0 = 2.31, df = 8p< 0.05). # -) Male Female 1 . 717.5 722.8 *//6 - 2 J 49.8 50.2 *66 49.8 100 Table 3 shows that the percentage of fat in females (50.2%) is higher than that of males (49.8%). Girths measured, arm (relaxed), Arm (Flexed and tensed), wrist and chest. # /) Male Female + . 374.8 374 :/; ; 1 2 J 50.05 49.95 *66 50.05 100 Table 4 showed that the percentage of fat in males (50.05) is higher than that of female (49.95%). Girths measured waist (minimum). w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 114 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). # I) Male Female 1 . 430.9 440 ;:6 < 2 J 49.48 50.52 *66 39.38 100 Table 5 showed that the percentage of fat in females (50.52%) is higher than that of males (49.48%). Girths measured Gluteal (hips). # 7) Male Female 1 . 260.3 255.1 I*I / 2 J 50.50 49.50 *66 50.50 100 Table 6 showed that the percentage of fat in males (50.50%) is higher than that of females (49.50%). Girths measured Thigh (midtorch tib. Lat.) # :) Male Female Total ! . 541.3 520.2 1061.5 1 2 J 50.99 48.01 100 51.82 100 Table 7 showed that the percentage of fat in males (51 82%) is higher than that of females (48 170%). Girths measured Arm (relaxed), Arm (flexed and tensed), wrist (distal stybids). This study was carried out to ascertain whether differences exist between body comparison variables of male and females’ athletes. A total of ten participants volunteered for the study, five male and five female athletes of university of Ibadan. The result obtained from the statistical comparison of the variables showed a significant difference in body density, percent body fat, absolute fat and muscle between the groups. This is in line with literature that postulate s that essential fat constitutes about 3 percent of the total weight in men and 12 percent in women. The percentage is higher in women because it includes sex specific fat, such as that found in the breast tissue, the items, and other sex related fat deposits (Hoeger & Hoeger, 1999). The result obtained from the comparison of trunk, waist, hip, thigh, leg and arm showed that fat stored in the waist of males is higher than that of females, and the females are superior to males in terms of the trunk and hip, this is in line with literature that postulates that men tend to store fats around the waist and women around the hips and thighs (Hoeger & Hoeger, 1999). The result of this study showed that the fat stored in the thigh of the males is higher than that of the females (50.50%to49.50%) although the difference is negligible which is not in line with the submission of (Hoeger & Hoeger, 1999) above. the reason might be attributed to the even in which the male athletes are participating which is football, which involves the use of legs muscles mostly, thereby causing an increase in their thigh muscles (muscular hyperthropy). Unlike their female counterparts who participated in track and field events (withers, 2005). w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 115 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The research showed that differences exists between body composition variables of male and females athletes in terms of regional fat deposition. The percent body fat in females is higher than that of males with lower mass, vice versa. $ Elizabeth E. (2003): Body Composition Versus Body Fat. http://sportsmedicine.about.come.cs.body comp/9/990299a. Hoeger, W.W.K, & Hoeger S. A. (1999): Principle and laboratory for physical fitness and wellness. Englewood, Colorado: Morton Publishing Company. Katch, F. & Katch, V. (1980): Measurement and prediction errors in body composition assessment and the search for perfect prediction equation. 3 L % 7" # . 51 pg. 249 260. Martin, A. D., Spent, L. F. Drinkwater, D. T. And Clarys J. P. (1990): anthropometric estimation of muscle mass in men. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 22(5) pg.729 73s Nindle S. A., Water D. T. Clerys J. P, Katch F, (2001): Measurement and prediction errors in anthropometric estimation of muscle mass in men. # 7" 22 (5) pg 744 755 Ogunleye A. V. (1999). Effect of two training mode on the parameters of sedentary adult women. M.Ed Project of University of Lagos. (Unpublished) Withers W. E. (2005): Principle and laboratory for physical fitness and exercise. Englewood, Colorado: Morton Publishing Company. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 116 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 PERCEPTION OF UNDERGRADUATES ON THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN ENTREPRENEURIAL EDUCATION IN UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, NIGERIA By OGUNLADE OYERONKE OLUFUNMILOLA, Ph.D drronkeogunlade@yahoo.com, ogunlade.oo@unilorin.edu.ng (+2348032455690) OLAFARE F. OLADIMEJI demaajy@yahoo.com ( +2347066236402) & UDOM Stella Ogechi Department of Science Education, Faculty of Education University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria Abstract Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in teaching and learning is a potentially powerful tool for extending both formal and non-formal educational opportunities. The paper examined the perception of undergraduates on the role of information communication technology in entrepreneurial education in University of Ilorin Nigeria. The paper discussed entrepreneurial education which was given attention but seems to lack clear-cut relevance among undergraduates because they seem not to have grasped its relevance to their future. There was no seriousness on the part of many students as to understanding the essence of entrepreneurial education through ICT in the university. The role of ICT in entrepreneurial education in university education, policies of university education, the integration of ICT in entrepreneurial education, how students perceive the essence of ICT in that type of education and various means by which ICT can help in entrepreneurial education were examined. A 20- item questionnaire was used as the instrument for the study to collect relevant data on students’ perception. One hundred undergraduates in 300 levels were randomly selected from the university to participate in the study out of a total of 3000. Percentage was employed to analyze the data collected. From the responses of the students who participated in the study the following were the findings : ICT can better be used to make entrepreneurial education interesting to students. Various skills expected to be learnt would be better exposed on the internet especially n the social network. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that efforts should be intensified to explore all avenues to make ICT more pronounced in the implementation of entrepreneurial education. Keywords: Perception, ICT, Entrepreneurial Education w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 117 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION EDU IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 .21 (1). ( Implementing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in entre trepreneurial education is a way by which countries can n develop and reduce poverty through institu itutions of higher learning. Information and communicatio ation technology is playing a prominent role in University education in Nigeria. It has a clear impact act on universities in a holistic and comprehens ensive manner, not only on academic processes but on fun unctions in the universities ( Pfeiffer, 2003) like ke planning, developing and implementing ICT in the context con of the campus culture (Connolly, 199 999). ICT integration into universities changes the charac aracteristics of implementing new teaching orr learning forms, and also results in innovations at all level vels (Zentel, Bett, Meister, Rinn & Wedekind 200 2008). Obanya (2009) stated that university must strive to meet common 21st century challenges of pr providing students with an education that is viewed by em employers as relevant and valuable, and that edu ducation must be driven by Information and Communicat ication Technology (ICT).This is because the he importance of ICT for transforming the society has attained att a lot of popularity within modern develo elopment studies. Some of the roles of IC ICT in university education have to do with avail vailability and application of relevant ICT that are inten tended to improve entrepreneurial education ion. The importance of entrepreneurial education is we well recognized at the university level in develo eloping countries. However, developing countries like Nige igeria need to be sure that some of their ins institutions are providing a sufficient breadth of entreprene eneurial education to give students the abilitiess th that are needed in a rapidly changing world. Entrepreneur eurial education is an excellent form of prep reparation for careers that increasingly dominate the upper per tiers of the modern labor force. 0 * The key terms: ICT TD Development, Institutions and Entrepreneurs rs aand their theoretical connection (Source: ce: Linden M 2011). 5 5 " Entrepreneurial education iss tthe process of providing individuals with th the ability of recognizing commercial opportunities andd the insight, self esteem, knowledge and skills ills to act on them (Colin & Jack 2004).Entrepreneurial edu ducation is a broad term in that it covers a num number of activities that go beyond basic entrepreneurial al p programmes. Universities in Nigeria have jo joined the trend of world Universities with vision in eentrepreneurial education, the pioneers in the field of Academic Entrepreneurial Education are re the American Universities. As early as 1947, 7, Harvard Business School offered the first entrepreneursh rship course titled “Management of New Enterpr rprise” and as at 1997, more than 400 business schools and universities offered at least one course in entrepreneurial education (KATZ, 2003). w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 118 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Inclusion of entrepreneurial education in tertiary institutions in Nigeria cannot be over emphasized, as Nigeria Universities and other institutions of higher learning continue to graduate students that are not self reliant but solely dependent on white collar jobs for sustenance. 2010 Global Monitoring Report (GMR) of the United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), revealed that about 92 per cent of Nigerian population survive on less than 2 dollars daily, while about 71 per cent survive on less than 1 dollar daily a condition many have described as inexcusable, judging from the abundant natural deposits and high human population at the country’s disposal (Negedu, 2011). National Board for Technology Incubation (NBTI) and the National Universities Commission (NUC) on April 28, 2010 signed a memorandum of understanding to develop an entrepreneurial education curriculum in Nigerian universities aimed at cultivating a durable culture of entrepreneurship in higher institutions of learning in an effort to bolster the country’s economy towards 2020. Okojie (2008) describes entrepreneurial education as vital in the Nigerian university system to equip graduates with the necessary skills they require to face the challenges of the current technological age, with an observation that Nigerian universities had responsibilities to teach, conduct research and contribute ideas to boost community development. 5 5 " Years before the policy of the National Universities Commission (NUC) to encourage Nigerian universities to provide entrepreneurship education for undergraduates .Since 2005,University of Ilorin has taken the right step in the right direction by bringing about relevant entrepreneurial knowledge and skills that can help the students to be job creators and not job seekers. National Universities Commission also helps to address the challenge of graduate unemployment by designing an entrepreneurial course titled Graduate Self Employment (GSE301) which is offered in University of Ilorin. It has both the theory and practical components to be taught in Nigerian universities. The course has a template, but universities are expected to develop their entrepreneurial education programmes. University of Ilorin started an effective implementation of the policy in June 2008 with the establishment of the Technical and Entrepreneurship Centre (TEC). Technical and Entrepreneurship Centre (TEC) university of Ilorin started its operation at the beginning of the 2008/2009 session (Technical and Entrepreneurship Centre (TEC) university of Ilorin 2012). 5 5 Developing society demands a work force that can use technology as a tool to increase productivity and creativity. This involves identifying reliable entrepreneur, effectively accessing the sources of information, synthesizing and communicating the information effectively (Igwe, 2005). Information and Communication Technology (ICT) according to Igwe (2005) facilitates advancement and improvement in education, it also enhances the quality of teaching and learning entrepreneurial skills. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a growth sector which has been recognized strategically by Government as important to the country’s economy. DeFaoite, Henry, Johnson, & Van der Sijde (2003) assert that entrepreneurship education provides for integration of a variety of business subjects, the promotion of improved decision making skills and an increase in technology transfer between universities and the market place. More so the need to broaden entrepreneurial education outwards from business schools has also been endorsed by the European Commission (Europa, 2003). Galloway and Brown (2002) also suggested that a “cross disciplinary approach” to enterprise education could influence a range of industry sectors including the arts, science and technology disciplines. ICT in entrepreneurial education helps to incorporate both discrete quantifiable objectives and less specific but more individual behavioural related objectives (Lero&Hynes2007). w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 119 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). # Information Communication Technology plays a significant role in the enhancement and achievement of a better, faster and more appropriate teaching and learning process. Information and communication technology as an instrument of change has helped to reshape methods of teaching and learning entrepreneurial education in Nigerian universities. University education in Nigeria has little evidence of a slight utilization of emerging information and communication technology (Umunadi 2011). However, researches have been carried out and the findings revealed the involvement of information and communication technologies in fields of study like arts, science, technology and mathematics (Umendu, 2006), Umunadi (2011). This study has its own peculiarity because it found out the Perception of Undergraduates on the role of Information and Communication Technology in Entrepreneurial Education in University of Ilorin, Nigeria. The purpose of this study was to find out the Perception of Undergraduates on the Role of Information and Communication Technology in Entrepreneurial Education in University of Ilorin, Nigeria. The study specifically investigated utilization of ICT facilities in the teaching and learning of entrepreneurial education in University of Ilorin. $ % The study was guided by two research questions: i) Are ICT facilities utilized in teaching and learning of entrepreneurial education in university of Ilorin? ii) Do ICT facilities enhance the teaching and learning of entrepreneurial education in university of Ilorin.? ' The study was a case study because the researchers based their investigation on a single level of the university that went through entrepreneurial education. The population consisted of all the 300level Students of University of Ilorin, in 2011/2012 session. The target population were all the 300level students of University of Ilorin, one hundred undergraduates in 300 level were randomly selected from all the faculties in University of Ilorin to participate in the study. Questionnaire was used as the instrument for data collection. The instrument was Perception of Undergraduates on the Role of Information Communication Technology in entrepreneurial education in University of Ilorin developed by the researchers. The instrument was divided into two sections A and B. Section A and B consisted of questions based on research questions and Hypothesis. The response format for the 20 item structured instruments of sections A and B was a four likert type scale of Strongly Agree (4), Agree (3), Disagree (2), strongly disagree (1). The survey was conducted with the use of copies of questionnaire distributed to a total of 100 students that took entrepreneurial education course (GSE 301) in the University of Ilorin. The responses were collated and percentage was used to analyze the data. 3 $ $ $ % ( Are ICT facilities utilized in teaching and learning of entrepreneurial education in university of Ilorin? w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 120 March, 2013 # JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). *K " Question SA % A% D% SD % S/N ? ICT equipments are used to teach C entrepreneurial education in my school ICT is one of the factors affecting effective C and efficient teaching of entrepreneurial education. ICT facilities are not available for ? entrepreneurial education in the university. ICT is very important in entrepreneurial education for self employment, self reliance and skills acquisition since the government cannot employ every graduate. Entrepreneurial education curriculum should reflect ICT in the technological changes and emerging technology. ICT facilities have become an indispensable tool in ensuring coherence in the entrepreneurial education. ICT is a powerful tool in the hands of confident, capable and creative entrepreneurial education student. C C C C C C C Table 1 showed the utilization of ICT facilities in teaching and learning of entrepreneurial education in university of Ilorin which indicates that ICT utilization play a vital role in the teaching of entrepreneurial education in the University of Ilorin. Also students agreed that ICT facilities in learning were not indispensable tools in ensuring coherence in the entrepreneurial education . ICT is very important in entrepreneurial education for self employment, self reliance and skills acquisition since the government cannot employ every graduate. $ % + Do ICT facilities enhance the teaching and learning of entrepreneurial education in university of Ilorin.? # ,K 5 " Question SA S/N C I use ICT to design the project required for entrepreneurial education The use of ICT in entrepreneurship C education helps in Learning skills needed to develop and maintain successful self development. A D SD w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 121 March, 2013 ? C C JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ICT in entrepreneurial education helps to Learn skills needed to develop and maintain successful business venture. ICT helps in Intensive studies, browsing surfing and using search engines for information needed in entrepreneurial education. ICT can help students to have access to electronic simulation and design through practical work in entrepreneurial education. I don’t have the skill to utilize the available ICT facilities in my university. The use of ICT has influence the products entrepreneurial education in the University. ICT in entrepreneurial education enhances the abilities of undergraduates to use ICT to improve their life skills and strengthen their study capabilities. ICT in entrepreneurial education provided me with adequate training that will enable them to be creative and innovative in identifying novel business opportunities. ICT helps to create transition from traditional method of craft to a modern industrial economy e. g the use of Auto Card. ICT is conducive for entrepreneurial education when designing, implementing, and evaluating a project. With ICT awareness and motivation in entrepreneurial education, students gain new abilities and ways to participate and express themselves in a networked information technology driven society through. Students learn how to use ICT in the entrepreneurial education class by engaging in the process of ICT integrated training. C C C? C C C C C C C ? ? C C C C ? C? C? C C C ? C C C C C Table 2 showed that ICT awareness and motivation in entrepreneurial education, affords students the opportunity to gain new abilities and ways to participate and express themselves in a networked information technology driven society. Students learn how to use ICT in the entrepreneurial education class by engaging in the process of ICT integrated training. The use of ICT has influenced the products of entrepreneurial education in the University and few students did not have the skill to utilize the available ICT facilities in the university. This indicates that ICT facilities in the university enhanced the teaching and learning of entrepreneurial education in the University of Ilorin. Also undergraduates utilized ICT facilities in learning to develop the necessary skills that can be useful to them after graduation. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 122 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The findings on research question shown in Table 1 revealed that ICT facilities facilitated the learning of entrepreneurial education as a course in University of Ilorin. Moreover the mean scores indicated that some ICT facilities were available and commonly used in the university environment. Table 2 focused on the enhancement of teaching and learning of entrepreneurial education course with the use of ICT facilities. It showed that ICT facilities enhance the learning of entrepreneurial education as a course. The mean scores indicated that as a result of the availability and utilization of ICT facilities, students had improved in entrepreneurial knowledge in the University of Ilorin. $ Based on the review and study results, ICT can be applied for effective teaching and learning of entrepreneurial skills in institutions of higher learning in Nigeria. The challenges facing the utilization of ICT in entrepreneurial education and students’ participation should be given immediate attention for adequate entrepreneurial education in higher institutions in Nigeria. $ Colin J & Jack E (2004). A contemporary approach to entrepreneurship education. Educ. Training: 46:Pp 416 423. Connolly F.W. 1999. 'The human side of campus computing'. ( # 82 . % $ 19:4 : Pp 131 135. De Faoite, D., Henry, C., Johnson, K. and Van der Sijde, P. (2003) Education and Training for Entrepreneurs: A consideration of initiatives in Ireland and the Netherlands Education and Training :45: 8/9. Europa (2003) Webs’ Definitions of Micro, Small and Medium sized Enterprises. www.europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/enlvb/n26026.htm Galloway, L. and Brown, W. (2002) Entrepreneurship Education at University: A Driver in the Creation of High Growth Firms Education and Training: .44,:.8/9. Igwe, U.O. (2005). Harnessing information technology for the 21st century library education in Nigeria < * ' # 0' , :2. Katz, J.A. (2003), “The Chronology and Intellectual Trajectory of American Entrepreneurship Education 1876 1999”, 5 %A M !: 18,: 2, Pp. 283 300. Linden M (2011) The Role of institutions and Information Communication Technology entrepreneuship in developing countries(the case of Cameroun)M.Sc.Thesis Lero L.R. & Hynes B. (2007) Entrepreneurship Education: Towards an Industry Sector Approach Obanya, P. (2009). Dreaming, living and doing education. Ibadan: Educational Research and Study Group. Pfeffer T. 2003. 'Virtualization of research universities: raising the right questions to address key Functions of the institution'. ( % ;! 7 $3 1 Umunadi, E.K.(2011) Perception of Technical Education Students on the Role of ICT in General Studies Programme (GSP) In University Education, . 5 %+ 3 A , , UNESCO (2003). United Nations Decade for Sustainable Development (January, 2005 December,2014): Framework for a draft international implementation scheme. Zentel P., Bett K., Meister D.M., Rinn U and Wedekind J. 2008. 'A change process at german university–innovation through information and communication technologies?' 7 5 7 8< !, 2(1): 237 246. Available Online at: http://www.ejel.org. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 123 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 THE SOCIAL DEMAND FOR EDUCATION AND ENROLMENT CHALLENGES OF UNIVERSITIES IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA By ABALI, SOALA OBADIAH Department of Educational Management Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt E-mail: dynamicsole0@gmail.com Abstract This paper analyzes the concept of social demand for education, examines university enrolment and highlights the enrolment challenges of universities in Rivers State. In recent times, the demand for university education has increased tremendously. This is as a result of the importance the society attaches to higher education as a means of developing high level manpower and creating a literate society. Thus, various policies have been put in place by the government to accommodate requests for enrolments. But rather than enhance access to universities, the policy of admission criteria, multiple examination, carrying capacity, entry qualification, funding, socio-economic background, high population, and so on become impediments. It is recommended among other things that government should have a critical review of existing admission policies. There should be newly established universities to accommodate the teeming population of qualified entrants while the existing universities are adequately and timely funded by government. Keywords: Social demand, University education, Enrolment, Challenges, Rivers State. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 124 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). It is a truism that a developing country like Nigeria has come to grip with the reality, that education is obviously the basic instrument of economic growth and technological advancement in any society. It is based on this perception that governments commit immense resources to ensuring the provision of education for their citizens, and also tailor their policies towards ensuring that it is made accessible to the generality of their citizenry. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 stipulates a right to education. The right to education among other things implies equal opportunity to education. By this, governments are obliged to make education available, accessible, acceptable, and adaptable (Ukertor, 2010). In accordance with the national goals and philosophy of education, the Federal Government of Nigeria in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004, p.7) states that “every Nigerian child shall have a right to equal educational opportunities, irrespective of any real or imagined disabilities each according to his or her ability”. The provision of equal access to educational opportunities for all citizens of the country at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels both inside and outside the formal system is, therefore, the objective of the National Policy on Education. This philosophy is in tandem with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. In line with the foregoing, Asodike and Umeh (2012) consequently observed that: % # # # H 8 ! * % & # 6 & ) %% # % :! % & % ! & * /% * % % ## $# $ % ## 8 Sofoluwe, Sule, Medupin and Olatokunbo (2012) observed that every secondary school graduate struggles to gain admission to various higher institutions of study, which signifies that the society has come to realize that University education is important in one’s life as a means of social, economic and political transformation of the individual and the society as a whole. Based on his analysis, Ukertor (2010, p. 27) posited that from five universities with a total enrolment of 3,646 students in 1962, the Nigerian university system has grown to 104 institutions, made up of 27 federal universities, 35 state universities and 42 private universities with a total enrolment of about 726,760 students. Yet Nigerians encounter challenges in having access to universities. In the present circumstances, the demand for university education is increasing at a geometric progression. This implies that more than double of the available number of universities in the country will be required to meet enrolment needs. Today, over one million secondary school graduates all over Nigeria are seeking for opportunity to gain admission into the universities (Okebukola, 2006), but the current number of universities in the country cannot provide all the opportunities for those that demand for university education. This unfortunate prevailing situation is an impediment to university enrolment in Rivers State in particular and Nigeria in general. ' It is worrisome to the writer as the number of qualified entrants denied access to University education in Rivers State increases on a yearly basis. Hence, the need for the writer to investigate those factors that pose as impediments in gaining access to Universities. The method employed in gathering data is through internet (cyber café) research and relevant literature. Materials which are relevant to the topic were selectively gathered from the webs. More so, existing information about the subject matter on discourse are spread up in books, journals, newspapers, etc. which enabled the writer to carryout a thorough work. This paper therefore, analyzes the concept of social demand for education; examines university enrolment and highlights the enrolment challenges of universities in Rivers State. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 125 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 5 Social demand is an educational planning approach that advocates for free education. In other words, education provided without the expectation of economic return. It refers to open access to educational resources for the aim of achieving the right to education for all that has the ability to benefit by it. This approach is the social cost and benefit/higher public cost of education and a lower level of private contribution to education. The curriculum is intended for every student. The goal of this purpose is to develop a comprehensive system of education (Kwapong, 1988). It emphasizes the functionality of the educational system and open access to University education, which entails the expansion of the educational frontiers. Social demand places emphasis on education as a social infrastructure for development purposes and as an end in itself. It perceives education mostly from the welfare or consumption point of view. Okeke (2006) refers to social demand as “the sum total of popular demand for education at a given place and time under the prevailing cultural, political and economic circumstances” (p. 82). This educational planning concept “views education as a service which is demanded by the public or community like any other goods and services such as water, roads and hospitals” (Ebong, 2006, p. 33). The concept of social demand for education, therefore, represent society’s demand for education, which must be the type of education needed to build a sociable society and accommodate individual’s needs. The concept is used to express the desire of an individual, an entity, a group of people or a society to acquire a given type or level of education at a point in time (Agabi, 2002). This concept is build up around the contention that the demand for education is basically consumption motivated. The aggregate of private demands viewed from the perspective of a society’s aspiration constitute the social demand for education. In the context of this paper, social demand for education is used to mean an education provided by the state/government as a social service. The Organization for Economic Co operation and Development (OECD) has precisely summarized the concept of social demand in its working paper on educational policy in the Netherlands. The OECD (as cited in Agabi, 2009) stipulates that: .% %% B % 9 * % # # # * B % # % ## # !& # * B $ In view of this policy statement, it is perceived that education has to be provided for those who are qualified for it and express desire to acquire it and, that the public authority in charge of education should anticipate the request and make necessary plans towards this anticipation. Owolabi and Akinwumiju (1992, p. 47) opined that the social demand concept as an educational planning model is popular with: (1) Societies that favour free and compulsory education as a tool for an egalitarian and permissive society; (2) Societies that have strong attachments to traditional cultural values; and (3) Those who regard satisfaction of public demand as a key to political stability. The major characteristic of the social demand concept is that people who are qualified for admission to a certain level of education must not be denied the opportunity to acquire that education. This concept is therefore a model of forecasting social demand for education and of providing means of satisfying that demand. $ 5 $ A state that is practicing democratic politics like Rivers State demands the full participation of an educated populace. In other words, there is the recognition of the fact that a substantive democracy simply cannot exist without educated citizens. Democracy is at risk if the citizens are not able to translate their privately suffered misery into broadly shared public concerns and collective action (Giroux & Giroux, 2004). w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 126 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The present democratic dispensation of Governor Chibuike Rotimi Amaechi has implemented the policy of free primary and secondary education in the state. Consequent upon this, the Rivers State Child’s Right law No 10, 2009 section 15 stipulates that: 7& ! # * 7& # # % # * ! % # & !& * # & E * > This law is in consonance with the social demand concept. In other words, social demand for education in Rivers State is an attempt to provide free, compulsory and universal standard of education for every one irrespective of one’s sex, race, class, religion or culture as in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights of 1948. Human rights are rights to life, liberty and security of the person, protection against slavery, arbitrary arrest, detention or exile, or inhuman degrading treatment. These rights are obviously connected to basic requirements of human dignity which are stated in clear general terms that any morally defensible contemporary form of social organization must recognize them. In Rivers State, education is demanded highly because even the illiterate father and mother recognize the importance of education. To these types of parents, since they did not have the opportunity to go to school, their children must go to school. In this regard, it is felt that with the application of the concept of social demand to educational planning, individuals in Rivers State are provided a basic threshold for the acquisition of some basic talents, attributes, competencies and primary skills, which would enable citizens to be gainfully employed and/or proceed to acquiring higher education. " 5 The term “enrolment” could be perceived in varied perspectives. To Hornby (2010, p. 488), enrolment is “the act of officially joining a course, school, etc”. Anumunu, Babalola and Taiwo (as cited in Asodike & Umeh, 2012) averred that in the Nigerian context enrolment means access. Thus, literally enrolment connotes access. Anumunu et al. referred to access as the right or ability to gain entrance into a learning institution. In congruence with the above postulations, the writer posits that university enrolment is the ability to gain entrance into the university or the right to officially join a university by those who are qualified and who express the desire to acquire higher education. The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2003) noted that access (enrolment) to tertiary education means ensuring equitable access to tertiary institution (University) is based on merit, capacity, effort and perseverance. According to the Federal Government of Nigeria (2003), access to education implies making it possible for everyone who is entitled to education to receive it while Tonwe (2005) sees access to education as making education to be within the reach of every Nigerian citizen. Higher education in Nigeria is comprised of universities amongst other institutions of learning. The federal structure and constitutional provision in Nigeria since 1967 has placed education on the concurrent legislative list, which implies that the federal government and component states legislate on educational matters (Abali, 2011). It is based on this fact that some universities are established by the federal government and others by the various state governments, although private universities are now getting started. The table below shows the patterns of distribution of Federal, States, and Private universities in each Geo political zones in Nigeria. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 127 March, 2013 # *) " 8 L North East North Central North West South West South South South East JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 5 3 # A A 172 8 0 # " " 6 7 6 7 6 5 37 " 5 6 6 8 7 5 37 " 2 9 1 19 10 9 50 13 22 13 34 23 19 124 ) Adapted with modification from Sofoluwe et al (2012). Access and Equity in Nigerian Higher Education (p.633) From the table 1, the total number of Federal Universities in Nigeria in each of the Geo political zones is 37, while that of the State Universities is also 37; the available numbers of Private Universities in each of the Geo political zones in Nigeria is 50. South West Geo political zone has the highest number (34) of Universities while the South South Geo political zone in which Rivers State belongs has 23 universities. Currently situated in Rivers State amongst other institutions of higher learning, are three universities namely: the University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, and Ignatius Ajuru University of Education. The University of Port Harcourt is federal government owned while the others are established by the state government. These institutions run programmes for the development of high level manpower within the context of the needs of the Nigerian economy (FRN, 2004). The problem of multiple admissions into Nigerian Universities and the inability of these institutions to predict their future fresh students population gave rise to the centralization of University admission, through the creation of the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) in 1978 (Ukertor, 2010). JAMB ensures that all the states are equitably represented in terms of students’ enrolments. In ensuring quality higher education and guaranteeing that university programmes and courses of study reflect national needs, the federal government established the National Universities Commission (NUC). The commission has set merit, catchment’s area, and quota for educationally disadvantaged states as criteria for admission into federal universities. In recent times, the system of admission through JAMB has come under serious criticism, due to the lack of relationship between JAMB entry scores and performances in degree examinations. This unfortunate situation has forcefully given way to universities to be involved in the selection of their intakes. The Federal Government of Nigeria in 2005 allowed universities in the federation to conduct Post University Matriculation Examination (POST UME) screening for candidates that have achieved a certain level of performance in JAMB examinations. In view of this development, screening of prospective candidates in the three universities in Rivers State has taken various forms, depending on the approach of the university. This development is an impediment to university enrolment, as it appears that we now have multiple hurdles before prospective secondary school graduates could secure post secondary school enrolment. The hurdles require firstly, passing the Senior School Certificate Examinations (SSCE), secondly passing the JAMB examinations and thirdly passing the University of Choice Screening Tests. The table below shows the demand for access (enrolment) and equity to university education in the South South Geo political zone of Nigeria in 2007. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 128 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). # ,) 3 8 9 5@ ' " 0 5 1,66:2 3 J3 3 J 3 8 Edo Delta Rivers Bayelsa Cross River Akwa Ibom 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 2007 32, 153 35, 112 20, 737 11, 202 10, 001 25, 025 22, 706 26, 468 16, 735 8, 335 6, 902 22, 903 54, 859 61, 580 37, 472 19, 537 16, 903 47, 928 5, 546 6, 319 4, 312 2, 553 2, 619 4, 095 10.1 10.3 11.5 13.1 15.5 8.5 89.9 89.7 88.5 86.9 84.5 91.5 ) Adapted with modification from Sofoluwe et al (2012). Access and Equity in Nigeria Higher Education (p. 633) From Table 2, the total of 37, 472 candidates applied for enrolment in Rivers State, out of which 4, 312 went through the hurdles and gained access to higher education in the 2007 academic session. In the light of the above figures, it is pertinent to examine the challenges to enrolments of candidates seeking for university education. 5 " $ The demand for university education in Rivers State has become very high in recent times. Teeming numbers of youths cannot secure university enrolment nor matriculate due to different challenges encountered in their pursuit for higher education. Thus, the enrolment challenges of universities, within the context of this paper would be highlighted from the following perspectives: & ) There is tremendous increase in the number of persons that demand for university education in Rivers State and Nigeria generally. The increase in the population of graduates from the secondary educational institutions, due to the various educational policies of free primary and secondary education, implemented by various governments in the country has constituted a challenge to university enrolment in Rivers State. Asodike and Umeh (2012) in buttressing the above fact averred that: 1 % % * ! :! % "# * # & 8 ! * % % % "# ! % * + * % # # $ % ! ## 8 According to Sofoluwe et al (2012), “every year more than one million candidates sit for the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UMTE) conducted by JAMB, competing for a little over 100,000 places in the 124 universities in Nigeria” (p. 632). Further more, the Nigeria Education Minister Prof. Rufai (as cited in Sofoluwe et al, 2012) stated that a total of 1,305,277 candidates applied for admission into universities nationwide in 2011. The number of candidates that applied for university enrolment in 2011 in Rivers State has increased by 18.3% as against the 37,472 applications recorded in 2007. It is worthy of note to state that Ukertor (2010) has emphatically affirmed that educational planners had predicted that Nigerian universities should expect more applications in some years ahead when the products of the Universal Basic Education begin to move into higher institutions. With regard to this fact, it becomes imperative that more universities be established to meet the increasing demand for enrolment. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 129 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 13 2 In the development of higher education, access must not be restricted, inhibited or denied any eligible citizen by any policy. Akpotu (2005) has averred that the major obstacles to increased access to higher education in Nigeria are not prices but the reform policies of quota system, catchment’s area admission policy, poor and inadequate facilities and limited absorptive capacity of Nigerian universities. It has been observed based on current developments in Nigeria, that the NUC criteria for admission into universities pose a challenge to enrolment. The NUC admission criteria entails that out of the number of candidates who successfully passed the JAMB examination 40% are admitted based on merit, 30% based on catchment’s area, 20% on disadvantaged states and 10% left for the Vice Chancellors, Rectors or Provosts discretion. In the light of these figures, Asodike and Umeh (2012, p.14) emphasize that “on the 40% merit, this does not favour those who dwell in rural areas who are not exposed to good schools and teachers”. This emphasis is based on the fact that most schools cited in rural areas of Rivers State suffer from poor administration, lack of quality teaching staff, poor infrastructural facilities, and so on. Thus, the poor nature of these physical facilities has made environments of schools in rural communities not conducive enough for learning. There are reported cases of overcrowded classrooms and pupils learning under the shade of trees as a result of insufficient classrooms in most institutions (Ajayi, 2009). In cognizance of the above facts, it becomes pretty difficult for students from rural localities to favourably compete in external (JAMB) examination with students from well equipped urban schools in matters concerning admissions into universities. Prior to the year 2005, the policy of multiple examinations (JME and Post JME) has not been introduced. Applicants that were able to beat the cut off point of their designated courses of study were offered admission. But today, applicants are subjected to screening tests regardless of the high scores obtained in JAMB examinations. Consequently, Ukertor (2010, p. 28) affirmed that “each year, thousand of applicants sit for the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) Examinations and less than twenty percent 20% on the average gain admission into the universities”. Thus, rather than enhance access to university education, admission criteria and multiple examinations restrict access to universities. The statistical figures contained in table 2 of this paper are indicative of the above assertion. It has been shown that in the year 2007, less than 20% applicants gained admission into the university in Rivers State. On the average, 80% of the applicants could not gain admission in each of the states in the south south Geo political zone in 2007. The percentage of candidates admitted in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006 and 2007 in Nigeria was 12.1%, 5.2%, 10.0%, 14.6%, 8.4%, 11.0% and 11.8% respectively (Ukertor, 2010). The National Universities commission (NUC) carrying capacity policy of admission entails students enrolment based on available school facilities. These facilities could be lecture halls, libraries, staff/student ratio, hostel accommodation, and so on. Because of high demand as against their insufficiency and limited capacity, these facilities often become over crowded. This policy (carrying capacity) according to Oduwaiye (2008) is expected to enhance quality. However, it has become an impediment to access to university education as universities are careful not to exceed this capacity by high margin in order not to incur sanctions from the NUC. The following universities mentioned below were short listed in 2004 by the NUC as over crowded institutions in Nigeria (Ojedele & Fadokun, 2009). # -) $ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. ( 8 + " " Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye Ambrose Ali University, Ekpoma University of Nigeria, Nsukka Lagos State University, Ojo Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka 1,66/2 5A +24, 628 + 20, 226 +18, 095 +15, 749 +15, 088 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 130 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 6. Usman Dan fodio University, Sokoto +14, 186 7. Delta State University, Abraka +13, 998 8. University of Abuja +10, 541 9. Federal University of Technology, Owerri +10, 541 10. Rivers State University of Science and Technology +10, 471 ) Adapted from J. B. Babalola & A. O. Ayeni (Eds) (2009). Educational Management: Theories and Tasks (p. 38). Table 3 above reveals that the concept of carrying capacity poses a challenge to enrolment because of issues of over crowdedness of available facilities. This implies that such institutions like the Rivers State University of Science and Technology, a state owned institution, would experience reductions in enrolment as a result of inadequate infrastructural facilities, thus, denying qualified Rivers State indigenes access to university education. In a recent development, Augustine Okezie of the Nigerian Pilot Newspaper on Tuesday June 26, 2012 reported that the National Universities Commission (NUC) has suspended the part time programs of all universities in the country. This development signifies that a lot of people working in Rivers State and elsewhere in Nigeria, that are qualified and who request for higher education would be denied enrolment opportunities; thereby increasing the population of qualified entrants requesting for university enrolment. This development negates the concept of social demand for education. 5 % The Federal Government of Nigeria in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) stipulates that admission into universities is meant for only entrants that are qualified. The citizen/student must be qualified for admission to primary, secondary or post secondary school (Enaohwo, 1990). Entry requirements must be satisfied since these are held as pre requisite for individual’s preparedness to benefit from the type of education in question. Thus, enrolment in university education is available to all Nigerians who have the basic post secondary qualification under the 6 3 3 4 system of education. Successful completion of senior secondary education permits the student for the four year university education programme (Sofoluwe et al, 2012). However, in Rivers State and Nigeria generally, intending entrants into designated universities must possess a minimum of five credit pass (not more than two sittings) in Senior School Certificate Examination (SSCE), General Certificate of Education (GCE), etc or its equivalent in the area of study, as a prerequisite for enrollment. Asodike and Umeh (2012) assert that “majority of aspiring students seeking admission rarely meet the entry requirement for courses they very much wish to pursue” (p. 13). This assertion affirms to the claim that the increase in the number of unqualified entrants would result to a large number of students denied access to university education in Rivers State. The act of treating one particular sex or group of people less fairly still persists in the Nigerian society. The religious and traditional practices of a people pose a challenge to university enrolment in Rivers State. Many a people in our localities still believe that the place of the woman is in the kitchen where delicious meals are prepared for the upkeep of the household. As such, the female folks, at very tender age are often given out in marriage. This unfortunate perception has brought about a mismatch in the population of educated male and female graduates in Rivers State, as preference is often given to education of the male children over that of the females. This practice discriminates against the female sex, thereby, reducing their chances of acquiring university education. Consequently, Ehiametalor (2005) revealed that the number of females in Nigeria who took the UME in 2004 were 353,834 compared to 438,703 in 2003, this showed a drop of about 19.5%. by implication, out of 841,878 applicants for UME in 2004, females represented 42.2%. This is w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 131 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). unexpected of a country that perhaps has more females than males population (Akpan & Undie as cited in Chukwurah, 2011). Furthermore, the population of females in Rivers State who took the UME in 2007 was 16,735 representing 44.7% of 37,472 candidates that applied. It is pertinent to state that the decline in enrolment into universities of female indigenes of Rivers State would have retrogressive implications on the development of the state. Fitzgerald (1985) has asserted that there is a strongly positive relationship between education and women vocational participation and occupational attainment. The higher the education a woman receives the more likely she is to work outside the home, to enjoy her work, and to advance on the job. Ebong (2006) has affirmed that “the marketability of an individual depends to a large extent on the educational attainment and the quality of education or skill received” (p.111). Therefore, discriminating against women in the pursuit of higher education has the tendency of negatively affecting the quantity and quality of manpower in Rivers State. It takes the educated woman to effectively participate in the on going women empowerment programs in the state. Thus, if female enrolment into tertiary institutions drops sharply, it would also reduce the adequate and effective participation of the female folks in the “better life for rural women” and other empowerment programmes. University education does lead to a better job, but how much better is determined by one’s gender (Fitzgerald, 1985). Therefore, sex equity will continue to be a critical issue for education in Nigeria (Asodike & Umeh, 2012). 0 Funding of universities in Rivers State has been the sole responsibility of the government with minimal private sector involvement. As a result of this development, Chukwurah (2011) posits that funding of universities has been a serious problem affecting the growth of university education in the country. According to the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004), as stipulated in the National Policy on Education: 7 % # ! "# & % !& F % < =& & % ! % !& & ! 9 B % ! #? B % % # > # & # # # * . % # & % 4 $ $ $ The adequate and timely provision of funds to universities enhances the expansion of infrastructural facilities for enrolment opportunities. The Rivers State Government is culpable in the above circumstance, as less than 26% of her annual budget goes to education. According to Dada (2004) as cited in Chukwurah (2011, p.110), “rather than a progressive movement towards the minimum standard of 26% that every developing country of the world should allocate to education annually, what is experienced is a systematic reduction of the allocation to education”. To Dada, poor funding is a major factor militating against access to university education. Akpan and Undie in Ukertor (2010, p. 48) affirmed that “the (federal) budgetary allocation to education has been on the decline. In 1999, 11.12% of annual budget was allocated to education. This was drastically reduced to 5.9% in 2002 and 1.83% in 2003”. Paulley in Nwafor, Amie organ and Okiti (2011) opined that the budgetary allocation to education in 2003, 2004, and 2005 in Rivers State was 4.6%, 2.6% and 0.8% respectively. In the light of these figures, it is obvious that the government alone would not be able to create that enabling environment that enhances equal educational opportunities and adequate access to universities in Rivers State and Nigeria generally, if private individuals and organizations do not partake in funding and provision of education. Ogbonnaya (2005) observed that research has shown that when compared with other countries in the same level of development, Nigeria spends far less in education in her annual budget than other sectors. Neither the Rivers State government nor the Federal Government meets the 26% budget w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 132 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). target for education as stipulated by UNESCO. Consequently, Ajayi and Ekundayo (2006) have expressed that funds allocated to universities should not merely be considered as an expense but a long term investment, of benefit to society as a whole. 85 > The socio economic background of Nigerians being so low tends to denied them access to university education (Chukwurah, 2011). With regard to Rivers State, the free education policy of the government has not been adequately extended to the tertiary level of education, regardless of the bursary and scholarship awarded to undergraduate indigenes of the state in higher institutions of learning. As such, acquisition of university education is based on the ability to pay. Most students Rivers State in particular and Nigeria as a whole come from very poor homes and this makes it difficult for them to foot the bill of the rising cost of higher education. It is only the privileged few with strong socio economic background that gets enroled. This could probably be one of the factors that have made Rivers State an educationally disadvantaged state in the country. From his study carried out in 2005, Ehiametalor revealed that about 70.2% of Nigerians are poor. Ehiametalor stated that only 29.8% of families can live on one dollar (N140.00) or above a day. According to Kpee (2006, p.95), “not all Nigerian parents are rich enough to afford even the cheapest education for their children”. Nigerians are poor and by implication cannot afford to send their children or wards to school. Akpan and Undie in Chukwurah (2011) noted that, socio economic hardship deprive many qualified but less priviledged candidates of the opportunity to enter into the university. It is, therefore, clear that poverty is an important factor that poses as a challenge to meaningful access to university education (Ene, 2007). It is therefore not disputable for the writer to assert that most parents in Rivers State find it very difficult to pay their children’s tuition fees. This socio economic hardship experienced by parents is a challenge to university enrolment. It has been established that rather than enhance access to universities, the NUC policy of admission criteria, multiple examination, carrying capacity, entry qualification, funding problem, low socio economic background, high population, etc become impediments. Rivers State youths demand for higher education especially in the universities and qualified applicants should not be denied access. The population of youths demanding for university education is increasing because of the awareness of the importance of higher education as a means of social, economic and political transformation of individuals and the society as a whole. The issue of enrolment into universities of Rivers State indigenes, no doubt is of paramount importance to the development of the state; but accessibility is still very minimal. Access to universities is an indication of Rivers State’s preparedness to meet its manpower needs. The products from higher institutions are capital investment, which will overtime lead to the development of the state in particular and the country in general. $ 1. The government should have a critical review of existing university admission policies, so that university education would be accessible to those who are qualified and request for higher education. 2. The funding of universities should be improved. The Rivers State government should increase budgetary allocation to education. Allocation of funds to education at all levels of government should not be less than 26% of the annual budget, in compliance with the UNESCO recommendation. In addition to this, the Federal and State Governments should ensure timely release of budgetary allocation to education in order to enhance the achievement of educationally set goals of Universities. Furthermore, no government can single handedly solve the financial problem of universities, thus, other stakeholders of education such as parents, communities, philanthropists, private sector, non governmental organizations, as well as external donors, should w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 133 March, 2013 3. 4. 5. 6. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). complement governments’ efforts in funding and provision of infrastructural facilities in universities. The government (federal and state) and private individuals/organizations should setup more universities to accommodate the teeming population of qualified Nigerians. The government’s scholarship and bursary services for undergraduates of Rivers State origin are non encompassing. Thus, the free education policy of the present Rivers State government should be adequately extended to the tertiary level of education to enhance access to university education of Rivers State indigenes. The Rivers State Government should make teaching and learning environment of rural schools attractive by renovating dilapidated blocks and putting in place new infrastructures. In addition to this, teachers in rural schools should be motivated through regular payment of salaries, regular promotion, in service training, improved welfare packages, good working environment and provision of modern instructional materials. When teachers are motivated, they are better placed to teach effectively in the classroom and tarry in rural areas in the discharge of their duties. The government and other stakeholders of education should condemn multiple examinations (UME and POST UME) in the university system. If JAMB cannot be resuscitated, then, it should be disbanded and a new centralized examination body called Tertiary Institutions Admission and Matriculation Board (TIAMB) should be formed by the Federal Government. $ Abali, S. O. (2011). Quality assurance at the secondary education level in Rivers State. +% 5 % 7 3 )& # $ $ 8C Agabi, O. G. (2002). 4 %# * University of Port Harcourt: International Centre for Educational Services (ICES). Agabi, O. G. (2009). Approaches to educational planning. In V. F. Peretomode (Ed). . 7 + ' ! # & (132 – 155). Lagos, Nigeria: Joja Press. Ajayi, I. A. (2009). Efficiency in education. In J.B. Babalola & A. O. Ayeni (Eds). 7 ! , / . Ibadan: Macmillan. Ajayi, I. A. & Ekundayo, H. T. (2006). 4 ! & & : ! , Paper presented at the National Conference of National Association for Educational Administration and Planning, Enugu State University of Science and Technology. Akpotu, N. E. (2005). Deregulating the Nigerian university system: Implications for equity and access. In Akpa, G. O., Udoh, S. U., & Fagbanmiye, E. O. (Eds). ) ! ! # & ! % :! Jos: NAEAP. Asodike, J. D. & Umeh, B. O. (2012). Problems and prospects of access to higher education in Nigeria. A % A & Vol. 2(1), pp. 7 – 19. Retrieved from www.intacjournals.com/Ajss.pdf Babalola, J. B. & Ayeni, A. O. (Eds) (2009). 7 ! , / Ibadan: Macmillan. Chukwurah, C. C. (2011). Access to higher education in Nigeria: The university of calabar at a glance. ( $ 7(3), 108 113. Ebong, J. M. (2006). 6 ! % Port Harcourt, Nigeria: Eaglelithograph press. Ehiametalor, E. T. (2005). Issues of access and equity and private sector participation in the deregulation of education. In G. O. Akpa, S. U. Udoh & E. O. Fagbanmiye (Eds). ) ! ! # & ! % :! Jos, Nigeria: The Nigerian Association for Educational Administration and Planning (NAEAP). Enaohwo, J. O. (1990). 7 % # ! ! . India: Anmol. Ene, A. C. (2007). + B & :! , . $ B B ! Nigeria: NAEAP. Federal Government of Nigeria (2003). 7 . Abuja: FGN Press. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). : # Lagos, Nigeria: NERDC Press. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 134 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Fitzgerald, L. F. (1985). Education and work The essential tension. Information series no. 304 & 550. 7 ( ! + $( M 7 ED 260 306. Columbus: The Ohio State University. Giroux, H. & Giroux, S. S. (2004). . Retrieved from http://www.tikkun.org/magazine/index.cfm/action/tikkun/issue/tiko0311/article031112d.ht ml Government of Rivers State of Nigeria (2009). 3& ( H 3! . Port Harcourt: Rivers State Government. Hornby, A. S. (2010). 1"% & H % 7 ! (8th ed). International Student’s edition. Oxford University press. Kpee, G.G. (2006). Administering UBE in Nigeria: Lessons from the UPE. In S. N. Maduagwu (Ed) + %6 & A 7 , * % Q C 1 $ : ! , # !% Kwapong, A. A. (1988). ! % +% . Abeokuta: Ota Press. Nwafor, S. O., Amie organ, T. O. & Okiti, A. F. (2011). Quality assurance: A solution to examination malpractice in Rivers State secondary schools. +% 5 % 7 3 )& # +573) $ (2b) 190 200. Oduwaiye, R. O. (2008). Access and equity in Nigerian universities: Challenges and way forward. . 5 %7 - ! , 5(6), 66 74. Ogbonnaya, N. O. (2005). 4 % % (2nd ed). Nsukka, Nigeria: Hallman. Okebukola, P. (2006). Principles and policies guiding current reforms in Nigeria universities. ( % )& # % 3 +% $ 4(1), 25 36. Ojedele, P. K. & Fadokun, J. B. (2009). Problems and issues in higher education in Nigeria. In J. B. Babalola & A. O. Ayeni (Eds). 7 - ! , / (32 – 49). Ibadan, Nigeria: Macmillan. Okeke, B. S. (2006). 7 # ! :! Q # ## Awka, Nigeria: Doone. Okezie, A. (2012, June 26). Part Time programs in vasities scrapped. : ! ' $ 2 (208), pp. 1 – 2. Owolabi, J. & Akinwumiju, A. (1992). . # ! Ibadan, Nigeria: University of Ibadan. Sofoluwe, A. O., Sule, A. S., Medupin, A. O. & Olatokunbo, C. O. (2012). Access and equity in Nigerian higher education. 7 # 5 % $ 30(4), 628 636. Tonwe, U.A.C (2005). Accessibility and equity in secondary education in Delta State in a deregulation school system. In G.O. Akpa, S. U. Udo & E. O. Fagbanmiye (Eds). ) ! ! # & ! % :! Jos, Nigeria: the Nigerian Association for Educational Administration and Planning (NAEAP). Ukertor, U. G. (2010). ! % & :! Retrieved from http://www.dsmbusinessreview.com/pdf/vol2no2/di_v2n2c.pdf UNESCO (2003). 7 * ,2 % ! % / Retrieved from www.jyufi/jnesco2003/conference.htm w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 135 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 CHANGING ROLES OF THE NIGERIAN FAMILY AND SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY By NJOKU CHIMEZIE, Dept. of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Port-Harcourt. chimezie.njoku@uniport.edu.ng & ANYANWU JEROME, Dept. of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Port-Harcourt. jerome.anyanwu@uniport.edu.ng Abstract The thrust of this paper is on the changing roles of the family in the 21st century and the role of Social Studies education in combating the problems created by this change. The structure of the family including its functions/roles is undergoing a lot of changes due to such factors like, new economic opportunities, advancement in technology, new belief patterns etc. These have led to social problems in the society. The central suggestion of this paper is that social studies being value oriented in nature, its focus on human behaviour and the belief that it can play a positive role in influencing the attitudes of the young can be employed to overcome some of these social problems in the society caused by unstable family. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 136 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). A family (from Latin: % ) is a group of people affiliated by affinity, co residence or consanguinity. It is the principal institution for the socialization of children. Anthropologists most generally classify family institutions as matrilocal (a mother and her children); conjugal (a husband, his wife, and children; also called nuclear family); and consanguineal (also called an extended family) in which parents and children co reside with other members of one parent's family. There is no consensus on the definition of family, because of this there are varied definitions of family. The Vanier Institute of the family for example defined family as; any combination of two or more persons who are bound together over time by ties of mutual consent, birth and/or adoption or placement and who, together, assume responsibilities for variant combinations of some of the following; physical maintenance and care of group members, addition of new members through procreation or adoption, socialization of children, Social control of members, production, consumption, distribution of goods and services, and affective nurturance — love Family culture is set of beliefs about how things should be. It covers things like who is the boss, who does what work around the house, roles for men and women. The value a family holds is part of their family culture. Such things as attitudes to education, attitudes to employment and employment status, the importance placed on family loyalty and defending each other, the amount of time family members are expected to spend together, all constitute family values. Each family has its own patterns of relating to each other. These are their family dynamics. They are influenced by things like the structure of the family the numbers of children and adults and how they are related the personalities of each family member, cultural background, values, and personal or family experiences. There are basic functions of the family which cannot be performed successfully by any other institution; these functions are called primary essential functions of family. But unfortunately these basic functions are gradually being shifted to other institutions because of the changing roles of the family. 0 0 Murdock, (1994) is of the opinion that the family has four basic functions in every society. These functions according to him are; sexual, reproductive, economic and educational functions. These functions to him are very necessary because if there is no sexual and reproductive functions there would not be any society, without the economic functions there would be no food, and without education there will be no culture. Let us examine the five primary functions of the family according to Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia; 1*2 # A ) This is the primary and essential function of the family. Sex instinct is the natural urge of human being. The satisfaction of this need requires that both male and female should live together as life partners. It is the family where the husband and wife can satisfy their sex instincts easily and comfortably. Without the family the satisfaction of sex need is almost socially quite impossible. A family not only satisfies but also provides the appropriate mechanism through marriage to regulate sexual behaviour of husband and wife. 1,2 $ E ) Reproduction or procreation is another essential function of the family. The family along with regulating the sexual behaviour in relation to the satisfaction of sexual needs secures a legitimate basis for procreation. Since the inception of family, it has been performing this fundamental function. This w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 137 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). function of family contributes to the continuity of the family and ultimately perpetuates the human race as a whole. 1-2 ) Protection and care of the children is another essential function of family. It is regarded as an institution par excellence for the production and rearing of children. It is true that no other institution can take required care of the child like family. The child at birth is completely helpless and cannot survive at all without the help of the family. It is the family which provides care, protection, security (Physical, mental) and fulfils all other needs to make him fit in the society. 1/2 0 ) The family is one of the primary agents of socialization. Family members teach the child the norms, value, morals, beliefs and ideals of society. In the family the children first learn what is good and bad, what is right and wrong. They develop specific habits, traits of character, attitudes and values. The senior members of the family pass the family culture to the new generation through socialization process. Thus, family acts as an instrument of culture transmission. 1I2 ) The family makes a provision of a home or a common habitation for its members. Here both husband and wife live together for procreation, protection and care of the children. It is a place of multifarious activities. All the members of the family depend on home for comfort, protection and peace. It is that institution which provides the mental or the emotional satisfaction. Members of the family exchange their love, sympathy and affection among themselves. In summary the functions of an ideal family are to; 1. help in perpetuating the race through procreation. 2. provide for a means to satisfy sexual needs of man and woman. 3. help in socializing the children and make them acceptable to the society. 4. meet the basic needs of its members. 5. act as the starting point of division of labour. 6. ensure that economic activities are shared by the family members, being a primary economic unit. 7. provide for education and vocational training of members so that they can share the economic burden. 8. arrange to regulate the sex activities of unmarried members of a family in line with the restraints imposed by the society. 9. provide the children with a status till they become economically independent. 10. assist the children learn about customs, mores, superstitions and religion while they live in the family and thus these are passed on from generation to generation. 11. help the family carry out certain recreational activities for the benefit of young children and thus educate and broaden their outlook. 12. provide a sense of security to its members. 13. contribute towards preservation and enrichment of cultural heritage. 14. look after its aged and disabled members. 15. discipline its members so that the family is held in high esteem. 16. nourish its members with mutual love and affection. Today, the family is more compensatory than protective. It supplies what is vitally needed but missing in other social arrangements. The family structure of the past can be seen to be superior to those of today. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 138 March, 2013 $ JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 0 0 # Our families give us an identity. They provide us with moral, social and economic support. The task of raising a child properly was a sacred one because of its far reaching consequences for the security and survival of the soul of the community. Fathers, mothers, grandparents, older siblings, in laws and relatives had a collective responsibility to raise the young and each saw this as an obligation to the family and the larger community. To fail to raise a morally responsible person was to have failed the community and brought disgrace on one's family. The traditional childrearing practices in Nigeria are communal within the extended family system or lineage, and the costs of raising children are not borne solely by the biological parents. A close knit of relatives commonly share the costs of rearing children, in terms of emotion, time, finance and other material support, since all children together comprise the strength of the lineage. However, there are emerging indications of transformation in the Nigerian family, in response to general social, economic and political changes in the country today. In Nigeria today, the idea of the family itself is changing and is sometimes being replaced by other groups whose links are based on confidence, mutual support and a sense of common destiny, etc. The family structures of the past is far better than those of today, and families were more stable and happier at a time when they did not have to contend with problems such as illegitimate children and divorce. Family roles in Nigeria are fast changing in this contemporary time. A vast majority of families have fallen by the wayside when it comes to family unity and spending quality time together. Most times both parents belong to the working class and are usually too tired to spend quality time with their children as a family. This causes many problems in marriages because there will be feelings of either boredom or neglect as one or both spouses feel they are not appreciated and the children also often feel abandoned. The days of sitting down as one family unit for dinner are now replaced with fast foods. Children will come home to no parents because they are working. The role of women in the family has changed over the last few decades. In general women are now more independent and have more freedom. Women are now more career focused and much more likely to have a job as well as doing housework and childcare. Women now have more work to do than before, when women were more likely to only do domestic work. The 21st century women do economic work, domestic work and emotional support for the rest of the family. All of these mean that women now have more work and responsibilities than before. This is a major change in the role of women. Change in itself does not have to be bad. It can often be good. When it is expected and wanted, most of us handle it well and welcome the variations it brings – like the arrival of children, starting a new job or growing old. Though at the time we may struggle with these changes, we soon regain our balance and move on with life. (Landa, 2005). However there are other kinds of change that threaten to destroy our family life, as noted by Landa, (2005). These changes can come from the modern world of discoveries and technology – continuously updated televisions and computers. Good technology, designed to help us, can steal from our families their peace. There are also changes in values, economic and government policies. These changes are making unfaithfulness and divorce more acceptable, homosexuality more ‘natural’, marriage more temporary, child rearing more confusing and stable relationships more difficult. The need to restore the Nigerian traditional family structure to allow it regain its traditional status and power of effecting positive change in the society is a necessity. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 139 March, 2013 $ JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 5 # # Social studies is an interdisciplinary subject that draws upon many disciplines. It helps students become active and responsive students within their communities, locally, nationally and globally in a complex changing world. Social studies is value oriented in nature, as an integrated discipline, it teaches the skills of effective living in the society, all these demands constitute new and stronger challenges for social studies education in Nigeria. The major objective of teaching pupils about the family is to acquaint them with roles and responsibilities of members of the family. As noted by Obemeata (1983) the main attraction of Social Studies as a popular school subject is because of its focus on human behaviour and the belief that it can play a positive role in influencing the attitudes of the young. Social Studies provide a remarkable opportunity to engage students in the enduring dilemmas embedded in the study of community, family, and society. Examining these dilemmas makes Social Studies come alive for students and allows them to explore the role of responsible citizen. Through this learning, students model responsible citizenship and are more committed to enhancing the social fabric in which they live. Social Studies curriculum builds the following capacities in young people: disciplinary knowledge; inquiry, interpersonal, and critical thinking skills; respect for the underlying values of a diverse democratic society; interest in public affairs and competencies of self government. Each capacity contributes uniquely to responsible citizenship. Citizenship education which is taught through social studies according to Ajose (2001) is one subject that is specifically designed in content and function to provide healthy, good and active citizens. Social Studies is a child of necessity aimed at fulfilling certain missions for any society. By its peculiar nature and characteristics it is taught in schools in line with the prevailing social values, it is value oriented in content. In Nigeria educational school system, it is a core subject at the pre primary, primary and junior secondary education level. At this level we believe that it is easier to guide and inculcate acceptable patterns of behaviour than when their minds have already been made up. And also this group of children are attaining adolescence so it puts them in a better position to understand the need for socio personal relationship which is a very important skill for developing adequate value system. The role of Social Studies teacher is critical. The success of effective teaching and learning depends on how effective he is able to comprehend and apply the major components of the subject area within the framework of the Nigerian schools. These frameworks according to Utulu (2009) are; the philosophy of Social Studies education, curriculum orientation of Social Studies education, the epistemological and ontological dimensions of Social Studies education and mechanisms and methodologies for achieving instructional objectives and evaluation procedures. All Social Studies teachers according to her must have all these basic philosophies entrenched in their minds and inserted in their lesson objectives. The major vision of social studies is to produce citizens with the right values and attitudes that support the common good that is the general welfare of all individuals and groups within the community and the society at large. As an agent of socialization, the family is the primary source of influence behind the formation of personality and the growth of a child due to its influence on the basics of personality and its role of providing gender identity. This impact is large as the family confers its social position onto the child when it is brought into the world. Family values cherished in the past are being eroded. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 140 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ Changes in family life have made men and women roles more alike than ever as couples try to find the right balance between work and home. These have led to increasing rate in divorce, separation, wife battering, child abuse, cultism etc. These family problems can be reduced through Social Studies education. The Social Studies expert should try to comprehend and utilize the components of Social Studies and apply them on his classroom dispensation. This will go a long way in solving the problems associated with changes in Nigerian family roles. References Ajose, W. (2001). Challenges of citizenship education under a democratic government in Nigeria. + > % %# 8 +(17) Galinsky, E., Aumann, K. & Bond, J.T. (2011). Gender and generation at work and at home. retrieved on the 12th of November, 2011 from www.familiesandwork.org/site/research/report/times_are_changing Landa, P. (2005). Changing role of family. Retrieved on the 12th of December, 2011 from, www.tilz.tearfund.org/publications/footsteps+27/The+change+role+of+family.htm Murdock, G.P. (1994). !$ # # & . New York: Oxford university press Obemeata, J.O. (1993) Evaluation of the effectiveness of social studies teaching in Nigerian schools. 5 % 513.( M C Utulu, R.E & Bulya, T. (2009). Family dynamics and Social Studies education in the 21st century. :! > % $ M R.. C Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia. www.wikipedia.org/family/functions. www.k12.wa.us/SocialStudies/whatisSocialStudies.aspx#2 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m retrieved from Page 141 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 ANXIETY AS A CORRELATE OF PUPILS MATHEMATICS ACHIEVEMENT IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN IBADAN, OYO STATE. By ADEDIRAN, OLUSOLA AKINTUNDE (Ph.D) Department of Educational Psychology Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo E-mail: adediran.sola@yahoo.com & ADEDIRAN, MARY ADEJOKE Department of Primary Education Studies Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo E-mail: jokeadediran@yahoo.com Abstract The thrust of this study focuses on the effects of anxiety on Mathematics achievement of pupils in primary schools. A descriptive research designed was employed in the study. 100 participants were randomly selected from among four primary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government, Oyo State. Two validated research instruments tagged Mathematics Anxiety Scale (MAS) and Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) were used to collect data. In the study, three hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Correlation co-efficient, t-test and ANOVA were used to analyse the data. The findings revealed a low but significant negative correlation between Mathematics anxiety and Mathematics achievement (r = - 0.21, p < 0.05), Also, there was a significant difference between male and female pupils in Mathematics anxiety but no significant difference in Mathematics achievement. Lastly, there was a significant relationship between pupils anxiety levels and pupils Mathematics performance. Based on these findings, it was recommended that teachers should create a positive and conducive learning environment free from tension and apprehension but show sincere warmth and caring to encourage them overcome learning anxiety and teach them at a very slow pace from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract to captivate their Mathematics interest. Keywords: Anxiety, Mathematics Achievement, Primary School Pupils, Gender and Levels of Anxiety. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 142 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The incidence of Mathematics anxiety has been widely documented over the past years by various researchers. Mathematics is a subject that deals with concept such as numeracy (i.e., number representation and ability to employ Mathematical techniques), which is associated with effective navigation of basic life events such as health care and making emergency medical decisions (Reyna & Brainard, 2007). Knowledge of Mathematics prepares individuals to pursue advanced degrees in technology fields (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2007). It is a key for individuals pursuing post secondary studies, business seeking employees, as well as for individuals managing life course events (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2007). Mathematics is a perfectionism subject and anxiety can surface in the subject. Anxiety is a feeling of unease, apprehension of worry, stress, intense feeling of frustration and helplessness about ones ability to understand, tension and strain brought onto one’s body & mind and accompanied by physical sensations such as palpitation, feeling faint, chest pain, shortness of breath and trembling which can be a normal reaction to stress or worry and can be classified into cognitive, somantic, emotional and behavioural components (Seligman, Walter and Roschan, 2001). The cognitive component entails loss of concentration, some of the symptoms are negative self talk, feelings of doubt or mind wanders from rest and somantic anxiety which is characterized by loss of body control with the symptoms of sweaty palms, pain in neck or sick to the stomach. Ashcraft (2002) defines Mathematics anxiety as a feeling of tension, apprehension or fear of interferes with Mathematics performance in terms of manipulation of numbers and solving of Mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations. It can cause one to loose one’s self confidence. It is a causative agent of some impairment of Mathematical functioning. It is a feeling of intense frustration or helplessness about one’s ability to do Mathematics and an emotional reaction to Mathematics based on past unpleasant experience which harms future learning. In the same vein, Stuart, (2000) views Mathematics anxiety as an anxious state induced by fear of failing when attempting to learn or demonstrate one’s learning of Mathematics. An irrational fear of Mathematics ranges from simple discomfort associated with numerical operations to a total avoidance of Mathematics. It conjures fear of some types; fear that one won’t be able to do Mathematics, or fear of failing when attempting to learn or demonstrate one’s learning of Mathematics or fear that it is too hard or fear of failure which starts from having lack of confidence when working on Mathematics (Stuart, 2000). Mathematics anxiety produces low self esteem and the fear of failure. It brings about discomfort and apprehension for specific Mathematics related situation. It can affect students from kindergarten through college and beyond with no group being exempted. Mathematics anxiety aroused when individual is required to perform Mathematics in timed and highly staked situations (Ashcraft and Moore, 2009). This is very real and occurs among thousands of pupils in the classrooms due to lack of consideration for different learning styles of the pupils. High risk teaching styles are often explored to gain a better understanding of Mathematics anxiety. Many children who suffer from Mathematics anxiety exhibit little confidence in their ability to do Mathematics and this has greatly limited their career choice options (Garry, 2005). Tapia (2004) reports that pupils having little or no Mathematics anxiety scored significantly higher in Mathematics than pupils with some or high Mathematics anxiety, and pupils with some Mathematics anxiety scored significantly higher than pupils with high Mathematics anxiety. Most of the researches on Mathematics anxiety are usually focused on secondary school and undergraduate students, and little or no information is available on the correlates and effects of Mathematics anxiety in younger pupils performance. This study examines the effects of Mathematics anxiety on primary school pupils achievement, since primary school is the foundation of all level of education, it becomes imperative to study the effects of Mathematics anxiety among primary school pupils and how to reduce it. Tobias (1993), observed that millions of adults are blocked from w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 143 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). professional and personal opportunities because they fear or perform poorly in Mathematics. For many, these negative experiences remain throughout their adult lives. Goulding, Rowland and Barber (2002) suggest that there are linkages between teachers lack of subject knowledge and ability to effectively plan teaching material. These suggest that teachers that do not have a sufficient background in Mathematics may struggle with the development of comprehensive lesson plans for their students and therefore Mathematics anxiety has its roots in teaching. The causes of Mathematics anxiety fall within three major factors; the dispositional, situational and environmental factors (Baloglu and Kocak, 2006). The dispositional factors deal with psychological and emotional features such as attitude towards the learning of Mathematics, self concept about Mathematics and learning styles. The situational factors are direct features that result from their particular Mathematics topic vis a vis the nature of the concept and how it is designed and carried out, the availability of or conversely lack of feedback. The environmental features are characteristics that affect the students prior to their learning Mathematics topics, for example; age, gender and previous Mathematics experience. People believe that Mathematics anxiety and inability to be successful in Mathematics are inherited from one’s parents. Other factors like peers influence, teachers’ attitude toward Mathematics teaching, gender and self doubt may increase or decrease ones’ confidence in Mathematics skills. Different approaches to Mathematics and problems solving can affect pupils feeling of self confidence, attitudes and most resulting to Mathematics anxiety. From researchers previous work, Age also appears to be related to Mathematics anxiety thus Balogun (2003) found that older pupils experienced more Mathematical and Statistical anxiety, especially test and course anxiety than their counterparts. Mathematics anxiety seriously constrains performance in Mathematical tasks and reduction in anxiety is consistently associated with improvement in achievement. A moderate but significant negative correlation between the two has been observed by many researchers. For example, the meta analysis of Hembree (1990), incorporating the result of 151 studies indicating a consistent negative corresponding to 0.3 or more for studies involving school children. Hembree deduced such a causal relativity that higher achievement consistently accompanies reduction in Mathematics anxiety. Worry and emotionality are other components of Mathematics anxiety. According to Ashcraft (2002), worry is the cognitive component of anxiety, consisting of self deprecatory thoughts about one’s performance. Ashcraft and Kirk (2001) had examined the possible cognitive consequence of Mathematics anxiety on undergraduate psychology students. Their study showed a reduction in the available working memory capacity of higher Mathematics anxiety individuals when their anxiety was aroused. Higher level of Mathematics anxiety was related to lower available working memory capacity. Emotionality is the affective component of anxiety, including feelings of nervousness, tension and unpleasant physiological reaction to testing situations. These two components of anxiety are empirically distinct, though, they are correlated, for instance, worry relates more strongly than emotionality. Gender is one of the most widely studied factor in Mathematics anxiety. This factor claim that male are better at Mathematics than females counterpart because of genetic reasons. In his study, Garry (2005) posited that females are more vulnerable to Mathematics anxiety and are more self critical in evaluating their anxiety and performance in Mathematics than males. His studies concluded that the scores of Mathematics anxiety indicates that girls have experienced more level of Mathematics anxiety than boys and girls reported stronger negative affective reactions to Mathematics than boys. Ma and Xu (2004) found no gender difference in anxiety levels, they discovered that societal attitudes towards girls and Mathematics have reduced the gender difference in the level of Mathematics anxiety. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 144 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). # Over the years Mathematics anxiety has posed a serious challenge in the academic achievement of pupils in schools. It was observed that little or no effort has been put in place by various stakeholders in education to ameliorate or reduce these challenges. Since primary school is regarded as the foundational stage of all levels of education where Mathematics anxiety is evidenced, no doubt, it will posed a very serious problem to pupils when they transit to secondary and tertiary institutions. Therefore, this study intends to identify and proffer appropriate measure towards reducing or eliminating Mathematics anxiety among primary school pupils. The purposes of the study are: - To determine the extent of the effect of anxiety on pupils Mathematics achievement. - To examine the effects of gender differences on pupils’ levels of anxiety and Mathematics performance. - To examine the relationship between levels of anxiety and Mathematics performance of primary school pupils. Hypotheses The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance 1. There is no significant relationship between Mathematics anxiety and Mathematics achievement. 2. There is no significant difference between male and female pupils in Mathematics anxiety. 3. There is no significant relationship between pupils anxiety level and pupils performance in Mathematics. ' $ ) The descriptive survey design was used in the study. @ A total of 100 pupils (70 females and 30 males) were randomly selected from four public schools in Ibadan, Oyo State. 25 participants each were randomly selected from the four schools to respond to the research instrument designed in the study. The instruments used in the study were: i. Mathematics Anxiety Scale ii. Mathematics Achievement Test. ' 3 A ) self developed and validated by experts from the Department of Psychology and Guidance and Counselling, University of Ibadan. The test comprised of two parts. Part one elicits demographic information of the respondents while part two consisted 10 items on situations that may bring about anxiety. The instrument was subjected to test retest to ascertain its reliability among pupils of C.A.C primary school, Ibadan who were not part of the sample used in this study using Crombach alpha and a reliability co efficient of 0.86 was recorded. ' 3 : adapted from the recommended Mathematics textbook book 5 which is used by primary 5 pupils. It contained ten objective Mathematics questions which was w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 145 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). validated by experts in test and measurement in the Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. The Instrument was further subjected to pilot testing. Reliability co efficient was established using Kudar Richardson (21) formular at 0.79. 3 The data were analysed using descriptive statistics such as correlation coefficient, t test and Analysis of variance (ANOVA). For the test of significance, alpha was fixed at 0.05 level. $ The results of the study have revealed significant relationship between Mathematics anxiety and Mathematics performance. The Pearson product moment correlation coefficients score revealed a low negative correlation between Mathematics anxiety and achievement score in Mathematics (r = 0.21 p < 0.05) and there is significant relationship between the Mathematics Anxiety and Mathematics Achievement. It means that pupils who have high Mathematics anxiety tended to have fewer score in Mathematics performance. However, those who have low Mathematics anxiety tended to have high score in Mathematics. This indicates that as Mathematics anxiety scores increase, achievement scores decrease. This finding is consistent with the studies of Ma and Xu (2004), which revealed a negative relationship between these two variables. # *) Dependent variable Mathematics anxiety Mathematics Performance A Sex Male Female Male Female Mean 59.65 68.54 54.71 54.12 SD 2.15 7.39 9.25 8.71 t value 1.85 1.24 The study also reveals that, there is a significant difference between boys and girls in Mathematics anxiety but no significant difference in Mathematics performance. Table 1 above shows the result of two independent t tests for the scores of males and females in two variables. The mean scores of males and females indicate that females scored higher in the Mathematics anxiety scale (m = 68.54, SD = 7.39) than males (m = 59.65, SD=2.15). There was no significant difference between males and females in Mathematics performance (m = 54.71, SD = 9.25) for male and (m = 54.12, SD = 8.71) for female, no main effect of gender on Mathematics performance. However, female pupils reported significantly higher Mathematics anxiety than males. Mathematics anxiety appears more strongly linked with poor performance and avoidance of Mathematics among primary school females than their male counterparts. # ,) ' High Moderate Low Total ' 3 A # ! ' ' 13 46.25 53.61 62.34 54.07 3 A 2 53.01 59.72 64.56 59.10 The number of pupils in each anxiety level and the mean scores for dependent variables are reported in Table 2 above. Looking at the levels of anxiety, the Mathematics anxiety level was divided into high, moderate and low levels. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 146 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). # -) $ 3 (.3 ' 3 Source of Variation Degree of Freedom Mean Square Between Groups 3 32.642 Within Groups 92 112.86 F 4.781 Sig. .000 Analysis of variance ANOVA was used in table 3 to find the relationship between level of anxiety and achievement, it shows that the mean achievement score of low, moderate and high anxiety level were significantly different. F(3,92) = 4.781, p < 0.05, the mean difference in achievement test between the low and high anxiety levels were found to be significant. Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT) scores and Mathematics Anxiety Scale (MAS) scores were calculated to explain the relationships between these variables. Comparing the mean scores of low and moderate anxiety and between moderate and high anxiety levels provided insignificant results at 0.05 significant level. Where high score indicated low levels of anxiety and low score indicated high level of anxiety. Pupils with low level Mathematics anxiety score significantly higher than pupils with moderate or high Mathematics anxiety and pupils with moderate anxiety score significantly higher than pupils with high anxiety. This study revealed that children who recorded high levels of anxiety perform less in Mathematics achievement test. Pupils who like Mathematics class and their Mathematics teacher had lower anxiety and pupils with higher achievement in Mathematics reported lower degrees of Mathematics anxiety. These results concurred with the findings of Tapia (2004). The high anxiety level performed poorly, the moderate level performed poorly while the low level anxiety group has the fairness performance. This study was able to address the three research questions with findings that, there is significant negative correlation between Mathematics anxiety and Mathematics performance; there is a significant difference between level of anxiety and Mathematics performance. The study reveals that there was a significant gender difference in Mathematics anxiety, but there was no significant differences between boys and girls in Mathematics performance. $ From the result above, the study suggests that the presence of Mathematics anxiety caused a decrement in the Mathematics performance of primary school pupils. One can conclude that Mathematics anxiety do affect pupils performance in Mathematics. Previous researchers advocated that the reduction of this kind of anxiety improves Mathematics scores and academic performance. Mathematics anxiety can be reduced by using some special methods in teaching and injecting some psychological interventions, which are applicable in the pedagogical domains and the improvement curriculum practices. Teachers need to be aware of the effects of anxiety on pupils’ achievement and they should be aware of the needs and the capabilities of the pupils with different Mathematics anxiety levels when designing teaching strategies for them. They should make an effort to lessen anxiety on these pupils and develop teaching strategies that would help highly anxious pupils. In order to reduce Mathematics anxiety and increase achievement, Woodard (2004) suggested the following techniques: • create an environment in which pupils do not feel threatened and allow them to relax. • use cooperative grouping. It helps pupils to understand that others have the same problems as they do. • teacher should create a positive learning environment, free from tension and possible causes of embarrassment or humiliation. • teach at a slow pace. It can help pupils better comprehend the material being taught. • provide extra tuition sessions so that they are not left behind academically. With all these efforts it can be a positive force in reducing Mathematics anxiety. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 147 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Also, the relationship between level of anxiety and Mathematics performance revealed that pupils with low level of anxiety performed better in Mathematics and had interest in learning Mathematics; they are more strongly committed to their class activities than those with high level of anxiety. The results of this study would provide evidence that Mathematics anxiety has an important effect in Mathematics education that cannot be ignored. Therefore, teacher should be thinking on how to reduce pupils’ anxieties by finding better methods to teach Mathematics. Teacher should show their pupils a sincere, caring and positives attitude to help them overcome Mathematics anxiety. In curriculum design and in assessment practices, there should be more emphasis on conceptual understanding, which is shown to arouse less anxiety among low achieving pupils in a particular class. References Ashcraft, M.H. (2002). Math anxiety: Personal, educational, and cognitive consequences. ) ' ! , 11, 181 185. Ashcraft, M. H., & Kirk, E. P. (2001). The Relationship among Working Memory, Math Anxiety, and Performance. 5 % 7"# ' ! ,= $ (2), 224–237. Ashcraft, M.H. & Moore, A.M. (2009). Mathematics Anxiety and The Affective Drop in Performance. 5 %' + $ 27(3), 197 205. Baloglu, M. (2003). Individual Differences in Statistical Anxiety among College Students. ' . & ) %% $ (5), 855–865. Baloglu, M., & Kocak, R. (2006). A Multivariate Investigation of the Differences in Mathematics Anxiety. ' . & ) %% $ (7), 1325–1335. Garry,V.S (2005). The Effect of Mathematics Anxiety on the Course and Career Choice of High School. Ph. D. Thesis (Unpublished), Philadelphia: Drexel University. Goulding, M., Rowland, T., Barber, T. (2002). Does it matter? Primary Teachers Trainees’ 7 3 5 $ 28, 689 704. Subject Knowledge in Mathematics. A Hembree, R (1990). The Nature, Effects, and Relief of Mathematics Anxiety. 5 3 7 , 21(1):33–46. Ma, X. and Xu, J. (2004). The Causal Ordering of Mathematics Anxiety and Mathematics Achievement, A Longitudinal Panel Analysis. 5 %+ $ 27,165 179 National Mathematics Advisory Panel. (2007). Preliminary Report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. As part of the President’s competitiveness initiative through Executive order. 13398. Retrieved December16,2010,fromhttp://www2.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/report/final report.pdf. Woodard, T. (2004). The Effects of Math Anxiety on Post Secondary Developmental Students as related to Achievement, Gender, and Age, . B $ (1) Reyna, V.F. and Brainard, C.J. (2007). The Importance of Mathematics in Health and Human Judgment Numeracy, Risk Communication and Medical Decision Making. Learning and Individual Differences. 17(2) 147 159. Seligman, M.E.P., Walker, E.F. & Rosenhan, D.L. (2001). Abnormal psychology, (4th ed.) New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Stuart, V. (2000). Math curse or math anxiety? ! $ ?(5):330–335. Tapia, M. (2004). The relationship of math anxiety and gender. + 7" ! L . 8(2). Tobias, S. (1993). 1& ! " New York: W. W. Norton & Company. page 52. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 148 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 ACHIEVING NATIONAL UNITY THROUGH SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION By DR. JEROME ANYANWU Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. Phone: 2348035426411 e-mail: Jerome.anyawu@yahoo.com Abstract The paper discusses how national unity in Nigeria can be achieved through effective teaching and learning of Social Studies in our institutions of learning (Primary, secondary, and tertiary). The paper further identifies Government efforts since and after independence which are aimed at encouraging national unity. Social Studies curriculum content that engenders national unity, problems that have endangered the realization of national unity in Nigeria and above all, identified a missing link in the teaching and learning of Social Studies as an integrated and multi-disciplinary subject/course. Ultimately, the paper concludes that closing the identified missing link will help in achieving the needed national unity. Finally, recommendations on how Social Studies could help us achieve national unity in Nigeria were made. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 149 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The need and search for global peace and peaceful co existence has been the major goal and concern of UN’s member states and among the comity of Nations. Nigeria, a member of this comity is not an exception. This is, in appreciating of the fact that “No man is an Island”. It is also in appreciation of the fact that, as social beings, we work in association with others at both inter personal and group levels. Since after independence in 1960, the leadership of this country has made, and is still making efforts to maintain unity in the midst of diversity. Achieving unity in the mist of diversity will help promote peace and harmony, reduce conflicts and provide adequate security for lives and properties, create sustainable conditions for progress, lay good foundations for all forms of development and above all, enable us live together as brothers and sisters and as friends. Social studies education, if given its rightful place in the school curriculum (i.e. if made a core subject/course in our schools/institutions, and if property taught) will help achieve the most needed National Unity. This is because, its aims and objectives as an integrated and multi disciplinary subject/course, are derived and reflects that of the National philosophy, as stated in the National Policy on Education (2004:6) which included: Building a free and democratic society; A just and egalitarian society; A united, strong and self reliant nation; A great and dynamic economy; and A land of bright and full opportunities for all. It is also because, it equips learners with the basic concepts and skills necessary for life in any organized community or society. Today, the current societal status quo of high crime wave, incessant religious crisis, youth and ethnic restiveness, kidnappings, political, ethnic and religious killings, militancy, indiscipline, examination, election malpractices, incessant strike actions among others, puts one in doubt, about the relevance of Social Studies curriculum content in bringing about the needed social integration and National Unity, which are the societal ideals that motivated its introduction into the Nigerian school curriculum. This paper therefore, is an attempt to see how we can use Social Studies Education in achieving National Unity. 5 3 + ' " The government of this country since and after independence have, and is still keeping faith with a good number of policies and programmes aimed at ensuring that National Unity is achieved. Among such programmes and policies are: The introduction of quota system for admission into Nigerian higher schools and unity schools The introduction of the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) The recruitment of senior staff in the federal civil service The siting of Federal Universities and Industries The establishment of the federal character commission. The establishment of the National boundary commission The setting up of the National Orientation Agency (NOA) among others. All these, and many more are policies and programmes initiated by the government towards ensuring that National Unity, which is the corner stone of any responsible society is achieved. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 150 March, 2013 3 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). > M " N *) Cooperation and conflict are stated”. The objective of the topic is to explain the importance of cooperation between individual and states in the country. It also outlines the consequences of non cooperation as well as to accept the need for moral and social responsibility. $ + 5: it treats “Civic Rights and Responsibility”. i). The objective for this topic is to identified our various rights and obligations which includes: Right to vote and be voted for Freedom of Association Freedom of Movement Freedom of Expression Freedom of Worship ii). Also, we are taught why we should obey the laws of the community including the family, school, village, etc. Obey traffic regulations. Pay taxes. participate in political process. iii). iv). v). $ + 0: looks at “culture and identity”. Here we look at various aspect of culture, which includes: Religion, Dressing, Language, Literature, etc. Also, understanding the concept of identity and from what it is derives, example, Common traits and features peculiar to the people. Also to understand the meaning of integration when applied to peoples the necessity for integrating a country’s people. $ + &) treats the topic “Common Heritage and National Symbols”. Here we are taught the unifying effect of the common traits which includes: i. ii. iii. iv. 9 Traditional, Political and economic experience. Common socio economic experience: Occupation – Drivers, Yoruba trader. Common social institutions – Unity Schools, NYSC, University, Federal Civil Service, Church etc. Common historical experience – colonized by British, Independence. ,) $ + >: “Educational Institutions” are treated. Here, emphasis are laid on the school as an instrument of National Unity and Social Integration. Unity Schools are one of the main visions of the Government towards social integration. Colleges of Education, Higher institutions of learning. $ + ) the topic “Leadership, Followership and Consequences” is treated. Areas looked into here is: i. Identifying the qualities and types of leadership. ii. Make use of these qualities in the choice of your leaders. iii. Specify the consequence of good leadership, good followership, and their negation and recognize the rights of other to societal goods and services. 9 -) $ + >) “Social Environment” is treated. Here, the emphasis is to identify the models of social stratification. Also to explain the interrelationship of nations and community relationship. Here, we are taught how a community develops: Family Migration, Inter tribal Marriage, Mobility of Labour. $ + ) Socialization, human rights and responsibilities of the individuals in the society and the pattern of group behavior is taught. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 151 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ + 5) “Lack of cooperation and its effects”. Issues like social instability are discussed. Factors like crime, inefficiency, selfishness, youth restiveness in Niger Delta and how they contribute to instability, other factors include prostitution, youth delinquency, 419, truancy, child abuse/trafficking, etc. $ + ) “Culture and Identity”. Here, Culture, Identity and Integration are discussed. We are taught various aspect of culture including religion. Arts, Language, Literature, Music and dances, dressing, technology, etc. also, we understand the meaning of integration when applied to peoples and the necessity for integrating a country’s people. $ + =) “Common Heritage and National Symbols” which are: i. Appreciate the heritage of the various groups. ii. Explain the unifying effects of the common Traits. by common Traits, we mean: a. Common economic experience e.g. Football, Beauty Contest, NYSC, Marriage, Unity Schools. b. National Symbols: The National Flag, The National Anthem, The National Coat of Arms, The Pledge, etc. all bind us together as one. ( ) Federal Ministry of Education, Lagos, 1980 in Onyeneke et al, 2007). A synthesis of the above analysis on the Social Studies curriculum content, reveals that, Social Studies, if properly taught, made a core secondary school subject and a General Studies course (G.S) in our institutions of learning, has the inherent potentialities in helping us, achieve National Unity. The simple reason being that, social studies curriculum content as we have it today, dwells or emphasis more on the development of the affective domain, that is, our attitude i.e. relation to ourselves and others. Meziobi, (2008:13), affirming the affective dominance of Social Studies curriculum content, listed some of the affective learning content which the subject/discipline is based on. They include: Appropriate ways of greeting elders; Respect to elders, constituted authorities and obedience to them Loyalty to the family, community, local government, state and nation; Hospitality to people; Avoidance of taboos Familiarity with the people’s culture, traditions, ethics, folklore and mores and manifest respect and conformity to them. Learning the virtue of corporation, perseverance or endurance, self control or self discipline, truthfulness, loyalty, pertinence, obedience, courage, bravery, kindness, dedication to duty, hard work or diligence, tolerance, love for others, mutual harmony and recognition and pursuance of one’s right among others. # " Agbodike (1998:177) in federalism and political restructuring in Nigeria, noted the followings as the problems of Social Integration and National unity. The problem of acrimonious existence among the diverse groups and interests in the federation of Nigeria leading the mutual distrust and intercommunity conflicts. The fear of domination of ethnic groups or section and the national question of who gets what and how the national cake should be shared. Factors of historical evolution, disproportionate population sizes, unequal economic resources and educational attainment. There are, diversities too, in social wants, needs and preferences as well as in talents, opportunities. These and other differences tend to generate mutual suspicion and misunderstanding in the Nigerian body politics, social integration and threatened National Unity, w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 152 March, 2013 ' JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ! 1 + 2 There is no doubt, that the nation called “Nigeria”, is on the verge of losing grip of the societal ideals that informed the introduction of Social Studies as an integrated and multi disciplinary subject or discipline in our institutions of learning. (The training and development of functional and responsible citizens). The high crime wave, as noticed in the society today, is a pointer that the subject/discipline is not effectively taught and learnt in our schools. How can it be effectively taught and learnt when 70% of those that teach the subject are non specialist, that is, they are teachers and lecturers drawn from other social science, subjects/disciplines. And what they do is to look at man and his environment in parts, other than in totality as one who is trained in the subject matter tenets, will do. How also can it be, when they continually use the conventional lecture method in teaching the subject at the detriment of such activity based methods like inquiry, simulation/games, discussion, project dramatization, role playing, yield trip/excursion and the use of resource persons to mention a few. Gbamanja, (1997:135), opined that: A non teacher – cheats; A poor teacher – tells; An average or mediocre teacher – informs; A good teacher teaches; and An excellent teacher inspires While the trained social studies teacher is likened to an excellent teacher who inspires, a non social studies teacher is likened to that of a poor teacher who merely tells. This is true because he/she has not been trained in the tenets of the subject, and cannot in any way inspire the students to learn effectively. Also, the non making of social studies a core school subject in our secondary school and a General Studies course (G.S.) in our tertiary institutions, is yet another missing link affecting its effective teaching and learning and subsequently our National Unity. Education, according to John Darwin, is “growth leading to further growth”. This implies that, for education to achieve this all important growth, it must be a continuous thing or process. And this is the most reason why continuity is chosen as one of the criteria in organizing curriculum content. The teaching and learning of social studies in our schools today lacks this continuity. For instance, in our schools, Social Studies is taught and learnt at the primary, junior secondary and partially at the tertiary level. If I may ask, what about or what happens to the senior secondary stage or level? A stage, where many of our learners are in their adolescent stage. A stage where many are separated from their parents to attend schools outside their immediate environment. A level, when they need to understand themselves and the society they live in. A stage when they are to be guided and given the most needed attention in life. All these, no doubt, are denied them for lack of the teaching of the subject at that level – hence when they go to the university, they imbibe a life devoid of co operation and peaceful co existence which no doubt, are the basis or ingredients for a sustainable Social Integration and National Unity. Social Studies, if made a core subject/discipline in our schools/institutions, and if properly taught (i.e. by trained social studies teachers) will help us overcome the problems or challenges of social integration and national unity. This is because, social studies as we have it today, is rich in content and as such, is capable of taking us to the desired promise land of true “Federalism”, such as: • • • A land of National Unity and Social Integration. A land, where co operation and peaceful co existence will be the modus operandi of the people. A land, where such vices, like cultism, bribery and corruption, nepotism, favouritism, tribalism, election and examination malpractices, religious intolerance, kidnapping, militancy, trafficking in human and drug, rape and other mal adaptive behaviours will be minimized, if not eradicated. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 153 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Social Studies can therefore help us achieve all the above, through effective teaching and learning. All we need do, is to refocus the way it is taught (methodology), and ensure that it is handled by specialists in the area, and to make it a core subject/discipline so as to help close the identified missing link, that is, the teaching of the subject at the senior secondary level. Social Studies as an integrated and multi disciplinary subject/discipline, with its rich curriculum content, has all it takes to comfortably help us achieve the desired National Unity in this country. All that is needed is to ensure that the identified missing link in its teaching and learning is closed. The way it is currently taught and learnt in our schools today lacks continuity, which no doubt, is a major criteria in selecting and organizing curriculum content. To close the gap, will mean making it a core subject at all levels our secondary education and a general studies (G.S) course at all levels of tertiary education. Also, its teaching should be left in the hands of professionals trained in its subject matter content. A step towards reconciling all these will help us achieve M " N through Social Studies Education. $ Based on all I have discussed in this paper, and for Social Studies to take its rightful place in the Nigerian educational system, so as to achieve the needed National Unity, as is the crux of this paper, I recommend the followings: • • • • • • • • Social Studies education should be made a core teaching subject at the senior secondary schools level and a General Studies course (GS) at the tertiary level. There should be massive training and re training of teachers and lecturers in the field. There should be adequate provision of teaching aids and other instructional resources to enhance its effective teaching and learning at any level it is been taught and learnt. There should be the immediate implementation of the senior school social studies curriculum that has been in the cooler for years. Its curriculum should be made more embracing to include more teachings on national Unity and other emergent curriculum issues like that of the HIV/AIDS. The use of such innovative and activity based methods like simulation/games, field trips/excursion, discussion, inquiry etc. should be encouraged for use in its teaching and learning. There should be improved funding of the education industry by the government and other stakeholders in the industry. Regulatory agencies like the police, national boundary commission, federal character commission, national youth services corps (NYSC), among others, charged with the responsibility of provisions and enhancing social integration and national unity, be strengthened by the government through legislation as regards their powers and functions. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 154 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ Agbodike, C.C. (1998). Federal Character Principle and National Integration in Federalism and Political Restructuring in Nigeria: Ibadan, Spectrum Books Limited. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education. Abuja: NERDC Gbamanja, S.P.T. (1997). Curriculum Development and Implementation: New Strategies for the years. Paragraphic Publishers, Port Harcourt. Meziobi, K.A. Fubara V.R. and Meziobi S.A. (2008). Social Studies in Nigeria: Teaching Methods, Instructional Materials and Resources: Owerri: Acadapeak Publishers. Onyeneke C. et al. (2007). Achieving National Unity and Social Integration. A PGDE Seminar paper presented at the Institute of Education, University of Port Harcourt. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 155 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 COUNSELLING FOR FAMILY STABILITY AND SECURITY IN YENAGOA METROPOLIS OF BAYELSA STATE * NIGERIA. By JOHNSON E. MACIVER, Department of Educational Foundations Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island Bayelsa State E-mail: maciver.wip@ndu.edu.ng 08037460007 3# " % ## ! % ! * % %% & # ! % *> '. % * 4 $ " ? * E/ ! % ## % 4 * % # # '$ # # % % * K # > % % % ! # % * % % % # B ! # %A & ! * ! # % * / % !! * * % @ $ 8 *! !@ ## ! % ! * % $ / !# % ! $ ! w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m % * $ Page 156 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Family stability and security endows the society the peace, pleasures and development. But on the other side of the coin, the same can cause insecurity, displeasure and lack of meaningful development in the society. The husband, wife and children are the foundation of the family and counselors should endeavour to assist in resolving their conflicts. Ime (2006) opined, that a problem for one in the is a problem for all. and that they should be able to see themselves as one. Supporting this view, Maciver (2004) suggested “Effective Communication, Intimacy and problem solving Techniques” as a way of fostering unity and stability in the family. = + 0 Family intimacy and stability can be destabilized by some factors. These are in most cases from within and outside the family circle such as in laws, the workplaces, churches, schools friends, parents, illness, social needs e.t.c. Walsh (1998) identified three major family clusters of qualities to include cohesion, flexibility and communication that threatens family stability no matter how united they are. In his view, family cohesion means commitments and togetherness. Here, while commitment is trust, honesty, faithfulness, and togetherness involves spending time together in activities, feelings and ideas. Secondly, family flexibility means managing stress and building up spirituality. This will involve the use of resources in helping each other, coping with cries and forgiving inspite of cries. Spirituality includes emotional stability, happiness, optimism faith, hope and moral building of the family Thirdly, communication in the family must be effective positively which will attract affection, mutuality, respect for one another and, finally security/stability will become dividends. In another vain, Boss (1999) identified twelve kinds of family stresses (grouped in pairs) that threatens family stabilities. They are: (i) Internal/External: events like suicide, drunkenness, violence etc, from within or outside, affecting the family stability. (ii) Normative/Non normative: such as earthquakes, terrorism, and cultural issues. While the former include events expected in family such marriage birth, launching, adolescence, agency and death. The later are the unexpected such as divorce, youthful death, hostage, etc. (iii) Ambiguous / Non ambiguous: events the family are not sure of; such loss of job. While the non ambiguous ones are known facts, like thunder, flood, etc. (iv) Volitional / Non volitional: desires sought after like job change, wanted babies, admissions. But non volitional are like loss of job, loss of loved ones, etc. (v) Chronic/Acute: while the former include unhelpable events such diabetes, discrimination, etc. the latter are events are events that last shortly like losing a job. (vi) Cumulative/Isolation: piled up events coming up in chains that need attention. While the isolated events are those that can easily pinpointed. Kurdek (1994) observed that jealousy, power tussle and disagreement about sexual intercourse can cause threat to family stability and security. Others include barrenness, lack of male children, lack of valve consensus, sexual gratification, and letting out family secret (Eneh and Ndom 1996). Finally, Christensen and Heavey (1993) identified demand withdrawal and interaction pattern as factors that threaten family stability and security. And that there are three components of this pattern. First is initiation made by one of the spouse but withdrawn by the other. Interaction is the second one is which the demanding spouse nags but the withdrawing spouse just keep mute. Criticism is the last one which is always made by the demanding partner while the other stays on the defensive end. No matter how stabile a family unit may be there are always moments of instabilities intermittently in their life time. When storm comes their ability to handle it is what matters. The use of effective communication, intimacy and problem solving styles (Maciver, 2004) to a great and reasonable extent help to promote family stability and security. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 157 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). @ 0 # Before the end of the 19th century, traditional counselors who were mainly experienced married people, native doctors, priests, etc were the notable family counselors that help to prop family stability when there are conflicts. The immediate family members, community heads, etc were not left out. But at the dawn of the 20th century series of the health professionals who were trained on issues about life problems using theories about scientific human conduct and character emerged. For instance the psychoanalytic school of Sigmund Freud therapeutically treated milder ranges of milder troubles associated with family conflicts. It was even discovered that the families were sources of problems or troubles for the individual members. Beside the Freudian therapeutic remedies, other professions of mental health workers emerged. These were the psychiatric social workers, clinical psychologists, the psychotherapists and above all the marriage counsellor to mention but a few. All of them borrowed leaves from Freud and attempted in various added techniques to provide remedies to family conflicts and stresses. One common setback in all these attempts was heavy reliance on the past by “talking” only with client which yielded no better results. But after the Second World War, those psychologist and sociologists who were less influenced by Freudian psychologist took newer dimensions such as changes that must be made in life situation without reference to the past. In this direction, Ime (2006) opined that “the past will make you sad, the present will keep you thinking, and the future is hopeful”, suggesting that we should live in our present and future, not the past. However, the past could not be undermined totally because troubled families as it were, were not living in isolation of the past. They had parents of the past, through living in the present. It became obvious that bad past may have caused the present conflicts and a total isolation of the past was inevitable. There arose the technique of “intervention” in the environment which led to forming newer forms of therapy for the individuals and the family. This became the dawn of family counseling, with special attention on the “change of the current living situation” caused by the past; to bear on couples, lovers, parents versus child(ren) or groups of people living together. According to Rao (1987), there are four kinds of family counselling which include: (i) The conjoint family counselling focuses on the total family problem and one member is dealt with one after the other by the counsellor so as to understand the family interactional patterns within them. (ii) The Multiple impact counselling Many counselors, in this style, work with individuals in the family over a period of time. One demerit of this counselling is that because there are many conservative people in our society/lack of experienced counsellors, this type may not yield expected results. (iii) Network Counselling Approach – which focuses on the family and the immediate neigbours, relatives, friends, e.t.c. it is aimed at creating a warm social network for the particular family in trouble. (iv) Multiple family counselling – this is when the counsellor(s) worked together with concerned families at the same time which equally enhance social facilitation. Besides, Maciver (2012) has suggested “behavior modification” in which the BCA is the family therapy gives little advice, but plans and strategizes for behaviour changes, using the individuals current life situations, not the past. Eneh & Ndom (1998) looked at the individuals of the family to be the focus in traditional and contemporary context. That traditionally, focus should be beamed on the individual, the past, use non intervenist / non directive, develop insight and adjust the clients to the situation. But contemporarily, focus should be on the individual in context/sets of individuals, use the present, intervene/plan for change, change behaviour and the person should be seen as okay. It is observed that there is no one family counselling type that is the best. But in the view of Gagnon & Greenblat (1978) the contemporary family counselling and marriage counselling tend to be paying off in modern times. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 158 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The purpose of this study is to find out the causes of family conflicts among couples in Yenagoa Metropolis. And recommend ways of resolving family conflicts for family stability and security. This study attempted to provide answer to the following questions as remediations to family instability and insecurity. 1. What are some of the perceived causes of conflict/instability in the family? 2. What are the remedies for family instability? ' This study is a survey research which involves the use of a research designed questionnaire administered on 240 subjects (120 wives and 120 husbands). The subjects were drawn randomly from different churches in Yenagoa Metropolis of Bayelsa State. The mean age for the wives was 35 years, while that of the husbands was 40 years. The subjects have been married for an average of 12 yeares. And as a metropolis and a headquarter, Yenagoa is a home for many Nigerians both in business, civil services and government employment. This is why the choice of the churches, so as to reach to many subjects of diverse Nigeria ethnicities. The instrument is a researcher designed 28 items self report questionnaire. It was designed by this researcher with an internal consistency of 0.78 and test retest reliability of 0.76 over a period of four weeks with 30 couples that were not used for this research. 3 % The used church members and their officers assisted the researcher in the administration of the questionnaire. The filling of the questionnaire was not made compulsory, but that it was for research purpose only. And respondents were instructed to tick the items that represent the causes of their conflicts or instabilities. The questions were structured on a four point scale of Strongly Agree (SA) = 4; Agree (A) = 3; Disagree (D) = 2 and Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1 3 Data collected were analysed using the descriptive statistics of frequency, percentage and ranking. Any items with perception mean score (PMS) of less than the perception mean score of the subjects was regarded as low and, therefore rejected as a weak indicator. On the other hand, those items with perception mean score (PMS) equal to or higher than the perception mean score (PMS) of the subjects were regarded as acceptable to the subjects in this study. $ # )$ $ # $ H ,/6 9 $ 1. 2. 3 4. 5. 6. 7 8. E # Staying overnight without permission Ineffective communication Lack of sexual satisfaction Shadow love Dodging the needs of the children Always getting poor report about spouse Very secretive with income Not always feeding in the house 174 137 137 135 135 135 135 133 J 5.8* 5.3* 4.7* 4.7* 4.7* 4.5* 4.3* 4.1* w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m 66 103 102 104 104 103 106 107 J 1.2 1.6 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.8 Page 159 March, 2013 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. E>) JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Attend different churches Stubborn and disobedient Lack of trust Unkempt home Poverty Childlessness Inability to manage feeding money Too many family friends Allowing children to cook Joblessness Ingratitude Leaves home without a word Unfaithfulness Sickness Rampant in laws visit Too greedy Insufficient feeding money Age differences Mismanagement of income House maid. ' #? 1 ' 133 132 132 132 132 130 130 130 128 128 127 120 120 127 104 108 103 111 100 100 4.1* 4.1* 4.1* 4.1* 4.1* 3.3* 3.3* 3.3* 3.1* 3.1* 3.1* 3.0* 3.0* 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.5 2.5 2.3 2.2 107 108 108 107 106 108 110 110 111 111 113 119 120 126 126 131 136 136 139 140 2.8 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.9 2.9 2.9 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.9 3.9 4.1 4.3 4.3 4.5 4.7 2 H - 6O From Table I above the causes of conflicts and instabilities in families in the metropolis and elsewhere in descending manner include; staying overnight without permission, ineffective communication, lack of sexual satisfaction, shadow love, dodging the needs of the children, always getting poor reports about spouse, secretiveness with income, not always feeding in the home, attendance of different churches, stubborn and disobedient, lack of trust, unkempt home, poverty, childlessness, inability to manage feeding money, too many family friends, allowing children to cook, joblessness, ingratitude, leaving home without a word and unfaithfulness. The mentioned causes above are significant because the Percentage Mean Scores are either greater or equal to the overall Percentage Mean. # $ 1. 2. 3 4. 5. 6. 7 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. )$ # Staying overnight without permission Ineffective communication Lack of sexual satisfaction Shadow love Dodging the needs of the children Always getting poor report about spouse Very secretive with income Not always feeding in the house Attend different churches Stubborn and disobedient Lack of trust Unkempt home Poverty Childlessness Inability to manage feeding money # $ & # 2 5 3 4 5 3 15 8 21 11 13 25 8 17 15 K # $ # 4 2 7 5 6 8 11 3 13 5 17 9 7 13 12 17 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m H ,/6 . 0 2 2 2 5 8 12 4 16 6 14 18 5 5 2 Page 160 March, 2013 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. . JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Too many family friends Allowing children to cook Joblessness Ingratitude Leaves home without a word Unfaithfulness Sickness Rampant in laws visit Too greedy Insufficient feeding money Age differences Mismanagement of income House maid. P ' H *:*E,; H 7 19 21 17 22 15 9 17 15 11 26 23 25 27 15 14 12 5 3 5 19 21 9 29 27 29 25 4 7 5 17 12 4 2 6 2 3 4 4 2 E>) ' . 1 ' .2 H 7 From the Table above, there are ten main causes of conflicts instabilities in marital unions. Those perceived by the husbands include always getting poor reports about spouse, stubborn and disobedient and rampant in law visits. While those perceived by the wives include; very secretive with income, attendance to different churches, lack of trust, unkempt home, allowing children to do the cooking, ingratitude and leaves home without a word From Table II above, the Percentage Mean Score Variance (PMSV) is 6, which means that any variance which is not equal to 6 or greater than 6 is less significant as a factor that provoke conflict/instability in any marriage in the area. From Table II again, it is made manifest that “staying overnight without permission” is ranked first by both husbands and wives. It produced a zero variance. Ranked from Table I are the chronological causes, in order of perception by the husbands and wives, of the causes of conflicts / instabilities in marital unions in the metropolis and elsewhere in Nigeria. But in final analysis, it was seen from Table I too that issues like sickness, in law, insufficient feeding money, age differences, income mismanagement and housemaid were not serious enough to cause conflict/instability in any matrimony and so they were not significant. % ) What are some of the perceived causes of conflict/ instability in the family? Conflicts means the act of choosing between two incompatible or contradictory needs, desires, wishes or motives (Coon, 1996). Conflicts arise when a choice is made and there is no consensus between the involved individuals. At least there are four known forms of conflicts which include: 3 ) Choosing between two positive or desirable needs or alternatives. 3 ) When an individual is forced to choose between two negative or undesirable alternatives or needs 3 ) Is when we want and don’t want something at the same time. # ) When one is forced to choose between two things in which each choice has positive and negative qualities w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 161 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ' There are above nine coping strategies to conflicts (Gagnon and Greenbalt, 1978). They are: Fail to notice event or to define it as an event Notice the event but ignore it Notice the event and get used to it Notice the event and leave Notice the event end eject the offender Notice the event and attempt to change oneself or the other aspects of one’s life to cope with it. Notice the event and apply internal family resources to return things to their old state or to attain a new better state. Notice the event but adopt a strategy which may largely deflect attention and energy away from the problem itself. These conflicts/instability strategies sometimes work depending on how committed the individual is to the problem. Socially, most of these coping mechanisms in our society are used mostly because of the adage that says, “keep on trying until solutions will be attained”. It is a truism that impression without expression ends in depression. In another vain, Olson and Degrain (2000) recommended sixteen golden guides for marital conflicts resolution; which includes: Negotiate from the Adult position Avoid ultimatums Remember that if one loses both lose Say what you really mean Avoid accusation and attack Own your own feelings first Always cheek out your perceptions State your wishes and requests clearly Never use sex or gender as a means for disagreement Repeat the message you think your receive Refuse to fight dirty Resist giving the silent treatment Focus on the issue and focus on the present Call “time out” “foul” – i.e use time out when verbal interchanges get too intense Use humour and comic relief i.e laughing intermittently Always go for closure – i.e quitting the argument when the ovation is loudest to reconvene again if inconclusive. The botton line is that if a winner and a loser is declared, intimacy decreases. Thus Kilmann and Thomas (1975) opined that in a constructive conflict resolution, past issues, share both positive and negative feelings, provide information in an open manner, accept mutual blame and search for similarities. Intimacy increases when both partners are declared winners and trust will wax. These researchers pinned down five styles in conflicts/resolutions martially, which includes: ) 8 Used by people who are aggressive and unco0operative and pursuing Personal concerns at the expense of the others # ) 8 These people are highly assertive, but have concern for others. ) 8 This style of conflict resolution is quick to time. It is not time consuming and emphasizes that relationship is one between equals. 3 ) It is non assertive and passive. Avoiders pursue neither their concerns nor that of others. Its good side is that it gives time to work out strategies of whether to go on or not. 3 ) It is non assertive but co operative. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 162 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Accommodators put aside personal gains to satisfy those of others. Wilmot and Hocker (1998) opined that there is no superior style of marital conflict resolution, but that the situation of the conflict must be cautiously and thoughtfully handled. Such cautions include the level of investment in the conflict argument merits and the involved personalities > $ 0 # E There are about six known strategies by family therapists in conflict resolution martially. These are: 1. Non ambiquity in issues: it means clarifying issues by using the following techniques. (i) Both partners made to spend time alone to think through their conflicts (ii) Both partners should try to understand fully what the other partner is saying (iii) Each partner should ensure the discussion is kept focus (iv) Each partner should sum up what the other partner has said at the end. 2. Know each other’s dos/donts. 3. Ranking preferences: i.e identifying various alternatives of each other. 4. Negotiation on issues: i.e deciding on how to negotiate. The strategies to be used include (i) Uid pro quo – (Latin); “this for that”. This means “I will do this if you’ll do that” (ii) Quid pro quid – (Latin) “this for this” i.e doing something the other person ask you to do in exchange for being able to do something you want to do (iii) Agreeing to disagree: i.e when no mutual agreement is attainable. 5. Agreement confirmation: i.e solidifying agreement. Such final agreement(s) should be written down for easy referencing to avoid distortion 6. Appraising / Reappraising of Agreement: i.e Reviewing and renegotiating the decisions reached. If agreements are broken down, partners should remind themselves to avoid disillusion. The functions of the family in Nigeria and elsewhere in the world include economic dispensations, protective, educational, legal, recreational and religious endowments, to the immediate family, the community, the state and the country at large. For this and many others, the family units need adequate counseling for a formidable stability. This is a truism be causes many families are in consistent conflict and instabilities over discourse over job, rumours of what they say about ones spouse, love issues, leaving home without a word, unkempt home, etc. without mincing words the counseling therapies for these marital ailments have been dished out in this study for a possible remediation. Thus, marital counsellors and others are enjoined to borrow leaves from this study’s doses in this study to ensure that stabilities and security is attained in the Nigeria families’ life for economic, political, religious, cultural and marital growth. $ Aloafe L. A (1991). 7 ! ( / % + ' # .N 9 ' * !( Boss P. (1999). + * ! < ,< ! & & ! %. Cambridge: Howard University Press. Christensen A. & Heavey C. L (1993). = ) %% ( % , # In S. Oskamp & M. Costenzo (Eds). Gender issues in Contemporary Society. Newbury Park: G. A. Sage Press. Cooley L. (2010). ' %= #, 4 = #( ! Oaks: Corwin Press Eneh G. A. & Ndom O. T. (1998). ! 4 ( % , . # % ( ! In the counselling 14 (1), August, 22 – 26. Gagnon J. H. & Greenblat C. S. (1978) < % ! ,. & $! 4 . London: Scott, Foresman & Co. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 163 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). George I. N. (1996). - ! !:! ( # Goldman D. (1988). 2 / ! 7 . ! : New York: Bantam Books Ltd. nd Karen H. (1991). ' ! + (2 Ed). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Maciver J. E. (2004). 7%% & %( $. ' * Q & ! B / ! ! 2 / !( ( # : Unpublished Ph.D, Thesis of Delta State University, Abraka Nigeria. Maciver J. E. (2012). ' # ' % = ( !. Ughelli: P.E Chans Press. Mayer Y. & Cobb C. (2000). 7 ' 7 . ! ,) / D Educational Psychology Review. 12 (2) 165 – 181. Olson D. H. & Defrain J. (2000). ! 4 )& ! . London: London Publishing Company Savovey, P. & Mayer, J. (1990). 7 . ! 0# . 1 (9) 2 – 11 Walsh, F. (1998). ! !4 3 . New York: Guilford Press. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 164 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 ASSESSMENT OF THE KNOWLEDGE LEVEL AND APPLICATION OF METACOGNITIVE LEARNING SKILLS AMONG DISTANCE LEARNING STUDENTS OF UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, NIGERIA By OJOKHETA, K.O. PhD Senior Lecturer, Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria E-mail: kojokheta@yahoo.com Website: www.edu.ui.edu.ng/KOOjokheta Tel No: +2348062746167 & NWOGU, G.A. M.Ed Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria E-mail: ayodejinwogu@yahoo.com Tel No: +2348035483585 3# 8 ! @C C ! # B ! B - ! = 4 & ! & < % ! %% % & %% / %) ! & < ! / ! ! # # ! & %% % ! % # # % # # & / $ %8 / $ ! / % !$ ! & / ! %! %6 & % % # ! ! ! # # % ## !. % & 8 # / ! %# # & & # ! B % & ) ) < L * 4 ! / ! % ! & & * ## ! ! # ! & / %/ # # ! ! # % & ! / % < ! $ :! # # ! & ! % %% & ! $ ## % $ ! / "8# % # # # 9 % ! %8 B !! -< )<L ) ! % # # % # ! / % ! & / ! 4 $ > % / B , %8 "# # $ %8B ! / A & # ! # / ! % ! % % ) knowledge level, Metacognitive Learning Skills, Effective Learning, Distance Learning Students, w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 165 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Learning how to learn, developing a repertoire of thinking processes which can be applied to solve problems, is a major goal of education. Metacognition is often simply defined as "thinking about thinking." In actuality, defining Metacognition is not that simple. Although, the term has been part of the vocabulary of educational psychologists for the last couple of decades, and the concept for as long as humans have been able to reflect on their cognitive experiences, there is much debate over exactly what Metacognition is. One reason for this confusion is the fact that there are several terms currently used to describe the same basic phenomenon (e.g., self regulation, executive control), or an aspect of that phenomenon (e.g., meta memory), and these terms are often used interchangeably in the literature. Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Activities such as planning how to approach a given learning task, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating progress toward the completion of a task are Metacognitive in nature. Metacognition enables learners to be successful in their learning and has been associated with intelligence (e.g., Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987; Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b). Because Metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is important to study Metacognitive activity and development to determine how students can be taught to better apply their cognitive resources through Metacognitive control. It is on the basis of this that this study was carried out to assess the knowledge level and application of Metacognitive learning skills among distance learners of Distance Learning Institute of University of Lagos, Nigeria. # Distance learning students encounter many learning difficulties as a result of the many responsibilities they are saddled with which, most times, interfere with their learning programme. Therefore, to improve their learning outcome, they need to possess Metacognitive learning skills. It is, therefore, imperative to find out the knowledge level of these learners and the extent to which they apply these skills in their learning. This study is, thus, being carried out in fulfilment of this need among distance learning students of Distance Learning Institute, University of Lagos, Nigeria (#? The objectives of this study are, to: 1. Assess the knowledge level of Metacognitive learning in meeting cognitive goal among the Distance learning students. 2. Find out which of the Metacognitive Learning skills are frequently applied by the learners in their learning. 3. Ascertain the Metacognitive skills and strategies that the respondents will like to acquire in order to improve their learning skills and academic performance? $ % For the purpose of statistical analysis, these objectives were turned to research questions as follows: 1. What is the knowledge level of Metacognitive learning among Distance learning students selected for the study? 2. To what extent do these learners applied Metacognitive Learning skills in their learning. 3. What are the Metacognitive skills and strategies that the respondents will like to acquire in order to improve their learning skills and academic performance? w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 166 March, 2013 ! $ JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). + ' ! Metacognition is a regulatory system that helps a person understand and control his or her own cognitive performance. Metacognition allows people to take charge of their own learning. It involves awareness of how they learn, an evaluation of their learning needs, generating strategies to meet these needs and then implementing the strategies. (Hacker, 2009). According to Flavell (1979, 1987), Metacognition consists of both Metacognitive knowledge and Metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell further divides Metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person variables, task variables and strategy variables. Stated very briefly, knowledge of person variables refers to general knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of one's own learning processes. For example, one may be aware that one’s study session will be more productive if one works in the library rather than at home where there are many distractions. Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual. For example, one may be aware that it will take more time for one to read and comprehend a science text than it would for one to read and comprehend a novel. Finally, knowledge about strategy variables include knowledge about both cognitive and Metacognitive strategies, as well as conditional knowledge about when and where it is appropriate to use such strategies. ' $ Metacognitive experiences involve the use of Metacognitive strategies or Metacognitive regulation (Brown, 1987). Metacognitive strategies are sequential processes that one uses to control cognitive activities, and to ensure that a cognitive goal (e.g., understanding a text) has been met. These processes help to regulate and oversee learning, and consist of planning and monitoring cognitive activities, as well as checking the outcomes of those activities. For example, after reading a paragraph in a text, a learner may question himself or herself about the concepts discussed in the paragraph. His or her cognitive goal is to understand the text. Self questioning is a common Metacognitive comprehension monitoring strategy. If he or she finds that he or she cannot answer his or her own questions, or that he or she does not understand the material discussed, he or she must then determine what needs to be done to ensure that he or she meets the cognitive goal of understanding the text. One may then decide to go back and re read the paragraph with the goal of being able to answer the questions one had generated. If, after re reading through the text, one can now answer the questions, one may determine that one understands the material. Thus, the Metacognitive strategy of self questioning is used to ensure that the cognitive goal of comprehension is met. ' Metacognitive experiences usually precede or follow a cognitive activity. They often occur when cognitions fail, such as the recognition that one did not understand what one just read. Such an impasse is believed to activate Metacognitive processes as the learner attempts to rectify the situation (Roberts & Erdos, 1993). Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap in that the same strategy, such as questioning, could be regarded as either a cognitive or a Metacognitive strategy depending on what the purpose for using that strategy may be. For example, one may use a self questioning strategy while reading as a means of obtaining knowledge (cognitive), or as a way of monitoring what one has read (Metacognitive). Dirkes, (1985) classified the basic metacognitive strategies into three categories, which are: 1. Connecting new information to former knowledge. 2. Selecting thinking strategies deliberately. 3. Planning, monitoring, and evaluating thinking processes. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 167 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Knowledge is considered to be Metacognitive if it is actively used in a strategic manner to ensure that a goal is met. For example, a student may use knowledge in planning how to approach an examination: "I know that I (person variable) have difficulty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer the computational problems first and save the word problems for last (strategy variable)." Simply possessing knowledge about one's cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the nature of the task without actively utilizing this information to oversee learning is not Metacognitive. ' Metacognition or the ability to control one's cognitive processes (self regulation) has been linked to intelligence (Borkowski et al., 1987; Brown, 1987; Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b). Sternberg refers to these processes as "metacomponents" in his triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1984, 1986a, 1986b). Metacomponents are processes that control other cognitive components as well as receive feedback from these components. According to Sternberg, (1986), metacomponents are responsible for "figuring out how to do a particular task or set of tasks, and then making sure that the task or set of tasks are done correctly". These processes involve planning, evaluating and monitoring problem solving activities. He maintains that the ability to appropriately allocate cognitive resources, such as deciding how and when a given task should be accomplished, is central to intelligence. ' Although, individuals of normal intelligence are expected to engage in Metacognitive regulation when confronted with a cognitive task, some individuals are more Metacognitive than others. Those with greater Metacognitive abilities tend to be more successful in their cognitive endeavours. Thus, individuals can learn how to better regulate their cognitive activities. Most often, Metacognitive instruction occurs within Cognitive Strategy Instruction programmes. Cognitive Strategy Instruction (CSI) is an instructional approach which emphasizes the development of thinking skills and processes as a means to enhance learning. The objective of CSI is to enable all learners to become more strategic, self reliant, flexible, and productive in their learning endeavours (Scheid, 1993). CSI is based on the assumption that there are identifiable cognitive strategies, previously believed to be utilized by only the best and the brightest students, which can be taught to most students (Halpern, 1996). The use of these strategies has been associated with successful learning (Borkowski, Carr, & Pressley, 1987; Garner, 1990). Metacognition enables students to benefit from instruction (Carr, Kurtz, Schneider, Turner and Borkowski, 1989; Van Zile Tamsen, 1996) and influences the use and maintenance of cognitive strategies. While there are several approaches to Metacognitive instruction, the most effective involves providing the learner with both knowledge of cognitive processes and strategies (to be used as Metacognitive knowledge), and experience or practice in using both cognitive and Metacognitive strategies and evaluating the outcomes of their efforts (develops Metacognitive regulation). Simply providing knowledge without experience or vice versa does not seem to be sufficient for the development of Metacognitive control (Livingston, 1996). The study of Metacognition has provided educational psychologists with insight about the cognitive processes involved in learning and what differentiates successful students from their less successful peers. It also holds several implications for instructional interventions, such as teaching students how to be more aware of their learning processes and products as well as how to regulate those processes for more effective learning. Heller, (1986) identified the strategies for developing Metacognitive Behaviours. These are: 1. Q+ +Q Q+ R + Q At the beginning of a learning or research activity, students need to make conscious decisions about their knowledge. Initially, students write "What I already know about..." and "What I want to learn about...." As students research the topic, they will verify, clarify and expand, or replace with more accurate information, each of their initial statements. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 168 March, 2013 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). # Talking about thinking is important because students need a thinking vocabulary. During planning and problem solving situations, teachers should think aloud so that students can follow demonstrated thinking processes. Modelling and discussion develop the vocabulary students need for thinking and talking about their own thinking. Labelling thinking processes when students use them is also important for student recognition of thinking skills. Paired problem solving is another useful strategy. One student talks through a problem, describing his thinking processes. His partner listens and asks questions to help clarify thinking. Similarly, in reciprocal teaching (Palinscar, Ogle, Jones, Carr, & Ransom, 1986), small groups of students take turns playing teacher, asking questions, and clarifying and summarizing the material being studied. = ? Another means of developing Metacognition is through the use of a journal or learning log. This is a diary in which students reflect upon their thinking, make note of their awareness of ambiguities and inconsistencies, and comment on how they have dealt with difficulties. This journal is a diary of process. 8 Students must assume increasing responsibility for planning and regulating their learning. It is difficult for learners to become self directed when learning is planned and monitored by someone else. Students can be taught to make plans for learning activities including estimating time requirements, organizing materials, and scheduling procedures necessary to complete an activity. The resource centre’s flexibility and access to a variety of materials allows the student to do just this. Criteria for evaluation must be developed with students so they learn to think and ask questions of themselves as they proceed through a learning activity. # Closure activities focus student discussion on thinking processes to develop awareness of strategies that can be applied to other learning situations. A three step method is useful. First, the teacher guides students to review the activity, gathering data on thinking processes and feelings. Then, the group classifies related ideas, identifying thinking strategies used. Finally, they evaluate their success, discarding inappropriate strategies, identifying those valuable for future use, and seeking promising alternative approaches. 85 Guided self evaluation experiences can be introduced through individual conferences and checklists focusing on thinking processes. Gradually self evaluation will be applied more independently. As students recognize that learning activities in different disciplines are similar, they will begin to transfer learning strategies to new situations. ' The study adopted the descriptive survey design of the ex post facto type because none of the variables of the study was manipulated. The population of the study comprised all the distance learning students of the Distance Learning Institute of University of Lagos. The sample size was 350 distance learning students selected through purposive sampling technique from seven departments. 50 distance learning students were each selected from the following Departments: Educational Management, Economics, Business Administration, Political science, Psychology, English, and Mass Communication. Five research questions were raised for the study. Data were collected through a self structured questionnaire tagged Metacognitive Learning Skills among Distance Learners Questionnaire (MLSDLQ) r=88. Data collected were analysed through simple percentages and cross tabulation. The study was conducted in 2010/2011 face to face contact period. 335 questionnaire were found correctly filled and were used for analysis. $ 0 The analysis of the respondents demographic characteristics showed that the age range of the respondents was between 28 58 years. 62.4% (n=209) were male while 37.6% (n=126) were female. 94.6% (n=317) were married while 3.4% (n=18) were single. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 169 March, 2013 $ % # . *) JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ( ) + + $ = + # Setting of cognitive goal 73 (21.8%) 211 (62.9%) Analysis and Conscious study of past Questions Identifying key issues/points discussed on each course outline Mapping of self structured questions on each outline Conscious reading to answer self structured questions Self motivation to learn Self questioning when reading 292 (87.1%) 43 (12.9%) 44 13.1%) 267 (79.7%) 24 (7.2%) 53 15.8%) 238 (71.0%) 44 (13.1%) 51 (15.2%) 243 (72.5%) 41 (12.2%) 313 (93.4%) 28 (8.4%) 18 (5.4%) 298 (88.9%) 04 (1.2%) 09 (2.7%) 287 (85.7%) 12 (3.6%) 277 (82.7%) 05 (1.5%) Self regulation (ability to 36 (10.7%) control one’s cognitive processes) Self preparation in deciding 53 (15.8%) how a likely question will be answered in the Exam Self assessment to determine 41 (12.2%) learning progress 51 (15.2%) 294 (87.8%) In this research question, respondents were asked to determine which of the ten above items they consider as study skills. Only two items were classified as important study skills (self motivation to learn 313 or 93.4% and analysis/conscious study of past questions 292 or 87.1%). The other eight items were not considered as important study skills. This shows that respondents do not have sufficient information and knowledge of study skills grouped under Metacognitive learning skills. The overall implication of this is that the respondents do not possess sufficient knowledge of Metacognitive learning skills. 1. $ % + ) To what extent do these learners applied Metacognitive Learning skills in their learning. # . ) $ # + ' 0 @ Setting of cognitive goal 22 (6.6%) Analysis and Conscious study 62 (18.5%) of past Questions Identifying key issues/points 03 (0.9%) discussed on each course outline ! ( 40 (11.9%) 76 (22.7%) 273 (81.5%) 197 (58.8%) 15 (4.5%) 317 (94.6%) w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 170 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Mapping of self structured questions on each outline Conscious reading to answer self structured questions Self motivation to learn Self questioning when reading 09 (2.7%) 19 (5.7%) 307 (91.6%) 09 (2.7%) 19 (5.7%) 307 (91.6%) 313 (93.4%) 11 (3.3%) 18 (5.4%) 38 (11.3%) 04 (1.2%) 286 (85.4%) 18 (5.4%) 312 (93.1%) 19 (5.7%) 308 (91.9%) 31 (9.3%) 293 (87.5%) Self regulation (ability to 05 (1.5%) control one’s cognitive processes) Self preparation in deciding 08 (2.4%) how a likely question will be answered in the Exam Self assessment to determine 11 (3.3%) learning progress From the result obtained in table two, it shows that significant proportion of the respondents have not been applying Metacognitive skills in their learning. The most surprising of this finding is that even though the respondents recognised that the analysis and conscious study of past questions is a study skill, yet majority of the respondents (197 or 58.8%) do not apply this skill in their learning. The implication of this finding is that quite a number of the respondents do not plan their learning since they do not apply Metacognitive learning skills in their study or learning. 1. $ % ) What are the Metacognitive skills and strategies that the respondents will like to acquire in order to improve their learning skills and academic performance? 2. # )$ + ' @ Teaching on how to Very important Less important Not important Ask Questions 03 (0.9%) Teaching on how to 02 (0.6%) foster self reflection self assessment skills 83 (24.8%) 8 8 Self questioning skill 52 (15.5%) 8 8 Teaching on how to 02 (0.6%) 8 8 engage in autonomous learning Provision of access to 02 (0.6%) 8 8 mentors Solving problem with 04 (1.2%) 8 8 a team Teaching how to 03 (0.9%) 8 8 think aloud self explanation skill 121 (36.1%) 8 8 Mastering skill of key 63 (8.8%) 8 8 issues/points in paragraphs The result obtained in table three shows that the most important Metacognitive skill that they will like to acquire is self explanation skill (121 or 36.1%). This is followed by self assessment skill (83 or 24.8%). The next skill that the respondents prefer to acquire is mastering skill of key issues or points in w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 171 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). paragraphs (63 or 18.8%) and this is followed by self questioning skill 52 or (15.5%). The implication of this finding is that out of the ten Metacognitive learning skills presented above, only four of the learning skills were found by the respondents to be highly important to be possessed as study skills. 0 Findings of this study have shown that significant proportion of the respondents surveyed do not possess sufficient information and knowledge of Metacognitive learning skills. This finding agrees with the submission of Hacker, Douglas, Dunlosky, and Graesser (2009) when they contended that “many people specifically don’t know how to look inward to examine how they learn and to judge what is effective”. Similarly, findings of this study revealed that significant proportion of the surveyed respondents do not apply Metacognitive learning skills in their learning probably as a result of their insufficient knowledge of these learning skills and strategies. Yet, according to White, Barbara and John Frederiksen (2005), “Metacognitive knowledge is crucial for efficient independent learning because it fosters forethought and self reflection”. Finally, the respondents wished that they possess four important Metacognitive learning skills and strategies which are: self explanation skill, self assessment skill, mastering skill of key issues or points in paragraphs, and self questioning skill. This shows that distance learning students ought to be taught Metacognitive learning skill in order to improve their learning. This was buttressed by Nietfeld & Shraw, (2002; Thiede, Anderson, & Therriault, (2003) when they contended that metacognitive skills can be taught to students to improve their learning. They argued that “constructing understanding requires both cognitive and metacognitive elements. Learners construct knowledge using cognitive strategies, and they guide, regulate, and evaluate their learning using metacognitive strategies. It is through metacognitive strategies that real learning occurs. As students become more skilled at using metacognitive strategies, they gain confidence and become more independent as learners”. From the submission of the above scholars, it can be concluded that individuals with well developed metacognitive skills can think through a problem or approach a learning task, select appropriate strategies, and make decisions about a course of action to resolve the problem or successfully perform the task. Moreover, individuals who demonstrate a wide variety of Metacognitive skills perform better in the examinations and complete work more efficiently—they use the right tool for learning and they modify learning strategies as needed, identifying blocks to learning and changing tools or strategies to ensure goal attainment. Because Metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is critical that instructors help learners develop metacognitively. $ Metacognition is a set of skills that enable learners to become aware of how they learn and to evaluate and adapt these skills to become increasingly effective at learning. In a world that demands lifelong learning, providing people with new and improved Metacognitive strategies is highly imperative in the contemporary age. Based on this view, it is recommended that: Distance learning institutions should put in place Cognitive Strategy Instruction Programme for distance learning students’ right from the commencement of their academic programme. Cognitive Strategy Instruction (CSI) is an instructional approach which emphasizes the development of thinking skills and processes as a means to enhance learning and academic performance. Cognitive Strategy Instruction will enable all learners to become more strategic, self reliant, flexible, and productive in their learning endeavours. Thus, distance learning students must be exposed to this type of instructional programme so as to enable them to engage, not only, in active learning but also deeper learning. Distance learning institutions should organise, as a matter of urgency, a re orientation capacity development programme for tutors of distance learning students to equip them with the knowledge of Cognitive Strategy Instruction which they are expected to transplant into their teaching. When tutors possess sufficient knowledge of CSI, they will be able to modify their teaching to accommodate and incorporate the development of thinking skills and strategies w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 172 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). among the distance learning students. In essence, metacognitive learning skills and strategies will begin to be fostered on these students with the adoption of CSI among the tutors. Distance learning institutions should develop a learning framework where learners are allowed to take more control of their learning rather than their massive reliance on the tutors knowledge. Thus, questions on Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) must be structured in such a way that learners will need to rely on their metacognitive thinking capacity to write the assignment effectively rather than relying on textbook prescriptions. This approach can also be replicated during the examinations. $ Borkowski, J., Carr, M., & Pressely, M. (1987). "Spontaneous" strategy use: Perspectives from metacognitive theory. . ! $ $ 61 75. Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self regulation, and other more mysterious mechanisms. In F. E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), ! $ & $ ! (pp. 65 116). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Carr, M., Kurtz, B. E., Schneider, W., Turner, L. A., & Borkowski, J. G. (1989). Strategy acquisition and transfer among German and American children: Environmental influences on metacognitive development. ) & # ' ! $ C $ 765 771. Dirkes, M. Ann. (1985, November). "Metacognition: Students in charge of their thinking." Roeper Review, 8(2), 96 100. EJ 329 760. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive developmental inquiry. + ' ! $ $ 906 911. Flavell, J. H. (1987). Speculations about the nature and development of metacognition. In F.E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe (Eds.), ! $ - & 6 ! (pp. 21 29). Hillside, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Garner, R. (1990). When children and adults do not use learning strategies: Toward a theory of settings. 3& %7 3 $ ? $ 517 529. Hacker, Douglas J., John Dunlosky and Arthur C. Graesser (Eds.). Handbook of Metacognition in Education$ 2009. Heller, Mary F. (1986, February). "How do you know what you know? Metacognitive modeling in the content areas." Journal of Reading, 29, 415 421. EJ 329 408. Halpern, D. F. (1996). ! / !, + / ! Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Livingston, J. A. (1996). 7%% % ! & ! % ! Unpublished manuscript, State University of New York at Buffalo. Palinscar, A. S.; Ogle, D. S.; Jones, B. F.; Carr, E. G.; & Ransom, K. (1986). Teaching reading as thinking. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Roberts, M. J., & Erdos, G. (1993). Strategy selection and metacognition. 7 ' ! $ $259 266. Scheid, K. (1993). ; # ! * ! ,= % ! Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Sternberg, R. J. (1984). What should intelligence tests test? Implications for a triarchic theory of intelligence for intelligence testing. 7 3 $ (1), 5 15. Sternberg, R. J. (1986a). Inside intelligence. + $ $ 137 143. Sternberg, R. J. (1986b). . ! ## New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers. Van Zile Tamsen, C. M. (1994). % & ! & %8 ! Unpublished manuscript, State University of New York at Buffalo. Van Zile Tamsen, C. M. (1996). ! & %8 ! & % ! Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo. White, Barbara and John Frederiksen. (2005). A Theoretical Framework and Approach for Fostering Metacognitive Development. 7 ' ! , 40(4), 211–223. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 173 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT ON STUDENT’S ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN OYIGBO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF RIVERS STATE. By BUSARI ATINUKE RASHIDAT Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling Faculty of Education University Of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt Rivers State. Abstract This study investigated the effects of reinforcement on student’s academic performance in Oyigbo LGA of Rivers State. A sample of 120 male and female students was randomly selected from public and private secondary schools in Oyigbo Local Government Area of Rivers State. An Economics and English achievement tests made up of 20 multiple choice items designed and validated by the researcher were used to obtain the pretest and post test scores of the students. The instrument was validated by two experts in the field of education. T- Test was used to analyze the result at 0.05 level of significance. Two research questions were posed and two hypotheses formulated in the null form. The results of the analyses obtained shows that there is no significant difference between academic performance of students exposed to reinforcement and those who were not. Also, there is no significant difference between academic performance of female and male students exposed to reinforcement. Based on the findings, the researcher recommended that reinforcement should be used most often in schools, at home and places of worship as means of correcting undesirable behavior. Also, techniques such as punishment in form of spanking and yelling should be discouraged as this is the commonest corrective measure known by teachers and students. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 174 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Reinforcement is an important technique in education especially in promoting learning in the classroom situation. It has proven to be a powerful tool in the shaping and controlling of behavior both in and out of the classroom. The term reinforcement refers to an increase in the frequency of a response when certain consequences immediately follow it. The consequence that follows the behavior must be contingent upon a behavior. A contingent event that increases the frequency of a behavior is referred to as a reinforcer (Kadzin in Elliot 2000). Once you praise a student’s correct response, you increase the probability that the student will exhibit the response in future and in similar situations. Elliot further reinstates that a reinforcer is a stimulus event that if it occurs in the proper temporal relation with a response, tends to maintain or increase the strength of a response. Reinforcer is different from Reinforcement. While reinforcer refers to a thing or stimulus, reinforcement on the other hand is not stimulus but rather its effect. For example, praises, gift, smile, money, recognition are all reinforcers because they are all stimuli, their effect on people may be examples of reinforcement. (Nwankwo 2007). Academic performance according to Aremu (2000) is a performance that is adjudged by the examinee/testee and some other significant as falling below an expected standard. Some factors determine different interpretations given to the standard set by each examinee or assessor. Bakare (1994) describe poor academic performance as any performance that falls below a desired standard. The concept of poor academic performance is very relative and this depends on so many intervening variables. These variables have made poor academic performance posed a big problem in our education system. Its effect in the educational setting are unending. Some of these variables are motivational orientation, self esteem, study habit, teachers consultation, poor interpersonal relationship and family background. Achievement of high academic excellence is the main purpose of qualitative education, since education involves training of the whole person, excellence should reflect in every aspect of the individual’s life. Academic failure is not only frustrating to the students, parents and teachers, its effect are equally grievous on the society in terms of dearth of manpower in all spheres of the economy as well as in politics. Academic excellence is the ultimate goal of every student. If this is not achieved, everyone will be affected, the students, the teachers, the parents, and the society at large. In another view when students do not achieve excellence, especially in the secondary school, it will be difficult to move further into the tertiary institution, it can also lead to decrease in workforce and professional manpower. The purpose of the study is to assess the effects of reinforcement on academic performance of secondary school students in Oyigbo LGA of Rivers state. In specific terms the study intends to find out; 1) Whether reinforcement has any effect on academic performance of students in Oyigbo LGA of Rivers State, and 2) Find out whether gender difference influences academic performance when exposed to reinforcement. Consequently, the study intended to test the following research hypotheses. (1) There is no significant difference between the performance of students who received reinforcement and those students not exposed to reinforcement. (2) There is no significant difference between academic performance of male students exposed to reinforcement and female students exposed to reinforcement. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 175 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ' The study is a quasi experimental design aimed at assessing the effectiveness of reinforcement on the academic performance of students in Oyigbo LGA of Rivers State. @ A total sample of 120 students (60 males and 60 females) from both public and private Secondary Schools in Oyigbo LGA were randomly selected from a total population of 1200 making 10% of the population. $ The instrument for the data collection for the study was designed by the researcher from the Government approved syllabus for secondary school students in Rivers State from the subject area of Economics and English. The tests were named Economics and English achievement tests (EAT 1 & 2). The tests contained 20 multiple choice questions which were based on the scheme of work covering the expected topics taught by the teachers of the various subjects during 2nd term of the school’s period of work. Section A was designed to obtain personal data, while Section B has 20 multiple choice questions in all based on what the researcher taught the students. The Instrument has score of 20 as the maximum score obtainable while the minimum score is 0. . The instruments were face validated by two Economics teachers, one English teacher and one research expert. The teachers were requested to vet the items to find out if it matches the school curriculum standard. These was done in terms of clarity of words, cognitive level, difficulty level of the items, sentence structure and elimination of ambiguous questions embodied in the instrument with regards to the subjects. $ # Test retest reliability was carried out to achieve the reliability of the formed questions. The instruments were administered twice on a sample of 30 senior secondary school students not used for the study. Two weeks interval was between each administration. Scores were obtained after the administration using Kuder Richardson 20 to test the reliability. A score of 0.60 was obtained for positive reinforcement. According to Thorndike and Hogan as reported in Woruka (1994) reliability of 0.50 and above is suitable for any measuring scale. 3 The instruments were personally administered to students of both private and public Secondary Schools in Oyigbo LGA of Rivers State. This was done to ensure that questions and issues that may arise in the course of responding to the questionnaire may be directly addressed. Administration of the instruments yielded 100% response rate. The data were collated using EAT 1 and 2 instruments and also analyzed using descriptive statistics of mean (X), standard deviation (SD) and t test. The null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. & *) There is no significant difference between the performance of students who received positive reinforcement and those students not exposed to positive reinforcement. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 176 March, 2013 # *) JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 8 + # + + 8 Ẋ Exp. Control 60 60 14 13.67 882 383.33 118 0.072 8 2.021 Accept hypothesis null Using the t test at .05 level of significance and 118 degree of freedom with a mean score of 14 for the experimental group and 13.67 for the control group, the experiment revealed that the t calculated at 0.072 is less than the t critical at 2.021, therefore we accept the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference between academic performance of students exposed to reinforcement (experimental group) and those who are not (control group). & ,) There is no significant difference between academic performance of male students exposed to reinforcement and female students exposed to reinforcement. # ,) + # + A Ẋ Exp.1 Exp.2 60 60 12.133 12.554 352.93 332.85 0.17 2.021 Accept hypothesis null The result shows that the t calculated of 0.17 is less than t critical of 2.021 at 118 degree of freedom and 0.05 level of significance. Therefore the null hypothesis is accepted that there is no significant difference between the academic performance of male and female students exposed to reinforcement. ? 1 2 There is no significance difference between students exposed to reinforcement and those who are not. There is no significance difference between academic performance of male and female students exposed to positive reinforcement. The result showed that the two hypotheses were accepted. The findings revealed that there is no significant difference between the academic performance of students who received reinforcement and those who did not receive reinforcement. This result tallies with the submission of Bakare (1994) that concept of poor academic performance is very relative and this depends on so many intervening variables. These variables have made poor academic performance posed a big problem in our education system. Its effect in the educational setting is unending. Some of these variables are motivational orientation, self esteem, study habit, teachers’ consultation, poor interpersonal relationship and family background. The second hypothesis shows no significant difference between academic performances of the students in terms of gender. This implies that reinforcement has little or no effect on the student’s academic performance. This result is in line with Aremu (2000) that academic performance is a performance that is adjudged by the examinee/testee and some other significant as falling below an expected standard. Some factors determine different interpretations given to the standard set by each examinee or assessor. Also, conventional teaching methods used by the teacher were seen to be very effective for students to increase academic performance. From the researcher’s observation, the w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 177 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). teachers are highly involved in teaching the students with a combination of punishment which is technique used mostly to increase the desirable behavior. Students were seen to respond to the instructions given to them by their teachers as soon as punishment in form of spanking and yelling are introduced. A major reason for its effectiveness is that majority of the African setting believe in negative reinforcement as a corrective measure to get a desired behavior. Children are spanked most times in the home, schools, and churches, mosques whenever they misbehave and this has been known by the students as the only form of correcting undesirable behavior. Although most international bodies have recently discouraged the use of penal punishments in schools and homes, in Africa, it is still the commonest technique used to correct inappropriate behaviors. The introduction of other methods to increase desirable behavior is not known by them and they do not associate receiving of gifts and praise to motivating them to do well in their academic work. The result of this study revealed that reinforcement has little or no effect in students’ academic performance and that gender has no effect in academic performance of students. The need for the teachers to promote teaching learning in students for improved performance through conventional methods, strategies and approaches must be emphasized in schools. $ Based on the result that reinforcement is not a correlate of academic performance of the students, the following recommendations are made: 1. Other methods such as modeling, motivational orientation, and increase in self esteem, encouraging study habit and regular teachers’ consultation should be encouraged to aid learning and increase student’s academic performance. 2. Positive reinforcement should be used most of the time, in the homes, schools and places of worship in order to get the student used to it and see it as a method of improving desirable behaviors. Frequent use of the techniques should be encouraged in schools whenever students achieve academic performance. Gifts can be given to the student with the highest score after weekly tests; it is highly recommended that the use of reinforcement be intensified in schools so that high academic standard can be achieved. 3. Negative reinforcement such as spanking and yelling should be discouraged in schools as this is observed to be the only technique recognized by most of the teachers as a corrective measure. $ Andrew M. Colman, (2003) 1"% Aremu, A. O. (2000). + ) % ' # % % & ! , London: Oxford University press , Ibadan: Stirling Horden Publishers. Aremu, A. O. & Oluwole, D. A. (2001).Gender and birth order as predictors of normal pupil’s anxiety pattern in examination. .* 5 %7 , 1, (1), 1 7. Elliot S.N, Kretochwill T.R, Cook J.U, Travers J.F (2000). 7 ' ! , 7%% & !$ %% & !. Dublin: Ireland Press Inc. Gleithan H, Fridlund, Resbig D. (2004) ' Hassan, T. (1983) ' # % ! . London: W. W. Norton & Company Inc. & ' ! % 7& < & ! Carlifornia 55321: Henprince Press. Kasschau A.R (1974) 6 !' ! Oxford: Random House Inc. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 178 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Nwankwo O.C (1995). ' # +## % A & % Port Harcourt: Pam Unique Publishers. Nwankwo O.C (1996). Psychology of learning the human perspective. Port Harcourt: Pam Unique Publishers. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 179 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 CENTRAL LIFE INTEREST AND PERCEIVED ORGANISATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS OF PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE By PROF. [DAME] N. C. OKORIE, ASSOR BLESSING & IHUA JONATHAN N. Department of Educational Management Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt Abstract This study investigates the central life interest of principals and teacher of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State and their perceived organisational effectiveness. Seven research questions and seven hypotheses guided the study. The designs for the research are descriptive and correlational. The sample consisted of 790 principals and teachers drawn from a population of 3,949 principals and teachers fro 523 public secondary schools in Rivers State. In the analysis, weighted means were used for the research questions and z-test for one of the hypotheses and Pearson’s Moment Correlation for testing relationship between the two variables of second null hypothesis of the study. The findings among others reveal that the central life interest of principal and teachers was high and their perceived organisational effectiveness was low. The paper however concludes and recommends that school personnel should be motivated to retain their central life interest in their work place and be given adequate training for maximum output. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 180 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Central life interest refers to the strong attachment and deep involvement in certain crucial issues of personal interest. It is the motivation which drives the organizational participants to seek intrinsic or extrinsic satisfaction from their job. Hoy and Miskel in Okorie (2009) note that central life interest is a set of attitude that defines the preference of individuals for doing favoured activities in chosen things. Dubin (1988) had earlier on described as central life interest those activities in which one participates voluntarily and sees these activities as his or her sources of self realization. Also in Dubin (1992), it is viewed as that portion of a person’s total life in which energies are invested in both physical and intellectual activities. He further states that the choice of central life interest is a conscious decision made when evaluating the satisfaction enjoyed while pursuing it. Workplace wellness is a serious issue in any organization; how employees are disposed towards their general wellness has far reaching implications for their dispositions on or off their job. Hence, Dubin’s theory of central life interest as cited in Jacques and Taryn (2005) states that an individual’s social experiences are inevitably segmented based on the fact that the social activities of each individual may occur in discrete social settings such as work, church and community. Each of these activities may be physically or temporarily separated from the other. This being so, he concludes that the social world of an individual however complex this may be, can be ordered through the operation of central life interest to maintain self integrity even while being in contradictory ways. Therefore, the individual will seek to articulate his personal life in a way that will be satisfying and meaningful to him in the face of the diverse activities facing him as he participates in the daily round of activities in his work place. If he deems those activities as satisfying and meaningful, the individuals will be committed to performing such activities to the best of their abilities. If such meaningful and satisfying activities are located in the activities involved in their work life the individuals will be more committed to their work and this also means that their central life interest is high. If these are located outside their work, the commitment they show to their work will be low and as such their central life interest will be deemed to be low. High central life interest generates high levels of commitment in the individuals towards certain features of their organization. How people feel about their job and general sense of wellness are often reflected on their organizational behaviour generally and on their job particularly. These indeed reflect on the individuals feelings about their jobs or career and on their morale or commitment to their job. Hence, central life interest provides hard measures for soft issues that impact on the general organisational performance, that assess organizational strength and weakness, that tracks the progress of the organization, that helps to sense potential problematic issues early, and that increase employee level of organisational productively. Indeed all these are critical for organisational effectiveness. In order for schools to be effective, they must be able to accomplish three critical factors namely, they must achieve the goals (providing effective educational services), the schools must be able to maintain themselves internally (providing mechanism that engender employee sense of identity, motivation, satisfaction, high staff morale and effective conflict mediation strategy); and they must be able to adapt to their environment (Mott, 1989). All these can hardly be achieved in schools when the central life interests of principals and teachers are low. This study therefore investigated the central life interest of principals and teachers and related these to their perceived organisational effectiveness. Dubin and Champoux (1979) in their study titled “central life interest and organisational commitment” investigated the central life interest and job satisfaction of male and female blue collar and clerical workers. Using sample size of 1,114, drawn from a bank and a telephone company, these found that workers who are job oriented in central life interest will tend to express high commitment to the organisation that employ them, while those who are non job oriented will tend to express low w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 181 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). commitment. They further observed that workers with job oriented central life interest feel the highest level of attraction to features of their employing organisation and that those with non job central life interest are selectively attractive to work organisation features, possibly because they view the characteristics of their work as instrumental to their non job life. Lortie (1980), in his study titled central life interest of secondary school teacher’s investigated the relationship between man and his work setting using a sample size of 1, 247 teachers. He found out that teaching, however, appears to be a marginal profession in that the working conditions of this group, controls are impose on the teachers dispersion of specialized knowledge and skills, he does not control nor determine the qualification of those who enter his work group; his life is largely controlled by a board possessing little of his specialized training or know his license to deviate from lay conducts is seriously limited, and the teacher reserves limited deference from larger society. Moreover, the findings or Lortie (1980) suggest that the career structural and work rewards of schools militate against teacher’s exhibiting high central life interest. In teaching no promotion system exists to provide teachers with opportunities to move upwards in a hierarchy and to gain higher reward. Consequently, many teachers report that their central life interests are not in their job. One result is that almost every male teacher in Lorties study had either a strong vocational interest or an additional source of income. Jacques and Taryn (2005), in their study titled work as a central life interest for legal professionals with a sample size of 86 employees, 59 from three public sector organisations and 27 from various private sector law firms. The result of this study indicated that two thirds of the respondents do not have their work as their central life interest. Aryee and Wyatt (1990), in the study title centrality of work in the life space of Singaporean employees, a sample size of 1,534 workers, to investigate the relative emphasis individuals place in their work and non work life using Dubins central life interest concept. Their findings showed that Singaporean workers have a dual commitment to work and non work roles which may have implications for the management of human resources. Since workers with non related behaviours at work may be immuned to any job related changes which attempt to increase their commitment to work, which implies that they do invest some affective energy in their work role. Furthermore, they also reported that commitment to family is particularly heightened at a time of rapid changes in the social structure and a steady entrenchment of the industrial way of life. This may be necessary to insulate individuals from normlessness that is characteristics of societies experiencing rapid social structural changes. Tie (1988), supporting the findings of Aryee et al stated that “rather the devoting all of ones energy to one facet of life such as work, energy should be distributed across a number of activities in various locations. Ezeokonkwo (2010) in her study titled organisational effectiveness of the secondary school, using a sample of 1,022 teachers drawn from a population of 5,112 teachers investigated the organisational effectiveness of secondary schools found out that most indices of organisational effectiveness takes adaptation, cohesion and information management existed at a low level. However the indices with high level existence were organisational goal setting latency. She therefore concluded that the level of organisational effectiveness of secondary schools was low and the recommended that the information’s of the management, adaptation and latency mechanisms of the school organisation be improved for higher effectiveness. Owhonda (2002) in his study titled organisational effectiveness of tertiary institutions and 260 as the sample for the study. The study investigated organisational effectiveness of tertiary institutions. The major finding, of this study was that information management, productivity, organisational and general organisational effective were very low, and goal setting was moderate. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 182 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). From the forgoing therefore, central life interest of principals and teachers represents a set of activities that define their attitude which promote feelings of strong attachment to and involvements in crucial areas of their jobs as principals and teachers. Consequently, the performance of the school becomes higher when the principals and teachers central life interest focus on their job setting. The central life interest of school personnel is a critical factor for achieving organisational latency which turn is necessary for achieving school effectiveness. # When latency is high in any organisation, productivity is usually high. However, when it is low the likelihood that the school organisation will effectively perform its crucial tasks becomes highly diminished. Organisational latency in schools in turn, can not be achieved where the central life interest of principals and teachers are low. Principals and teachers have often been criticise for having unwholesome and unproductive attitude towards their jobs such as absenteeism, lateness to work, constant strike actions, lack of seriousness to duty, engaging in private business even in the school premises or during school hours to the detriment of their primary assignment of providing students with educational services. In addition to these, principals and teachers are often blamed for any sign of students’ under achievement or failure in external examinations. However, achievements of goals do not depend on a single factor but on a set of factors some of which are psychologically oriented. Thus, if teachers are promptly paid, if some forms of incentives and rewards are provided and even with the investment of some fund into the system, there is no guarantee that principals and teachers’ effort and productivity would correspondingly increase. Thus, it is likely that such accusations of lack of commitment to job by school personnel and low students achievement and the like would continue to be levelled against principals and teachers by concerned citizens making it seems as if the increased investment of resources into educational sector had become counter productive rather than being productive. However, this calls for attention to the other more intrinsic factors that impact on employee commitment to their job such as the central life interests of principals and teacher and the relationship of these to school effectiveness. Such serious attention to these issues could yield result that could help to transform such principals and teachers disposition from a state of lethargy to a state of commitment to their jobs. Hence, the issue raised by the problems are: determining whether the central life interests of principals and teachers are located off or on their jobs and whether these are high or low, determining the level of perceived organisational effectiveness of the schools and relating the principals and teachers level of e central life interests to the perceived organisational effectiveness of their schools. The purpose of this study was to investigate the e central life interests of principals and teachers and the perceived organisational effectiveness of their schools with a view to determining the level at which these two phenomena exist in their schools. In addition to this, the study will seek to empirically relate the identified level of central life interests of principals and teachers to the perceived organisational effectiveness of their schools. $ 1. 2. % What is the level of central life interests of principals and teachers of public senior secondary school in Rivers State? What is the level of perceived organisational effectiveness of principals and teachers in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State? w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 183 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). & 1. There is no significant difference between the central life interests of principals and teachers in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. There is no significant relationship between the central life interest of principals and teachers and their perceived organisational effectiveness. 2. ' The designs for this study were both descriptive and correlational. Descriptive design concerns itself with ascertaining and establishing facts or piece of information at the time of the research and presenting such facts as they are, and correctional design seeks to establish what relationship exist between two or more variable. This is why these two designs were used to investigate central life interest of principals and teachers and their perceived organisational effectiveness. The characteristics of the population of this study embraced all the 523 principals and 3426 teachers in public senior, secondary schools in Rivers State. The sample surveyed is 790, which is 20% of the total population of 3,949 principals and teachers in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. The statistical tools for the data analysis were weighted mean for the research questions, z test for testing the null hypothesis and Pearson moment correlation for testing the relationship between the two variables. $ $ % ( What is the level of central life interests of principals and teachers of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State? # *) Level of central life interests of principals and teachers of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. E 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. − ' My central life interest lies outside my job at 2.00 school. My main interest in life are not closely related to 2.04 my job at school. When I am worried, it is usually about things 2.79 related to my job. I between that other things are more important 2.96 that my job at school. Most of my energy is directed towards my job. 2.14 In talking to friends, I must like talk about 3.01 events related to my job. My central concerns are job related. 2.98 x H *6I ! − x H 7;I ! High ' 1.33 High 1.34 High High 3.05 High Low 2.14 Low Low High 2.14 2.54 Low High High 2.54 High High Table 1 presents the data on the level of central life interest of principals and teachers as measured by seven indices of central life interest. Principals exhibited a high level of 5 of them and a low level of 2, where as teachers were high in 6 and low in 1. Thus, both principals and teachers agreed that their central life interest lie outside their job at school (mean 2.00 for principals and 1.33 for teachers). Similarly, both groups agreed that their main interest in life is not closely related to their job at school (mean 2.04 for principals and 1.34 for teachers). This is because these items were reversed scored, such agreement indicates that their central life interest lie on their job. Both groups agreed that when they are worried, it is usually about things related to their job (means 2.79 for principals and 1.34 for w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 184 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). teachers). This is because these items were reversed scored, such agreement indicates that their central life interest lie on their job. Both groups agreed that when they are worried, it is usually about things related to their job (means 2.79 for principals and 3.05 for teachers). They also agreed that in talking to friends, it was mostly about events related to their job (means 3.01 for principals and 2.95 for teacher). However, both groups agreed that their central concerns are job related (means 2.98 for principals and 2.54 for teachers). Both groups disagreed that most of their energy is directed towards their job (means score for each of them here is 2.14). They differed in their belief about the relative importance of other things against their job at school. Teachers in light of this agreed that other things were more important than their job at school (mean 2.39) while the principals disagreed that other things were more important than their job at school (mean 2.96). This item is also reverse scored. Therefore, the answers to research question 1 are that: 1. The level of central life interest of principals and teachers of senior secondary schools were generally high. 2. The level of central life interest was high among Rivers State senior secondary schools teachers than among the senior secondary schools principals. $ % + What is the level of perceived organisational effectiveness of principals and teachers in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State? # ,) Level of perceived organisational effectiveness of principals and teachers in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State? H ;* − E 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Of the various things produced by the people in your school, how much do you think hey are producing? How good is the quality of the products or services produced by the people you know in your school? Do people in your school get maximum output from the available resources (money, people, equipment etc) that is how efficiently do they their work? How good a job is done by the people in your school in anticipating problem? How good a job is done by the people in your by preventing problems from occurring or minimizing their effects. How informed are the people in your school about innovations that could affect they way they do their work. When changes are made in the me thuds, routines of quickly do the people in your school accept and adjust to the changes? How many of the teachers in your school readily accept the changes? How many of the teacher readily adjust to the changes? How good a job do the people in your school do in coping with emergencies? How good a job do the people in your school do in coping with disruption? ' 2.12 H ,/ − ! x ! x Low ' 2.17 2.11 Low 2.08 Low 2.42 Low 2.33 Low 2.37 Low 2.33 Low 2.49 Low 2.46 Low 2.49 Low 2.46 Low 3.10 High 3.08 High 2.43 Low 2.42 Low 1.40 1.44 Low Low 1.33 1.33 Low Low 2.32 Low 2.25 Low w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Low Page 185 March, 2013 & JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). * There is no significant difference between the central life interests of principals and teachers in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. # -) Test of difference between the central life interest of principals and teachers. − 0 8 8 # . # x ' Principals 105 17.92 0.51 788 24.81 1.96 Teachers 685 15.74 1.89 Reject Table 3 shows the z test analysis of difference between principals and teachers regarding their level of central life interests. From the table a mean score of 17.92 and standard deviation of 0.51 was registered for principals while mean score of 15.74 and standard deviation of 1.89 was registered for teachers with 788 degree of freedom. The z calculated value of 24.81 was greater than the z calculated value of 1.96, the well hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was a significant difference between the level of central life interest of principals and teachers. & + There is no significant relationship between the central life interests of principals and their perceived level of organisational effectiveness? # /) Test of relationship between the central life interest of principals and teachers and their perceived level of organisational effectiveness. . − # Interest effectiveness 790 790 ' x 18.59 29.76 0 1.83 9.30 104 8 0.22 8 # 0.19 Reject Table 4 indicates mean score of 18.59 for central life interests with standard deviation of 1.83 and mean score of 29.76 for perceived organisational effectiveness with 9.30 score of standard deviation with 104 degree of freedom. The re calculated value of 0.22 is greater than the r tabulated value of 0.19. Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected which implies that there was significant relationship between central life interest and perceived organisational effectiveness of principals and teachers in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. The study examined the level of central life interests of principals and teachers of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State and their perceived organisational effectiveness. It was found that their central life interests were generally high. This finding is in agreement with the finding of Dubin (1992), who asserts that members of occupations that can be classified as a professionals tend as a group to view their work as a central life interests and that overwhelming proportion of these professionals invest their emotional energy in their work. This indicates that principals and teachers as professionals in the teaching field have their central life interests located within their job setting. This implies that as such the desired outcomes by the educational stakeholders will likely be achieved. Result from research question 2 is alarming, that of the 11 indicators used to determine the perceived organisational effectiveness of principals and teachers, both groups recorded low in 10 of them and high in just one. It is alarming because these principals are still the same set of people who exhibited high central life interests towards their job; indicating high commitment which ordinarily is w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 186 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). expected to yield high level of organisational effectiveness. In this case, the reverse was the case. This then calls for concern, for example, why principals would have their central life interest located towards their job (high central life interest) as found by the study and yet perceived no level of organisational effectiveness in their various schools. This result also denotes that there are basic criteria necessary for school effectiveness which are not seen by these principals in these secondary schools, as listed in Steer (1985), which are conduciveness of school building, praise and reward, clear policies and value a suitable and purpose oriented curriculum, focus on goals, orders and discipline and constructional leadership by higher authorities. When the relationships between the two variables were tested, the result showed that relationship between them was significant. This implies that when central life interest is high, effectiveness should equally be high in any organisation to produce high organisation effectiveness and central life interest. Based on the findings of this study, it was concluded that the level of central life interest of principals and teachers in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State was high and the perceived organisational were low. The high central life interests exhibited by the principals and teachers could not translate to perceived effectiveness as evidenced from the findings. Hence the perceived organisational effectiveness of public senior secondary school organisation was low. $ Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations were made: School personnel should be motivated to enable them retain their workplace as their central life interests. School personnel should be given adequate training to enable them get maximum output from the available resources (money) people equipment to enhance effectiveness and maintained high central life interest. $ Aryee and Wyatt (1990). ( % % !# / . Asia Pacific. Journal of Management 12, 30 48. Dubin R. & Goldman, D. (1992). ( % %- ! # , Journal of vocational behaviour. 16, 22 40. Dubin, R., & Champoux, J. E. (1989). ( % ! %A ( ( / . Retrieved on July 12, 2010, from http://www.2asanet.org/journalist/ASRF.febo3Smith Ezeokonkwo, P. C. (2010). 1 ! %% & % +* Unpublished M.Ed Thesis, University of Port Harcourt. Jacques G. & Taryn (2005). Central % % ! # % . Journal of work commitment, 20, 80 85. Lortie, D. (1980). ,+ ! Chicago University of Chicago Press. Mott D. E. (1989). % %% & ! . Nero York: Harper and Row. Okorie N. C. (2009). 1 ! ! % #, # ! . Port Harcourt: Carlynso Publishing Co. Steer, E. (1985). P * ! % ! %% & administrative science quarterly. 20, 546 558. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 187 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT AND QUALITY IMPROVEMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE By COMFORT ACHAMA MALIK M. Department of Educational Management Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt L L - - ! ! ! / # & B % % % # % # & % B % # & ! # L% ! # # ## % # # # %C # # & # # % B ! ) 98 # # & % # / # & B $ & " % B % # & # 3& & A ! ! % 1 # & C ! % % $ L % # * $ % # ! H "# % L B & ! 3& # ! & - ! # w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m B + + / $ ! Page 188 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Total Quality Management is a way of managing and setting up business practices that emphasizes continuous improvement in all stages of operations (Thompson and Strickland, 1998). It emphasizes on 100 percent accuracy in performing activities, involvement and empowerment of employees at all levels. It is a team based work design with a duty to fully satisfying customer expectation. In the past years, interest in improving the quality of education has increased considerably in Nigeria and Rivers State is not left out. This interest has resulted in introduction of several educational reforms through government policies. The focus of education improvement stimulated development of numerous strategies directed towards improving quality of teaching and learning. Some of these strategies include adequate provision and usage of functional instructional facilities, conducive learning environment and employment of qualified teachers amongst others. There is a growing realization amongst school in Nigeria that traditional approaches are no longer valid for delivery of quality school education. Anthony (2006) observed that a plethora of improvement strategies have been developed and implemented by schools, among these strategies and techniques Total Quality Management has emerged one of the popular tools. Babalola and Ayeni (2009) stated that Total Quality Management is one of the management concepts and practices developed and adopted in the business world, and which has been adopted in educational management. They further explained that “Total Quality Management is an acceptable managerial tool for improving total organizational efficiency and effectiveness from top to bottom and a departure from management by control, that is, every employee is empowered to participate fully in the improvement process, taking responsibility, checking and coordinating their own activities. In our educational institution today much of the problems being experienced at various levels are attributed to management problems which in turn hinders quality. These management problems have many dimensions and some of which are: Making available teachers of requisite quality Providing adequate physical facilities and infrastructure Maintenance of physical plant Effectiveness of teaching and learning processes Attainment level of students Management of school finances and supervision of school programmes etc. Besides the need to improve quality in our educational institutions in general and secondary schools in Rivers State in particular, it is also imperative that an increasing number of schools are internationally recognized for quality. Education needs to be more skill oriented both in terms of life skills as well as livelihood skills. Nigeria has the manpower to substantially meet the needs of its country for skilled workers provided its education system can covert the numbers into skilled work force with needed diversity of skills. This can only be achieved through quality assurance based on some selected standards. Babalola (2009) emphasized that “total” in Total Quality Management implies that every thing and everybody in the organization get involved in the exercise of continuous quality improvement. The “management” in Total Quality Management means that everyone in the institution regardless of his position or role is the manager of his own responsibility and “quality” is seen as performance to standard. Educational institutes do not rely on machines but depend on human beings to create, shape, direct and run them (Okeke, 2001). Total Quality Management creates an enabling environment for educators, parents, government officials, community representatives and business leaders to work together to provide students with the needed resources to meet current and future business and societal needs. Total Quality Management (TQM) is an approach that seeks to improve quality and performance that will meet or exceed customer expectation (Arora, 2004). He further explained that w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 189 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). (TQM) looks at the overall quality measures used by a company including managing quality design and development, quality control and maintenance, quality improvement and quality assurance. Total Quality Management (TQM) takes into account all quality measures taken at all levels and involving all company employees. ( D % ' 1 %'2 In line with Michael Porter’s theory of Strategy (1980), based on competitive advantage, TQM seeks to continuously work towards improving all processes involved in production thereby remaining competitive in the market or exceeding other competitors or rivals in terms of quality. According to Cole (2005) Total Quality Management was first introduced as a management approach by two Americans and one Japanese, Edwards W. Deming, Joseph Duran and Karou Ishikawa in the post second world war. Emenalo in Babalola and Ayeni (2009) has it that Tom Peters was also one of those who first introduced Total Quality Management (TQM). Deming and Juran according to Cole (2005) showed that with paying attention to continuous improvement of production processes and gaining employees commitment to the idea of quality at every stage of production, it was possible to achieve consistently standards of finished goods at a price the customer is willing to pay. In essence if all hands are consistently on deck in the running of secondary schools (Ministry of Education, Principals and teachers) a formidable out put will be achieved. Juran showed that 85% of failure in production is attributed to management who are not ready to improve on present performance. He urged management to create a way of preventing crises instead of cure. Deming on his own part promoted some points for Total Quality Management, Cole (2005) has some of these points to include: Create and publish for all employees a statement of the company’s mission (aims and objectives) Everyone from top management down must learn the new philosophy Employ inspection primarily for improving production process rather than detecting and correcting errors. Award business to suppliers on basis of consistent quality and reliability not necessarily on price. Continuously aim to improve the production system Ensure adequate training for both employees and suppliers so that all parties know what is expected Introduce participatory leadership style in order to achieve employee cooperation Develop climate of trust between management and employees and between groups Develop an across the board approach to cooperation and team work Remove barriers to workmanship by providing adequate training and equipment and encouraging pride in own’s work Encourage education and self improvement at all level Create a climate where quality improvement is embedded in the organizations culture from top to bottom etc. Ishakawa also stated some concept of total quality management based on what the Japanese call “kaizen” meaning continuous improvement. Martin Murray (2008) stated that “every” is a key in Kaizen, improving everything that everyone does in every aspect of the organization in every department, every minute of the day. He advocated for evaluation rather than revolution. Continually making small 1% improvement to 100 things is more effective, less disruptive and more sustainable than improving one thing by 100% when the need becomes unavoidable. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 190 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Everyone involved in a process or activity, however apparently insignificant, has valuable knowledge and participated in a working team or Kaizen group. Every employee is empowered to participate fully in the improvement process; taking responsibility of their own activities. Every employee is involved in the running of the company and is trained and informed about the company as this he said encourage commitment and interest leading to fulfillment and job satisfaction. In summary, most of the ideas expressed by Juran, Deming and Ishikawa shows that Total Quality Management (TQM) functions on the premise that the quality of product and processes is the responsibility of everyone who is involved with the creation or consumption of the products or services offered by an organization. It capitalizes on the involvement of management, workforce, suppliers and even customers in order to meet or exceed expectations. TQM focuses heavily on quality and process improvement. $ % ' The rational for its application in education especially secondary schools in Rivers cannot be overlooked. Though it is a fact all stakeholders in education have the responsibility of contributing towards the continuous improvement of the education system for excellence, those statutorily charged to manage education for quality and standard as well as meeting up with the challenging changing society are required to exhibit leadership qualities and practices that will create and usher in best practices in education. For quality management to be total, it requires the attention of education managers in the input process output framework to achieve any success since quality encompasses quality of people, process, service and products. According to Iheonunekwu (2003) each element in input process output framework of education enterprise should be of an acceptable quality to ensure high quality in education. In essence quality management of educational resources will result to quality delivery of services thereby achieving quality output which will satisfy societal expectations and customers needs. Total Quality Management entails proper planning, organizing, controlling, coordinating and evaluating by school managers to achieve quality result it is therefore believed that education would be improved through quality management if managers are able to properly harness, utilize and develop the necessary educational resources such as finance, personnel, facilities, information and time. Okorie and Uche (2004) ascertained that Total Quality Management (TQM) in education emphasizes teacher competence, creativity and commitment and how educational managers organize and lead in order to realize full potentials of all personnel inn an educational organization. Education is faced with a lot of competitors just like other business enterprises, consequently the viability of secondary schools in Rivers State can be threatened, based on this, education managers can meet the challenges of competitive advantage by working to improve the quality of their services and their curriculum delivery mechanisms. Competition requires strategies that will distinguish or differentiate schools from rivals hence the need for Total Quality Management. Total Quality Management (TQM) is inevitable in schools since school as a social service forms part of the community. There has been increase awareness of parents and other stake holders on the usefulness of education. Having realized that education is financed with tax payers money every stakeholder especially parents now expect positive result on their investment in education. They desire to get the best quality of education for their children. Therefore education manager in secondary schools must ensure that they meet the demands of stakeholders, they have to demonstrate high standardization and should be able to deliver what is required of them and even more. Using TQM the managers will be able to achieve these. For secondary school in Rivers State to achieve success there must be team work. Team work is an integral part of Total Quality Management (TQM); it motivates team to work collaborating internally to surpass external benchmarks. It encourages schools management to become open to new methods, ideas, processes and practices to improve effectiveness, efficiency and performance. It helps to w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 191 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). prioritize improvement opportunities, shifts internal thinking from input to quality output. Total Quality Management (TQM) accelerates understanding and agreement on the new problem areas and educate on the latest practices being used to achieve performance. It encourages a culture of continuous evaluation and improvement. Total Quality Management (TQM) improves quality in school by enabling schools effect radical improvement through exposing managers to practice that they would never have developed on their own. It accelerates change and enhances awareness of world class standard. # Quality is an increasingly significant issue for schools to manage. The need for quality education with value system leading to productive employment hence comprehensive qualitative development of the nation has been felt for a long time and education stakeholders are not relenting in seeing to it that educational institution deliver what they are expected to deliver and produce desired outcome. Total Quality Management as an effective managerial tool for improvement of quality will bridge the gap as it will enable individuals from top to bottom to collectively work to achieve the desired educational goals. The purpose of this study was to identify the relevant of Total Quality Management (TQM) in the management of secondary schools in Rivers State. $ % 1. What are the relevance of Total Quality Management in the management of secondary schools in Rivers State? & 1. There is no significance difference between the mean rating of principals and vice principals on the relevance of Total Quality Management (TQM) in the management of secondary schools in Rivers State. The study would serve as a medium for quality control, standardization and excellence for the populace in providing qualitative education. It would provide relevant information on the need for schools and other organization to see Total Quality Management (TQM) as a tool for quality improvement. In addition the information gathered would provide, promote and support the regulation of academic standards and also serve as a vehicle for improving educational, administration and business processes in a globally competitive academic environment. ' The design adopted for this study was the descriptive survey method design. The population of the study included all the 245 secondary schools in Rivers State. Out of the 490 principals and vice principals of the 245 secondary schools, a sample of 250 principals and vice principals was randomly selected through a stratified random sampling technique using odd and even number. A self structured instrument called Total Quality Management a Tool for Quality Improvement Questionnaire (TQMTFQIQ) was used for data collection. The instrument had eight (8) items relevant to the research questions and patterned after a modified rating option: 4 – strongly agreed; 3 – agreed, 2 – disagreed and 1 – strongly disagreed. The test –retest method was adopted to establish a reliability co efficient of 0.81. Data was analyzed with the use of mean, standard deviation and rank order while z test was used to give answers to the hypothesis at 0.05 significant level. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 192 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION EDU IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 .21 (1). ( $ Result obtained in this study wa was presented and analysed in tables. $ @ * al Q Quality Management in the management of se secondary schools in Rivers What is the relevance of Total State? # *) ' S/N Statements 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Total Quality Managem gement increases potentials Total Quality Managem gement uses team work to improve quali uality Total Quality Managem gement promotes learning Total Quality Managem gement enables institutions to set stan tandard which others cannot beat Total Quality Managem gement enhances quality Total Quality Managem gement helps schools to bridge gaps aps of inefficiency through quality impro rovement Total Quality Managem gement influences and shape decisions With Total Quality Ma Management educational goals are re aachieved % ' 1 %'2 N = 83 Vice Principals N = 167 principals SD Rank SD Rank 2.93 .93 3rd 2.95 .87 5th 3.00 .93 2nd 3.04 .82 3rd 2.47 1.03 6th 2.85 .86 7th 2.27 1.00 7th 2.89 .73 6th 2.70 .94 5th 2.96 .65 4th 3.03 .83 1st 3.20 .81 1st 2.17 .97 8th 3.08 .96 2nd 2.73 .97 4th 2.85 .86 7th Table 1 shows that Total Qual uality Management bridges inefficiency gap rank anked 1st for both principals and vice principals with mean n sscore and SD of 3.03, .83; 3.20, .81. Ranking ng 2nd for principals is Total Quality Management uses team am work to improve quality with mean score an and SD of (3.00, .93), while nd 2 for vice principals is Totall Q Quality influences and shapes decision with me mean score and SD of (3.08, .96). The 3rd variable for pr principals is Total Quality Management increa reases potentials with mean score and SD of (2.93, .93) whe hereas vice principals have Total Quality Manag agement uses teamwork for improvement as 3rd with mean n sscore and SD of (3.04, .82). For principals, the 4th, 5th and 6th ranks goes to achievement of educational al goals through Total Quality Management,, T Total Quality Management enhances quality and Total Qu Quality promotes learning with mean scores and SD of (2.73, .97), (2.70, .94) and (2.47, 1.03) similarly 4tht , 5th, and 6th for vice principals are Total Qual uality Management enhances quality, Total Quality Manage agement increases potentials and Total Qual uality Management enables institutions set unbeatable stand andard with mean scores and SD of (2.96, .65),, (2 (2.95, .87) and (2.89, .73). Ranking 7th and 8th for principa ipals are, Total Quality Management enables inst nstitutions set standards and TQM influences and shapes sch schools decisions with mean scores and SD off (2 (2.27, 1.00) and (2.17, .97). For vice principals two itemss ranked 7th, Total Quality Management prom romotes learning and Total Quality Management enhancee ggoals achievement with mean scores of (2.85,, .8 .86) respectively. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 193 March, 2013 # ,) 8 Group Principal Vice principal JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). % N 150 100 x 21.30 23.82 SD 3.89 3.61 ' DF z cal 1 %'2 z critical 248 5.150 1.96 Remarks Significant Table 2 shows mean scores of (21.30; 23.82) and SD of (3.89; 3.61) for principals and vice principals. The table shows a calculated z score of 5.150 and a critical z value of 1.96 at 248 df. Since the z value of 150 is greater than the z critical of 1.96, it implies that there is a significant difference between the mean scores of principals and vice principals on the relevance of Total Quality Management in improvement of quality in secondary schools in Rivers State. From the analysis, it is evident that Total Quality Management bridges gap of inefficiency, uses teamwork to improve quality, influences and shapes schools decision. It is also of note that Total Quality Management increases potentials of employee in secondary school, enhances achievement of educational goals, enhances quality, promotes learning and lastly Total Quality Management enables institutions to set standard with may be unbeatable by rivals. These variables had mean of above 2.50 for both principals and vice principals thus the items were accepted implying that the items in question were positive. It is therefore clear that Total Quality Management is an unavoidable tool for improvement of quality and attainment of educational goals. This is in line with Emenalo in Babalola and Ayeni who stated that education manager should see Total Quality Management as an inevitable tool for achievement of standard and educational goals. He further stated that educational institutions have to demonstrate that they are able to deliver what is required of them with the use of Total Quality Management (TQM). The major conclusion of this work is that Total Quality Management (TQM) as shown in the results plays a vital role in the improvement of quality in secondary schools in Rivers State. It is also significant that Total Quality Management (TQM) improves efficiency and effectiveness thereby improving standard of education in secondary schools in Rivers State. $ The managers of secondary schools in Rivers State should embrace Total Quality Management as a tool for quality improvement and attainment of educational goals. Furthermore government should provide adequate facilities to promote the implementation of Total Quality Management in every level of education. $ Anthony Stella (2006) Quality Assurance and Standards of Australian Higher Education. + 3# % +61+$ Melbourne. Arora, K. C. (2004). L - ! New Delhi. SK Kataria and sons. Babalola J. B. & Ayeni A. O. (2009). 7 ! , / Lagos: Macmillan Nigeria Publishers Limited. Cole, G. A. (2005). - ! ' . Padstow Cornwall. Printed by I J, International Iheonunekwu S. (2003) “Strategies for permanent installation and management of change” 7 # ' $ Owerri: Crown Publishers Nigeria Ltd. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 194 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Murray, M. (n.d). What is Total Quality Management? Retrieved from http://www.industryweek.com/about.comlogistics/supplychain. Okorie N. C. (2009) 1 ! 9 ! % # Theory into practice in educational organizations. Port Harcourt. Gibson & sons press. Porter M. (1980) ( # & !, B % # New York Free Press. Thompson A. and Strickland A. (1998). ! - ! ( # ( Boston Irwin. McGraw Hill Companies Inc. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 195 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 THE CHALLENGES OF APPLYING TECHNOLOGY (ICT) INTO GUIDANCE COUNSELING IN NIGER DELTA UNIVERSITY By SAM ZIBO PORBENI, Dept. of Educational Foundation Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State & OMGBOU AUGUSTINE VICTOR Abstract This study focuses on the challenges of applying ICT to guidance counselling in Nigerian Universities, with particular reference to the Niger Delta University. The instruments used include validated questionnaires and direct interviews. Simple percentage and frequency count was used to analyze the findings which took a fact finding approach. The results show that counsellors need more than basic knowledge which they mostly lack, to operate in an ICT oriented counselling environment; that counsellors do not understand the dynamics and applications of ICT; it was also discovered that economic and financial reasons, administrators’ attitude, lack of zeal on the part of practitioners etc, have led to setbacks. It is however clear that it is feasible for counsellors to include ICT knowledge to their repertoires, to improve their service delivery capabilities. Key Word: Counselling Technology, Challenges, ICT, Guidance counseling. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 196 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). When it comes to shaping the new global economy, ICT is a driving force. It has been a flux and not fixity in the quest to compress the universe into a global community. The terms website, World Wide Web, information age, dot.com, internet age, cyberspace, global village and a lot more, came into our vocabulary through the courtesy of the ICT revolution. The impact of ICT is visible in every sphere of man endeavor from banking, manufacturing, mining, agriculture, science, sports, entertainment, tourism, healthcare down to education and the arts. The world is moving at an unimaginable speed in the area of information use and dissemination (Achimugu, Oluwagbemi and Oluwaranti, 2010). There is hardly any field of study these days that does not have useful software application to make it work a lot easier, neither is there any without abundant information on the internet. In fact, the internet has become our virtual library and virtual teacher. Evidence abound on how successful surgeries have been performed by medical specialists who are far apart with the aid of the internet, likewise people who became specialists in various fields of study via online educational programmes with teacher and student miles apart (Nweze, 2010; Liverpool, Marut and Ndam , 2010; Ojedokun and Owolabi , 2003; Oyedum, 2006; Chukwuma and Nwokedi, 2007). The scope of ICT can only be imagined. In keeping with the complex nature and multiple applications, ICT can be viewed in different ways. www.yourdictionary.com called ICT an umbrella term for the Information Technology field. Throwing more light, the Wikipedia online encyclopedia pointed out that ICT is often used as an extended synonym for Information Technology (IT) but is usually a more general term that stresses the role of unified communications and the integration of telecommunications, telephone lines and wireless signals, computers, hardware as well as necessary software storage and audio–visual systems, which enable users to create, access, store, transmit and manipulate information. In other words, ICT consist of IT as well as telecommunication broadcast media, all types of audio and video processing & transmission and network based control and monitoring functions. The World Bank in Rodriguez and Wilson (2000) defined ICT as the set of activities which facilitated by electronic means the processing transmission and display of information. Marcella (2000) describes the subject matter as a complex varied set of goods, applications and services used for producing distributing, processing, transforming information, and this includes telecoms, TV, radio, broadcasting, hardware and software, computer service and electronic media. ICT represents a cluster of associated technologies married by their functional usage in information and communication of which one embodiment of it is the internet (Ogunsola and Aboyade, 2005). The internet technically is a worldwide network of computers but socially it also embodies a network of people using computers that make a vast amount of information available to all (Hargittai, 1999). 5 Drawing a parallel from Watts, (2001) in a paper prepared for an OECD review of policies for Information, Guidance and Counseling Services, commissioned jointly by the European Commission and the OECD. OECD – Organisation of Emerging Countries Development Data According to Watts. The evolution of ICT in guidance counseling can be divided into four phases; The mainframe phase The microcomputer phase The digital phase The Web Phase w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 197 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ' The early mainframe computers which were developed starting from the year of 1942 are ENIAC, MARIC I, BINAC, UNIVAC, these mainframe machines weighed in tones and consumed enormous electric power. It had thousands of vacuum tubes relays resistors, capacitors, and inductors inside of it (Exforys Inc, 2007). The mainframe which is colloquially referred to as “big iron”, originally referred to as large cabinets that housed the central processing units and the main memory of early computers (Wikipedia online encyclopedia, 2011). A number of computer–aided guidance systems were developed which demonstrated the potentials of ICT but the cost of direct interaction with the computer meant that the only systems which proved widely practicable in cost terms were based on batch processing (Watts, 2001). He pointed out that the static nature of this process and the feedback delays limited the implementation of such systems. ' The second phase of evolution of ICT application in guidance counseling was the age of microcomputers. The advent of microcomputers according to Watts, (1999) made interactive usage much more economical and also made it easier to develop and market limited software packages, its attractiveness grew as more powerful versions of the personal computer were developed. The result was a substantial growth in the number of computer – aided guidance systems. 4 # The advent of the third phase referred to as the web phase by Watts, (2000) connotes the presence of the internet. This meant that instead of stand alone computers, located at guidance centers, websites could be developed which individuals could access instantly from a wide verity of sites, including their homes. The ease of developing such websites produced a massive increase in their numbers. The ease of interconnect meant that they no longer needed to be viewed as discrete entities. Rather than perceiving ICT solely as a service from external suppliers, guidance services began to develop their own website. The fourth phase is the digital phase which we are now entering. The hitherto separate analogue streams of the computer, television and telephone are merging an integrated digital river (Cunningham and Froschl, 1999). They pointed out that individuals are now able to access the internet not only through their personal computers but also through their television and mobile phones. Greatly enhanced bandwidth will shortly enhance its speed and its capacity for transmitting video and audio as well as data. Watts summed it up by emphasizing that across the four phases, three keys trends can be discerned. The first is increased accessibility whereas initially, ICT based career guidance and information services were available only at a select number of technically services equipped services locations, they are now available not only in most guidance services but also in a vast range of other locations homes, work places, community locations etc. The second discernable trend is increased interactively. In the early stages, resources were developed as separate system, offering only limited interactivity with users but also with each other and across inter media boundaries. The third is much more diffused origination where as the initial computer guidance systems were developed by large organisation, with substantial resources at their disposal; anyone can now develop their own website. This has led to more much stronger private sector activity in this area. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 198 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ + ICT have undergone various stages of evolution before it got to the efficient stage it is today. Various researchers have put serious effort to bring it to validity. The vast arrays of software and rich resources available on the internet have also made its applicable to almost every field of study if not all fields; even in educational research, ICT plays a major role. The global community of counsellors has also taken to various ICT oriented methods while applying their trade. It is however disturbing to note that in Nigerian Universities, professionals are still stuck to the old traditional method. While there is nothing wrong with the old method, there is need for dynamism and improvement. This study focuses on applying ICT to counselling, the process which is referred to as Counselling Technology. The purpose of this study is to ascertain the challenges militating against the migration to counselling technology in Niger Delta University. The objective is to pinpoint the disturbing issues and give a wake up call to the administrators of the institution as well as engineer a revolution that will transport counselling to the next stage in Niger Delta University. The objectives of this study led to the raising of six research questions which are stated below. $ % (1) What level of ICT knowledge is required by existing non computer literate counsellors to be able to operate in an ICT oriented counselling environment? (2) What is the level of preparation of counselling professionals to migrate to ICT aided counselling? (3) What are the main considerations holding Niger Delta University back from fully migrating to counselling technology? (4) Do counsellors in Niger Delta University fully understand the dynamics of ICT? (5) Do counsellors in Niger Delta University have applicable knowledge of ICT? (6) Is it feasible for existing counselling professionals to go back to school and include ICT knowledge to their repertoire? ' Interviews were used to extract answers for four of the six research questions. Two (2) of the research questions were directly presented to ICT professionals both within and outside UNIPORT/NDU, FCET, ICT Institutions in interviews; One (1) research question was presented to Twelve (12) top management personnel in UNIPORT/NDU, FCET; one (1) was presented directly to counsellors and course advisers while the last two (2) questions were used to generate questionnaire items. The questionnaire was given to counsellors and course advisers after the entire instrument have been validated by three professionals and its reliability tested through test re test. Simple percentage was used to analyze the findings. The research adopted a fact finding technique where direct questioning and counter questioning was used to extract answers. Each direct question was presented at least twice to the interviewees. # + ! 13 Lectures in Computer Science Department In Niger Delta University 12 9 12 7 ICT professionals in NIIT, Port Harcourt ICT professionals in Afrihub, Federal College of Education, Omoku ICT professionals in NIIT, Port Harcourt ICT professionals in Sir Ben ICT Centre, Yenagoa H I- w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 199 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ++ # % $ ( % /SI+ > +) # # + ) # $ % ,G / S I 36 $ 36 . 36 ! Nil 36 0 $ % ( What level of ICT knowledge is required by existing non computer literate counsellors to be able to operate in an ICT oriented counselling environment? When this research question was presented to the ICT professionals, they gave useful tips on what could be done; some of the tips offered include: Firstly, they need to be able to appreciate the ICT technology hence, the knowledge of computer appreciation is necessary e.g. they need to understand what is meant by input output devices like monitor, CPU, keyboard, mouse, how to boot a computer, shutdown etc Secondly, they need basic knowledge in computer applications e.g. windows Operating Systems, Application Software, viruses, antivirus etc Ability to surf the internet Understand file sharing, saving, formatting, editing and modification Ability to create and update simple websites ability to use social media and networks, that stream, sync etc Ability to process words, present, tabulate and save in a data bank, hence the knowledge of Microsoft Word PowerPoint, Excel, Access, Publisher etc. $ % + What is the level of preparation of counselling professionals to migrate to ICT aided counselling? When this question was put across directly to nineteen (19) counselling personnel and seventeen (17) course advisers in the selected institutions, among the thirty (36) of them, twelve (12) said they have already migrated to Counseling Technology and are already utilizing the vast resource available to them through ICT they gave useful tips on how they did it which includes; ICT training Training in the use of internet facilities They pointed out that there are DIY (Do It Yourself) applications online which can guild a counselor through building a simple interactive personal website or social network like facebook. All that is recommended is apt attention and the zeal to learn. They pointed out that one must be inquisitive in order to decipher the dynamics of ICT because most of the component applications are mathematically coded, however, it was said that simplified applications abound with the help of Java, therefore one does not have to become a mathematics guru in order to understand these but zeal and inquisitiveness remain valuable virtues of one who is prepared to migrate to ICT aided counseling or counseling technology. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 200 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). One also has to be vast in the use of word processors presentations and excel. Also, moderate typing skill is required. Ability to create links, typeset, etc. these will make a personal website interesting and create pointers to other useful websites that may contain useful counseling material needed by client and counsellors. Sixteen (16) of the counsellors interviewed said that government is not committed to improving counselling technology or is not doing anytime in that area. They blamed the Niger Delta University authority for relegating ICT provision in the area of counselling to the background; this group while arguing that they are not altogether illiterate or handicapped in the use of ICT maintained that they would want the government to setup ICT centers and Labs. It was noted that a major setback in the development of counselling technology in Nigeria and Niger Delta University came forth when some of the companies walked out of the world Bank /HP/ IBM /Melinda and Bill Gates Foundation Project which aimed at manufacturing cheap and affordable computers for students and teachers and establishing ICT Centers and Labs for ICT aided. However, the 12 counsellors who are already compliant with Counselling Technology argued that the government have tried, that they have at least backed them in acquiring loans from the banks for laptops and PCS, these group of contributors said it is the lack of flexibility on the part of counseling practitioners that keep them behind, that the world is moving toward smaller governments. They said it is not feasible to reply on the government for everything. They pointed out that self help and self development is vital. $ % What are the main considerations holding Niger Delta University back from fully migrating to counselling technology? This question was presented to Twelve (12) top management personnel in the Niger Delta University; this was an attempt is to get to the nitty gritty of the question of why the institutions are still comparatively backward in ICT facilities. Useful information was gathered vis à vis: Lack of Zeal Economic/Financial bottleneck Cost Priority Administrators attitude towards the use of ICT Lack of zeal and divided attention on the part of practicing counsellors has also impeded counseling technology because if professional make it a priority and focus on their attention, on ICT they may get philanthropic groups and persons to donate and build ICT labs for them. Economic/Financial Bottle Neck has constrained the institution to a large extent. Inquiries revealed that the subvention received from the government for the day to day running of the institution is still very minimal therefore, the school spends on the basis of priority. Cost is also a major factor. Providing a fully automated ICT lab for counsellors is capital intensive. Given the meager earning of the institution, it is very difficult to commit a huge amount of money to such project because the school needs to pay urgent attention to areas of utmost importance. For instance, the Faculty of Educations where counseling psychology is domicile is fully accredited by the Nigerian University Commission, while there are other faculties that are yet to enjoy this grace hence, attention need to be concentrated on those. Administrators’ altitude towards the use of ICT is also affecting the development of counseling technology in Niger Delta University because if administrators view ICT as a necessary evil towards the provision of applicable education, they all make it a priority. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 201 March, 2013 $ % JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 0 Do counsellors in Niger Delta University fully understand the dynamics of ICT? In the course of the study, it was discovered that a considerable number of practicing counsellors in Niger Delta University does not fully understand the dynamics of ICT. Questionnaires put forward to ascertain their knowledge level was riddled with non affirmative answers. For instance, an average of 52% of the respondents either don’t know or are not sure what an Operating System is or whether a computer can function without an Operating System, 54% does not know or are not sure what a RAM or ROM is, neither can they decipher where a computer stores its data, 47% cannot name a word processing software. 58.5% on average does not know what a virus or antivirus is, 54% of the respondents don’t know or is not sure what trouble shooting is, neither can they really explain what new media means. $ % 0 Do counsellors in Niger Delta University have applicable knowledge of ICT? During the study, it was also discovered that although counseling practitioners have basic knowledge in ICT, they do not have the applicable knowledge of ICT which is required for ICT aided counselling. For instance, an average of 71% of respondents can’t work with PowerPoint and Excel; 90% of the respondents cannot modify the web content of a website; while 96% cannot build a simple website with online resource. 91% cannot or are not sure whether they can install software; 86% can’t create a link to a website while 69% can’t share files online. This finding tally with virtualguidanceonline.org which states that innovative ways of applying ICT in school guidance need teachers to fully understand the overall use and application of ICT in school counselling $ % A Is it feasible for existing counselling professionals to go back to school and include ICT knowledge to their repertoire? This question was presented to ICT professionals during an interview; the summary of their response is given below: While this is the most reasonable thing to do. We have observed cases where seminars and symposia are organized to inspire practicing counsellors and teacher in the area of ICT, only for most of them to absent themselves from the classes deliberately. Some think the computer is too complex for their ageing brains especially as they always have young students at their disposal, who can send E mails for them, guild them through their personal laptop or access it for them. There are paid services all around and within the school that counselors can run to as alternative hence, they don’t bother much for the knowledge, the implication is that such knowledge eludes them; therefore it is unavailable when needed. You cannot give what you don’t have. While the members of the academia view education as a continuous process and goes to school even until late in their years, there is a limit to the level of flexibility when it comes to new areas, they learn more and more about little things as opposed to learning a little about new things. For instance, many do not understand the dynamics of the computer technology and are scared to go into it. The very idea of demystifying the machine is scary to many. However, it is very possible for any open minded counsellor to take some period of time off to learn about ICT it does not require much time, a class can go from between one month to six months or thereabout depending on how much the person desire to know; and it could be part time or fall time. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 202 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The points raised by these groups of respondents tally with the thoughts of Masagia, (2008). He pointed out that continuous re training and establishment of a well defined capacity building programs for guidance counsellors focusing on individual skills of the counsellors is vital for improvement. In a nutshell, the study found that counselling practitioners need to update their knowledge and get hands on training in ICT in order to function properly in the new age. The challenge of operating as a professional in the new ICT oriented counselling technology requires more than basic knowledge in computer technology. Some of the vital knowledge prescribed include but are not limited to knowledge in computer appreciation and computer applications. It was prescribed that practitioners need zeal and some level of inquisitiveness in order to develop vital skills. While it was pointed out that finance, cost, priority etc are major factors impeding the Niger Delta University from providing the required ICT Lab, self help and self development was seen as an alternative for practitioners to utilize. $ It is recommended that the institutions should work harder to provide the researchers that abound in their domains, with the necessary ICT materials needed to take them to the next level so as to make their research and operations easier and more interesting this is because monotony kills interest. It is also recommended that counselling practitioners should do more to help themselves get the necessary trainings. They should seek partnership with researchers in other institutions especially in advanced countries. $ Achimugu P., Oluwagbegbemi O. and Oluwarranti A. (2010). An evolution of the impact of ict diffusion in Nigeria’s higher educational institutions 5 %. % ! . # $ Vol. 10, No 1, pp 25 34 Cunningham, P. and Froschl F. (1999). 7 * & Springer Berlin Exforeys Inc (2007). www.exforeysinc.com Hargittai E. (1999). Weaving the Western Web: explaining differences in internet connectivity among OECD Countries. ' , No 23, pp701 718 Liverpool, L. S. O., Marut M. J. and Ndam J. N. (2010). Towards a model for e learning in Nigerian HEIs: Lessons from the University of Jos ICT Maths Initiative 6 & %5 $' $ :! (7. ( 2 $ )($ 6 + Masagia J. T. (2008). Teachers’ perspectives on the integration of information and communication technologies (ICT) in School Counselling. . 5 %7 )& # 6 ! .( ; Vol 4, No 4 Nweze C. M. T. (2010 The use of ICT in Nigerian Universities: A case study of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, < * ' # ' 8> Nwokedi and Chukwuma (2007). Impact of Internet Use on Teaching and Research Activities of the Academic Staff of Facvulty of Medical Science, University of Jos: A Case Study. = <* 5 $ 10(1): pp13 22 Ogunsola L. A. and Aboyade W. A. (2005). Information and Communication Technology in Nigeria: Revolution or Evolution 83 > C 5 % 11(1): pp 7 14 Hezekiah Oluwaranti Liberary, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Nigeria Ojedokun A. A. and Owolabi E. O. (2003). Internet Use for Teaching and Research in Botswana. +% 5 %<* $+ & . % 13(1) pp 43 53 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 203 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Oyedum G. U (2006). Internet Utilization and Satisfaction by Students of Federal University of Technology Minna, Nigeria A <* + & . % 5 5(2): pp 1 9 st Watts A. G. (1999). Reshaping Career Development for the 21 Century. ( = 1 '# ( % = $ University of Derby. Watts A. G. (2000). Synthesis in Heibert, B and Benzanson, L (Eds), Making Waves: Career Watts A. G. (2001). Second International Symposium on Career Development and Public Policy: Rapporteur’s Report. ( ( )& # 4 , Ottawa. Wikipedia Online Encyclopedia (2011). www.wikipedia.com Your Dictionary (2011). www.yourdictionary.com w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 204 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENEESS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION IN CLASSROOM IMPLEMENTATION OF NCE II VOCATIONAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM > DR. PAC ORDU School of Business Education Federal College of Education (Technical) P. M. B. 11, Omoku Rivers State, Nigeria 08037097470 pacordu2009@yahoo.com 3# . $ / # ! / % ## 4 ! %% & %% & % ( ! $A # %7 $4 # B B ! # !$ % ! # & # & * % % # $ % # ! .( $ :(7 % & # # # % $ :(7 C @C C & $1 / ## # % +## $; $ +! 7 % 1 % ## $ # % ! # & % ! % % H % # % # ! % # # %% & B % / * / " * # % % % Q ! % %% # 4 ! # w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m & A * %% Page 205 & March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The increasing pace of technological changes and innovations is constantly creating corresponding changes in the society. These changes, to a very large extent, have made man to become constantly on the move for a better way of carrying our his activities. This innovative demand has placed higher pressure on educational institutions to effect some of these changes. This is consequent upon the fact that institutions as centres of learning serve the purpose of incubators of knowledge and skills. The government of Nigeria, in her quest for development and to become one of the first twenty countries of the world by the year 2020 has just realized the importance of these institutions. Government realization of this move is on the heels of massive unemployment rate of graduates some of whom have constantly become part of the social problems of the country. To this change, government has pushed the challenge to higher institutions for a solution to graduate unemployment problems which has become inherent. There is no gainsaying that the world today has been dominated by technology driven industries both for manufacturing, distribution of goods and offering of services. These goods and services dominated industrial sector focus on what Okorie (2010) described as innovation, speed, cross functionality and strong customer relations. This means that human skills development cannot be undermined since technology driven society is also human skills driven. This can be shown from the strengths of such societies as South Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan, Singapore, Thailand, etc globally known as little Asian Tigers. For Nigeria to develop and chase the dream of 20:2020, appropriate multi skilled workforce must be focused. This means that such skilled areas as information and communication technology, and book keeping skills in business education aspect of vocational programme can be harnessed to facilitated entrepreneurship in technological development of Nigeria. This was captured by Ezemoyih and Amos (2010) when they observed that technology is a problem solving process which has as its goals, the improvement of the quality of human life, human needs and resources. Entrepreneurship education has been recognized as an area of education that can re engineer tertiary institution graduates of this country and reposition the nation to a productive society. By this, government hoped that future graduates of her institutions have the role to developing the nation through their entrepreneurial activities. In this regards, institutions have been mandated to establish entrepreneurship education centres through which all graduates would be made to go through some entrepreneurship courses before graduation. It is also hoped that some of these graduates would have had their mindset on self reliant economy as is obtainable in developed societies rather than relying on government jobs. It is on record that the economic development recorded by developed nations have been made by private subsector economy rather than government sector. Entrepreneurship education and the resultant entrepreneurial activities in the western world is so attractive that private practice employment has become the engine of their development. These entrepreneurs are in various areas of the economy covering all human endeavours. These western countries have become exporters of goods and services to developing nations like Nigeria. In response to the challenge thrown to institutions by government, administrators of institutions and faculties are re evaluating the nature of their programme and are considering various forms of innovations. On one hand, information and communications technological skills is interpreted as a key factor in the transformation from backwardness of the present dispensation to entrepreneurial self reliant economy of tomorrow. On the second note, book keeping skills and knowledge competencies is also being viewed as a key factor in the effective management of enterprises. Indeed, Nwanewezi (2010), Asuquo (2010), Azih (2010), and Ezemoyih & Amos (2010) are of the view that skill competencies in ICT and financial records keeping need to be acquired by the entrepreneur as a means of differentiation to gain competitive advantage. In reference to this competitive advantage, Agonmuo in Uzo and Ike (2010) explained that effective business operations emphasise the need for information technology skills as a means to becoming relevant within the global economy. In that same light, Raymond and Ojo (2010) warned that if accounting educators fail to use w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 206 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). the technology available in teaching their students, they will be denying themselves and their students a competitive advantage in an increasing automated society. At the Colleges of Education, entrepreneurship education has been introduced in their vocational education curriculum vis à vis business education programme since 2002. With the present stance of government on entrepreneurship education as an engine of economic development, the nature of various subunits of vocational education such as agricultural education, business education, home economics education, technical education , etc need to keep pace with changes in the business environment. Institutions are currently making key decisions concerning the application of ICT and book keeping in education to re strategise for economic development. Across the country, Colleges of Education are faced with the task of updating their entrepreneurship education curriculum. Looking at the contributions of ICT and book keeping skills to this update process, Ezemoyih and Amos (2010) explained that ICT skills enhance the accounting education teachers skills of operation, reduce mistakes and wastages, eliminate drudgery and improve the effectiveness and efficiency in an automated office. This research work was conducted to find out how these two variables (ICT and book keeping skills) are taught in the entrepreneurship curriculum of Colleges of Education. ! $ + Entrepreneurship education, Ezeyi (2011) was described as an aspect of education that is geared towards developing in students skills, ideas and managerial abilities necessary for personal reliance. She went on to inform that entrepreneurship education can also be interpreted to mean that type of education given to learners to instill in them the principles, skills and practices required to see and evaluate business opportunities, to gather necessary resourcs and desire to take advantage of them as well. This goes to inform that entrepreneurship education is also poised to help learners acquire the skills of initiating appropriate action to ensure success in any chosen profession or occupational area. These scenarios show that the essence of entrepreneurship education is for the individual to be knowledgeable and skilled in the effective performance of jobs in his chosen occupation. This therefore means that the value of entrepreneurship educational can be determined if the individual is well equipped with relevant employability knowledge and skill competencies. These employability knowledge and skills, in this study are found in ICT and book keeping to equip the individual in a way that he could fit into specific paid employment or create his own niche of business outfit upon graduation from school. Questioning the rationale behind the unrealistic Nigerian government budgetary allocation which has never met the UNESCO recommended 26% annual budget allocation, Jibril (2010), Ibrahim (2010) and Ubogu (2011) demanded to know if anything had actually changed in terms of empowering students for self reliance, or if it had provided the necessary road map to technological advancement. Ubogu (2011) further advised that in order for our education to empower students for self reliance and prepare the necessary road map, the educational system has to be skilled based and entrepreneurial in nature. He further explained that such education system has to be that which is capable of empowering the individual to be self reliant through self employment. This form of education is necessary now because, according to Okereke and Okoroafor (2011), the geometric progression and turn out of graduates from various levels of schooling, and are not employed is a social problem. These graduates, for lack of productive skills endlessly wait for government jobs that are hard to come by. This, according to him, is because these graduates lack the entrepreneurship knowledge and skill competencies to be self employed. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 207 March, 2013 $ JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). % The following research questions were posed to guide the study: 1. To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the acquisition of ICT skills in vocational education? To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the acquisition of book keeping skills in vocational education? 2. $ & The following research hypothesis were formulated and tested at .05 level of significance. Ho1 There is no significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurship education (theory and practice) on students needs for small scale enterprises operation in terms of ICT skills. Ho2 There is no significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurship education (theory and practice) on students needs for small scale enterprises operation in terms of book keeping skills. ' The study was a survey design. The population was 1,400 students and a sample of 800 was used for the study. Out of the 800 questionnaire distributed, all the 800 were retrieved by the researcher given a one hundred percent return. The questionnaire contained two sections of 10 items each dealing with issues relating to the specific variables. The questionnaire was designed using a four point Likert scale and the instrument was subjected to face and content validity by two lecturers of vocational education programme. The reliability co efficient of the instrument was determined by the use of Crombach Alpha. This yielded a co efficient of 0.72. Mean statistic was used for answering the research questions while regression analysis was used to test hypothesis at .05 level of significance. Any item with a mean of less than 2.50 was considered not significant while any item with a mean of 2.50 and above was considered significant $ In line with research questions, the results of findings are summarized below: $ % ( ) To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the acquisition of ICT skills in vocational education? Table 1 was used to answer research question 1. Table 1: ' N = 800 E + 1 2 3 4 . 5/ 5 - _ X 178 95 257 270 1780 2.23 NS 183 158 192 266 1858 2.32 NS 132 170 238 261 1773 2.22 NS 145 149 290 217 1822 2.28 NS !5 , .!5 * A 5 # @ Leading students on excursion trips to ICT service providing companies Teaching students the concepts of team work in ICT environment Using interactive packages to expand students knowledge of ICT Teaching students the use of quick media to design maps and group w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 208 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). objects together Introduce students to handwriting 5 recognition technology to convert notes to text Utilising minio capture ink 6 recording system to teach students interactive series Application of interactive teaching 7 technology to capture images for presentation and meetings Attending to all topics relating to 8 networking of information Teaching students the concept of 9 creativity with the use of ICT facilities Encouraging students to attend workshops aimed at learning the 10 relationships between ICT skills and entrepreneurship education Total = Not Satisfy, 208 162 229 202 1976 2.45 NS 170 175 295 160 1955 2.44 NS 221 229 181 169 2102 2.63 N 157 171 278 194 1891 2.37 NS 179 181 270 169 1971 2.46 NS 168 190 288 154 1973 2.46 NS *:/* *7;6 ,I*; ,67* *<*6* , -< = Satisfies Table 1 shows a mean of 2.39 which is less than the cut off point of 2.50. This means that the NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum implementation does not satisfy students’ needs with regards to what they need to know in information communication and technology skills for small enterprises operations. $ % + ) To what extent has entrepreneurship curriculum for NCE 11 been implemented in the acquisition of book keeping skills in vocational education? Table 2 was used to answer research question 2 Table 2: ' # N = 800 E . 5 / + _ X 5- !5, .!5* A 5 # @ 1 2 3 4 5 # Attending workshops aimed at capturing the basics of book keeping in entrepreneurship business activities Teaching students to acquire the ability to perform year end routines Teaching students the principle of regular checks to ensure that sales and purchase order processing are updated Teaching students the concept of analysis of receipts and payment record as an important aspect of book keeping Giving students series of case studies to enable them acquire the knowledge of preparation of income statement 94 166 220 312 1641 2.05 NS 195 198 168 240 1948 2.43 NS 139 145 248 268 1755 2.19 NS 113 147 274 266 1706 2.13 NS 145 143 263 245 1784 2.23 NS w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 209 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Teaching students the rudiments to recognise the ability to develop statement of cash flow Teaching students to develop the ability of 7 creating bank, cash and loss account Utilisation of appropriate instructional 8 resources to teach students the preparation of profit and loss account Encouraging students to attend conferences aimed at discovering the use 9 of ICT in the analysis of inventory management records Teaching students methos of using ICT 10 facilities in the process of receipts and invoices Total 6 168 171 267 194 1914 2.39 NS 202 238 190 169 2074 2.59 S 191 270 143 200 2060 2.58 S 132 133 265 270 1727 2.16 NS 166 181 206 247 1866 2.33 NS *I/I *:<, ,,I* ,/*I *;/:/ , -* = Not Satisfy, = Satisfies The data in Table 2 shows a mean of 2.31. This result shows that the NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum does not satisfy students’ needs with regards to what they need to know book keeping skills for small scale business operation. $ & & * There is no significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurship education (theory and practice) on students needs for small scale enterprise operation with regards to terms of ICT skills. Table 3: Multiple regression of joint relationship of independent variable (theory and practice) on enterprises operation in terms of ICT skills. " ' 1 (Constant) Theory of NCE 11 Ent Curr B 1.908 Std error .222 Beta 8.583 .000 .041 .872 23.801 .000 .042 .103 2.808 .005 .979 Pract of NCE 11 Ent Curr .117 Table 3 shows how the individual aspect of the NCE II curriculum (theory and practice) exerts different levels of influence on students needs for small business operation as follows: theory, t = 23.801; practice, t = 2.808. That means the theory aspect of NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum currently exerted a higher influence on students needs for small enterprises operations in terms of ICT skills. Table 4: Model summary of the influence of NCE III entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) on students needs for small scale enterprises operation with regards to ICT skills. Model R R Square 1 0.972 0.946 P 0.05, Critical R value = 0.068 Adjusted R Square 0.945 Std Error 0.44113 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 210 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Table 4. shows a calculated r value of 0.972 which was greater than the critical r value of 0.068 at .05 alpha level. It also showed an R2 of 0.946, indicating that NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) account for 94.6% of enterprises operation needs of students with regards to ICT skills. Table 5: Analysis of variance of the influence of the NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) on ICT skills ' @ ' @ 0 1 Regression 2692.906 2 1346.453 .000a Residual 155.094 797 .195 6919.192 Total 2848.000 799 Table 5 shows the calculated F value of 6919.192 as against the critical F value of 2.99 at P .05. This means that the calculated F value of 6919.192 was significant. The result shows that the NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) exert a significant joint influence on students needs for small scale business operation with regards to ICT skills. & , There is no significance influence of the implementation of entrepreneurship education (theory and practice) on students needs for small scale enterprise operation with regards to book keeping skills. Table 6: Multiple regression of joint relationship of independent variable (theory and practice) on enterprises operation with regards to book keeping skills. " ' B 1 (Constant) Theory of NCE 11 Ent Curr Pract of NCE 11 Ent Curr 1.640 Std error .283 Beta 5.791 .000a .518 .052 .473 9.879 .000 .539 .053 .486 10.150 .000 Table 6 shows how the individual aspect of the NCE II curriculum (theory and practice) exerts different levels of influence on students needs for small enterprises operation as follows: theory, t = 9.879; practice, t = 10.150. That means the practical aspect of book keeping exerted a higher influence on students needs for small enterprises operations. Table 7: Model summary of the influence of NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) on students needs for small scale enterprises operation with regards to book keeping skills. Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std Error 1 0.952 0.907 0.909 0.56216 P 0.05; Critical R value = 0.068 Table 7 shows a calculated r value of 0.952 which was greater than the critical r value of 0.068 at .05 alpha level. The table also showed an R2 of 0.907. This means that NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) account for 91% of enterprises operation needs of students in terms of book keeping skills. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 211 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Table 8: Analysis of variance of the influence of the NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) on book keeping skills Model Sum of Square Df Mean F Sig square 1 2460.125 2 1230.063 .000a Regression 251.875 797 .316 3892.251 2712.000 799 Residual Total Table 8 shows the calculated F value of 3892.251 as against the critical F value of 2.99 at P .05. The implication of this is that the calculated F value of 3892.251 was significant. The result shows that the NCE II entrepreneurship curriculum (theory and practice) exert a significant joint influence on students needs for small scale enterprises operation with regards to book keeping skills. In the study, results of analysis show that implementation of ICT content of entrepreneurship curriculum does not give students their needs to acquire deep understanding of what it takes to operate a small scale business. From the analysis, Table 4 shows an r value of .972 as against the critical r value of 0.068. By this values, it means that the entrepreneurship curriculum have a significant influence on the needs of students acquisition of skills for small business operation. Table 3 however show that while the theoretical contents of the curriculum was vigourously implemented (t = 23.801), the practical content was poorly implemented (p = 2.808). From the findings of this study, it is observed that NCE 11 entrepreneurship curriculum in the College in terms of ICT content is not effectively implemented. This may account from either lack of qualified lecturers or lack of required facilities or both. This may be the reason why students were not able to acquire the needed skills to enable them have the mind set for self employment. The need for effective ICT skills has been underscored by Elom (2010) who opined that technology is made possible by high speed and efficient machines operated by skilled workers either in the private or public sector economy. Analysis of data in Table 2 shows that the implementation of book keeping skills content of NCE 11 in terms of book keeping does not satisfy students needs for business operation in terms of book keeping skills. Table 2 shows a mean of 2.36 as compared to the cut off point of 2.50. Again, Table 7 shows a r value of 0.952 as against the critical r value of 0.068. This figure means that the theory and practice of entrepreneurship curriculum has a significant influence on students needs for small business operations. However, in Table 6, the findings reveal that more attention has been given to practical aspect of the curriculum (p = 10.150) than theoretical aspect (t = 9.879). Though, this is the case here, the overall influence of low attention on practical implementation in visible while higher attention on theoretical is stronger. Based on the findings, the following conclusions were drawn from the study: The entrepreneurship vocational education curriculum offered in the NCE 11 level of vocational education is associated with small scale business operation skills development programme. This was found in terms of information and communication technology, and book keeping skills contents of the curriculum. In the course of teaching and learning process, there was discovered absolute lack of facilities both in human and material resources. This was responsible for the attention of teaching and learning process to be focused more on theoretical aspects at the near total exclusion of practical contents implementation. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 212 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ Based on the findings and conclusions drawn from this study, it is recommended as follows: The National Council for Colleges of Education (NCCE) should integrate wholly, with the new government concerns, the establishment of a centre for entrepreneurship education in all higher institutions. This integration is with a view to establishing a centre for entrepreneurship education to be headed by a qualified lecturers. The head of this unit shall ensure to scout around at vocationally related conferences and workshops for qualified teaching personnel to be recommended to their institutions for employment as lecturers in the centre. The new ideal will do away with the method by which non qualified lecturers have been made to handle the teaching of entrepreneurship education courses leading to poor delivery of contents. $ Asuquo, E. E. (2010). Business and information processing skills needed by business centre operators. A 7 5 , 6 (2): 95 101. Azih, N. (2010). Modern accounting skills required by accounting education students. A 7 5 . 6 (2): 120 130. Elom, E. (2010). An overview of entrepreneurship in vocational and technical education. 5 % A M 7 , 1 (1): 73 78. Ezemoyih, C. M. and Amos, O. N. (2010). Evaluation of information and communication technology skills needed by accounting education lecturers in Nigeria. A 7 5 $ 6 (2):110 119. Ezeyi, V. N. (2011). Entrepreneurship education: An indispensable tool for sustainable business education. + %A 7 %:! A / %3 ! , 1 (11): 67 71. Ibrahim, A. (2010). Entrepreneurship education as a necessary curriculum in higer educational institutions in Nigeria. 5 %A 7 3 )& # , 1 (1):135 140. Jibril, A. H. (2010). Towards improving the standard of vocational and technical education in Nigeria. 5 %A 7 3 )& # , 1 (1): 115 120. Okereke, L. C. and Okoroafor, S. N. (2011). Entrepreneurship skills development for millennium development goals (MDGs) in business education. + %* %:! A / %3 ! , 1 (11): 83 88. Okorie, O. (2010). Accounting for human assets: A strategy for enhancing human resources/organizational management. 5 %A M 7 , 1 (1): 101 107. Raymond, U. and Ojo K. E. (2010). Promoting accounting education in an era of information and communication technology. A 7 5 , 6 (2): 276 285. Ubagu, R. (2011). Introduction of entrepreneurship curriculum and instructions in Nigerian Universities: Prospects and challenges. + % A 7 % :! A / % 3 ! $ 1 (11): 77 82. Uzo, O. and Ike, B. E. (2010). Busines s education and employable skills in the e era. 5 % A M 7 $ 1 (1): 54 59. Nwanewezi, M. C. (2010). Problems in business education research in ICT era as perceived by business educators, A 7 5 , 6 (2): 46 54. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 213 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 EFFECT OF COMMUNITY RESOURCES ON JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS’ PERFORMANCE IN BASIC TECHNOLOGY IN ILORIN, KWARA STATE, NIGERIA By AMOSA ABDULGANIYU ALASELA Department of Science Education, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. Aaalasela@Hotmail.Com Abstract Community resources refer to the various learning situations through which both teachers and students come into first contact with the resource persons, places and materials that would benefit the teaching and learning process. It includes visiting organizations, institutions, and neighborhoods or reigns of the community. The main purpose of this study was to find out the effect of community resources on Junior Secondary Schools Students’ Performance in Basic Technology, in Ilorin. Specifically, the study investigated the differences in the performance of students taught using expository method and those taught using community resources. An intact class of Junior Secondary School two in each of the two schools selected was involved in the study. Purposive sampling technique was used for schools selection. The two sampled Junior Secondary Schools comprised 70 students who were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups respectively. Two research instruments were used for this study; Instructional Strategy on Practical Skills (Treatment) ISPS and Basic Technology Achievement Test (BTAT). The findings indicated that the students taught using community resources performed significantly better than their counterparts taught using expository. Finally, it was recommended that, teachers should expose students to community resources which will promote and encourage social interaction, active engagement in learning, self motivation, discovery learning, learning by doing and learning by experience, Basic Technology teachers should be trained on the effective use of community resources. Moreover, community resources are strongly recommended for developing practical skills among Junior Secondary school students. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 214 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Community resources are to enhance learning and academic success by providing activities and programmes for students using resource persons from the community to share their skills and knowledge. Community resources, according to Ajelabi (2000) are human and non human resources outside the classrooms for the purpose of making relevant observations and obtaining some specific information. Instructional materials can ensure maximum effectiveness and efficiency in teaching and learning process. Efficiency entails how judicious the instructional materials are utilized to obtain optimum achievement of instructional goals and objectives. Poor performance of students can be worked on with the use of community resources in the teaching and learning of Basic Technology. Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC, 2007), noted that the use of real life experience through an industrial visit (community resources) is the best way to facilitate the teaching and learning of Basic Technology. Fakomogbon, Ibrahim and Gegele (2007) observed that most of the imported equipment for teaching and learning Basic Technology were left uninstall. The poor performance of students in Basic Technology at JSCE from 2006 2010 in Kwara State reflected the level of their understanding of the subject. 70% KEY !!"# $%&' %!&%()&%*( 60% 50% 40% $%&' !!"# +"#%& 30% $%&' !! $%&' %, 20% 10% 0% 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Source: Kwara State Ministry of Education (2011). 0 *) 3 > C + 5A 1C 52 =+ > ,667 D ,6*6 A glance at figure 1 on a bar chart showing the percentage of students’ performance in Basic Technology, year 2006 and 2009 had the best result with 65% and 59.1% respectively passed with credit and distinction respectively. In the year 2007, 2008 and 2010, the students recorded poor performance in the subject. 20%, 30% and 29% respectively passed with credit, distinction and ordinary pass respectively. Adegbija (2000) stressed that with the aid of instructional materials, the teachers or trainers are helped with the use of instructional materials to have the indispensable and qualitative educational w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 215 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). experiences that will in turn make teaching and learning more meaningful. Therefore, instructional materials can ensure maximum effectiveness and efficiency in teaching and learning process. Efficiency entails the judicious use of instructional materials to obtain optimum achievement of instructional goals and objectives. # The use of community resources will ensure that teachers, parents and community members meet their responsibilities to ensure the effectiveness of teaching and learning. Community resources, according to Ajelabi (2000) are human and material resources found outside the classroom for the benefit of making appropriate observations for effective teaching and learning process. The factors militating against the teaching and learning of Basic Technology are; lack of equipped workshop, insufficient qualified teachers, non availability of facilities to aid the teaching of the subject, among others (Fakomogbon, 2004). Reasonable studies have been conducted to investigate the effect of community resources on the students’ academic performance. It seems no study has been carried out on the use of metal workshop as a resource centre. An attempt was made in this study to examine the effect of community resources on junior secondary schools’ performance in Basic Technology, specifically, in the differences on the performances of the students taught using community resources and those taught using expository method. The main purpose of this study was to find out the effect of community resources on Junior Secondary Schools’ Performance in Basic Technology. Specifically, the study investigated: 1. The performance of students taught using expository in Basic Technology. 2. The performance of students taught using community resources in Basic Technology. 3. The difference(s) between the performances of students taught using expository and those taught using community resources in Basic Technology. $ % In this study, answers were sought for the following research questions. 1. What is the performance of students taught using expository in Basic Technology? 2. What is the performance of students taught using community resources in Basic Technology? 3. Is there any difference in the performances of students taught using expository and those taught using community resources in Basic Technology? $ & This null hypothesis was tested: & ) There is no significant difference between the performance of students taught using expository and those taught using community resources in Basic Technology? This study was carried out in two selected Junior Secondary Schools (J.S.S 2) in Ilorin: Government Junior High School (Control Group) & Government Day Junior Secondary School, Adeta (Experimental Group). The students were conveyed to metal workshop. There they were exposed to; the processes in identification of metals, types of metals, various uses of metals, meaning and uses of metal work hand cutting tools, meaning and uses of metal work marking tools and the importance of metal finishing. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 216 March, 2013 $ + $ JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ! National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) pointed out that pre vocational skills should be provided by the curriculum of Junior Secondary Schools Basic Technology. Basic Technology involves the following areas of studies: technical drawing, metal work, wood work, electricity, electronics, plastics, ceramics, building, etc. These areas of studies are very important in that their studies deal with how to apply the knowledge, skills and processes involved in the solution of humans problems. The designing of Basic Technology to be part of the school curriculum calls for a well planned curriculum and suggests some useful and relevant instructional materials to prevent the teacher from total dependent on the theoretical aspect of the subject (NERDC, 2007). Basic Technology should be properly taught using relevant instructional materials. This is in line with the observation of Abolade (2009) who stressed that for regular use of current technological devices which are successful for quantitative and qualitative learning. Invariably, no effective teaching can take place without instructional materials. They are indispensable to the teaching and learning of Basic Technology. The importance of instructional materials is to enable the future professional technologists and engineers to develop necessary science skills, process skills and practical skills. Basic Technology Curriculum is designed for a minimum use of expensive equipment. Teaching and learning are therefore to be facilitated by the use of real experiences through industrial visits, use of information and communication technology (ICT), instructional materials and other audio visual aids. The contents under each theme are made to reflect the basic nature of technology (i.e. knowledge, skills, creativity and attitude). Abolade (2009) stated that the relevance of making learning and instructional materials to qualify as community resources is its closeness to both teachers and learners. The Federal Republic of Nigeria aims at introducing students to technology at the beginning of their secondary school education (FRN, 2004). In line with this, Basic Technology involves disciplines which can help students in their entrepreneurial choice later in life. Therefore, community resources are resources outside the classroom, which can be used to pass across instructional contents. Examples of community resources are religious institutions, such as churches, mosques, and shrines, commercial banks, historical places (e.g. museum, zoo) industrial sites, etc. These are places of interest where students can visit for further explanation on what they have learnt in textbooks. In the Junior Secondary classes, the learning of various subjects, precisely the practical oriented subjects like Basic Technology may be motivated and made increasingly real for students by arranging study situations which involve the community. For example, Students of Basic Technology can be made to visit metal workshop, textile industries in the nearest industrial centre. Finally, Basic Technology lessons move from simple teacher centered verbal instruction to student centered activity. ' The quasi experimental, non equivalent, non randomized, pre test, post test control group design was adopted for the study. In the design, pre test served as a measure of students’ background knowledge and initial nature of attitude. Two intact classes (control and experimental group) from two co educational schools were used for this study. 3>!5 1; the design is represented schematically as follows: 8 Experimental 01 X Control 03 8 02 04 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 217 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Where: 01 = Pre test scores of the experimental group. 02 = Post test scores of the experimental group. 03 = Pre test scores of the control group. 04 = Post test scores of the control group. X = the treatment for the experimental group. Table 1 reveals that the experimental group received the treatment using community resources while the control group was taught using expository. After the treatment, all the groups were post tested using same test prepared for pre test, but in a re arranged form. @ The subjects comprised 70 JSS 2 students of intact classes from 2 secondary schools in Ilorin West Local Government Area of Kwara State. The two comparable schools were selected using purposive sampling technique. The two sampled Junior Secondary Schools; Government Junior High School & Government Day Secondary School was assigned into control and experimental groups. $ Research instruments that were used to gather the relevant data for this study were divided into two. 1*2 1 2 ) The treatment was a visitation to Ola oluwa Engineering Construction Works (Metal workshop), Adeta. Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. The visitation was adjudged to be valid by the experts in the Department of Science Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. 1,2 > 3 1> 3 2) This was the test instrument designed by the researcher. The Basic Technology Performance Test (BTPT) contains a 25 items with multiple choice responses. It was used to measure the performance of students in both pre test and post test. . $ The instruments were subjected to face and content validity by the experts in Educational Technology to ascertain its validity. The reliability of the instruments was assessed using the test re test procedure; the test was re administered three weeks after the first administration to the same set of respondents outside the research sampled. After this, the two sets of score were correlated using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Formula and a reliability index of 0.76 was obtained. The study covered a period of six weeks, using an intact class of Junior Secondary School two (J.S.S 2). The same procedure of teaching used for the experimental group was equally used for the control group to teach the topics. However, the control group was not exposed to the treatment (community resources). The two groups (experimental and control group) were taught the following topics; the processes in identification of metals, types of metals, various uses of metals, meaning and uses of metal work hand cutting tools, meaning and uses of metal work marking tools and the importance of metal finishing. The lesson for the two groups lasted for four weeks (i.e. from second week to fifth week) while the first and the last week (i.e. first and sixth week) were used for the administration of pre test and post test respectively. 3 @ Data gathered on the effect of community resources on Junior Secondary School Students’ Performance in Basic Technology was statistically analyzed using mean and standard deviation to answer the three research questions. In testing the hypothesis, Analysis of Co variance (ANCOVA) was used to ascertain whether any significant difference existed atα: 0.05 significant levels. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 218 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ $ % @ *) What is the performance of the students taught using expository method? # ,) ' Control $ % ( ' 39.4286 35 9.90034 As shown in table 2, the students taught using expository performed below average with the mean score of 39.43. This indicated that in teaching Basic Technology, the use of expository method should be alongside community resources. $ % # -) ' ,) What is the performance of the students taught using community resources? $ % + ' Treatment 35 54.5143 14.97522 The result in table 3 shows that the students taught using community resources performed above average of mean score 54.4143. This indicated that the teaching and learning of Basic Technology using community resources had a positive influence on performance of students. $ % -) What is the difference between students’ performance taught using expository and when taught using community resources? # /) ' $ % Control Treatment ' 39.4286 54.5143 35 35 9.90034 14.97522 As shown in table 4, the teaching and learning of Basic Technology using community resources has a positive influence on performance of students. As the mean score (54.4143) of the students taught using community resource was higher than the mean score (39.4286) of the students taught using expository. It can be found that teaching and learning of Basic Technology using community resources would in no small measure enhance students’ academic performance in Basic Technology. & ) There is no significant difference in the performance of students taught using expository and the students taught using community resources. The result from data collected related to this hypothesis is as shown in table 5. # I) 3 (.3 8 A ' Corrected Model Intercept PRE TEST TREATMENT Error Total Corrected Total @ 2166.222a 254.215 540.651 1169.220 1166.349 57744.000 3332.571 2 1 1 35 32 70 69 120.346 254.215 540.651 68.778 72.897 @ 0 1.651 3.487 7.417 0.943 0.159 0.080 0.015 0.548 a. R Squared = 0.650 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.256). From table 3, it is shown that at 0.05 significance level, the value produced F (2, 69) = 0.943 > 0.548. This implies that there was a significant difference between the two groups of students. The analysis revealed w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 219 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). that those students taught using community resources performed better than those students taught using expository. Therefore, hypothesis one was rejected. 0 The findings of this study were summarized thus: Those students taught using expository performed below average with mean score 39.43 while the students taught using community resources performed high with mean score 54.4. This indicated that teaching and learning using community resources would in no small enhance students’ academic performance in Basic Technology. In addition, there was significant difference in the performance of students taught using community resources and those taught using expository with the value F (2, 69) = 0.943 > 0.548. The findings indicated that the students taught using community resources performed better than students taught using expository. Therefore, the mission of community resources is to enhance learning and academic success by providing activities and programmes for students using resource persons from the community to share their skills, knowledge, value and attitudes. The use of community resources ensures teachers, parents and community members meet their responsibilities to ensure maximum use of resources. Since the classroom is a limited environment, the teaching and learning of Basic Technology must go beyond the four walls of the classroom. $ (1) (2) (3) Teachers should expose students to community resources which will promote and encourage social interaction, active engagement in learning, self motivation, discovery learning, learning by doing and learning by experience. Basic Technology teachers should be trained on the effective use of community resources. Community resources are strongly recommended for developing practical skills among Junior Secondary students. $ Abolade, A.O. (2009). Basic criteria for selecting and using learning and instructional materials. In J.O. Abimbola & A.O. Abolade (Eds.), 4 ' # ' %. Department of Science Education and Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. Adegbija, M.V. (2000). . - , + A ; A / Ilorin: Indemac Communication. Ajala, I.R. (2010). Effect of the Utilization of Community Resources (Wood Workshop) in Basic Technology. Unpublished M.Ed. Project Submitted to the Department of Science Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. Ajelabi, A. (2000). 7 %7 ! Lagos: Raytel Communications. Fakomogbon, M.A. (2004). The Laboratory in Basic Technology: Some Basic Considerations and Needs. The Nigeria Journal of Education. Vol. 3 (1), 58 62. Fakomogbon, M.A., Ibrahim, A.I. & Jegede, W.B. (2007). + . M Ilorin: Onigba Printing Production. Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2004). : ' 7 $ (4th Edition). Lagos: NERDC Press. Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council (2007). + ' # % :! 7 , 3# A ! ( ( % Abuja: NERDC Press. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 220 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Oyedeji, N.B. (2002). School Plant Planning in F. Durosaro & S. Ogunsaju (Eds). ( % % 7 - ! Ilorin: Idemac Print Media. Price, J. (1993). Is Gender an Issue in Current Education Practice, Education Today, 43 (1), 111 123. Yusuf, M.O. (1997). Effects of Videotape and slide tape instructions on Students’ Performance in Social Studies in some Junior Secondary Schools. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 221 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS VOLUNTARY CONFIDENTIAL HIV/AIDS SCREENING (VCHAS) By UKWUIJE CHINEDU KELECHI, Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance & Counselling, University of Port Harcourt. Abstract This study investigated the factors that influence Student’s Attitude Towards Voluntary Confidential HIV/AIDS Screening (VCHAS) in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State. The purpose was to determine whether location (urban and rural), gender (male and female) and religious inclination (Christian and Moslem) influence student’s attitude towards VCHAS. Three research questions were raised and three null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 alpha level. Descriptive survey design was adopted in this investigation. The study population consisted of 5,301 students of SS1 in 14 senior secondary schools in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State. A sample size of 1000 students drawn, using Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling Technique. The instrument for data collection was a questionnaire tagged Attitude towards Voluntary Confidential HIV/AIDS Screening (ATVCHAS). The instrument was validated by three experts, one in Measurement and Evaluation and two in Educational Psychology. The reliability of the instrument was determined through test re-test method and the result yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.78. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions while t-test was used to test the null hypotheses. The paper however concluded and recommended among others, that Government and non-governmental organization should provide comprehensive preventive and care programme, screening centres with good infrastructural facilities, anti-retroviral drugs for people. Key words: Voluntary, Confidential, Screening, HIV/AIDS w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 222 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The human Immune deficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) have become serious global health and psychosocial crisis, with about 32 million infected adolescent worldwide (UNAIDS, 2007). AIDS is caused by the HIV. HIV was the first member of the retrovirus family to occur in humans (Schoub, 1999). AIDS is the final stage of HIV disease which causes several damage to the immune system. It begins when the HIV attacks the most important defensive cells of the human immune system the CD4 or T helper cells. As it does, it slowly reduces the total number of healthy CD4 cells in the body – thereby progressively weakening the ability of the system to defend itself against attack from the outside (Alta, 2005). AIDS is the fifth leading cause of death among humans. Common Bacteria, yeast, parasites and viruses that ordinarily do not cause serious disease in people with strong immune system can cause fatal illness in people with AIDS (Youth lens, 2002). According to (Cawley,1990), AIDS and related conditions occur mostly in young people. They are progressive, distressing and debilitating illness, ultimately fatal. Newton (2001) stated that the first cases of AIDS were reported in 1981 in the United States of America. Within and outside Nigeria, the spread of AIDS is apparently alarming. (Amaechi,1977) declared that by October 1977, Lagos University Teaching Hospital (LUTH) was receiving 10 to 15 HIV cases weekly. Indecent sexual practices have gained ground among adolescents today that such deviant behaviour has constantly exposed them not only to sexual abuse but HIV/AIDS infection. HIV has been found in saliva, tears, nervous system tissue and spinal fluid, blood, semen, vaginal fluid and breast milk. Hence, according to William 2002; “Transmission of the virus occur through sexual contact: whether oral, vaginal and anal sex, through blood via blood transfusion or needle, sharing or from mother to child either a pregnant woman transmitting the virus to her fetus through shared blood circulation or a nursing mother can transmit it to her baby in her milk”. HIV can be transmitted also to a person receiving blood or organs from an infected donor (Prince, 1997). He also suggested that blood banks and organ donor programs should screen donor blood and tissues thoroughly. However, the researcher observed that those at risk include persons engaging in unprotected sex, sexual partner of those who participate in high risk activities (such as anal sex). The researcher also observed that drug users who share needles, infants born to mothers with HIV who do not receive HIV therapy during pregnancy and people who received blood transfusions or clothing are also at risk of HIV. HIV patients may have no symptoms for ten years or longer but they can still transmit the infection to others during this symptoms free period (US Agency for International Development 2002). This means that HIV progresses overtime to a symptomatic HIV infection and then to early symptomatic HIV infection which later progresses to AIDS. This is an indication that either adequate care is not given to the infected person or they may have decided to take their life the way they saw it since there is no cure for HIV/AIDS. On the other hand, to retard the progress of the virus and to prevent it from one person to another, something needs to be done. Hence (William, 2002) stated that care and support services are needed for those young people who test positive as well as those who test negative. He added that counselling adolescent about HIV testing is challenging, so it is important as a counsellor to be non judgemental, establish rapport and instill hope in them particularly those testing positive. Voluntary Confidential HIV/AIDS screening (VCHAS) services may be an appropriate entry point to addressing adolescent HIV prevention and care needs. This is because effective pretest screening would explore issues, as a youth support system, whom they have told they might get tested and with whom they would share the results. Again, pretest screening can help to sustain w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 223 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). behaviour change. Hence Namwebya in (William,2002) exclaimed thus: “Young people who are HIV positive still have their dreams and many years ahead. What will happen to their dream? How long can they sustain behavior change? We should be able to help them cope”. Voluntary confidential screening has been described as the cornerstone of HIV prevention by international Agencies such as UNAIDS and the World Health Organization (WHO), National Action Committee for AIDS (NACA) etc, yet the evidence showing that (VCHAS) contributes to behavior change and reduced HIV incidence in the developing countries is conflicting (USAID, 2007). NACA Centres were set up in different states in Nigeria for people to go and know their status freely. Also, some Government Agencies and hospital like the University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital (UPTH), screen people freely and give retroviral drugs but the virus is still spreading rapidly. People who tested HIV – negative were more likely to engage in risky behaviour compared to their infected counterparts. VCHAS has dealt with many challenges such as dealing with confidentially, stigma associated with being tested positive, testing procedures and the importance of pretest and post test counselling. Still on this, innovative efforts are needed to reach such group as young pregnant women, young people using drugs and out of school youth afraid to seek HIV service because they fear stigma and discrimination from their families . More information is needed on how young people who test positive cope with whom they share results, who provide emotional support services, long term outcomes and comparison of voluntary counselling. The researcher observed that VCHAS help adolescent to use safer sexual practices and even reduce their rates of sexually transmitted infection. Also, that adolescent is afraid whether the test result would remain confidential or may lose their partner or that the services will be costly. Also, some adolescents worry that their test would be positive. VCHAS is indispensable because it helps those who are HIV positive to receive treatment in order to prolong their productivity phases of life and at the same time promote the economy of the nation. # HIV/AIDS is a dreaded and intimidating viral infection that has claimed the lives of people leaving many in a state of despondency. Availability of accessible and affordable Voluntary Confidential Testing (VCT) services is a problem in many countries like Nigeria. However, the use of rapid HIV antibody test is preferred because distance from the clinic and lack of transport often make it difficult for people to come back to the clinic for test result. In addition, communities are not well sensitized and trained in pre and post test screening, the belief that there is no treatment option, fear of rejection, lack of confidentiality by loved ones and health professionals, lack of trust and the knowledge that knowing your status lead to depression, stigmatization and despair hinders them from going to the screening Centers. On the other hand, gender inequalities where female are exposed to rejection, violence and loss of home than male, lack of understanding of risk where knowledge of HIV/AIDS is low and lack of perceived benefit of screening hinder people from knowing their HIV/AIDS status. In Nigeria, Government and non governmental agencies like NACA have put in place some facilities in different states for people to voluntarily, go and know their status so as to reduce the spread of the disease. As important as it sounds, it is not certain how young people feel about VCHAS and their attitude towards it. It is also not certain whether some factors such as location, gender, and religious inclinations could influence students’ attitude towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening. The question that may arise here therefore is –How do factors such as gender, location and religious inclinations influence students attitude towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening. The researcher’s desire to answer this question spurred the conduct of this research. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 224 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). This study was aimed at determining the factors that influence the attitude of students towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening. In specific terms, the study was designed to: 1. determine the extent location (urban/rural) influences the attitude of students towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening 2. determine the influence of gender (male/female) on student’s attitude towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening. 3. ascertain how religious inclination (Christian/Islam) influence students attitude towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening. $ @ 1. What is the influence of location on students’ attitudes towards VCHAS? 2. How does gender influence students’ attitudes towards VCHAS? 3. What influence has religious inclination on students’ attitudes towards VCHAS? & 1. 2. 3. The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. There is no significant difference in the attitude of urban and rural students towards Voluntary Confidential HIV/AIDS screening. The difference in attitude of male and female students towards Voluntary Confidential HIV/AIDS screening is not significant. There is no significant difference in the attitude of Christian and Moslem students towards Voluntary Confidential HIV/AIDS screening. ' The design for this study was descriptive survey, and the study area was Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State. The population of the study comprised of all SS1 Students in the 14 Secondary Schools in Obio/Akpor L.G.A. of Rivers State. There were 5,301 students in the senior secondary (SS1) class as at the time of this study as obtained from the Post Primary School Board (PPSB Obio/Akpor ). A sample of 1000 students (733 urban and 267 rural students, 500 males and 500 females, 867 Christian and 133 Moslem students ) was used for the study. Proportionate stratified random sampling technique was used to draw the sample from 10 senior secondary schools in the Local Government Area. The instrument for data collection was questionnaire tagged “Attitude towards Voluntary Confidential HIV/AIDS Screening” (ATVCHAS). The items of the instrument were measured on a 4 point Likert –type scale weighted as follows: Strongly Agree (four points), Agree (three points), disagree (two points), strongly disagree (one point). The instrument was validated by experts in measurement and evaluation and educational psychology. The reliability of the instrument was determined through test re test method and the result yielded a correlation coefficient of 0.78. Mean and Standard Deviation were used to answer the research questions, while t test was used in testing the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. $ $ @ ) What is the influence of location on students’ attitude towards VCHAS? & ( ) There is no significant difference in the attitude of urban and rural students towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening. # *) Mean (×) standard deviation (SD) and T test summary of difference in attitude towards Voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening among urban and rural students. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 225 March, 2013 ! JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ' 3 Urban 733 2.486 0.357 Rural 267 2.493 0.467 0.266 1.960 998 $ 0.05 Not Significant An observation of table 1 indicated that urban and rural students obtained grand attitude mean (×) values of 2.48 and 2.49 respectively. This show that the rural students slightly scored higher mean (×) then the urban students. However, the t calculated value of 0.266 was less than the critical t value of 1.960 at 0.05 alpha level and df of 998 and 0.05 alpha level. Null hypothesis one was therefore accepted. This implied that no significant difference existed in the attitude of urban and rural students towards Voluntary Confidential HIV/AIDS Screening. $ @ + ) How does gender influence students’ attitudes towards VCHAS? & + ) The difference in attitude of male and female students towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening is not significant. # ,) Mean (×) standard deviation (SD) and T test summary of difference in attitude towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening among male and female students. ' Male 500 2.508 0.405 1.631 Female 500 2.467 0.372 1.960 998 3 0.05 $ Not Significant In table 2, male and female students obtained attitude towards VCHAS mean (×) scores of 2.50 and 2.46 respectively. This shows that the male where more positive in their attitude than the females. However the t calculated value of 1.631 was less than the critical t value of 1.960 at df of 998 and 0.05 alpha level. Null hypothesis two was therefore accepted. This implied that no significant difference existed in the attitude of male and female students towards Voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS Screening. $ @ VCHAS? ) What influence has religious inclination on students attitude towards & ) There is no significant difference in the attitude of christain and moslem students towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening. # -: Mean (×), standard deviation (SD) and T test summary of difference in attitude towards voluntary confidential HIV/AIDS screening among Christian and Muslim students. $ ' Christians 867 2.496 0.391 1.853 Moslems 133 2.429 0.372 1.960 998 3 0.05 $ Not Significant The information on table 3 shows d that the Christian and moslem obtaind attitude towards VCHAS means (×) scores of 2.49 and 2.42 respectively. This scored higher mean (×) score than the moslems. t calculated value of 1.853 was less than the critical t value of 1.960 at df of 998 and 0.05 alpha level. Null hypothesis three was therefore accepted. This implied that no significant difference existed in the attitude of Christian and Moslem student towards Voluntary Confidential HIV/AIDS screening. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 226 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 0 The result in table 1 shows that the t calculated value of 0.266 is less than the critical t value of 1.960 at 998 degree of freedom and the chosen alpha level of 0.05. The null hypothesis was accepted, thus there is no significant difference in the attitude towards VCHAS among urban and rural students. Urban students had a grand mean score of 2.486 with a standard deviation of 0.357while rural students have a mean score of 2.493 with standard deviation of 0.467. However, urban and rural students have a negative attitude towards VCHAS. In support of this fact, UNAID (2007) revealed that some rural dwellers see the use of condom as diabolical and ungodly with western education making little or no impact. Most people in the rural areas practice sexual activities in very crude and unhealthy ways such as engaging in sex under a tree, in the bush track, toilets etc thereby increasing the possibility of the spread of the virus among rural dwellers. However, WHO (2000) argued that urban men sexually abuse females, especially undergraduate males who sexually abuse naive females who know little or nothing about self integrity than the rural counterparts. Table 2 result shows that t calculated is 1.631 at 998 degree of freedom and at the chosen alpha level of 0.05. Since the t calculated is less than t critical, the hypothesis was not rejected. The mean score of the male is 2.508 with a standard deviation of 0.405 while the mean score of the female is 2.467 while the standard deviation is 0.372. Thus the mean response was in favour of males instead of the females which means that male students have a positive attitude towards VCHAS while the female students have a negative attitude towards VCHAS The finding of this present study is in disconcordant with Sergi (2004), who found that health wise, gender differences have been established with females being more infected than male. This means that female are thought to be more at risk for acquiring and transmitting HIV than men. Several findings on the issue of sexually transmitted diseases especially HIV/AIDS infections have revealed that more adolescent females are infected than young males. Gender based power relations within intimate relationships often result in increased vulnerability for women. In table 3, the result shows that t calculated is 1.853 and is less than the t critical 1.960, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the attitude towards VCHAS among Christians and Moslems was accepted. The Christian students have a mean score of 2.496 with standard deviation of 0.391 while Moslem has a mean score of 2.429 with standard deviation of 0.372. The result shows that both Christian and Moslem have a negative attitude towards VCHAS. Christians students have a higher mean score than the Muslim because some of them have a knowledge of VCHAS, they believe that AIDS is God’s punishment for immorality and sin, so they separate themselves from it earlier enough (Van Dyk 1991). However, Ankrah 1991, said that socially, political and religious barriers often hide young wives from the world while their husband frequently have other sexual partners. The researcher found out from the results that religious inclination do not significantly influence in the attitude of students towards VCHAS. Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that students from both urban and rural locations have negative attitude towards VCHAS. The difference in their attitude is not significant difference. It was also concluded that there is no significant difference in the attitude of male and female students towards VCHAS. Religious inclinations also have no significant influence on students’ attitude towards VCHAS. $ The following recommendations are made based on the findings: 1. Adequate orientation should be given to train counselors, health workers on the awareness and also during the pre and post crisis screening state. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 227 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 2. Government and non governmental organization should provide comprehensive preventive and care programme, screening centres with good infrastructural facilities, anti retroviral drugs for people. 3. However, innovative ideas relating to different ways of promoting positive attitude towards VCHAS and change of behaviours especially in sexual relationship should be made available by the Government through seminar, workshop, conferences, moral instruction for young people etc. 4. Religious values preferences should not be allowed to prevent young people from submitting themselves for VCHAS. 5. It is important that parent, teachers should be actively involved at all stages of programme development towards behaviour change. 6. Teachers should handle the HIV/AIDS education in the lower and primary grades because the teacher is familiar with the students and probably best equipped to use those teaching strategies that are appropriate to the students age group. For example in the senior grades, HIV education should be carried out by specially trained teachers (Guidance Counsellors) and the contents of HIV/AIDS education should be included in the school. 7. In addition, preventive programmes like VCHAS should be contextualized so that they are sensitive to local customs, religious and gender equality. This is because, there is no standard programmes that will be meaningful, relevant and effective for all people at all times and places. 8. Health care professionals should be careful about what they tell people when speaking on HIV/AIDS. Prejudiced language may alienate them from their target groups. $ Alta, V. D. (2005). ;.M@+.) ( ( ! +% Amaechi, C. (1997, March). Aids and Threat. +.) - ! 9 : Alison Paulin Press. 9, 25. Ankrah E. (1991). AIDS and the social side of health. Social Science and Medicine 32 (9), 967 980. Cawley, R. H. (1990). +.) ' ' ! ' # & . Great Britain: Chapman and Hall D = * . Lagos: Tradition Action Media. Press. Newton C. (2000). ;.M@+.) 7 % Prince, C. B. (1997). +.) , ! Schoub, B. D. (1999). + ;.M B $ % Aba: Hawks Communication Press. # # &, + ! ! & (2nd ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sergi O. A. (2004). Disproportionate Impact of Sexually Transmitted Disease in Women. Emerging Infectious Disease, 10 (11). UNAIDS (2000). Background Note: HIV/AIDS in Asia and Specific UNGASS. UNAIDS (2007). Progress report on the Global Response to HIV/AIDS. UNAIDS. Youthlens (2000) HIV/AIDS. + 5 3# & ; ;.M@+.) . Vol. No. 3,. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 228 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 SKILL*BASED CURRICULUM FOR SUCCESSFUL CAPACITY BUILDING IN THE IN*SERVICE TRAINING OF NIGERIAN TEACHERS By DR. IBRAHIM I. ABDULRAHAMAN Kwara State College of Education, Ilorin Kwara State, Nigeria 3# ## * %% !$ ! 9 % / #$ 8 & ! 9 +; ## * & % B B ! 3 % !# ! > % * ! & !# ! ## % $ # # % ! ! # % # *% # ! $ ! ! ! 9 % # 9 ! % * / "# % / A $ ! *> & % %% & / B # & & / B $ % # ! ! ! + # % ## ! # 8 & !% $ ! ! !# ! # $ B w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 229 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). A post workshop review of the performances of the classroom teachers in the classroom are not encouraging as some of the students taught are not performing to expectation. This accounted for the renewed concern these days that the curriculum should be relevant and reflects the changing social conditions of a society. Unlike the old curriculum theories which tend to focus mainly on acquisition of knowledge and cognitive learning, the humanistic approach focuses more on independent study, interactive session, practical or work experiences to bring about functional learning. Infact, the dream of self reliance, skill acquisition and entrepreneurship education can only be realized through a well defined programme (curriculum) using a humanistic curriculum approach. As discussed in this paper, the humanistic approach emphasizes the need for the contents/topics to be strengthened and consolidated to permit the participants to acquire all he necessary, information, knowledge and skills in order to perform effectively. Reacting to the progress made in the Nigeria education sector, it was argued that the progress made by any country is rested on how the learning activities are being organized to educate and enlighten its citizens. According to the former President of Nigeria, Olusegun Obasanjo who asserts that: . * ! % & $ & # # % ! A # # ! $* ! ## * & # * % & ! 9 % / 1* >$ C ? #C The above statement therefore testifies to the need for restructuring some programmes and providing a conducive learning environment for both teachers and the students. Basically, in service training, workshops, seminars and capacity building programmes, are organized to help the participants to acquire necessary knowledge, information, and/ or skills 8 > Of course school curriculum deals’ with planning and organization of learning activities in order to achieve predetermined goals and objectives (Ibrahim, 2008 & Mkpa, 1989).The purpose of any capacity building programme is to fill the gap for the participants to update their knowledge or acquire the necessary skills. If the products of the schools at all levels are not performing to expectation as observed in our society, the next thing is to re examine the process used in the training programme in the classroom or workshops. In the classroom or formal teaching, there are two major competencies required of all teachers are: i. Technical Competency and ii. Professional Competency (1) (2) Technical competency involves skills such as mastery of the subject matters, knowledge of foundation of education and the nature of curriculum and instruction. The professional competency aspect deals with the teachers’ perception of his roles/professional ingenuity, attitude and responsibilities (Abdullahi, 1980 & Charlotte, 1979). In most cases, training programmes or services are rendered to the serving teachers in order to upgrade status, for awareness and improvement in the area of service delivery. In his own contribution, Ozigi (1977) maintains that in service trainings are organized for the following reasons: w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 230 March, 2013 i. ii. iii. iv. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). To increase the participants learning or change their attitudes. To elicit positive participants reactions to their professional training. To introduce an innovation or for general awareness. To improve skills on instructional techniques and use of teaching materials. As earlier mentioned, capacity building, and in service education or trainings take the form of workshops, seminars or conferences. According to Nwachukwu (2000) among the problems that educators observe in some in service training or workshops both in the developed and developing countries include; i. poor organization and inappropriate contents selection. ii. wrong timing of the period of the year that is devoted for the exercise to take place. iii. attitude of the school authority in not wanting to finance iv. v. or send many staff on in service programmes particularly the teachers. the meagre salaries that are paid to the teachers presently may not allow many teachers to show interest. vi. failure of the organizers of the workshops/seminars to relate their programme to the genuine needs or interests of the participants. duration of the workshops/seminars and training may be too long or short for the realization of the programme objectives. lack of follow up or evaluation after the exercise to see to the mystery of the subject content or acquisition of the required skill vii. viii. & From the experience, staff development or capacity building workshops usually offer one of the best ways to improve classroom teaching and learning. Infact many educators are of the opinion that teachers have to search for the patterns of school organization and management that would give freedom to learners in order to bring about better learning outcomes. (Gordon, 1979, Ibrahim 2008B). That is, to promote better understanding, teachers need to emphasize learner/student centered approach which permits and encourage students or learners to have enough freedom to select, to participate in activities and make self evaluation through acquisition of necessary knowledge and skills. Effective classroom planning and management, therefore consists of controlling teachers behaviours that tend to produce high level students’ involvement in the classroom activities, with minimal interruptions and efficient use of instructional time. In other words, whatever action that is required to stimulate learners thinking, enlarges their imagination, promote initiative, sustain attention, make learning real and enhance teaching and learning process is worth looking at critically (Hunt, 1976). According to Charlotte (1979), just as teachers should reinforce good behaviours in the classroom, it has been argued that teachers’ training programme should consider different theories and select appropriately, depending on the situation and the age of the learners. Below are guiding principles: 1. Teachers’ retraining programmes should emphasize discipline related skills in addition to considering the importance of conducive learning environment. The reason being that Classroom control and management skill remain a problem in schools at all levels. For example, in public schools, students/teacher ratio or students’ population is more diverse than ever before, thus making it difficult for the teachers to know all their students or perhaps to find classroom control/management difficult. Talking about individual differences, apart from differences in the educational background and aptitude the number of students with emotional or learning problems is increasing. Only in the w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 231 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). recent time that the impact of praises, responses or teachers feedback and effect of micro teaching on students’ performance and learning are getting the serious attention and investigation it deserved (Akubue, 1991). Apart from that, there are indications that many teachers entered the profession with little or no training on school discipline techniques most especially the non professionals or HND holders. This could be one of the reasons why discipline problems are common in public schools. In fact, public criticism of schools and the debilitating effects of teachers stress and burn out are closely linked to the problems of students’ behavior (Rudolf and Pearl, 1972). Of course, this is the reason why it is made compulsory for most Post Secondary or Tertiary Institutions to offer courses on class room management and planning and curriculum studies. What is provided in these courses including psychology tends to be either theoretical or academic in nature without providing teachers with the actual competency base 2. Teacher’s preparation programmes should emphasize the coherent relationship between theory and practice. Wolfgang and Glickman (1980) argued that teachers hardly had enough knowledge about content organization (topic selection) and about professional approaches to classroom management to facilitate students learning. The problem facing educational development across the nation is lack of recognition of the importance and the differences between theory and practice in classroom teaching and learning (Ibrahim, 2008B). The overwhelming supply of conflicting theories and techniques often resulted in the teacher not knowing which is to be chosen and when to use them appropriately to alleviate the desired objectives. For example, where does a teacher begin in the process of making use of Reinforcement, Discipline or leadership style/strategic in the classroom? What comes first, rules or relationship? Praise or punishment? etc. 3. In all the training programmes, organization of learning activities and use of appropriate teaching techniques should be seen as necessary tools for classroom teachers. From the above discussion, it means teaching goes beyond standing in front of the students. Apart from the good mastery of the subject matter, the teacher should be able to use appropriate teaching techniques to either arose the students interest, make learning easier or facilitate classroom control. Findings from some studies revealed that teachers’ attitude and classroom behavior are more important in restoring good discipline and behavior among the students (Goodlad and Klein, 1970; Newberry, 1979). Surely, teaching is still an art to be learned and which is informed by scientific studies of teaching and human behavior. Of course, just as no Textbook on marriage has been found to prescribe the formula for family life, no behavior management programme is expected to prescribed “all in all” formula for good teacher classroom behavior and content selection (Tanner, 1978). That, a teacher prefers and adopts certain techniques, believes in his students’ individual characteristics and expects certain behavior is surely as important to good discipline as the techniques used to facilitate teaching and learning. In summary, to assist the developing countries, in their efforts to improve educational standard, effort is required to redesign the existing curriculum for a more practical approach that is skill based, coherent and humanistic in nature., On the basis of the above theoretical frame work and previous professional teaching experiences, a two stage approaches to classroom teaching for training teachers on in service programmes are suggested. This is briefly discussed below: Figure 1: Steps in Presenting Learning Activities w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 232 March, 2013 *) a. b. c. d. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). ) + : Effective teaching begins with a teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter, philosophy and objectives of education/programme selection of appropriate methods of instruction and/or teaching aids is useful at this point. > E3 : To bear in mind that school exists to promote learning through information, knowledge and skill acquisition. Teachers are only responsible for the organization of learning activities and ensure compliance through reinforcement, and self confidence which are expected to bring about permanent change in behavior or learning. ! : Deals with the presenter’s ability to comprehend; show understanding and present contents in an orderly manner. Communication and listening skills are important for all the teachers during the presentation of the lesson. Use of questioning techniques and a written or oral test will ensure understanding or assist in determining the level of competency or mastery of the subject matter by the learners. 3 @ ) Using Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives, all the theme and topics treated should be in accordance with the stated objectives. Evaluation and feedback is necessary to ensure success, monitor progress and promote transfer of learning. A film show or group discussion will allow exchange of ideas to know whether or not the students or the participants have mastered the required skills. ,) > ' ' + ) @ a) : The presenter or teacher begins the lesson with a theory emphasizing classroom control/management and effective discipline. This requires a teacher to take good control of students’ activities in addition to watching his own actions and attitudes. b) 3 > ) In addition to learning, schools are responsible and should Endeavour to help children to learn those cultural norms, values and ethics. Therefore teachers should organize learning activities and work along with the students in developing rules and regulations. With cooperative effort, the behavior of everybody will be automatically checked. c) ! ) . # > ! ) Apart from communication and listening skill earlier emphasized, this involves appropriate use of clear, specific and assertive commands through body language or gesture, eye contact, proximity and tone of voice to command good responses. d) ' 3 @ ) This involves enforcement or compliance with rules and Regulations through action and not by anger or threat. At this point, each participant is expected to demonstrate practically the aspect taught based on the objective of the lesson. Leadership skills and qualities are promoted and participants work in group conveniently. E! + * From all that have been discussed under the steps in presenting activities and behaviour modification skills, it appears teachers are expected to go through two major levels of professional growth as shown in figure 1. Although, there is possibility for some over lapping, each level or stage is characterized by (a) central complex of premises, (b) attitude and behavior modifications, (c) Language and competencies requirements involving speaking and listening habits, (d) Skill development strategies. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 233 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). In all, it shows that there must be interactive session where members are grouped to deliberate and discuss some issues that are of immediate importance and relevant to the programme. At this stage, members are encouraged to work in group and share views on identified issues. Analysis of the above showed that programme of activities at any in service training or workshops should start with the theoretical aspect. That is teachers are expected to be presented with theory of education first. Thereafter, they should learn how to sequence and present each topic or theme, have good mastery of the subject matter, aware of classroom control and management, design appropriate evaluation measures, provide motivation and encourage active involvement of learners in learning activities. It must be mentioned here that in the absence of an effective instruction, classroom management is an empty exercise, a means to no end, since much time will be wasted and many of the participant’s attention will be diverted to other non profitable activities. , The second stage is the skill acquisition or behavior modification. At this stage, the teachers go beyond instructional theory to focusing on self and student’s behavioral modification and management. This involves understanding what is required in terms of rules and regulations, responses or feedback, rewards or reinforcement and classroom structure and learning environment which ensure clarity, orderliness and security. For example, both teachers and the students can decide on rules and regulations, and the penalty for enforcement made known to each party. The importance of effective communication is emphasized for effective learning and to encourage the students’ support for teacher’s actions. Here the teacher masters rather complex and sophisticated techniques of humanistic discipline. According to Ginott (1972), a teacher who wants to improve relations with learners will have to unlearn their bad habitual language of rejection and acquire a new language expression which connote acceptance. At this point, all efforts are directed at transfer of learning and acquisition of necessary skills. An interactive or problem solving session could involve the use of a case study, film show, field trips, etc. When these are employed, the teacher is expected to serve as a mediator rather than an authoritarian who claims to know it all. It is easier to say “this is the way it ought to be done” but a teacher following the strategies proposed here will realize that students who are solving a given problem are learning to analyze needs, thus brain storm to solve and find solution to problems. At last they reach consensus on solutions with their classmates and the teacher. This is similar to Gordon (1974), the six steps teacher effectiveness training process proposed. The process requires the entire class to: i. define the problem ii. generate possible solutions to solving the problem iii. evaluate each of the solutions and contributions of members iv. decide and pick the best among the available options or solutions v. determine how to implement the solutions to achieve the predetermined objectives vi. evaluate how well the suggested solution could assist in solving the problem or be extended to other similar problems. The problem associated with the success of most of the workshops and in service training is not whether it is needed or satisfying to the needs of the participants but whether the desired outcomes of the programmes are being achieved. A teacher who mastered and make use of the proposed strategies on an in service training in this paper will learn to appreciate it and realize that the time spent in teaching and solving problems w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 234 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). inform of classroom activities pays in the long run, not only in restoring better classroom discipline and learning but in getting students or participants to be more responsible and working cooperatively as a group. $ (1) the organizer must ensure that the participants have the cognitive prerequisite for the training. The prerequisites may be knowledge of facts or terminology, educational qualifications, age level or possession of certain skills. (2) the objective(s) of the programme should be identified and made known to the participants at the beginning of the session. (3) all the activities should be well organized and learners centered. (4) to assist in retention, transfer of learning and generalization, rehearsal or review of previous works and ample practices should be provided from time to time. (5) in considering the poor performances of some primary and secondary school teachers, attendance of at least one workshop should be made as a condition for promotion in a three year promotion exercise at the primary and secondary school level. (6) the school authority or Management board should encourage or sponsor the attendance of in service training or workshops and teacher education programmes should be made to assist the practicing teachers to see the relationship between theory, contents organization and classroom routines. (7) some programmes appeared to be information assimilation rather than practical models for skill acquisition. There is need for a follow up among the participants few months after the exercise, at least, to see that what was gained is extended to other members in that school or their locality. (8) all the classroom teachers should be encouraged to show initiative, attend seminars/workshops and their salary paid regularly. It is when workers have sense of belonging and fully motivated that they develop positive attitude towards their works or attendance of in service training/workshop. (9) some programmes were unsuccessful because of the failure of the organizers to accommodate for the individual differences among the participants, in terms of areas of specialization, social status, educational background etc. $ Abdullahi, A. (1980). Dissemination of science in African primary schools: problems and prospect. 5 % + % : ! $ 18(2), 29 31. Akubue, V.A. (1991). ( ! 9 - ! , + %& # ! Ibadan: Wisdom Publishers Ltd. Bloom, B. S. (1976). ; ! New York: McGraw Hill. Charlottee, E. (1979). ( - ! ! Reston: Reston Publishing Co. Goodlad, J. L. & Klein, M.F. (1970). < / ! * Ohio: Charles A. Jones Gordon, T. (1974). %% & ! New York: Peter H. Wyden Ltd. Ibrahim, A. I. (2008a). Teachers’ welfare and effectiveness in education policy implementation. + # # # * ! 9 * :! 6 % :6 at NUT State Secretariat, Ilorin, Kwara State. Ibrahim, A. I. (2008b). ' # % # ! # Ilorin: Tajudeen Printing Press. Mkpa, M. A. (1989). 4 % # ! Onitsha: Summer Educational Publishers. Morgan, J and Turner, C. (1990). . # % ! New York: Houghton Press. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 235 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Newberry, J. M. (1979). The beginning teacher’s search for assistance from Colleagues. ( 5 %7 $ (1), 17 27. Nwachukwu, C. C. (2000). ; ! . Port Harcourt: Davidstones Publishers Ltd. Obasanjo, O. (2006). Examination malpractices and educational development. 1# ! : 7" - # 1! 9 * ; % 3# & ( 7 15th August, 2006. Ogie aitsabokhai, L. Y. (2006). Revitalizing technical and vocational education for sustainable development in Nigeria. : ! 5 %' % (3), 21 28. Ozigi, A. O. (1977). The development and organization of inservice education programme of the Institute of education, ABU, Zaria (1977 77). : ! 7 4 $ (1), 39 50. Rudolf, D and Pearl, C. (1972). ) # . New York: Hawthorn Books Tanner, N. L. (1978). ( # % %% & ! ! New York: Horl, Rinechart & Winston. Wolfang, C. and Glickman, C. (1980). Solving discipline problems: Alternative strategies for classroom teachers. Beston: Allign and Bacon’s Ltd. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 236 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 QUALITY ASSURANCE: THE QUESTION WITH THE NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA IN SOUTH-SOUTH GEO-POLITICAL ZONE OF NIGERIA By KEBBI JANET AMASINGHNA, Department of Educational Foundations Faculty of Education Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island Bayelsa State - Nigeria e-mail: janetdrfred@yahoo.com 08033363996, 08073615061 3# B . # % ! % # ! 1# # * ) % % : 1# 6 & # & & ! B : ! # ! $ 8 9 ! # # ! S % :6( $ :16: & & < ! ' !A :1)<' % 8 8! R % ! %% $ % # & = 8# & # ! & " 9 B & %:! & * %% % ! %% ! ! w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m % : * Page 237 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Generation and transmition of knowledge in the university depends on its pool of talents and students who must interact on the curriculum in the process of teaching and learning, hence human resources, such as lecturers/teachers, course content on which the students draws knowledge constitute very important educational development and growth of any Nation. Oni (2000) and Peters (2007) see this combination as being critical because it has a structural and significant relationship with the society’s capacity to innovate and manage its present and future development and transformation efforts effectively. Writing on qualified academics staff of higher institutions in Nigeria, Ekpo (2002) stated that the staffing conditions are broad –based or bottom heavy, that is having more junior staff than senior staff and this affect the productivity of staff in any educational system. Stressing that where the number of qualified academic staff is not sufficient, the available staff are over loaded, thus leading to poor productivity. Ikejiaku (2002) mentions the morale of teachers and the status of the teaching profession in Nigeria, are among other factors that affects the quality of the staff in the higher educational institutions of learning. Sonibare (2000), in a survey on human resources available in terms of qualification of four polytechnics and two technical colleges of education, found out from a simple percentage analysis that, 38% of academic staff possessed higher national diploma 46% had first degrees in different technical and engineering fields, 11% had master degrees, while 3% had Ph.D, there was no reader or a professor. Yet with this stock of academic staff, the schools had been graduating students into the labour market for the advancement of the so much needed technical transformation of the nation. Lacczko Kerr and Berliner (2002) in a study of college students taught by 293 newly recruited certified and under certified teachers, found out that analysis scores from the mandating state achievement test showed that students of certified teachers performed significantly better than students of teachers who were under certified. This was true of all three sub tests of the examinations administered to the students. Ayang (2009) carried out a study on availability of human resources in education programme in Nigeria universities using data from NUC accredited programmes summarized into their means (X) and standard deviation (SD). Summarized data were then subjected to statistical analysis using the population t – test analytical procedure revealed that, human resources/academic staff strength by number, qualification and experience had a non – significant value of 1.73* and 0.76 which implied that the availability of human/academic staff was significantly low. On the courses/curriculum, Okpotu (2004) is of the view that curriculum/course content in higher education could be evolved so as to ensure the realization of university objectives as a potent instrument for developing national consciousness and balanced manpower development. Offorma (2005) conducted a study on sustainable development in Africa school’s curriculum, with particular reference to Nigerian schools, bearing the objectives and policies of education in mind, traced the problem of the curriculum and standard to a couple of issues, which include poor selection and organization of content of learning experiences, specification of materials and methods, including environmental problem. The researcher applied evaluation effectiveness to diffuse the issues and came out with the findings that there was poor coordination between curriculum organizers and the delivery and organization of learning experience. In related literature on academic content standard and accreditation of Nigeria universities, Anumum (2004) reports that it has been alleged that NUC system is noted for the quality of its products in the beginning to infact subtle rejection or discrimination in some foreign universities with their insistence on entrance examination for its products before admission for higher degree programmes. Also the products cannot compete with their counterparts in other parts of the world w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 238 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). because quality in university education has been compromised or scarified; the few available academic staff is over stretched in an effort to teach, set curricular and standard. The National Open University programme commenced with a lot of expectations, some among the lot includes, enhancement of quality in university education in line with National University Commissions (NUC) Minimum Standards. The NUC is said to be the only professional body that lays down among other things academic standards in terms of staff qualification and course content to be achieved by the learner in both conventional and open university as in NUC (2005); section 10 of Degree No. 16 of 1988 amended under section 4(19) of amendment Degree No. 4 of 1998. However, there are currently many contentious disagreements among, experts and critics as to the Modus Operandi and quality of education offered in the Open University Programme. Such criticism ranges from awakward lecture time, quality of lecturers, course content, hurried teaching and learning situations and others. Maduname (2004). In the light of National and international intellectual mediocrity of our distance and open learning programmes, this study seek to find out quality standard in terms of academic staff qualification and course content of NOUN programmes in the south south Nigeria in line with NUC minimum standard. The purpose of this study is to assess the Quality Assurance in the distance and programme in the National Open University of Nigeria. Specifically, this study seek following: 1. To determine academic staff strength in conforming with NUC minimum undergraduate degree programme of NOUN. 2. Assess standard of course contents as conform with NUC minimum undergraduate degree programme of NOUN. $ open learning to sought the standards for standard for % 1. Does the available academic staff strength conform with NUC minimum standard in terms of qualification for undergraduate degree programme of NOUN. 2. To what extent does the standard and course content conform with NUC minimum academic standards for undergraduate degree programme of NOUN. ' The research design adapted for the conduct of this study is the survey design. The researcher settled for this approach because of its preoccupation with describing what is and establishing the relationship existing among variables. This design is also concerned with gathering of data at a particular point in time with the intention of knowing the nature of already existing conditions or identifying standards against which of these conditions can be compared or determining the relationship that exist between specific events (Cohen, Manion and Morrison 2008). The target population for this study was made up of seventy nine (79) programmes of the five Schools/Faculty of NOUN in the four study centres, which are Port Harcourt, Calabar, Yenagoa and Benin in the South South Nigeria. The Schools/Faculties include Arts and Social Science, Business and Human Resources Management, Education, Law, and Science and Technology. Purposive sampling technique was then adopted to select the sample which consists of thirty two undergraduate degree programmes of NOUN. The justification of using this sample size is based on the fact there are other programmes such as certificate, diploma and graduate programme and that the undergraduate degree programmes meets the required characteristics for generalization for the study. The major instrument used in data collection for this study is the secondary source of data collection, which includes Personal w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 239 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Data Record (PDR) and National University Commission (NUC) minimum standard that provide information on staff strength and standard of course content which was personally collected by the researcher from both the NUC office Abuja and NOUN headquarter office Lagos as well as the different study centres of the study area. The instruments were subjected to both face and content validity by experts in the university (NOUN) and of measurement and evaluation in the University of Calabar. It is also subjected to be a working tool of the university over the years of study. This is an evaluation study therefore; data contained in the instrument meets the extent to which the programme objectives are attained. It is thus reliable. The data collected for this study were analyzed using simple percentages (%) and mean (x ). $ $ % * Does available academic staff strength conform with NUC minimum standard in terms of qualification for undergraduate degree programme of NOUN. # * # 0 # E0 & Arts and Social Science Business & Human Resources Education Science & Technology Law Grand Total )% J # J 9 J > J J 26 29 28 34 20 9 22 10 19 18 21 21 25 29 27 34 90 85 23 22 25 31 7 118 35 27 27 31 14 24 7 74 19 21 27 19 13 25 3 78 18 22 12 20 19 33 9 9 26 29 35 30 71 113 26 385 18 29 7 100 / % :16: % C Table 1 shows distribution of facilitators by schools and study centre and percentage. There are a total of 385 facilitators in the five schools for the four different study centres in the south south Nigeria. Out of this, 90 are in the School of Arts and Social Science of which 26 are in Port Harcourt, 20 in Calabar, 19 in Yenagoa and 25 in Benin. For the School of Business and Human Resource, 29 for Port Harcourt, 9 for Calabar, 18 for Yenagoa and 29 for Benin. The school of Education had 71 facilitates of which, Port Harcourt had 25, Calabar 14, Yenagoa 13 and Benin 19. The School of Science and Technology had a total of 113, Port Harcourt, 31 Calabar, 24 Yenagoa 25 and Benin 33. A total of 26 facilitators were for the School of Law. Out of this number, Port Harcourt and Calabar has 7 each, Yenagoa 3 and Benin 9. # , # % MPA MA M.Ed M.Sc M.B.A LLM Ph.D Total ,% 0 # # % # 23 46 33 98 47 23 116 385 / % :16: 4 5.9 11.9 8.5 25.4 12.2 5.9 30.1 100 C w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 240 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Table 2 shows percentage distribution of facilitators by number and qualification. 23(5.9) of them had MPA. Out of this number, Port Harcourt had 6, Calabar 2, Yenagoa and Benin had 7 respectively. There were 46(11.9%) who had MA. 10 of this number are for Port Harcourt, 4 for Calabar, 11 for Yenagoa and 21 for Benin 33(9%) had M.Ed of which Port Harcourt had 10, Calabar 6, Yenagoa 7, and Benin 10. There were 98 (25%) for M.Sc and 30 of this number were for Port Harcourt, 18 for Calabar, 20 for Yenagoa and 30 for Benin. The ones with MBA were 47 (12%) 16 in Port Harcourt, 8 in Calabar and Yenagoa respectively and 15 in Benin. LLB had 23(6%), 6 in Port Harcourt, 5 in Calabar, 3 in Yenagoa and 9 in Benin. There were a total of 116(30.1%) Ph.D holders out of which Port Harcourt had 41, Calabar, 31 while Yenagoa 21 and Benin had a total of 22 Ph.D holder. The result therefore revealed that only 116(30%) of the total number of 385 facilitators in the area of study for the programmes had Ph.D degree for lectureship rank against the 55% as provided by NUC. This result is an indication that available staff strength does not conform to NUC minimum standard. $ % , To what extent does the standard and course content conform with NUC minimum academic standard for undergraduate degree programme of NOUN. To answer this question, since there were no accredited result for course content or laid down criteria for conformity , the researcher decided to use all year one compulsory courses and their credit units for both conventional universities and open university for the five Facilities/Schools under study. Their mean (x ) score value was estimated. The mean (x ) scores value for Open University was tested for conformity by comparing it with the estimated mean (x ) score value of the conventional University. The mean (x ) score value for conventional University was used as a standard and only courses offered in both Universities were used. The data for this question is presented in Table 3. # ' 1F2 2 E0 F NUC 10 2 Yes Open University 10 2 Business & Human Resources NUC 12 2 Yes Open University 12 2 Education NUC 12 2 Yes Open University 12 2 Science & Technology NUC 18 3 Yes Open University 18 3 Law NUC 13 2.6 Yes Open University 13 2.6 , :6( 0 :16: ; * / C ? As result in table 3 reveals that course content for the five Schools/Faculties of the Open University conforms with NUC standards based on means (X) value estimate for standard of conformity. Arts 0 Research Question One reveals that of the 385 facilitators in the area of study, a total of 116 representing (30.1%) held Ph.D degree while 269 or (69.9%) held degrees ranging from MBA, MA, M.Ed, M.Sc, MBA, to LLM. Based on the 55% Ph.D criteria for lectureship rank, by NUC standard, result from the findings showed that available staff strength (facilitators) did not conform with NUC minimum standards. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 241 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). In line with this study, Ekpo (2002) stressing on the staffing conditions of higher institution as broad based or bottom heavy, that is having more of unqualified staff than qualified staff, this tend to affect the productivity of staff in the educational system. Stressing that where the number of qualified academic staff is not sufficient, the available staff will be over loaded, thus leading to poor productivity and standard in the Nation. Undoubtedly, this study also agree with Sonibare (2000) in a survey study to determine human resources available in universities asserted inclusively that most tertiary institutions were grossly deficient of qualified and experienced teachers and as such students in such schools were reported to suffer a great deal, working alone on menial technical projects of which the supervisor(s) had only superficial know how and where the staff were available, they were not ineptly trained. Also in line with this study, Ayang (2009) in a study on availability of human resources in education programme in Nigeria universities observed that availability of human/academic staff was significantly low. Research Question Two on whether standard of course content of programems in NOUN conform to NUC standard, result revealed that course content of programmes in NOUN conform with NUC standard in terms of mean (X) score values, using all year one compulsory courses of NOUN against NUC minimum standard. This implies that no difference exist in standard of programmes between NOUN and conventional universities. This finding is in agreement with Offorma (2005) reporting on standard of programmes both of normal/conventional and open and distance learning. The researcher alleged that they conformed to NUC laid down learning academic standard and content to be achieved by the learner. That NUC is the only professional body that lays down academic standards and content for both conventional and open and distance learning. This finding is highly at variance with the views of Maduname (2004) who shares the view that part–time, and especially outreach programmes were inferior to conventional universities programmes due to their mode of operation and commercial aspects. The present study has revealed, interestingly, that minimum course content standard, which is intended to profit the future generations of a nation by ensuring that they attained a certain minimum level of competence in their academic pursuits is not trade off in NOUN programmes. This will surely eradicate intellectual mediocrity not only among graduates, but of the nation in general. Based on the finding, it was concluded that there were in adequacy in the provision of qualified facilitators in conformity with NUC standard. However, interestingly, course content of NOUN conformed to NUC minimum standard as against intellectual mediocrity among grandaunts’ and the general public at large. It is however necessary for the Federal Government, National Open and Distance learning and planning bodies (NODLP), other government agencies and international organization, to do all that is required to modify or improve on the academic staff strength in terms of number and adequately trained facilitators that conform to the NUC standards with computer certification be recruited into the system. This will definitely profit Nigerian in particular and the nation in general as it would enhance the achievement of the vision of education for National transformation of all by the year 2020. While on the other hand, absence of trained facilitators militates against actual standard and transformation in our educational system. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 242 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ Anumum, S.I. (2004). The role of National Universities Commission in university administration: A critique in NUC and university education. : 6 & ( . Ayang, E. E. (2009). Evaluation of engineering education programmes in Nigeria Universities in South Eastern Zone (a comparative analysis of state and federal universities. An unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Universitie of Calabar. Ekpot, A. I. (2002). Quality control measure in Nigeria Universities. The case study of university of Uyo. Seminar paper. 6 & %6 . Ikejiaku, L. A. (2002). Towards improving standard in teacher education programmes in Nigeria colleges of education programmes. : ! ! % 517:). Vol. 4, No. 1 & 2, 136 – 145. Laczko Kerr, I. & Berliner, D.C. (2002). The effectiveness of teaching for America and other under certified teachers on students’ academic achievement. A case of harmful public policy. Educational policy analysis achieve 10(37) 27 – 38. Maduname, M.E. (2004). In service education a neglected dimension of the professional development of the Nigeria science teacher. 2 +% 5 %7 3 1(2), 183 – 186. National University Commission (NUC) (2005). Annual report January – December (2006). Lagos: Linkai press. Offorma, E. (2005). Education of women and girls: study of school curriculum in eastern Nigeria: Dakar UNESO/Breda, Regional offices. Okpotu, N.E. (2004). Deregulating the Nigeria university system: implication for equity and access in G.O. Akpa, S.U. Udoh & S.O. Fagbamuge (Eds). Deregulating the provision and management of education in Nigeria. Jos: NAEAP publications. Oni, O. (2000). Towards a realistic context of career decision. ( 17 (1), 111 – 112. Peters, O. (2007). + 9 % % ! !. Weinstein: Beltz. Sonibare, D.O. (2000). Targeting special education needs: # # #% " B 2, (1), 33 – 34. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 243 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 EFFECT OF LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION AND PUPILS’ ATTITUDE ON THE PERFORMANCE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS IN MATHEMATICS By JOSHUA O. ADELEKE Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. +2348033510688 joadeleke@yahoo.com & CATHERINE B. OGUNREMI Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. +2348054027129 shalomoluwaremi@yahoo.com Abstract This study investigated the effects of language of instruction, numerical ability and pupils’ attitudes on the achievement of primary school pupils in mathematics. The study is quasi-experimental, using a 3 x 2 x 2 factorial design. Multistage sampling technique was adopted in selecting six Primary schools from three randomly selected Local Government Areas in Oyo central Senatorial zone of Oyo state where intact class of primary five pupils were used. The data collected were analysed using Analysis of Covariance. Seven research questions were stated and answered with significance level set at 0.05. The findings showed that there is significant main effect of treatment on pupils’ achievement in mathematics, the pupils that were taught with Yoruba language performed better in Mathematics than the group that was taught with English language only and the group taught with combination of Yoruba and English languages. However, numerical ability and pupils’ attitude did not significantly contribute to students’ mathematics achievement in this study. It is therefore recommended that government should formulate and enforce a policy that, mother tongue or the language of immediate environment should be the language of instruction in mathematics class for all primary school pupils in order to lay good foundation for this subject right from primary school. Mathematics textbooks should be written either in the pupils’ mother tongue (MT) or language of immediate community (LIC). Keywords: Language of Instruction, Attitude , Performance in Mathematics. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 244 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Mathematics has been an indispensable subject in the school curriculum right from the time of early educators such as Plato and Aristotle. Then literacy was viewed as acquisition of 3Rs: that is Reading, Writing and Arithmetic. Even a stack illiterate is expected to have the knowledge of simple calculations to be able to cope effectively with activities in the society. Furthermore, mathematics is a powerful tool in providing means in understanding engineering, science and technology, e. t. c. (Mohammed, 2000). No wonder the Federal Government of Nigeria (2004, section 5; pg19 & 20) in the National Policy on Education includes mathematics among the core subjects in the junior secondary school certificate examination (JSSCE) and at the senior secondary school level. The new trend in the Nigerian Universities especially Federal University of Technology, Yola, whereby all undergraduates’ students, no matter the field must have credit in mathematics before admissions could be granted such students, attest to the fact that the case of mathematics in our society could not be treated with just a wave of hand (Ogunremi, 2006). Despite the indispensability of mathematics in all human endeavours, the larger ratios of learners in all institutions of learning have always been looking at mathematics as a ‘god’ that can never be pleased. They see mathematics as a ‘master’ that can never be satisfied. On the contrary, a handful of students see mathematics as a simple subject which is not difficult than any other subject on the school curriculum. The above observation is correct as the yearly SSCE and NECO mass failure in mathematics all over the country testifies to this truism. A lot of factors have been attributed to this general poor performance of students in mathematics in this country. This ranged from the blames directed to the teachers of mathematics, students’ negative attitudes towards the subject due to their naive on the importance of the subject in human endeavours, lack of encouragement by the parents and the governments, the abstract nature of mathematics etc. The areas where scholars have not researched much into are the attitudes of pupils towards the subject and impact of the language of instruction being used to disseminate knowledge to the learners especially in the primary schools which constitutes the first rung of ladders in academic institutions. These are the focus of this research. Language is a major means of expression for man and it is through language that social influences are felt. If there is no good communication between teacher and pupils, the chances of an effective education is little. It is generally believed that a child learns better in his mother tongue. (Bamgbose, 2003; Walter, 2008) Teaching a child in his mother tongue makes things concrete to him and he can reason along with his teacher. Skutnabb–Kangas (2000) stressed that instruction through a language that learners do not speak has been called ‘submersion’ because it is analogous to holding learners under water without teaching them how to swim. Heugh (2006) in the study carried out discovered that, the language models used in Africa fail the majority of students and early change to English/French/Portuguese/Spanish medium (language) of school instruction is a primary cause of failure and drop out rate. Also, pupils’ attitude towards mathematics is very crucial as it determines their performance in the subject. Odual (2010) asserts that student’s lack of interest in science and mathematics makes it difficult for the teachers to impact science knowledge to them. He further said that student attitude towards a school subject determines his disposition to the subject. Numerical ability is the ability to understand and work with numbers and with ideas related to numbers. According to Adegoke (2000) numerical ability is widely applied in the study of science. He stressed that numerical ability appears to be major determinant of students’ cognitive achievement in physics. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 245 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). # This study sought to find out the effect of language of instruction, numerical ability and pupils’ attitude on the performance of primary school pupils in mathematics. & &(*There is no significant main effect of: 2 treatment on pupils achievement in mathematics #2 numerical ability on pupils achievement in mathematics 2 attitude on pupils achievement in mathematics & ,There is no significant first order interaction effect of: 2 Treatment and attitude on pupils’ achievement in mathematics. #2 Treatment and attitude on pupils’ achievement in mathematics. c) Attitude and numerical ability on pupils’ achievement in mathematics & -There is no significant second order interaction effect of treatment, attitude and numerical ability on pupils’ achievement in mathematics ' This study adopted quasi experimental design which implies that variable was manipulated.The sample for this study was obtained using a multi stage sampling techniques. From three senatorial zones of Oyo State, one senatorial zone was randomly selected. Three local government areas from Oyo Central senatorial zones were randomly selected. Finally two schools from each of the three selected local government areas were randomly selected. Three different instruments were used to collect data, namely: i. Mathematics Achievement Test (MAT): This instrument was designed to obtain information on the effect of language instruction on the pupils’ achievement in mathematics. It consisted of two parts. The first part, consist of instruction while the second part consist of objective questions to test effect of language of instruction on the pupils performance. ii. Numerical Ability Test (NAT): This instrument was designed to obtain information on the pupils’ numerical ability. The first part, consist of instruction while the second part consist of objective questions to test the pupils’ ability in mathematics. iii. Attitude Questionnaire (AQ): This instrument was designed to obtain information on the pupils’ attitude towards mathematics. It consists two parts. The first part consist information about the pupil and school. The second part consist statements that elicits information about individuals’ present attitude towards the subject, mathematics teacher, mathematics lesson, class work and assignment on mathematics. The researchers used eight weeks in carrying out the research work. The first week was used in training the research assistants on how to use the instruments in gathering the data and how to apply treatment after the pre test. The second week was used for administration of pre test. Still the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh weeks were used in giving treatment after pre test. Then post test was administered on the eight week. Intact primary five classes were used in the six schools. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyse the data collected for this study $ & *) There is no significant main effect of: 2 Treatment on pupils achievement in mathematics #2 Numerical ability on pupils achievement in mathematics 2 Attitude on pupils achievement in mathematics w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 246 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). & -) There is no significant second order interaction effect of treatment, attitude and numerical ability on pupils’ achievement in mathematics # *) 3 13 (.32 ' Source of variation Corrected Model Intercept Pretest Treatment Level of numeric ability Level of attitude Treatment * level of numeric ability Treatment * level of attitude Level of numeric ability * level of attitude Treatment * level of numeric ability * level of attitude Error Total Corrected Total $ @ Sum of Squares Df 3125.052(a) 12 8355.680 1 7.319 1 2173.046 2 .979 1 41.185 1 Mean Square 260.421 8355.680 7.319 1086.523 .979 41.185 F 22.008 706.117 .619 91.819 .083 3.480 Sig. .000 .000 .433 .000 .774 .064 Eta Squared .585 .791 .003 .495 .000 .018 23.856 2 11.928 1.008 .367 .011 .120 2 .060 .005 .995 .000 .001 1 .001 .000 .992 .000 15.996 2 7.998 .676 .510 .007 2212.823 187 30091.000 200 5337.875 199 H I;I 13 ? $ @ 11.833 H II<2 Table 1 shows the summary of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of tests of between subjects effects. The table reveals that the observed mean difference among the three treatment groups was statistically significant F (2, 187) = 91.819; P< .05, partial eta squared 2= .495. Therefore, the effect size (49.5%) of treatment on pupils’ achievement in mathematics is moderate. This means that there is statistical significant main effect of treatment on pupils’ achievement in mathematics. In order to determine which group differs significantly among the three treatment groups, Pair wise Comparison Post hoc test (sidak) was conducted and the results are presented in table 2 # ,) (I) Treatment Yoruba and English instruction Yoruba Only Conventional + 1 (J) Treatment Yoruba Only Conventio nal Yoruba and English instruction Conventio nal Yoruba and Mean Difference (I J) Lower Bound 2 . # ) Std. Error Upper Bound Sig.(a) Lower Bound .672 .000 3.983(*) .659 .000 2.396 5.571 6.668(*) .672 .000 5.050 8.286 10.651(*) .797 .000 8.731 12.571 3.983(*) .659 .000 6.668(*) 95% Confidence Interval for Difference(a) Upper Bound 8.286 5.571 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Lower Bound 5.050 2.396 Page 247 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). English instruction Yoruba Only O 10.651(*) .797 .000 12.571 8.731 6I Table 2 shows that pupils that Yoruba language was used for teaching them as a language of instruction differ significantly from the other two groups. # -) ' level of numeric ability Mean Lower Bound Low 10.997(a) High 11.164(a) 3# Std. Error Upper Bound .464 .348 95% Confidence Interval Lower Upper Bound Bound 10.081 11.913 10.477 11.851 From the Table 3 the result shows that the high numerical ability group had the higher mean score (Mean (M) = 11.164) and the low ability had lower mean score (M= 10.997). The mean difference between high and low numeric ability groups is .167. However, this mean difference between the groups is not statistically significant is not statistically significant F (1,187) = .083; p > .05, partial eta squared 2 = .000 (Table 1). There that the difference between high and low numeric ability pupils is not significant. There is no significant main effect of numeric ability on the pupils’ achievement in mathematics. Therefore, there is no effect size. The null hypothesis was therefore not rejected. # /) ' level of attitude Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval Lower Lower Bound Upper Bound Bound Upper Bound Low 10.538(a) .445 9.661 11.415 High 11.622(a) .374 10.885 12.360 a Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pretest = .84. Table 4 reveals that the high attitude group had higher mean score (Mean (M)) = 11.622) while the low attitude had the lower mean score (M = 10.538). The mean difference between the high and low attitude group is 1.084. However, the mean difference between high and low attitude groups is not statistically significant that there was no significant F (1, 187) = 3.480; P> .005, partial eta squared 2 =.018 (Table 1). There is no significant main effect of attitude on the pupils’ achievement in mathematics. Therefore, the effect size (1.8%) of attitude on the pupils’ achievement in mathematics is extremely small. The null hypothesis was not therefore rejected. & ,) There is no significant first order interaction effect of: 2 Treatment and numerical ability on pupils’ achievement in mathematics. #2 Treatment and attitude on pupils’ achievement in mathematics. c) Attitude and numerical ability on pupils’ achievement in mathematics w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 248 March, 2013 # JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). I ' 3# 3 ' Level of numeric ability Treatment Yoruba and English Low instruction High Yoruba Only Low High Conventional Low High Mean Lower Bound Std. Error Upper Bound 95% Confidence Interval Upper Lower Bound Bound 9.599(a) .469 8.674 10.524 10.772(a) 17.025(a) 16.682(a) 6.367(a) 6.037(a) .533 .994 .564 .851 .707 9.721 15.065 15.570 4.689 4.642 11.823 18.985 17.794 8.046 7.432 Table 5 presents the summary of mean score of pupils’ achievement in mathematics. From table 1 the observed differences in the mean score are not statistically significant, F (2,187) = 1.008; p > .05, partial eta squared 2 = .011. The effect size (1.1%) of treatment and numeric ability on pupils’ achievement in mathematics is small. Therefore, the null hypothesis was not rejected. # 7) ' 3 3 ' Treatment Yoruba English instruction level attitude of Mean Lower Bound Std. Error Upper Bound 95% Confidence Interval Lower Upper Bound Bound 9.623(a) .539 8.559 and Low 10.686 High 10.748(a) .461 9.839 11.658 Low 16.355(a) .959 14.463 18.247 High 17.351(a) .630 16.108 18.594 Conventional Low 5.637(a) .747 4.163 7.112 High 6.767(a) .816 5.157 8.377 a Covariates appearing in the model are evaluated at the following values: pre test = .84. Yoruba Only Table 6 presents the summary of mean score of pupils’ achievement in mathematics using the interaction of treatment and pupils’ attitude. From Table 1the observed differences in the mean scores are not statistically significant, F (2,187) = .005; P > .05, partial eta squared 2 = .000. There is no effect size (0%). # :) ' # 3 3 ' Type III Sum of Squares Df Source Level of numeric ability .001 * level of attitude Error 2212.823 Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta Squared 1 .001 .000 .992 .000 187 11.833 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 249 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Table 7 shows the summary of mean scores of pupils’ achievement in mathematics using the interaction of numeric ability and attitude. From Table 1 the observed differences in the mean scores are not statistically significant F (1,187) = .000; P > .05, partial eta squared 2 = .0. Therefore, there is no effect size (0%) of numerical ability and attitude on pupils’ achievement in mathematics # ;) ' G # Dependent Variable: post test Treatment Yoruba and English instruction level of numeric ability Low High Yoruba Only Low High Conventional Low High level of attitude Mean Lower Bound Low 8.882(a) Std. Error Upper Bound 95%Confidence Interval Upper Lower Bound Bound .651 7.598 10.166 High Low High Low High Low High Low High Low High .675 .860 .629 1.733 1.005 .837 .752 .954 1.410 1.151 .813 8.985 8.667 9.941 12.750 15.898 14.890 15.340 4.422 3.649 2.699 5.500 11.647 12.060 12.421 19.589 19.862 18.191 18.306 8.187 9.212 7.241 8.709 10.316(a) 10.363(a) 11.181(a) 16.170(a) 17.880(a) 16.540(a) 16.823(a) 6.304(a) 6.430(a) 4.970(a) 7.104(a) + ) 8 H ;/. Table 8 presents the summary of mean score of pupils’ achievement in mathematics using interaction of treatment, numerical ability and attitude on the pupils’ achievement in mathematics. From Table 1, the observed differences in the mean scores are not statistically significant, F (2,187)= .676; P > .05, partial eta squared 2 =.007. The effect size .7% is extremely small. The null hypothesis was therefore not rejected. This result reveals that, the pupils that were taught with Yoruba language as a language of instruction during mathematics lesson, performed better than both the group that was taught with Yoruba and English languages combined and the group that was taught with English language only. The finding of this study agrees with Alidou, et al, (2006), Fafunwa et al (1975), Ramirez et al (1991) and Thomas & Collier (2002). They found out that pupils that were taught mathematics, language and science with their home language performed better than their counterparts that were taught with language that is different from their home language (which is the mother tongue). In the same vein, Hovens (2002 & 2003) in the study carried out in Niger that tested bilingual and non bilingual in L1 and L2 clearly demonstrated that those who did best were bilingual students tested in the L1, while those who performed low were non bilingual students tested in the L2. Though some scholars envisage that problems like obstacle to national unity; rise in costs, lack of books and teaching materials, translation, publication and circulation if mother tongue is used in education, it seems there is no research work that disagrees with the findings of this study. The table 3 shows that the numeric ability has nothing to do with the pupils’ achievement in mathematics because the difference in the performance of pupils with high ability and pupils with low ability is not significant. This finding agrees with Ishola (2002) in Odual (2010) who established that the interaction effect of treatment, numerical ability and gender as correlates of students did not yield any significant difference in their physical treatment. Furthermore, the findings of this study also revealed w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 250 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). that there is clearly indication that pupils attitude is not a strong determinant of their performance in mathematics achievement. This result supports Onobanjo (2000) in Odual (2010); who affirmed that attitude towards mathematics does not directly affect students’ performance in the subject. This study revealed that the pupils that were taught mathematics with Yoruba language as language of instruction performed better than their counterpart that were taught with Yoruba and English and the pupils that were taught with only English language. Equally, the study revealed that pupils’ attitude and numerical ability had no effect on their achievement in mathematics. $ 1. 2. 3. With the high rate of failure in mathematics, mother tongue or the language of immediate environment should be the language of instruction in mathematics class for all primary school pupils in order to lay good foundation for this subject right from primary school. Teaching with familiar language will eradicate phobia in the subject. Mathematics books written either in the pupils’ mother tongue (MT) or language of immediate community (LIC) should be made available for Basic Education level so that the teachers could get materials for teaching. Academic programmes designed by the Ministry of Education to improve quality of education should lay emphasis on the use of MT or LIC for teaching of mathematics in primary schools. $ Adegoke, B.A. (2002). ! % % # 8# H ! in Ibadan south east Nigeria, Unpublished PhD. thesis University of Ibadan. Alidou, H. (2003).% . ' , Mawhaw, NJ: Erlbaum Publisher. Bamgbose, A.(2000). < ! ! " , B %< ! ! # +% Munster, Hamburg & London: lit verlag. Fafunwa, A., Macaulay, J. & Soyinka, J. (1989). 7 8 ! $ The Ife primary education research project (1970 1978). Ibadan: University Press. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004).National policy on education, 4th ed. Lagos Nigeria: NERDC Press. Heugh, K in Alidou, H et al.(2006) 1# 9 ! ! +% 8 !4 $ A stock taking research on mother tongue and bilingual education in sub saharan Africa, association for the development of education in Africa (ADEA) www.ADEAnet.org Mohammed, A. S. (2000). ' # % ! in Adamawa State, A paper presented at Mathematics Day, organised by Mathematics Association of Nigeria, F.C.E., Yola. Odual, N.(2010). #* %8 #$ $ * & %% in Bayelsa State Ogunremi, C. B. 2006. 7%% %. # % % ' # in Adamawa State Primary Schools. A case study of Yola North Local Government Area. Unpublished research project submitted to the department of science education, school of technology and science education, Federal University of Technology, Yola Ramirez, J; Yuen, S. & Ramey, D. (1991). 4 # , < ! % 7 ! ! $7 8" 8" * ! # ! % ! !8 Kutnab Kangas,T. 2000. < ! ! 8 8 & ! $ Mahwah N J: Lawrence Erlbaum. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 251 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Thomas, W. & Collier, V.2002. + % %% & % ! ! H !8 & Santa cruz CA: Centre for research on education, diversity and excellence http://www.crede.unce.edu/research/199/1./final.html Walter, S. (2008). ! ! % , 4 ! # # # & $ in the hand book of educational linguistics, ed. B. Spolsky and F. Hult, 129 146. Malden MA: BLACK WELL w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 252 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 MANAGERIAL TASKS AND TEACHER BURNOUT IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF RIVERS STATE By PROF. (DAME) NGOZI C. OKORIE, IHUA JONATHAN NWOVUHOMA ASSOR BLESSING Department of Educational Management Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt Abstract This study investigates burnout among public senior secondary school teachers and principals in Rivers State. The issue of students’ under-performance in public secondary schools in Rivers State has generated a lot of concern from stakeholders in the education sector, leading them to put blame on the secondary school educators and principals. The research design was descriptive survey. The sample was made up of 790 teachers and principals drawn from a population of 3,949 public Senior Secondary Schools teachers and principals in Rivers State. The questionnaire was used to collect data for the study. The statistical tools for data analysis were weight mean and the z-test. Testing of the null hypothesis of the study was at 0.05 level of significance. Findings have it that the level of burnout among principals was generally high. For the teachers, the level of burnout was moderately high. It was then recommended among others that adequate team work among members of staff should be encouraged, congenial environment be provided by the government; resources, social facilities, salary structures be improved for higher satisfaction and parents teachers association of schools should provide assistance to the school administration in terms of students adherence to the school rules and regulations, for reduced job related pressure among senior secondary school teachers and principals. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 253 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Burnout is a state of emotional, mental and physical exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged stress. It occurs when an individual feels overwhelmed and unable to meet constant demand. In support of this, Freudenberger (1974) asserts that burnout is a state of exhaustion resulting from failure in realization of psychological desires. For Maslach (2003), burnout is seen as an occupational hazard with people oriented profession such as health care, human services and education. Therefore, workers in educational systems such as teachers and principals (managers) are not immune to it since the educational system has all the element associated with stress such as a bureaucratic structure, continuous evaluation of its processes and outcomes and often involves intensive interpersonal interactions with parents students, colleagues and the community, there is no doubt that all these are bound to make demands on the principals and teachers disposition temperament effort as well as on the expectation held for them by the organization itself and the clients of the educational system. That may be why Sharma (2001) opined that burnout is described as state of depletion of a person’s resources particularly energy due to excessive demand on him or her as a result of which the individual becomes apathetic and impassive towards his or her work and other aspect of life. All this portend that burnout has a dysfunctional repression on the individual and adverse effect on the organization such as the school as a whole. In support of Sharma, Davis (1983) opined that burnout is a specific type of stress induced condition that affects individuals engaged in “people” work which include teachers, psychologist, social workers, mental health clinicians and police. For Papalia and Olds, (1998) burnout is a reaction to work related stress. It involves emotional exhaustion, a feeling of being unable to accomplish anything on the job and a sense of helplessness and loss of control. Papalia and Olds further assert that burnout is common on people in the helping profession who feels frustrated by their inability to help people as much as they would. Therefore, when teachers and principals do not meet their expectations in the classroom and within the school environment, this may likely be as a result of burnout. That may be why carter, (1999) views teacher and principal burnout as a physiological, emotional and attitudinal exhaustion that begins with feeling of uneasiness that increases as the joy of teaching begins to gradually slip away. Thus, it could be deduced from these scholarly positions that the issue of teachers and principals burnout in secondary schools if not properly checked could lead to an individual teachers or principals loss of desire and motivation to work and to cope with the demand of their job if not properly attained. > Maslach and Jackson (2006), identified three common characteristics of burnout as thus: 1. 5 A : The individual teacher or principal who experiences burnout usually feels fatigue, suffers complaints and does not have commitment to work or task, often the person is cold and distant towards colleagues, students and parents. 2. : This refers to the subjective impression of change affecting an individual. The effect of depersonalization can be very disastrous particularly if the depersonalized is an administrator since it results to the school environment to be dominated by feelings of temporariness, absence of a last vision of what learning and teaching ought to be. 3. $ : The teacher or principal usually feels incompetent and performs ineffectively. This leads to reduced job satisfaction, confidence and a sense of personal control. In support of Maslach and Jackson, scholars such as Write and Cropanzano (1989) and Matias (2003) summarized the general symptoms of teachers and principals who experience burnout as thus i. & : tend to have increased cold flu, headache, sudden weight loss or gain, diabetes etc. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 254 March, 2013 ii. iii. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 5A # : tend to experience increase in the consumption of alcohol, drugs, tobacco, coffee, overeating etc. 3 : tend to be cynical, sick, angry at student, expression of futurity and hopelessness. > Veninga and spradley (2000) opined that burnout occurs in five distinct stages as thus; * – This stage is characterized by the feeling of excitement, enthusiasm, pride and challenges arising out of the elation of a new job. Thus, it gives rise to certain coping mechanism and strategies which proves to be dysfunctional later. , – This stage is marked by general undefined feeling of fatigue, sleep disturbance, inefficiency and job dissatisfaction signals. These disturbance leads to concomitant behaviors’ of increase eating, drinking and smoking. - – The physiological manifestation that appeared in the previous stage becomes more pronounced and accentuated in this stage and might even lead to the occurrence of symptoms like physical illness, anger, irritation and depression. / – Over a period of time, the symptoms may develop into acute psychosomatic disorder like peptic ulcer, tension, headache, chronic backache. I – This stage is characterized by a total maladoption due to failure of the individual due to failure of the individual coping mechanism to deal with stress. This stage is seen as a stage where the symptoms of burnout are so embedded in the individual’s life that the victims are more likely to be labeled as having some significant, physical and emotional problem. > Since principals and teachers seem to constitute a sizable number of public sector workers, the issue of burnout among teachers and principals warrant empirical investigation so that the more that is known about burnout the more corrective action is initiated, otherwise, burnout may cause a substantial strain on the country’s limited resources. Davis (1983), concluded that the predominate cause of burnout on the secondary school administrator such as the principals and teachers are; a sense of isolation, poor interpersonal relationship, felling of responsibility without power, role conflict, life challenges, lack of time, school polices and practices and public criticism of secondary school educators and schools, Davis further assert that involuntary transfer; managing disruptive children, notice of unsatisfactory performance, overcrowded classroom, unrealistic expectation relative to students progress, perceived lack of success as an educational administrator, direct and continuous contact with difficult students and emotional drain of giving but not taking were the causes of burnout among secondary educators. For Iwaniki, Jackson, Schuler and Schwab (1983) a combination of organizational (external) and personal (internal) factors had been associated with the aetiology of burnout. They further assert that organizational factors include features that are unique to the school system in which the principal or teachers find themselves such as insufficient resources, inappropriate budget, poor working condition, large class size, unmotivated students, longer working hours, lack of perceived collegiate among secondary school teachers and principals, lack of support from parents, role overload, role conflict role ambiguity. For personal or internal factors contributing to burnout, factors such as self efficiency which is an individual’s belief in his or her ability to excise control over situations deemed as achieving personal functions over a situation. Age, marital status, prolong and constant interactions with people, escalating violence in the school system, lack of communication, social and situational job stressors, role conflict and ambiguity, rule conflict and ambiguity and ones personality. No wonder Gold (2001) opined that teachers or principals who are obsession, passionate, idealistic and dedicated to their work are more prone to burnout. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 255 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). In summary, Nwikina and Nwanekezi (2010) identify the causes of burnout among secondary school educators such as the principals and teachers to include the underlisted: i. Excessive paper work and record keeping ii. Frequent required meeting iii. Lack of administrative support iv. Perceived ineffective communication and lack of corporation with parents, colleagues and the community v. Lack of rule clarity and discrepancy between teachers and principals vi. Lack of time, energy and skill required to plan and implement appropriate and effective instructional programme for students with complex learning and behavioral needs. vii. Inappropriate training required to carryout specific job responsibilities effectively. > The resultant effect of burnout on secondary school teachers and principals goes beyond health related problems. Teachers and principals burnout results in several negative effects in all level of the work place. Burnout results to a decline in the quality of care or services that is provided among the teachers and principals, it can also result to frequency of absenteeism due to sick leave, recurrent flu, headache, fatigue, poor self esteem, difficulty in interpersonal relationship, substance abuse inability to concentrate on the subject, rigidity and the tendency to blame others for ones problem, High job turnover or decision to leave teaching as a result of early retirement or better compensation on other profession (Pines 1985; learning, sill and spector 2000). In support of this, Burke and Greenglass opined that teachers and principals who experiences this psychological disorder usually remains involuntary which results to a decline in performance. On the moral level, there is usually evidence of expressed cynicism by the educators towards their job, parents, students, colleagues and the organization as a whole. Financially, many advanced nations such as the United state, United kingdom and Netherland have witnessed a dramatic increase in relation to stress related workers compensation claim and mental Health claims (Schaulfelt and Enzmamn, 1988) such trends reflect major wealth concern and requires close attention from policy makers. # Students under performance in secondary schools have become an issue of high concern to the stakeholders of secondary education such as the teachers, principals, parents commissioners of education and the Nigerian populace. Some educational critics boldly blame the teachers while others blame the principals but some other discerning individuals lay the blame on the government for their supposedly shoddy provision of educational facilities. However, appropriate attention do not seem to be drawn to the individual disposition of the teachers or principals occasioned partly by an aggregate of poor provision of educational facilities which makes them predisposed to strive for high productivity. Thus when a principal or teacher losses self worth, they become overwhelmed by all the limiting factors in the environment, under such situation, they lose the zeal to strive for high achievement. These circumstances have implication on students such as under performance and other undesirable behaviors’. When such negative feelings or attitude overwhelms the principal or teacher, no amount of fund pumped into the educational system will be meaningfully harnessed if such teacher or principal tend to be groaning under such behavior that depict burnout. The purpose of this study was to investigate the level of burnout among public senior secondary school teachers and principal. $ % What is the level of burnout among principals and teachers in public secondary schools in Rivers State? w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 256 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). & There is no significant difference between the mean scores of senior secondary teachers and principals on the level of teachers and principals burnout in Rivers State. ! > # H*6I E ! ' ! Low 1.45 Low Low 1.63 Low 3 I find myself struggling to get out of bed in the morning to go 1.13 to work I often have feelings of despair and sadness 1.39 that last for weeks or even months The activities I once found enjoyable now feel drudgery 1.39 Low 1.63 Low 4 I tend to become cynical or bitter about my job 1.40 Low 1.65 Low 5 I tend to become cynical about my boss 3.01 High 3.02 High 6 I easily get annoyed or irritated by my co worker 2.44 Low 2.67 High 7 I regularly experience fatigue or low energy level about my job Am easily bored with my job 2.15 Low 2.11 Low 2.96 High 2.95 High I feel depressed on Sunday afternoons thinking about Monday and the coming week 10 Non work relationship (such as marital, family or friendship) affect my feelings about my work 11 I feel exhausted all the time 2.57 High 2.75 High 2.17 Low 2.13 Low 1.98 Low 2.09 Low 12 I feel like nothing I do is appreciated 3.19 High 2.85 High 13 I frequently watch the clock, bored or restless at work 3.14 High 2.80 High 14 I am unable to concentrate to what someone else Is saying 15 I am always absent to work and even when Present, am reluctant to carry out daily activities 16 I am driven by alcohol or drugs 3.24 High 2.84 High 3.28 High 2.84 High 3.50 High 3.40 High 17 The majority of my day is spent on task that are either dull or overwhelming 18 I frequently have insomnia 3.25 High 2.84 High 2.76 High 2.12 Low 19 I care less that I used to do about doing a good Job at work 20 I dread going to work in the morning 2.36 Low 1.78 Low 2.89 High 2.59 High 1 2 8 ' H7;I 9 I6 *7 , I6 /; *; & w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m , /6 ! + Page 257 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The work is delimited to teachers and principals in government senior secondary schools in Rivers State. Furthermore, the study will focus on identification of the levels of teachers and principal’s burnout, causes and its implication for productivity. ' The design used in conducting this study was the descriptive survey. The study was conducted using the 523 principals and 3426 teachers in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State, which made up the entire population to be 3949 teachers and principally out of the 3949 teachers and principals a sample size of 7% representing 20% served as the study participant. The sample was drawn through a stratified random sampling technique using gender and location of schools. A well constructed instrument called Teacher Principal Burnout Question (TPBQ) was used for data collection. The instrument was made up of 20 items containing 20 burnout indicators designed to measure the degree to which the sampled principals and teachers exhibited feelings of burnout on a 4 scale Likert type continuum ranging 4 strongly agreed; 3 –agree; 2 –disagree and 1 –strongly disagree. The test retest method was adopted to establish reliability co efficient of 0.81. For the instrument, the mean was used to answer to the research question any mean that fell below the criterion mean was deemed to be indicative of low level burnout while those that fell above were indicative of high level of burnout. The z test was used to test the sole hypothesis the study. Table 4 presents the data resulting from the principals and teachers level of burnout as measured on 20 indicators of worker burnout. Both principal and teachers displayed similar characteristics on 18 indices of burnout since both groups exhibited high level on 10 of these indicators, low levels on 8 others, and different characters on the remaining 2 indices of burnout. Details of these are presented in table 1; the # *) ! > # $ Indices where both groups varied in their characteristics were in the statement that indicated that they easily got irritated by their co workers. Teachers agreed to this (with a high mean of 2.67) the principals mean score was 2.44. Secondly, teachers also hold that they do not frequently have insomnia with a mean score of 2.12 indicating low level stress in contrast to the principal’s mean of 2.76 that represent high level stressor. The 10 indicators where both principals and teachers displayed high levels of the indicators of burnout were in tending to become cynical about their boss (3.02 for teachers and 3.01 for principals); becoming easily bored with their jobs (2.96 for principals and 2.95 for teachers), and feeling depressed on Sunday by the thought of Monday and the coming week (2.57 for principals and 2.75 for teachers), frequently watching the clock or becoming restless at work with a high level mean of 3.41 for principals and 2.80 for teachers; being unable to concentrate on what someone else is saying (3.24 and 2.84 for principals and teachers respectively) and being always absent to work and even when present, reluctant to carry out daily activities (3.28 and 2.84 for principals and teachers). Furthermore, both groups displayed high propensity to burnout on the following 3 indices; being driven by alcohol or drugs (3.50 and 3.40 for principals and teachers respectively) dreading going to work in the morning (2.89 and 2.59 for principals and teachers) and feeling that nothing they do is appreciated (3.19 and 2.85 for principals and teachers respectively). The indices of burnout in which both groups registered low levels are for feelings of despair and sadness that last for weeks (1.13 for principals and 1.45 for teachers); finding themselves struggling to get out of bed in the morning to go to work (1.39 for principals and 1.63 for teachers), for feelings of drudgery for activities they once found enjoyable (1.39 for principals and 1.63 for teachers) ; tending to become cynical or bitter about their job (1.40 for principals and 1.65 for teachers); for regular experiencing fatigue or low energy level about their job (2.15 and 2.11 for principals and teachers respectively) and for feeling that non work relationship affect their works (2.17 and 2.13 for teachers. Feeling exhausted all the time (1.98 and 2.09 for w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 258 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). principals and teachers respectively and finally on being careless that they use to be about doing a good job at work (2.36 and 1.78 for principals and teachers respectively. Based on the foregoing empirical evidence, the answers to research question 1 are; 1. The level of burnout among Rivers State public senior secondary school teachers was relatively low. 2. There was a higher level of burnout among principals than teachers of Rivers State public Senior Secondary schools. 3. The level of burnout among senior secondary school principals was fairly high. & There is no significant difference between the mean scores of senior secondary school teachers and that of the principals on the level of school teachers and principal’s burnout in senior secondary schools in Rivers State. # ,) 8 . # Teacher Principals # + ? ## 685 105 ' 48.18 50.17 # 8 6.86 6.96 788 2.760 8 # 1.96 $ Reject Table 10 shows the z test analysis of principals and teachers. From the table, the job burnout score of the principal is 50.17 (SD = 6.96) and the mean job burnout score for teachers to be 48.18 (SD = 6.86). The z calculated value of 2.76 which is greater than the z tabulated value of 1.96 suggests that there is a significant difference in the job burnout level between the principals and teachers. The null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate hypothesis accepted. This suggests that there was a significant difference on the level of burnout between principals and teachers of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. From the analysis, it is evident that the level of burnout among secondary school principals was high (with a mean of 2.50). This could be as a result of the pressure that the secondary school principal faces in the course of carrying out their duties especially in the aspect of managing men and materials in the organization. In managing men and materials, the principal ensures that materials are well placed and utilized for the stated goals and objectives for efficiency thereby increasing the principal’s burnout level. This finding is in agreement with Ogoegbulum and Ogbonnaya (2008) who assert that burnout results when an educational administrator such as the principals working condition makes demand beyond his capacity to handle physically or emotionally. It was also noted from the results of the findings that the teachers had a lower propensity to burnout than the principals. This could be as a result of the difference in the job demand in the school system. Although the teachers have the responsibilities of taking attendance, preparing lesson note, filling of diaries, marking of scripts etc. The principals, have relationships with parents, teachers, students, academic and non academic staff. In fact, the secondary school principal wears many hat being a manager, an administrator, instructional and curriculum leader at different point in a day and this could lead to burnout. This is in agreement with Schwab (1988), who asserts that individuals are likely to show sign of burnout if they work in situations that calls for intense, prolong and constant interaction with others. Based on the findings of the study, the level of burnout among the secondary school principals (managers) were generally high while the teachers had a lower level of burnout. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 259 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ Government should provide congenial environment that will promote greater academic performance of teachers, principals and student. Furthermore, sensitization programmes on burnout in form of lectures, seminars and symposium should be organized session ally for the administrative head of schools and also parents and parents’ teachers association of schools should provide assistance to the school administration in terms of students’ adherence to the school rules and regulation. $ Burke, B. & Richardson, M. (2001). Work Stress Social Support and Championship towards a Microanalytical Approach in a healthier work environment 7 3& C$ 8 Cropanzano, R. (1989). ' > / & 3<2 ' & / * & (5th ed) New York: McGraw. Hill. Carter, U. (1999). +## - # 3 ! @( + % * & . New York: John Wiley & Sons. Davies W.E. (1983). # , ! % ! H Texas: pro ed. Freudenberger, H.J. (1975) %% * + & # #, $ # (12), 72 83. Gold, Y. (2001). Burnout a major problem for the teaching profession. 5 %# ! %7 104 (3), 271 — 294. Iwaniki, E.F., Jackson, S.E., Schuler, U.A., & Schwab, R.L. (1983). Deciding to leave but staying: Teacher Burnout, precursors and turnover. . 5 % ; 3 - ! 12(2): 288 98. Leung, T., Sill, O., & Spector, P.E. (2000). Faculty stressors, job satisfactions and psychological distress among university teachers in Hongkong: The role of locus of control. International 5 % - ! , 7, 121 – 138. Maslach, C. & Jackson (2006). A ; 4 7 $7 # %; 347 357. New York: Academic Press. Maslach, C. (2003). A . & (3rd ed). Mountain view, CA: Consulting Psychology Press. Matias, U.S. (2003) ) # , # # # # $ > # 7(3), 169 – 77. Nwikina, L. and Nwankezi, A. (2010) Management of Job related Teacher Burnout in Nigeria. 5 % + + , 2 (2), 31 – 38) Oboegbulem, A. & Ogbonnaya, N.O. (2008) Management of administrative related stress of academic heads of department in Federal and State University in South East Nigeria. 5 % :! + %7 , 4. (1), 2008. Pines, A. (1985) + # Q 7" ## * ,) % $ ! # #, $ $# $ !$ 39, 103 113. Papalia, D. E. and Olds, S. W. (1988) ; )& # . NewYork McGraw Hill. Sharma, U. (2001). Towards a model for the determinant of occupational stress among School teachers 7 # 5 %# ! 7 , 6, 355 373. Schaufelt, W. & Enzmann, S. (1998). Burnout among Dutch teachers; + -A. & 7 0' ! , 54, 803 812. Veninga, R.L and Spradley, J. P (2000). / :; # * Boston. Little Brown and Company. Wright, B.U. & Cropanzano, F.S. (1989).Pr % * & ! 9 . New York: Praeger publishers. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 260 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 THE PLACE OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN SKILLS ACQUISITION AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING By DR. (MRS.) G. I. OSA*EDOH Department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies Faculty of Education, University of Benin, Benin-City Nigeria Abstract This paper focuses on the place of Vocational and Technical Education in skills acquisition among Secondary School Students. The survival of any nation or people is predicated on the level of development. Where the standard of living is low, the nation is at risk of total collapse. Vocational and Technical Education therefore are among the vital tools which can be used to develop individuals. It is the field where opportunities exist for gainful employment being mostly practically oriented; the graduate of vocational and technical education can easily be self employed, and very often an employer of labour. Opportunities abound in jobs though such opportunities are never realized as Nigeria like every other developing countries is faced with the problem of inability of her educators to relate education to employment opportunities. This is practically true in the nation’s secondary schools where many teachers are said to be incapable of assisting student to perceive clearly a picture of the world of work. Even with the limited area of subject options offered by many Nigeria secondary schools, the students still find it extremely difficult to choose subjects. On account of inaccurate and inadequate information, many students do not know the relationship between the subjects they are being taught and the various vocational opportunities in the job-markets. Students do not have the capability to make proper choice of vocations it is on this background that vocational guidance, as well as occupational information for jobs become imperative among secondary school students. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 261 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Education has been variously defined by different authors. According to Fafunwa (1974) education is a process of socializing or initiation into the norms, values, practices, and attitude accepted by the individual society. It involves the individual's adaptation and his behaviour pattern or style of life. Omotayo (2003) argued that survival of human beings is dependent upon their ability to apply rationality in solving problems within their environment. To accomplish this every society even the most primitive one relies on scientific and technological pursuits in its daily existence. The society is complex hence technical education is now viewed as a social phenomenon, (Edward and Johnson, 1978). Vocational and technical education embrace the means by which manpower development of a nation can be controlled and modified to meet societal needs and to alleviate poverty. The advent of formal education in Nigeria neglected vocational and technical education entirely. Even when efforts were made to give it recognition, very little attention was given to it. No meaningful development was made in the area of vocational education until 1981, when the National Policy on Education was published. Due to total neglect, vocational education suffered a major decline in quality, number of intake, policy and directive in Nigeria. It was after the oil boom era in the 1970s that it dawned on the nation that there was an acute scarcity of manpower. 3 . 5 The National Policy on Education (FGN, 1981) stated the aims of Vocational and technical education as follows: i. To provide trained manpower in applied science, technology and commerce particularly at sub professional grades. ii. To provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic development. iii. To provide people who can apply scientific knowledge to the improvement and solution of environmental/problems for the use and convenience of man. iv. To give an introduction to professional studies in engineering and other technologies. v. To give training and impart the necessary skills leading to the production of craftsmen, technicians and other skilled personal who will be enterprising and self reliant and to make our young men and women to have an intelligent understanding of the increasing complexity of technology. $ . 5 Technical education is education designed for upper secondary and lower tertiary levels to prepare middle level personnel (such as technicians, middle management) and at university level, to prepare engineers and technologists, for higher management positions. Technical education includes general education, theoretical, scientific, and technical studies and related skill training. The component of technical education may vary considerably depending on the type of personnel to be prepared and the educational level. Vocational Education is education designed to prepare skilled personnel at lower levels of qualification for one or a group of occupations, trades or jobs. According to Osuala (1999), the term, either technical or vocational education has no single universally accepted definition but what is common among the various definition is that basic goal and its objectives still remain the same. Technical education has been defined as that phase of education which seeks to help the people, students, and the populace acquire specific mechanical or manipulative skills required in industrial arts or applied science (Akanbi, w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 262 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 1989) Thus a student at the completion of his technical and vocational education programme is expected to have acquired basic expertise in a particular branch of industrial arts or applied science in which he shows special aptitude and interest. Technical and Vocational Education require manipulative skills and the application of some technical knowledge, and the extent of skill and technical knowledge required, vary with specific occupation. Specifically, those occupations that are concerned with design, manufacture, sales, installation and servicing of wide variety of products require more manipulative skills. Several of these occupations are found in industry, business, agriculture, research, services and occupations. These occupations are regarded by many as technical occupation while the workers are loosely called technicians. The Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 1998) defined vocational and technical education as that aspect of education which leads to the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basic scientific knowledge. Vocational and technical education therefore is that form of education which equips an individual with appropriate skills, abilities, and competencies which act as facilities for one to live and contribute to the development of the society. Most studies reveal that education in most Africa countries has not adequately equipped youths to be knowledgeable about their interests, capacities, values, aptitude and the world around them. If education is adopted to help young people understand their strengths and limitations and is adequately planned to help individual assess themselves objectively; it can possibly help them exercise intelligently the right of free choice to be made in the field of education, vocation and leisure time activities. Each country has several responsibilities to formulate its educational policies and practice so that such policies and practices relate to the needs of each country and the vocational life of its young citizen. It is important to understand that educational choices are pre vocational and as such there is a critical need for education at all levels to be concerned not only with intellectual but also with emotional, physical and or career developmental need of each young person. Okon (1979) revealed that a great need exists in Nigerian schools in providing each young person with assistance that enables him or her develop goals and choices related to his or her education and future work roles. According to Olayinka (1974) many Nigerian school leavers make poor vocational adjustment because of unrealistic vocational aspirations. School leavers are said to select occupation mainly because of the positions and prestige attached to the jobs and not as a result of conscious assessment of the individual’s interests and abilities and the relationship of them to the preferred occupations. # ' 3 . 5 Vocational and Technical education have not been able to achieve most of the laudable contributions earlier mentioned as a result of the following problems: ! 4 # . 5 For a very long time, a lot has been said and written through seminars, workshops, and conferences on the need for government to put in place policies and programmes that will promote vocational and technical education. Such important suggestions are never considered by the government. @ ' 5@ In most cases, the few equipment supplied to various educational institutions are not secured and maintained. They are often stolen and vandalized by students, staff and members of the public where such institutions are located. @ 5@ ' Vocational and technical education as skills oriented demand great number of instructional materials for proper skill acquisition. 7/# ! opined that for proper skill acquisition in home economics, for instance, there has to be sewing machines, cooking appliances, and other housekeeping appliances. These materials are often not supplied to schools where home economics is offered and where they are supplied, the supply is always inadequate. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 263 March, 2013 @ JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 0 It is a fact that vocational and technical education is more expensive than liberal education, but unless a deliberate effort is made to declare it a special area in the government allocation of fund, all efforts will amount to more deceit in actually policies for vocational and technical education. It is clear that no meaningful technological breakthrough can be achieved in Nigeria without vocational and technical education; government should correctly re position vocational education. . 5 ' 8T8 A# C Textbooks and journals are very vital for meaningful instruction and learning; but are not available in libraries either because specialists in vocational and technical education are not writing or the stakeholders have refused to make them available. Sometimes, the few available ones have foreign background or are outdated. Such materials may be difficult to adapt to the local environment. In Nigeria, many people are yet to understand the meaning, scope and content of vocational and technical education. Some view it as education for the handicapped or education for those who cannot cope with the sciences. In most educational institutions offering vocational and technical education, workshops and machines needed for proper skill acquisitions are lacking. Where the machines are made available, electricity to operate them may be lacking and in some cases inadequate manpower. . The rapid changes in the economy of Nigeria have brought the importance of human resource development into focus. As the economy continues to expand as a result of technological advancements, the natures of many jobs are bound to change. Knowledge of the different occupation available in Nigeria is of key importance for students of vocational education to explore and analyze. The definition and the classification of occupations are, therefore, fundamental to an understanding of supply and labour requirement problems, employment, labour turnover and employment conditions. Such information is significant especially for adolescent vocational education students. Counselling in the form of occupational information will help solve some of the problems and frustrations that may arise as a result of wrong choice of occupation. Students should make their own final decision as to the type of occupations they want. Under a good vocational guidance programme, students can be made to understand how beneficial it is to set one's aspiration in accordance with individual abilities and interests that is, a good vocational guidance counselor can assist students assess their abilities and interests, clarify values and help set realistic goals and or aspirations, thus minimizing the chances of failure and frustration of needs. In this way, the students are able to understand where they are going in life and what things are necessary to keep going in the right direction. The role of vocational guidance cannot be over emphasized as this help students’ to understand themselves, their interest, and ability. The technical educator is both a teacher and a counselor (Imhanlamini, 2005). It is therefore, important that the counselor should help students to develop interest in vocational education and making a career out of it. The counselor should be available at all times to help the students at their different stages of development. The stage by stage nature of individual's educational development calls for a well planned and sequential educational guidance as he/she progresses from childhood through adolescence to adulthood. The problem of career decision making is difficult and complex for the young adolescent and the consequence of a poor decision are far reaching (Lawde, Jones, and Bright, 1993) in Imhanlahimi and Uddin (2005). w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 264 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). A good school programme of vocational guidance is of value to the teachers who can be equipped with the necessary skills on how to collect, analyze, interpret and present relevant information about occupations to students. Through a school's programme, a vocational guidance teacher can be assisted to understand their students and in turn help the latter develop better understanding about themselves, the entire school education programmes and the world of work as well as the relationship between these. In this way, the students can be helped to make the necessary transition from school to work. After all, teachers who are helped to understand their students are more likely to have positive clues for making a better teaching learning situation. No doubt, parents stand to gain from a school programme of vocational guidance. A good vocational counselor can help parents collect, analyze and interpret relevant data about their children. With clearer perceptions of their children's abilities, interests and potentialities afforded through a school's programme of vocational guidance and counseling, parents can come to a good understanding of their children, accept their limitations and no longer have to remain in illusions about their children's capability. Under a good vocational and technical guidance programme, parents can be made aware of certain areas in their children's education which hitherto they had not thought about and in this way helped to remove the danger of grouping in the dark. For the students to make proper career decision, the counselor has to educate the students. To make any meaningful career choice will depend on the students understanding of themselves. The individual can be helped in the process of moving toward a satisfying educational choice in two ways. Either by helping develop abilities and interest or by helping him to acquire an understanding of himself and his strengths and weaknesses so that satisfying choice of course in vocational education could be made meaningful (Chinedu, 1986) in Imhalahimi (2005). The right occupational choice and the resultant satisfaction in individuals’ job rest much on the right information of the world of work and the needs which different jobs can satisfy. The right occupational choice by students should come from adequate counseling to which students were exposed. Vocational guidance in school should serve to enable the students discover occupations that may satisfy their interest. ( The objectives of information service, through counseling is to stimulate individual student to evaluate himself/herself and his/her opportunities, make a feasible choice in the light of the unique characteristics and opportunities, accept responsibility for his/her choice and initiate a course of action consonant with his choice. The assistance given to each student through information service may take various forms, it maybe educational, vocational, social, recreational, emotional and or moral (Olayinka. 1979). Occupational information is important as it can help to increase the child's occupational horizon so that he may begin to think in terms of a wider range of possible future occupation. The school counselor serves as a good link between the school and the home. He/she disseminates educational and vocational information to parents and assists students not only in selecting appropriate subject combination for parental approval but also in identifying suitable institution in which students could acquire pre vocational qualification. 0 Career development theorists have long issued the importance of providing students with realistic exploratory opportunities that lead to an increasingly comprehensive under standing of self and the world of work (Holland, 1973, Happork 1976, Ginzberg 1951, Super 1963). Most of the career education models should therefore, emphasize exploration as a central theme in their references to the secondary school. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 265 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Career information addresses the current and future conditions of work, education, training and job opportunities, and requirements. Discussing information factor in youth unemployment, Drier (1980) argued that the lack of the following information related factors could very well be associated with youth under achievement, dropout from formal education and associated categories of underemployment and unemployment transition from school to work. These should include: - appropriate and accurate information about employee and employer coping and adjustment; realistic information about the varied work environment of each occupational category; realistic comparison data on income potential versus cost of living in different geographical areas; information about the levels of training needed for both entry and advancement in specific occupations; and data on the personal aptitudes, abilities, advantages and disadvantages associated with fields of occupations and interests. $ + ( # . 5 The following recommendations are proffered on ways of tackling problems associated with vocational and technical education. • • • • • The government should make vocational and technical education a priority area in the allocation of funds and in the implementation of policies since Nigeria cannot run away from the fact that no nation can think of effective performance without thinking of effective vocational and technical education. The government should provide adequate security for the equipment/facilities provided. Also, the students, staff and the society should see the need to secure whatever equipment/ facilities that have been provided in their institutions. Undertaking grassroot awareness programme of educating Nigerians on the meaning, scope and content of vocational and technical education. This could be done through the television, newspaper and other mass media so as to enhance their understanding of this field of study. Considering the expensive nature of vocational and technical education, funding should not be left to the government alone. Therefore, parents, industries and local communities should be encouraged to provide finance towards the development of vocational and technical education in Nigeria. To train more guidance counselors in schools, the government should put in place incentives in form of special allowances that will make counseling attractive and challenging. : / C supported the above recommendations when he recommended for a vocational teaching, allowance. Vocational and technical education according to : / C is a sine qua non for the technological and industrial development of the nation. If this opinion is upheld, then the problems associated with vocational and technical education would be adequately addressed. Based on the foregone, it has become clear that investing in vocational and technical education is paramount to investing in the productive area towards National development. The various tiers of government should make sure vocational and technical education is adequately catered for by w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 266 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). making sure, sufficient finance is made available for this education programme and making sure that the vocational educators are given adequate encouragement by providing incentives. $ Chinedu, G.A. (1986). Effect of vocational guidance on occupational preference and values of secondary schools students in Calabar. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Nigeria Nsukka. Fafunwa, B. (1980).The role of education in Nigeria: New perspective in African education. Ibadan: Macmillan Co. Ltd. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Lagos. Ginsgbers, N.C. (1974) A comprehensive approach to career development. Washington: American Personnel and Guidance Association. Hoppock, P. (1963) Occupational information, New York: McGraw Hill Books co. Imhanlahimi, E. O. & Uddin, S.O. (2005).Vocational education students and job opportunities in Nigeria. Multidisciplinary Journal of Empirical research, 2(1). Kadiri, S.O. (2003). The role of vocational technical education in community development. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum and Instruction. II (2). Olayinka, M.S. (1977). The need for vocational guidance information services. Modem Guidance and counseling for school, Lagos: Mimeograph, 24 Ogbene. A.E. Eboiyehi V.U., Akume, B.C., Iwuanwu C.N., & Biose C.A (1997). Problems militating against development of vocational technical education. Asaba: Consolidated Printing and Publishing Co. Okoro, O.M. (1993). Principles and method in vocational and technical education. Nsukka: University Trust Publishers. Okon, S.E. (1986). The role of education in career and vocational development. A hand book on education and vocational guidance. University of Ife Press Ltd. Olaitan, S.O. (1991). Vocational and technical education in Nigeria Kaduna Schools. National Curriculum Review Conference proceedings on Re focusing Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria Secondary Schools. Osuala, E.G. (1987). Foundations of vocational education in Nigeria schools. Nsukka: Fulldu Publishing Company. Super, D.C. (1963). Career development self concept theory. Princeton, New Jersey: College Enhance Examination Board. Taiwo, C.O. (1985) The Nigerian education system: past present and future. Lagos: Thomas Nelson (Nig) Ltd. Udo, B. & Ewuga, C. (2003). The goals of vocational/technical education toward enhancing civil responsibility in Nigeria. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 267 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 THE RELEVANCE OF HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN TEACHER PREPARATION: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE By PAULLEY, F. GODGIFT, . Department of Educational Foundations Faculty of Education Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island, Bayelsa State Email: paulleyfg@mail.ndu.edu.ng Abstract Education is the transmission of the cultural heritage of a people to ensure that the next generation conform with the laid down norms of the society providing it. The transmitter in the formal educational sector being the teacher to carry out this assignment, he has to be conversant with the development of education in different societies in his formal preparation process called teacher education. This way, mistakes of other societies can be avoided and improvement assured of the education system. This in sum is the value of History of Education in teacher preparation. This being the case, the problem with the Nigerian State is that of inadequate supply of teachers and textual materials needed to transmit these valuable ideas. It is therefore the opinion of this writer that people should be encouraged to read and develop materials in this field so that the blessings of History of Education can be appreciated in the Nigerian State as it has done for others. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 268 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). To develop meaningful visions and plans for the future, it is important to draw from past experiences. An “Aku” story, according to Nwuzor and Ocho (1982:ii – iii), has it that, once upon a time a man sought shelter in a house along the road from a heavy torrential downpour. His host, while preparing to put more logs into the fire to ensure increased warmth for his shivering guest, wanted to know at what point on the road the rain started. The visitor answered “I can’t remember”. The host replied “if you can’t remember where the rain started, it is probable you will not remember in whose house you took shelter from the rain, please leave my house”. Once again, the unlucky man stepped into the rain. Achebe, quoted by Okonkwo (1986:21), in stressing the value of studying African education from the historical perspective said: . * B % & ! % % % % & # # 7 # ! . # % = H * # $ ! ! % & What this suggests is that it is by starting from the knowledge of where we have been that we can hope to effectively fertilize the present and make better plans for the future. Supporting this view, as it were, a well known West Indian writer, Aime Cesaire (1948), said ”the short cut to the future is via the past”. In other words, if one does not know where he is presently, one is likely not to know the direction to the future, as the knowledge of the present can only be made meaningful with a knowledge of where one is coming from. Grenzi (2000:209), in eulogizing the value of History, had equally said that: / ! # % # # # % % & $ 8 % * "# This in sum is the value of History in general and History of Education in particular when the issues at stake are related to education. History, therefore, serves as a guide to the present and the future. In corroborating this assertion, Laski, cited by Agarwal (2006:22), said “what it is and why it is, is by reason of its history. Its becoming is the clue of its being and it is from that being that we must wrest its secret”. History, therefore, serves as the best kind of laboratory, a store house of incidents pertaining to human life, including education. History, according to Gilchirst, cited by Agarwal (2006:23), helps us to make certain deductions for future guidance. It keeps the records of the progress and downfall of human civilization and culture. In this context, it thus becomes necessary to seek the help of History if we wish to learn about the origin and development of any thing including education; for the present system (of education) is a product of the past. It is through History that systems are better analyzed and understood, that is, how they have developed or become what they are; and to what extent they have responded to the purpose(s) for which they were originally designed. History as an academic discipline is not interested in looking at the past just for the sake of it, but with the mindset of learning from it how the past has affected the present so that the future might be better. Daniels (1972:3), speaking on the value of History, said: ; % ! # "# .% % ! * 2 ; $ & / *$ / & % & ! # ! . & ; & ! & $ $ / % !% $ & !& % $ !! & $ % ; & & * $ ! $ 8 ! ! % /% $ ! ! & # ! 8 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 269 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Becker (1976:68), writing on the functions of History, had equally opined that % % ; $ % ; $ % & % ! !# % / $ ! # % ! * $ * $ " % / ! ! $ * ! $ # * / % %% !# ! * > ! ! % & # What the above suggests, according to Reggie Fubura (1990:30), is that History is a continuous and unending process that spans through the past, present and the future; that is, History brings the past into the fleeting present and then projects us into the glorious future. History, therefore, is the study of past events in the context in which they occurred. It involves sifting out evidence from the past with a view to understanding man’s failure and success, achievements and weaknesses. Crookall, in defining History, according to Onyekwedu (2001:170), said it is “the distilled experiences and wisdom of the past, relived by the historian in his efforts to grapple with the present and by so doing giving his future a better place”. Looking into the past, History digs into the very origin, to the earliest period that is relevant to the issue at stake. This is the utilitarian nature of History as a discipline a value must be placed on the issue at stake to justify the historian’s inquiry process for any thing under his search light. For us here, the issue at hand is education, which Obanya (2007:5) has identified as Gthe intergenerational transmission of the cultural heritage (of the people) to ensure that the next generation conforms to the laid down norms of the society providing it”. Education seen as the transmission of culture implies that the culture to be transmitted has earlier on been experienced by some people. This, therefore, brings to the fore the business of History. However, it is not just every thing about the past that is relevant to us. In the present case, what is to be transmitted is related to education. Accordingly, it falls within the ambit of not just History but History of Education. What then is History of Education? How relevant is it in the preparation of a professional teacher for the assignment he is expected to perform in the society? Lastly, what are the problems in the Nigerian state, particularly in the South–South, in this direction? These are the issues the remaining part of the paper will be dealing with. & 5 $ In all disciplines, there is a need to keep in view the historical development of the subject for an increased understanding and appreciation of the growth, development, problems and all other issues of such disciplines. It is for this reason we have history of medicine, science, religion, to mention but a few. Education as a discipline in the professional preparation of the teacher for the assignment ahead has its own history which is called History of Education. History of Education, as an aspect of History, according to Okorosaye Orubite (2002:18), is therefore “the study of the different aspects of education, their development and interactions with one another and the other determining factors in the society with a view to making the present better and anticipate a glorious future for our society”. For Osokoya (1989 xiii, 1996:10), History of Education concerns itself with the study of “how societies have transmitted culture from one generation to another”. He went further to add that it “deals with how people’s beliefs, ideas and faith have been taught; the study of how education has become a tool of problem solving activity and its evolution down the ages”. It examines the relationship between education and societal development. It is closely linked with the past efforts in solving man’s socio economic problems with a view to improving the future. The National Universities Commission (NUC) (1989:9) having Nigeria as a focus, defines History of Education as “the study of educational development and institutions from ancient times to the present with particular reference to the evolution of modern education in Nigeria”. Due to its w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 270 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). critical nature for the development of the individual and the state, it is made a compulsory course for all students in the Faculties of Education in all Nigerian Universities and other tertiary institutions saddled with the duty of preparing professional teachers. The reason for this, according to Fafunwa (1995:xiii), is that # # / * ! % ! / % % # ! ! %% % # %# / & # # * $! # ! # & The implication of the above assertion to education is that, teaching History of Education will provide the individual a knowledge of the past, which could be applied to improve the on going educational issues. In this direction, the ideas of great philosophers and reformers who in no small ways have helped to sharpen the policies and practices of education of the present will be considered. Here lies the utility of History as it applies to Education. The teacher, being the custodian and major transmitting agent in the formal educative setting, ought to be conversant with these facts for him to carry out his/her assignments creditably for the development of the society. At the turn of the 20th century when leading Professors of Education in major colleges and universities in the United States of America (USA), according to Tyack (1976 :4) were pooled concerning the subjects most essential in the education of teachers, G # ; %7 P People like to know the beginning to get to the root. It does not only help understanding, it is satisfying. In sum, therefore, the study of History of Education, according to Osokoya (1989:xiii), Okonkwo (1988:24 29), Tyack (1976:7 9) and Nwuzor and Ocho (1982: iii – iv), is relevant in teacher preparation because it enables the teacher to: analyse the present critically and objectively, as the present is a gift of the past. influence educational policies under which he/she is operating. know how various educational systems have evolved. avoid educational mistakes of the past. show the origin of educational problems and proffer solutions to them. provide the knowledge upon which constructive criticisms could be based and how improvement could be achieved. understand the educational system under which a teacher operates. instill some confidence in the teacher concerning the past. get to the roots of important developments, ideas, principles and practices in the educational sector. help internalize some healthy educational ideals propounded by great educational philosophers and practitioners such as Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Jean Piaget Hernrich, Pestallozi, Milton, Rousseau, Dearden, Jefferys, Castle, Huxley and many others. have a global view of major educational systems which of course would be made available to the students through lessons in Comparative Education which is a major method of studying History of Education. be familiar with how educational thinkers have responded to the social demands of their times. provide a personal intellectual education for the teaching task ahead. predict the future meaningfully (the melioristic element of the historical approach). In trying to predict, Okorosaye Orubite (1995:19), argued that, there is the tendency for the historian to go for an “ideal” situation which may be difficult to implement but which provides a standard upon which to judge a system. For the teacher of History of Education to perform his task of transmitting the values effectively, he must be adjudged well qualified and experienced in the subject area through adequate preparation in the formal school system since the teacher cannot give what he does not have. This is to ensure that he teaches his subject with confidence. This way, the lecture method, reading from textbooks/handouts and dictating notes, which make the course boring to students, will be avoided. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 271 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Teaching as a profession needs adequate preparation for its members to enable them carry out their assignments effectively. This is where teacher education comes in. 5 According to Paulley (2010:17), teacher education is a deliberate, well articulated, purposeful, organized and managed programme or process with the aim of producing the desired qualities in the teacher who will actualize the education dreams of the society. In other words, no one comes into the business of teaching in the real sense of the word without a conscious effort of undergoing a formal process of preparation. In the Nigerian case, the objectives of preparing the teacher professionally to actualize the educational dreams of the society as provided in the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004:33) are to produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all levels of our educational system; encourage further the spirit of enquiry and creativity in the teachers; help teachers to fit into the social life of the community and the society at large and enhance their commitment to national goals; provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment and make them adaptable to changing situations; and enhance teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession. It is hoped that with these inculcated in the professional teacher, the developmental dreams of the Nigerian state, as enshrined in the National Policy of Education (FRN:2004:6), namely the building of a free and democratic society; just and egalitarian society; united, strong and self reliant nation; great and dynamic economy; and land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens; might be fulfilled. 5A While the relevance of History of Education in teacher preparation for the development of a given society is been established, the problem in the Nigerian context, particularly in the South South geo political zone made up of the states of Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo and Rivers, is the issue of non availability of adequate specialist History of Education teachers commensurate with the teeming student population in our teacher preparation institutions in the country so as to facilitate the effective dissemination of historical facts as they relate to education. The table below vividly shows the situation as at 2012 in the zone. # + 8 # 8 & L University of Uyo Niger Delta University Wilberforce Island Delta State University Abraka University of Calabar University of Benin Ambrose Ali University Ekpoma Rivers State University of Science and Technology Nkpolu University of Port Harcourt Choba, University of Education, Rumulomeni Federal College of Education Omoku 5 ! Akwa Ibom Bayelsa Delta Cross River Edo Edo Rivers & 5 None One Professor (on contract) and one holder of Ph.D None None None None One Professor Rivers Rivers Rivers Two Professors and four holders of Ph.D Two in training for Ph.D None ) Self Investigated, 2012 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 272 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). The above situation is not limited to the south –south geo political zone of the country; it is infact a nation wide problem, if not a global one. For instance in 2007, this researcher was shocked as he was denied admission for a Ph.D program in History of Education in the country’s premier university–University of Ibadan due to insufficiency of senior academics to supervise students, adding that the hands of the available few were full. Same was the story in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, where it was reported that the only person available for supervision at that level was about to retire. The University of Nigeria, Nsukka, was not equally exempted from this sorry story of non availability of senior academics in the area in the country’s tertiary institutions. This state of affairs prompted the Provost of the Adeyemi College of Education Ondo, Professor I.A Idowu, in his welcome address to the 6th Annual Conference of History of Education Society of Nigeria, to charge the participants to do something meaningful about the near absence of specialist History of Education lecturers in our institutions of higher learning by encouraging people to come into the area before it becomes extinct. The scarcity of qualified History of Education lecturers in our institutions of higher learning, according to Adeyinka, as cited by Osokoya (2010:180), is one major problem of History teaching and learning. Students acquire more knowledge about a subject when they are taught by professional teachers as they are better qualified and are therefore fully armed with appropriate teaching skills and techniques. It is worthy to observe here that every discipline has its method used by its specialists in the transmission of its ideas to the learner. It is for this reason that in all faculties of education in the country, there are courses as *> ! to be taught by specialists in these areas. As a result we have subject methodology in the sciences, social sciences, arts, languages including History. For us to achieve the said objectives of the areas, it is expected that specialists should handle these courses as they are specifically prepared to handle these courses in addition to the general training provided for all teachers. One implication of the above is that in the absence of these professionals in the specific case of History of Education in our institutions of higher learning, the discipline of History of Education is unintentionally been handed over to lecturers who are not necessarily specialists. The other implication is that History of Education as a compulsory course in teacher preparation is being made to be taught by non specialists who in most cases only rely on the usual chalk and talk method of teaching. Using this method, little time is likely to be spent by the teacher in relating issues being transmitted to the environment of the learners thereby creating confusion in the minds of the young learners instead of helping them. The effect of this on the learners, therefore, is that they see the field of History of Education as one abstract, dry, boring, uninteresting and uninspirational field of study. Speaking on the problem of use of non experts in the teaching of History of Education, a leading educational historian, Williams Brickman, according to Tyack (1976:5), complained that % F; # % 7 * ! # # % ! % ! % ! # & * % # & % # * * & 8# % "* / "* / ! $ ! # * The above, which is the situation in most Nigerian higher institutions, is certainly not a good omen for the future of the discipline, History of Education, in Nigeria. A follow up to the above problem is the absence of relevant books and other materials to aid the teaching and learning of History of Education. This is to be facilitated by the availability of educational historians which, as noted above, are in short supply in the country. It is worthy to observe here that textbooks and other book materials are very important for the promotion of scholarship and for the dissemination and diffusion of knowledge. In their absence and unavailability, the excellence of any field of study including History of Education, cannot be attested. Books are the hub from which w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 273 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). intellectual activities radiate to all academic and research programmes. Books are, therefore, prerequisite for qualitative education. Without good books written by experts, society is dead as there can be no scholarly communication. Adung (2001:182), quoting Carlyle, argued that “in books lies the soul of the whole past… all that mankind has done, thought, gained or seen, it is lying as magic preservation in the pages of books”. With books, according Hay (1967), “a new dimension has been given to the mind of man. He can afford to forget since he can now conveniently store information outside himself”. If there were no books (periodicals, reference materials), we will not have any means of referring to society’s store of knowledge, thus subjecting the society to ignorance. There is no way the content and objectives of the curriculum of any discipline, including History of Education, can be achieved if the required books and other printed materials are not available. These books must not only be available, but must be written by experts in these areas to transmit the relevant pieces of information to the students. The problem in the Nigerian context with reference to History of Education is that the field is faced with the problem of shortage of personnel because of the wrong perception students have towards History of Education on account of the way the field is presented to the students in their formative stages of educational pursuit by non professional historians. 4 0 + What then is the way out in view of the fact that History of Education is a window for the soul of every state as it stimulates the intellectual development of students exposed to it? The greatest challenge in this direction is how we can train and retrain historians of education, with very deep interest in the discipline, professional trainees who will be able to keep the discipline alive in schools in view of its valuable place in the life of a country. Until the discipline is handled by professional and qualified specialist lecturers, students’ interest will continue to diminish. It is only competently prepared historians of education that could demonstrate regularly to the students and consumers of the school products the benefit of studying this discipline even in this scientific age. This, in the thinking of Osokoya (2010:272), can only be achieved through the quality of our teaching made possible by professionals and assisted by good books written by such professionals. Accordingly, as a way out, more committed and competent persons need to be groomed and prepared in the area of History of Education to meet the challenges of the teeming student population in our tertiary institutions. In the interim, non professionals teaching History of Education in our higher institutions should be encouraged to update their knowledge via on the job training either through workshops, seminars or by attending conferences. Short vacation courses in the discipline should also be organized for such lecturers. More students should be encouraged through offer of scholarship to undertake graduate programs in the field to solve the problem of inadequate personnel in the area. Lastly, senior academics and professionals in the field should be encouraged financially to write books in the area with the evolving Nigerian educational system in focus. This way, the problem of reading books with a foreign setting in focus which often time makes the students to lose interest in the field might be reduced for the growth of the discipline among students due to its crucial and strategic place in the educational development of the Nigerian society. $ Adung, D.A (2001). Crises and challenges in Nigerian higher education: The issue of shortage of book and other book materials. In A.U Akubue and D Enyi (Eds.) ( ! ! & # ! +* / % ! . Ibadan: Wisdom Publishers Ltd. Agarwal, R. C. (2006). ' ,' # %# New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd. Becker C. L (1976). Everyman his own historian. In R.R. Sherman and J. Kirschner (Eds) 6 ! % . Cambridge: Schenkman Publishing Company. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 274 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Cesaire, A. (1948).. M H 7 & ! ( Paris. Presses Universitaires de France Daniels, R. V. (1972). ! ; D New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. Fafunwa, A. B. (1995). ; % :! Ibadan: NPS Educational Publishers Ltd. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). : # Lagos: NERDC Press Grenzi, S. J. (2000). 3 ! 7& ! ! # Q ! Barker: Grand Rapids Press. Hay, D(1967). Fair lux In J. Centre and P.Muir (Eds).' ! % London: Cassell Kosemani, J.M. (1993).Preliminary notes on comparative education. University of Port Harcourt, - ! # . National Universities Commission (1989). +## & % :! & Abuja: National Universities Commission Nwuzor, A and Ocho, L.O. (1982).; % Onitsha: Pacific College Press Ltd. Obanya, PAI (2007).+% 74+ Ibadan: Mosuro Publishers. Okonkwo, C.E. (1986).The meaning of history of education. In O. S. Okobiah, (Ed.) ; % # & Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books (Nigeria) Ltd. Okorosaye Orubite, A. K. (2002).Historical foundations of education. In J. M. Kosemani (Ed) . . Omuoko Aluu: Shapea Publishers. Okorosaye Orubite, A.K. (1995).Methodology of comparative education. In J.M. Kosemani (Ed) ( # & ,7 ! Port Harcourt: Abe Publishers. Onyekwedu, N (2001).University of Nigeria undergraduates performance in the history of education programme: Implications for higher education curriculum development. In A. U. Akubue & D: Enyi (Eds.) ( ! ! & # ! +* / % ! . Ibadan: Wisdom Publishers Ltd. Osokoya,I. O. (1989).; # %:! # # & Ibadan: AMD Publishers. Osokoya, I. O. (1996).2 ! ! , +! & Ibadan: Laurel Educational Publishers. Osokoya, I. O. (2010). ! ! :! Ibadan: Laurel Educational Publishers. Paulley, F.G. (2010). Teacher education and national development in Nigeria, 1842 – 2009. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis: University of Port Harcourt. Reggie Fubara, V (1990).; % # !! & # Port – Harcourt: Pan Unique Publishing Company. Tyack, D. B. (1976).The history of education and the preparation of teachers. A reappraisal. In R.R. Sherman and J. Kirschener (Eds) 6 ! % Cambridge: Schenkman Publishing Company. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 275 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 21, No.1 EDUCATION FUNDING IN NIGERIA: ADEQUACY – INADEQUACY? By KPOLOVIE, PETER JAMES Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt drkpolovie@yahoo.com +2348088061666 & OBILOR, ISAAC ESEZI +2348033132175 Department of Finance, Rivers State College of Arts and Science, Port Harcourt Abstract No nation can rise above the quality of its education. A nation’s overall advancement is a direct function of the quality of the educational attainment of its citizens. Quality of education depends on a nation’s funding of the sector. Nigeria has laudable constitutional provisions to ensure complete government’s financing of education. The extent to which this funding is done, whether adequate or inadequate, is the problem investigated in this study. This research adopted documentary analysis design to review the trend of educational funding (budgetary allocations) from 1960 – 2013 in Nigeria; comparing it with some other countries. Four apposite null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 alpha level. Results showed that Nigeria’s budgetary allocation to education is significantly less than (i) the minimum 26% recommendation by UNESCO over the years; and (ii) the budgetary allocations to education by 20 World Bank sampled countries in 2012; that (iii) Nigeria’s score is significantly lower than the African average on the Education Sub-category of Ibrahim Index for African Governance from 2006 to 2012; and iv) no Nigerian university falls within the top 2000 world universities, and thus, not allowing for the testing of H0 4. Education in Nigeria has suffered gross financial neglect to the detriment of the future of children, youths and adults; and of the national development. Shocking revelations of annual budgetary allocations as low as 0.5% was found. Increased public and private funding is urgently needed to salvage the increasingly eroding quality of education in Nigeria. Keywords: Education; Budgetary allocation; Quality of education; Financing of education, Adequacy, Inadequacy. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 276 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Education has been defined as all efforts, conscious and direct, incidental and indirect, made by a given society to accomplish certain objectives that are considered desirable in terms of the individual’s own needs as well as the needs of the society where that education is based (Fanfuwa, 2003). At the outset, it is important to point out that education goes beyond schooling, but schooling at all levels, helps to achieve the purpose of education (Ogbuzor, 2006). The relationship between education and development is well established such that education is a key index of development. Education improves productivity, empowerment and health, but reduces negative features of life such as child labour, prostitution, crime and other vices. UNESCO (2002) opined that education opens the door for all citizens to participate in development activities and when citizens are denied education, they are excluded from the development process, which in turn puts them at a disadvantage vis à vis their compatriots with the benefit of education. This is why there has been a lot of emphasis, particularly in recent times, for all citizens of the world to have access to basic education of good quality. Kpolovie (2012) asserts that education is the most powerful agent for social transformation, national stability, security, unity, and prosperity of any nation. Education constitutes the core of human development as it is the most crucial institution for empowering young people with knowledge and skills, which in turn provide them access to productive employment and meaningful contribution to national development. Unfortunately however, “education which is the supreme instrument for national, social, economic, scientific and technological advancement has practically collapsed in Nigeria.” Consequently, he fervently called on the government to urgently embark on utilitarian evaluation reform of her education to revivify, reposition and revamp the country’s education industry for the attainment and even surpassing of her national goals of: a) a free and democratic society; b) a just and egalitarian society; c) a united, strong and self reliant nation; d) a great and dynamic economy; and e) a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). Education is one of the basic means of human and cultural self realization as well as a means of realizing the productive power of a nation. No nation can develop beyond the quality of its education, as a nation’s overall advancement is a direct function of the quality of the educational attainment of its citizens (Ololube, Egbezor, Kpolovie and Amaele, 2012). Quality of education depends on a nation’s funding of the sub sector. The very concept of development implies the constant improvement in the quality of life in a nation through the improvement of the productive capabilities of individuals. Education is a decisive tool for achieving the promotion of socio economic, political and cultural development of individuals. According to Taiwo (2012), education is a life long process that has interpretation in purpose, type and level. It is a means of socializing people into the community, for upholding customs and traditions as well as for the modification of same in conformity with emerging ideologies, expansions and reformations. The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999) emphasizes the importance and linkage of education to the development of any society when it highlighted that education satisfies a basic human need for knowledge, provides a means of helping to meet other needs, and helps sustain and accelerate overall development. Another important role of education lies in the fact that it helps to determine the distribution of employment and income for both present and future generations, and education influences social welfare through its indirect effects on health, fertility and life expectancy. It is in recognition of these important roles of education that the international community and governments all over the world have made commitments for citizens to have access to education. However, there are inequalities in educational access and achievement, and also high levels of absolute educational deprivation for both children and adults. In order to manage this challenge, the Declaration of the World Conference on Education for All (WCEFA) in 1990 stated clearly in Article 1 that every person – Child, Youth and Adult – shall be able to benefit from educational opportunities w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 277 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). designed to meet their basic needs (UNESCO, 2000). This declaration was reaffirmed at the World Summit for Children also held in 1990, which stated that all children should have access to basic education by the year 2000. Further, the Dakar World Education Forum was held as a follow up meeting to the WCEFA where new sets of goals were established to be attained by the year 2015 (UNESCO, 2000a). The goals include: (i) Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children; (ii) Ensuring that by 2015 all children, with special emphasis on girls, children in difficult circumstances and from ethnic minorities have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality; (iii) Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes; (iv) Achieving a 50 percent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults; (v) Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girl’s full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality; (vi) Improving all aspects of the quality of education, and ensuring excellence for all, so that recognized and reasonable learning outcomes are achieved, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills. The right to education is enshrined in many international human rights covenants. Similarly, the right of all Nigerians to education is provided for in the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Specifically, the 1999 Constitution provides in Section 18 (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999a) that: (1) Government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal and adequate educational opportunities at all levels. (2) Government shall promote science and technology. (3) Government shall strive to eradicate illiteracy, and to this end, Government shall soon and when practicable provide: (a) free, compulsory and universal primary education; (b) free secondary education; (c) free university education; (d) free adult literacy programme. & These constitutional provisions are to ensure complete government participation in, and financing of education. The extent to which this funding is done, whether adequate or inadequate, is the problem under empirical investigation in this study. Three hypotheses were postulated for the purpose of this investigation: 1. H1: There is a significant difference between Nigeria’s percentage of total budgetary allocation to education from 1960 to 2013 and the minimum 26% recommendation by UNESCO. H0: There is no significant difference between Nigeria’s percentage of total budgetary allocation to education from 1960 to 2013 and the minimum 26% recommendation by UNESCO. 2. H1: There is a significant difference between Nigeria’s percentage of total budgetary allocation to education and the percentage of budgetary allocation of 20 World Bank sampled countries to education in 2012. H0: There is no significant difference between Nigeria’s percentage of total budgetary allocation to education and the percentage of budgetary allocation of 20 World Bank sampled countries to education in 2012. 3. H1: A statistically significant difference does exist between Nigeria’s scores and the average scores of other African countries in the Education Sub category of Ibrahim Index of African Governance from 2006 to 2012. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 278 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). H0: A statistically significant difference does not exist between Nigeria’s scores and the average scores of other African countries in the Education Sub category of Ibrahim Index of African Governance from 2006 to 2012. 4. H1: There is a significant difference between the ranks of Nigerian universities and those of other topmost 2000 universities in the world in 2012. H0: There is no significant difference between the ranks of Nigerian universities and those of other topmost 2000 universities in the world in 2012. One major question about financing education is “who should finance education”? The argument has always been whether the cost of education should be borne by government or by individuals receiving education. There has been a lot of debate about who should bear the cost of education this debate can be crudely reduced to three groups (Ogbuzor, 2006). First, are those who argue that the cost of education should be borne totally by parents with the government of Nigeria providing the enabling environment for effective and efficient education? They are of the view that education should be subjected to free market discipline where families and individuals would pay fees in order to access education. The problem with this position is that those who are poor will not be able to pay and as such will be denied access to education. The second group argues that education is a right, which must be funded by government – Public Finance. This group argues that there are enough resources in Nigeria to fund at least basic education for all, but the problems of corruption, misplaced priority, inequality and poor policy choices inhibit this. They argue that education should not only be free but also compulsory with the government ensuring its availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability. The third group posits that education is a right and government must not only endeavour to remove all the barriers to education but must also take steps to utilize to the maximum all its available resources to achieve progressively the full realisation of the right to education and other social and economic rights. They argue that there are three layers of obligations in matters of social and economic rights: obligations to respect, protect and fulfil. The obligation to respect requires state to refrain from interfering with social and economic rights. The obligation to protect requires state to prevent violations by third parties. The obligation to fulfil requires the state to take appropriate legislative, administrative, budgetary, judicial and other measures towards the full realisation of such rights (Civil Society Coalition for Poverty Eradication, 2005). Public funding is described as the collection and disbursement of funds for public use (Osuntokun, 2003). It is regarded as the financial activities of public authorities in terms of taxing, spending, borrowing and lending and it includes the means of providing for the expenditure involved in the staffing, equipment and maintenance of educational institutions (Charles, 2002). Education funding as an aspect of public finance embraces all features of funding of education including the sources of funding and how the money earmarked for education is spent especially for the purchase of goods and the services of men and materials (Borokhovich, Bricker, Brunarski & Simkins, 1998). The first attempt to finance education in Nigeria was in 1842. Christian Missionaries established, owned and controlled schools, and maintained them through school fees paid by parents, subscriptions from churches and grants from Missionary Societies. The Wesleyan Missionary Society, for example, established and financed Nigeria’s first elementary school at Badagry in 1842, while the Church Missionary Society founded the C. M. S. Grammar School, Lagos in 1859 and financed it for a long time (Adesua 1981). The colonial government did not consider education as a priority until 1882. As such, it did not take part in financing education in the colony. However, the 1882 Education Ordinance made provisions for the financing and maintenance of schools established by the colonial government. The Ordinance also made provision for assistance through a system of grants in aid to schools established by the Missions and private individuals. It must be pointed out that the period between 1842 and 1952 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 279 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). witnessed more of educational financing by the Missionaries and voluntary agencies than the colonial government. However, the 1944 Ten Year Education Plan formed a landmark in the financing of education in Nigeria. The plan was designed for the development and improvement of education in the country, and was primarily aimed at making provisions for increased financial assistance by government to Missions and voluntary educational agencies as well as giving financial aid to native administration to assist them in expanding education in their areas (Adeyemi, 2011). Following this Plan, the period between 1953 and 1980 witnessed a lot of development in the financing of education that resulted in massive expansion of schools. It was a period of attainment of self government by the various regional governments; a period when Nigeria attained its independence in 1960; a period when the Federal and Regional Governments had constitutional roles for educational development; a period of take over of schools by the new Federal and Regional Governments from the Missionaries and voluntary agencies; a period when the First National Development Plan (1962 1966) was drawn which made provision for the Federal Government to be responsible for education in the capital territory, Lagos, and in some institutions of higher learning while the Regional Governments had primary responsibility for education in their areas; although the Federal Government still provided some financial assistance for education in the Regions (Collins, 1980). By 1981 government has taken over the financing of schools. The financial involvement of government in education has become remarkably visible leading to further educational activities and expansion. The Fourth National Development Plan (1981 1985) highlighted that the Federal Government increased its commitment towards the financing of education at all levels in the country, emphasizing that education in Nigeria was no more a private enterprise, but a huge venture that must witness government’s intervention and active participation, thus accepting education as an instrument for national development (Marcellus, 2009). It is therefore expected, that with the huge benefit of education as an instrument for national development, the Federal Republic of Nigeria will “hold the financing of education with two hands”, to the extent of surpassing the 26% UNESCO minimum standard for developing countries (UNESCO, 1999). Whether this great expectation has been met or not shall be ascertained with the data analyses of this investigation. $ ' This investigation adopted causal comparative " # % and documental analysis research designs. Causal comparative " # % research is a methodological approach for eliciting probable antecedents of events (education funding or annual budgetary allocations to education in this case) that have occurred already and which cannot be subjected to direct rigorous manipulation and control by the researcher. It was used for retrospective exploration of the phenomenon that is under investigation through empirical comparison of two groups that are very different in some ways in order to elicit the factor that is significantly responsible for the difference. Documental analysis was adopted to gather both secondary and primary data through internal and external criticisms for authenticity, accuracy, validity and reliability of the online data source (Kpolovie, 2010); and to review the trend of education funding from 1960 – 2013 in Nigeria; comparing it with some other countries. For instance, while the percentage of total annual budgetary allocations to education over the period was compared with the global benchmark for developing countries (UNESCO, 1999), Nigeria’s score on the Education Sub category of Ibrahim Index of African Governance was compared with the scores of all other African countries; and the ranking of Nigerian universities was to be compared with those of other topmost 2000 world universities in 2012. With the aid of statistical software, SPSS Version 21; the most appropriate parametric inferential statistical tests for the scenario, one sample t test and t test for two independent samples (Kpolovie, 2011), were employed for data analyses and testing of the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 280 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). $ & *) Over the years, the government’s budgetary allocations to education in Nigeria leave much to be desired. A cursory look at Table 1 below shows an allocation trend that is abysmally retrogressive a trend that has the tendency to destroy all the goodness of education; a trend that negates the values education holds; a trend that is malicious to the citizens of this great nation, Nigeria; a trend that can be likened to a deliberate attempt to cripple education and consequently our national development. In synopsis, Table 1 shows # * ) Federal Government Budgetary Allocation to the Education Sector, 1960 – 2013 Year 3 Year # 6.02 6.15 5.19 3.43 3.65 3.57 4.23 4.88 2.84 2.20 0.69 0.53 0.62 0.88 2.96 4.57 8.71 3.12 11.44 3.70 4.95 6.45 8.09 4.04 4.49 3.79 2.69 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 3 # 1.93 2.40 3.55 2.83 1.09 3.86 5.62 7.13 7.20 12.32 17.59 10.27 11.12 8.36 7.00 5.9 1.83 10.5 9.3 11.00 8.09 13.0 6.54 6.40 1.69 10.0 8.70 : Central Bank of Nigeria (2013). Statistical Bulletin and Information. 06/05/2013 from www.nigeria.gov.ng Retrieved on # *#: Descriptive statistics of budgetary allocations to education in Nigeria from 1960 2013. ( N VAR0000 2 54 8 Mean 5.7241 Std. Deviation 3.68006 Std. Error Mean .50079 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 281 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). # * : One sample t test for testing tenability of Ho1 ( T Df 8 Test Value = 26 Sig. (2 tailed) Mean Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper 20.27593 21.2804 19.2715 VAR0000 40.488 53 .000 2 Table 1b has shown that the mean and standard deviation of budgetary allocations to education for the 54 years (1960 2013) in Nigeria are 5.7241 and 3.68006, respectively. Table 1c has revealed that while the test value (the UNESCO’s benchmark for developing nations) is 26; the calculated t ratio is 40.488 with 53 degrees of freedom, probability (Sig. – 2 tailed) is 0.000, mean difference of 20.27593, and lower and upper 95% confidence interval of the difference are respectively 21.2804 and 19.2715. Since the probability of obtaining a t ratio of 40.488 at the 53 degrees of freedom is 0.000 that is less than the chosen alpha of 0.05, the first null hypothesis that “There is no significant difference between Nigeria’s percentage of total budgetary allocation to education from 1960 to 2013 and the minimum 26% recommendation by UNESCO” is rejected. That is, the mean of budgetary allocation to education in Nigeria (5.7241%) is significantly less than the minimum 26% recommendation by UNESCO. The first null hypothesis is therefore rejected as t (53) = 40.488, p < .o5, 2 tailed. With this, the research hypothesis (H1) that “There is a significant difference between Nigeria’s percentage of total budgetary allocation to education from 1960 to 2013 and the minimum 26% recommendation by UNESCO” is sustained. Before a detailed explanation of * , it is necessary to highlight the trend in the population growth of Nigeria as given in * . In 1950, the population figure of Nigeria was 31.8 million; in 1960, it was 39.2 million, in 1970, it was 49.3 million and up to 2010 it was 150.3 million, indicating an average growth rate of 2.6% every ten years. Expectedly, the sectorial allocations to education should at least follow the same trend if the growth in education (expansion in school enrolment) should accommodate the population growth of the country. But this is not so; what we have is budgetary allocation trend that is grossly abusive to Nigeria and Nigerians, a trend that has no relationship whatsoever with that of the population growth and expansion of school intakes, a trend that reveals our leaders as infinitely malicious, atrocious, and destructive of the nation that they individually swore an oath to serve. # * : Nigerian Population Figures: 1950 2020 Growth Year Population Year Population Period Rate 1950 31,797 1996 104,095 1950 1960 2.1 1960 39,230 1997 107,286 1960 1970 2.3 1970 49,309 1998 110,532 1970 1980 2.9 1980 65,699 1999 113,829 1980 1990 2.8 1990 86,530 2000 117,171 1990 2000 3.0 1991 89,263 2010 150,274 2000 2010 2.5 1992 92,057 2020 183,962 2010 2020 2.0 1993 94,934 2030 225,866 2020 2030 2.1 1994 97,900 2040 279,405 2030 2040 2.1 1995 100,959 2050 337,591 2040 2050 1.9 ) http://motherlandnigeria.com/population.html (Retrieved 09/05/2013) w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 282 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Returning to * , of the 54 years under consideration (1960 – 2013), 28 years witnessed the most gruesome attempt by the Federal Republic of Nigeria to annihilate the future of children and youths of this great project called Nigeria. In each of these years, the budgetary allocation to education was below 5% of the yearly budget. The allocations of between 0.53% – 1.93% for 1970 – 1973, 1987, 1991 and 2011 were cruel, to say the least. The largest allocation was 17.59% in 1997 which was 8 percentage points below the UNESCO recommendation of 26% of the annual budget of a given nation. The most challenging characteristic of these allocations is their haphazard nature. For instance, in 1960 the allocation was 6.02% and in 1961 it was 6.15% giving a growth rate of 2.16%. If this growth rate was sustained, the allocation for 1988 would have been 26% (the recommended allocation by UNESCO). But what we had was a decrease of 1.56% in 1962 giving an allocation of 5.19% and a further decrease of 3.39% giving an allocation of 3.43% in 1963. Subsequent allocations were grossly unpredictable: 3.65% in 1964; 4.23 in 1966; 0.69% in 1970; 11.44% in 1978; 3.70% in 1979; 1.09% in 1991; 17.59% in 1997; 1.83% in 2003; 13.00% in 2008; 1.69% in 2011; etc. “Which way Nigeria?” by the Late Ozidi King, Sunny Okosun begins to make more sense when one appreciates the trend (if any) of the budgetary allocations to the education sector by the Federal Republic of Nigeria. These allocations simply spell doom, crisis, chaos, and danger for education in this country. It is saddening that on the average, Nigeria spends less than six per cent (6%) of its annual budget (precisely 5.7241%) on education when smaller African nations spend much more: Botswana, 19.0%; Swaziland, 24.6%; Lesotho, 17.0%; South Africa, 25.8%; Cote d'Ivoire, 30.0%; Burkina Faso, 16.8%; Ghana, 31%; Kenya, 23.0%; Uganda, 27.0%; Tunisia, 17.0%; and Morocco, 17.7% (World Bank, 2012; Odiaka, 2013; Nzeh, 2013; Oseni, 2012; Kupoluyi, 2012). & ,: In * C , World Bank (2012) has very clearly illustrated the relative position of Nigeria in the world in terms of budgetary allocations to the all important education sector with the annual budgetary allocation of 20 sampled countries to education, of which Nigeria’s 8.4% allocation is the very worst. Comparatively, the * C has unravelled that a country like Ghana occupies the first or very best position with 31.0% allocation to the education; followed by Cote d’ Ivore with 30.0% (2nd position); Uganda with 27.0% (3rd position); Morocco with 26.4% (4th position); South Africa with 25.8% (5th position); and so on as against the expectation of Nigeria to be the 1st. * C* shows the mean and standard deviation of the budgetary allocation of the 20 countries to education. To ascertain whether the difference between the Nigeria’s 8.4% is significantly different from the world average, * C presents summary of a one sample t test executed to test tenability of the second null hypothesis of this study. # , : Annual budgetary allocations Bank, 2012) E 1. Ghana 2. Cote d’ Ivore 3. Uganda 4. Morocco 5. South Africa 6. Swaziland 7. Mexico 8. Kenya 9. United Arab Emirate 10. Botswana 11. Iran 12. USA of 20 World Bank sampled countries to education (World J> 31.0 30.0 27.0 26.4 25.8 24.6 24.3 23.0 22.5 19.0 17.7 17.1 w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th Page 283 March, 2013 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. ,6 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Tunisia Lesotho Burkina Faso Norway Colombia Nicaragua India 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th ,6 1! 17.0 17.0 16.8 16.2 15.6 15.0 12.7 ;/ 2 # ,#: Descriptive statistics of annual budgetary allocations by 20 World Bank sampled countries to education ( N 8 Mean Std. Deviation 6.40760 Std. Error Mean 1.43278 VAR0000 20 20.0050 1 Table 2c: One sample t test analysis for testing Ho2 on 20 World Bank sampled countries annual percentage of total budgetary allocations to education ( 8 Test Value = 8.4 t df Sig. (2 tailed) Mean 95% Confidence Interval of Difference the Difference Lower Upper VAR0000 8.100 19 .000 11.60500 8.6062 14.6038 1 The mean and standard deviation of the 20 countries’ total percentage of annual budgetary allocations to education are respectively 20.0050 and 6.40760 as shown in Table 2b. Table 2c reveals that the calculated t ratio is 8.1 with a 19 degrees of freedom, 0.000 probability (Sig. – 2 tailed) and a mean difference of 11.60500. The mean difference between Nigeria’s percentage of annual budgetary allocation to education is 11.60500. At 95% confidence intervals of the mean difference, the lower and upper bands are 8.6062 and 14.6038, respectively. Since the probability at which the calculated t ratio is significant is less than t chosen alpha of 0.05, the second null hypothesis that “There is no significant difference between Nigeria’s percentage of total budgetary allocation to education and the percentage of budgetary allocation of 20 World Bank sampled countries to education in 2012”, is rejected. The observed mean difference of 11.60800 is statistically significant as the t (19) = 8.1, p < 0.05. Thus the second research hypothesis of “There is a significant difference between Nigeria’s percentage of total budgetary allocation to education and the percentage of budgetary allocation of 20 World Bank sampled countries to education in 2012”, is sustained in favour of the 20 countries. That is, Nigeria’s total annual percentage of budgetary allocations to education is significantly lower than those of the 20 World Bank sampled countries. It is little wonder that Taiwo (2012) asserted that inadequate financing of the education sector in Nigeria is inhibiting the benefits of education. He decried that government’s allocation to the education sector is grossly insufficient to take care of the population explosion of staff and students in the institutions. According to him, education sector which is supposed to be given the highest priority in budgetary allocations because it produces the skilled manpower for all the other sectors of the economy; is grossly neglected to the detriment of the benefits education portends. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 284 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). # - : African countries’ average scores on the Education Sub category of Ibrahim Index for African Governance from 2006 to 2012 (Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2013). 953$ 1J2 5$ 3 ($5 30$ 1J2 2006 51.0 49.4 2007 48.8 50.9 2008 48.2 50.8 2009 48.4 51.8 2010 49.0 53.6 2011 47.6 53.8 2012 48 53.7 3 3.5$3 5 ($5 # -#: Descriptive statistics of the Nigeria’s score with the average of all African countries on the Education Sub category of Ibrahim Index for African Governance from 2006 2012. VAR0000 N Mean Std. Std. Error 3 Deviation Mean 7 48.7143 1.11270 .42056 VAR0000 1.00 2 2.00 7 52.0000 1.73877 .65719 Table 3b has shown that over the 7 years (2006 2012), while the average of Nigeria’s score is 48.7143 and a standard deviation of 1.11270; the average scores of all African countries on the Education Sub category is 52.000 with a standard deviation of 1.7387. # - : Independent samples t test for testing Ho3 on comparison of Nigeria’s score with the average scores of all African countries on the Education Sub category of Ibrahim Index for African Governance from 2006 to 2012. Levene's Test t test for Equality of Means for Equality of Variances F Sig. t Df Sig. (2 Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence tailed) Difference Difference Interval of the Difference Lower Equal variances VAR00002 3.067 .105 4.211 12 .001 3.28571 .78024 4.98571 Upper 1.58572 assumed It can be seen in Table 3c that the calculated independent t ratio is 4.211, the degrees of freedom is 12; probability (sig. – 2 tailed) of obtaining the t ration is 0.001; and the mean difference between Nigeria’s score and those of all African average is 3,28571. While the standard error of difference is 0.78024, the w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 285 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). lower and upper bands for 95% confidence interval of the difference are respectively 4.98571 and 1.58572. Since the probability of obtaining the computed t ratio is less than the chosen alpha of 0.05, the third null hypothesis that “A statistically significant difference does not exist between Nigeria’s scores and the average scores of other African countries in the Education Sub category of Ibrahim Index of African Governance from 2006 to 2012”, is rejected in favour of the African average. Simply put, the third null hypothesis is rejected as t (12) = 4.211, p < 0.05 with the Nigeria’s score being significantly smaller than the African average. Thus, the third research hypothesis that “A statistically significant difference does exist between Nigeria’s scores and the average scores of other African countries in the Education Sub category of Ibrahim Index of African Governance from 2006 to 2012”, is sustained. In other words, Nigeria scores significantly lower than the African average from 2006 to 2012 on the Education Sub sector of the Ibrahim Index for African Governance. In fact, the total scores on the IIAG shows that over the years, Nigeria’s scores have consistently been as low as 42 or 43 that places Nigeria at as poor as 43rd position of all the 52 African countries as shown in Table 3d (Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2013). The 7 *8 ! % .* . " % +% =& measures a number of educationally related issues like 7 ' & L . This examines the extent to which there are solid institutions for basic, secondary, and tertiary education as well as for research and development; the 3 %' # ' that deal with pupils enrolled in primary school in relation to primary school teachers; ' ( # that assesses students’ completing the last year of primary school; ' ! such as new entrants to the first grade of secondary school in a given year, in relation to students enrolled in the final grade of primary school in the previous year; 7 that assesses total enrolment, regardless of age, in relation to the population of the age group for tertiary education; and < that deals with the population aged 15 or over who can both read and write correct simple statements on their everyday life. = , the ability to make simple mathematical calculations, is also included. # - : Annual total scores on Ibrahim Index for African Governance 2006 to 2012 by all African countries (Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2012). $3 = 1st Mauritius Cape Verde 2nd 3rd Botswana Seychelles 4th 5th South Africa rd Nigeria ** 43 52nd Somalia ,667 ,66: ,66; 78 79 83 74 77 80 76 76 76 74 72 72 72 71 70 42 42 42 9 10 7 ,66< 83 77 76 74 70 42 8 ,6*6 83 78 77 75 71 43 8 ,6** ,6*, 83 83 78 78 77 77 73 73 71 71 42 42 7 7 For Full List of the Raking, Visit: http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org/downloads/2012 IIAG summary report.pdf & / Shockingly, the fourth null hypothesis of this study that “There is no significant difference between the ranks of Nigerian universities and those of other topmost 2000 universities in the world in 2012” could not be tested at all because no single Nigerian university even made the list (Shanghai Ranking Consultancy, 2012). One of the aims of this investigation was to compare the ratings of Nigerian universities with those of other countries in the world. Unfortunately however, this aim was totally defeated because no Nigerian university could be found among the list of 2000 best universities in the world that was collected for this study. That is, Nigerian universities do not even qualify to be compared at all with the best 2000 universities in the world which was the scope of this investigation. By world standards, the academic ranking of world universities showed that Nigerian universities are nowhere in the topmost w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 286 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). 3,000 universities (Shanghai Ranking Consultancy, 2012). In July 2012, arguably the nation’s first and best university, the University of Ibadan, was rated 3,216th position in the Webometrics World Ranking of Universities. Even in Africa, where Nigeria is seen as the ‘giant of Africa’, the Nigeria’s best university, University of Ibadan, was rated 45th position, far behind South African and Ghanaian universities (Odiaka, 2013). The fact that the South African Government and Ghanaian Government allocate 25.8% and 31%, respectively, of their total annual budget to education explains why their universities are now incomparably superior to Nigerian universities. Necessary to note here is the fact that even before the oil boom, University of Ibadan had attained international recognition. Specifically, University of Ibadan, from its inception in 1948 up to 1973 (25 years), was rated amongst the top 100 higher learning institutions in the world owing to the availability of state of the art facilities which informed the remark in 1963 by Sir Christopher Ingold, a visitor to the institution’s Chemistry Department from University College, London, as follows: “The Department of Chemistry, University of Ibadan, is pre eminent in the continent and clearly at par with any Chemistry Department in the world” (Odiaka, 2013). These were the good old days when the institution was a topmost African university with high international recognition, reflecting the strong financial support from the then Nigerian government and from some philanthropic foundations and grant giving agencies at that time. Unfortunately however, the military incursion into the nation’s political life largely due to the availability of oil and the lackadaisical attitude to education by our politicians from 1975 till date has seriously destroyed the Nigerian university system. In very clear terms, the findings are that: 1. Nigeria’s annual budgetary allocations to education (5.7241%) are significantly lower than the UNESCO recommended minimum (26%) for developing countries. 2. Nigeria’s percentage of the total annual budgetary allocations to education is significantly lower than those of the 20 World Bank sampled countries. Nigeria is actually the worst of the all. 3. Nigeria’s score on the Education Sub category of Ibrahim Index for African Governance is significantly lower than the average score of all African countries. Of 52 African countries, Nigeria’s position is 43rd among the worst countries with respect to the attribute under investigation. From these findings, it has become very clear that Nigeria’s educational system is broken, crippled by a complex bureaucracy, flawed policies in both the management and financing of school, and corrupt expenditure of school money; leaving it in need of sweeping reforms on the basis of utilitarian evaluation design. The structural problems are so deep seated, such that mare addition of more funding and small, incremental interventions are unlikely to make a difference unless matched with a commitment to wholesale reform. The country’s financial policies are found to be so complex and irrational that they thwart schools’ efforts to educate as the sector is very poorly funded with less than 6%, on the average, of its total annual budgetary allocation as against UNESCO’s recommended 26% benchmark for developing nations. The existing school data systems are very poor and ineffective, making it impossible for the education system to have vital information and the right indexes that are necessarily required for Nigeria to be better positioned in the Ibrahim Index for African Governance (IIAG). For instance, the teacher and students ratio; admission and graduation ratio; the school aged population and the actual population in school ratio; the literacy rate; the rate of basic numerical skills; and Information and Communication Technology skills rate in Nigeria are nothing to write home about in comparison with other African countries. The terrible position of Nigeria in the 20 World Bank sampled counties and the nation’s abysmal position in the IIAG make it crystal clear that Nigeria should never in any way be described as the ‘giant of Africa’ in terms of education on which a nation’s development depends. With a population that is growing at a rate of 2.6% and a funding rate for the education sector that does not have a clear pattern but which can best be described as declining, the future of Nigeria is gloomy. According to the Central Bank of Nigeria (2000), poor financial investment has been the bane w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 287 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). of Nigerian education system. Education in Nigeria has been in this funding crisis for many years, and has culminated in shortage of material and human resources in the system: lack of qualified teachers; high turnover rate of teachers; shortage of classrooms; poor learning environment; inadequate commitment from teachers; decline in the quality of education offered; insufficient admission spaces, examination malpractice, cultism, brain drain, inadequate laboratories for teaching and research, shortage of books and journals, indiscipline, low remuneration, inconsistent and ill conceived policies and a myriad of other problems. These problems are pronounced at each of the three levels of the educational system: primary, secondary and tertiary. ' B # # # % # B $ # & # % # B % !E & % # % / # % ! % ! % & # FA / # $. % $* # * $ !$ % & # / # E ## %# % $ ! / $ / $ 8/ / * % %>*% 9 !$ % !$ # !$ ! ## ! % >* % # # % ! " ! % ! & # & $ C C$ In most cases, the unbaked professionals and even the very few finished ones, cannot practice their professions; with mechanical engineers who are turned to low income traders; accountants who are forced to become self subsistent farmers; medical doctors who are frustrated to become fake pastors; educationists that are turned to heartless politicians; and so on, by the jobless and most unfriendly business environment in Nigeria. The high rate of expansion of the Nigerian educational system implies that something urgent must be done to adequately fund the system. The explosion in enrolment as a result of the influx of students into primary and secondary schools calls for immediate government attention in drastically increasing annual allocations and in employing other sources of funding education. The high rate of schools’ enrolment has rendered short term educational forecasts unreliable. The explosion in enrolment has led to the creation of morning, afternoon, and evening schools in some primary and secondary schools; and to oversubscribed part time programmes in tertiary education in many States of the Federation, in some cases, for the award of unmerited certificates and production of uneducated graduates (Ololube and Kpolovie, 2012; Kpolovie, 2012). Although the public sector has assumed the principal responsibility for financing education (Albrecht and Ziderman, 1994), the position of the Nigerian government is suspect. The dominant role of government in this field relates to the benefits society derives from an educated population, with the popular view being that education is critical to the wealth and international competitiveness of nations (Finnie, 2002). Increasingly, however, it has been recognized that while the social returns to education are high, the private returns, on the average, are even higher. Repeatedly, researchers have identified these high level of returns, both in comparative studies and in studies of returns to education in this country (Ibara, 2011) and in virtually all developed countries (Trucson Regional Economic Opportunities, 2013; U.S. Census Bureau, 2003; U.S. Census Bureau, 2010) . But the government of Nigeria has not been effective in the funding of education, despite the critical position of education in the development of the nation. Perhaps, the remedy is of the public sector, private organisations, and individuals in the funding of education. In corroboration, Maiyashi (2003) posits that proper and adequate funding of education is very necessary for economic growth of Nigeria and suggests that the government should let the people realize that it cannot fund education alone. He accepted that government has not performed up to expectation in terms of funding education in Nigeria, noting that the Federal Government has never allocated up to 18% of its annual budget to education in any given year. Supporting this argument, Parsuramen (2003) stresses that education must get proper funding in Africa for the African economies to make any meaningful progress. Onifade (2003) reports that funding of education in Nigeria is nothing to write home about. He concluded that the continuous decrease in budgetary allocations to w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 288 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). education, the Nigerian government is slowly grinding the engine of economic development in the nation to a halt by neglecting education. It must however, be pointed out that most developing economies cannot sustain free education in its entirety (Adaralegbe, 1990). He remarked that in most cases, there is the need for fees to be charged in education, adding that if education were totally free, people would presumably ‘consume’ it until they are satiated and the return to education would be zero. In other words, advocating for free education in a depressed economy like Nigeria is like forcing a river to flow up hills. According to Adaralegbe, the cost of education should be borne by the government, private organisations and individuals. The inadequate funding of education by government has impaired the quality of education in the country. Although there is no single definition of quality, there is a consensus on the imperative to improve the quality of education in terms of cognitive development and education’s role in encouraging learners’ creative and emotional development, in supporting objectives of peace, citizenship and security (Education for All – EFA – Global Monitoring Report, 2005). Quality is at the heart of education since it determines how much and how well students learn and the extent to which their education achieves a range of personal, social and development goals. There has been a lot of debate about the quality of education in Nigeria. Using most of the known indicators, Kwapong (1995) asserted that with regard to the growing problem of poor academic standards, of very serious concern is the low cognitive achievement of African students by world standards and that the recent further decline in supplies of the key inputs of education at all levels, such as books and other learning materials, resulting from poor funding, has had deleterious consequences in terms of quality of performance of students as identified in cross national studies. The state of education in Nigeria is precarious. A report by the Nigeria Millennium Development Goals (2005) acknowledged that quality assurance in education in Nigeria is yet to be adequately addressed in terms of teachers, curricula, teachers support, teaching learning materials, etc. In order to assess the quality of basic education in Nigeria, it is expedient to look at the characteristics of learners (Whether healthy, motivated students?), processes (Are teachers competent and using active pedagogies?), content (How relevant are the curricula?) and systems (Are there good governance and equitable resource allocation?). Looking at the four indices listed above (characteristics of learners, processes, content and system), there is an urgent need for Nigerian leaders to pay close attention to the educational sector, and treat it as a public health issue, because the socio political and economic development of any nation is, in many ways, determined by the quality and level of educational attainment of the population. Political leaders should take politics out of education, as the continued neglect of this sector would lead to social paralysis (Dike, 2002). To improve the quality of education in Nigeria, the society has to first educate the educators, and motivate them to perform their duties well (Dike, 2002; Obilor, 2012). Unfortunately, Nigerian leaders are grossly adamant, sticking to the old ill ways, such that most of the schools are in dilapidating states with no chairs and tables for pupils and students to seat and/or write on. Yet the salaries of less educated Local Government Counsellors are not only even higher than those of better educated teachers, but even of university dons in Nigeria. Members of the National Assemblies are adjusting the budget to accommodate higher allowances for themselves, and politicians are buying jets for personal use and acquiring very expensive houses overseas to escape to when the Nigerian economy gets totally grounded or when they complete their tenures. Nigeria is indeed a country where leaders have a weird value system. Although Nigeria's educational institutions in general are in dire need, the most troubled of the three tiers is the primary education sector where there are no classrooms and classes are held under trees with pupils and their teachers defecating in nearby bushes. The quality of teaching learning transaction under such an inhumane condition cannot be anything to be proud of. It is grossly worrisome that with this dismal state of education in the land, the government is still allocating less money to the educational sector. When Nigeria's percentage of total annual budgetary allocations to education are compared with those of other less affluent African countries, the picture becomes not w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 289 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). only very disturbing, but a reflection of imminent disaster for the nation. Recall that the percentage of total annual budgetary allocations to education are: Botswana, 19.0%; Swaziland, 24.6%; Lesotho, 17.0%; South Africa, 25.8%; Cote d'Ivoire, 30.0%; Burkina Faso, 16.8%; Ghana, 31%; Kenya, 23.0%; Uganda, 27.0%; Tunisia, 17.0%; and Morocco, 17.7% while that of Nigeria on the average is less than 6 % and in 2013 is 8.7% (Odika, 2013; World Bank, 2012; Oseni, 2012; Central Bank of Nigeria, 2013; Kupoluyi, 2012). It is little wonder then, that Kpolovie (2012, 329) conclusively asseverated on the risk of Nigeria’s refusal to embark on evaluation based education reforms that: 4 * % % % :! $ & % & & %! % ! & 9 ! B 8 E ! % % % # ! E % & % * ! 9 !B & ! ! * & & %! %% 2 > & E :! % * * $ B & & :! ## ! %" 7& : ! $ # $ % $ $ * /! E* & %! $ E / $ %% & * $ ! B $ # / * & $# % * $ Relatively speaking, the above disheartening statistics and discussions on Nigeria’s insufficient allocations to the education sector show a nation that has not gotten its priorities right. One can only get what he has ordered – Nigeria is ordering low quality education with the very poor investment in education. Nigeria has to change her value system and invest more on education, which is the intellectual laboratory of any nation and the engine that propels the economy. Without a formidable intellectual base, attained through quality higher education, it is not likely that any society would move forward. The success of any democratic system (which Nigeria is still fiddling with) depends largely on the citizens’ ability to analyse problems and make thoughtful decisions (Anya$ 2001). Indisputably, democracy thrives only when its values are firmly rooted in and nurtured on the fertile ground of exceptionally well funded quality functional education (Marzano, 1988; Ibuzor, 2006; Obilor, 2012). A nation’s development depends on quality education that can best be guaranteed with substantial funding of the sub sector. In accordance with the findings of this study, there is urgent need for the Nigerian government to massively invest in each of the three educational levels (higher, secondary and basic). Allocation and actual timely release of over 26% of Nigeria’s total annual budget to education should never be compromised. Every kobo meant for implementation of each unit of the education programme must be judiciously utilized. Education evaluators, curriculum planners, civil society organisations, schools management committees, teachers, students, parents, employers of labour, and other stakeholders in the education industry should actively participate in monitoring the application of funds meant for education programmes to ensure quality assurance and quality control for optimum teaching learning outcomes. Adequate qualified teaching staff (the core implementers of the education curriculum at all levels of the system) should be engaged; exceptionally trained and retrained; well remunerated; and motivated for most effective and efficient results oriented performance. New educational facilities (like classrooms, laboratories, libraries, office and residential accommodations) should be built and existing ones should be refurbished, upgraded and furnished to meet the needs of the rapidly changing society. Portable water supply, uninterrupted electricity, as well as sanitary facilities should urgently be provided in each school. Free access to functional ICT facilities should also be made available for all students and staff in every school. The Executive Governor of Rivers State, Rt. Hon. Chibuike Rotimi Amaechi, has taken very bold steps in this direction by building and equipping model schools and health centers with the state of the art facilities in each local w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 290 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). government in River State with adequate provisions for their maintenance. He should be encouraged to do much more as a model; for other state governors to emulate. Federal, state and private universities in Nigeria should be upgraded and expand drastically in terms of their academic programmes, academic staff strength, facilities, and carrying capacity to ensure that all qualified and willing candidates are able to secure admission, and obtain quality higher education strictly on merit through hard work. The untenable excuse that of the 1.7 million candidates who wrote the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) in 2013, only 0.5 million persons will eventually gain admission due to insufficient space or carrying capacity in the tertiary institutions must be resolved. With such excuse, the fate of the remaining 1.2 million candidates, and those who took the examination before but were not admitted, and of those who will take the UTME next year can only be imagined. With the free and compulsory Universal Basic Education that Nigeria must push; the country should adequately plan and prepare ahead of time to provide for unhampered university education of all the qualified senior secondary school leavers. When youths who are qualified and willing to continue their education are denied the opportunity, they are bound to feel deprived, frustrated and aggressive. Provision of gainful employment opportunities for university and other tertiary education graduates in Nigeria is indispensable for them to practice their professions and meaningfully contribute their quotas to the national development. The current situation of graduates parading our streets for several years after NYSC without a job must not only stop, but give way for a scenario that ever before their graduation from higher institutions, several good employment opportunities are waiting for each of them. Encouragement of education demands provision of active marketplace that is extensive enough to legitimately engage every educated graduate and even those who opted for not going to higher institutions of learning. The difference should be that while those with higher degree earn substantially, their counterparts with just senior secondary school leaving certificate earn much lower. Such difference will be attractive enough for motivating those who work without a degree to strive through part time programmes to acquire higher education. Education is all efforts, conscious and direct, incidental and indirect, made by a given society to accomplish certain objectives that are considered desirable in terms of the individual’s own needs as well as the needs of the society where that education is based (Fanfuwa, 2003). Education is a key index of national development. It improves productivity, empowerment and health, but reduces negative features of life such as child labour, prostitution, crime and other vices. The way to go in Nigeria, therefore, is that the annual budgetary allocation to education should never be lower than 26%. If other less economies in Africa can afford it, then Nigeria has no excuse. Nigeria cannot continue with the present low education quality that is rapidly heading towards the destruction of the country for it is known that the level of human and economic development of a nation is commensurate with the quality and quantity of educational attainment of the citizens of that nation. In the light of the foregoing, the government should adopt necessary policies to destroy the current bad value system in the society, and create conducive environment that would enable the educational institutions to engage in healthy competitions, raise further funds through private donations and grants, and attract and retain qualified teachers. Deliberate policies should be put in place to ensure that politicians do not earn higher than the teachers that created them. This will forestall exodus of teachers and make politics less volatile. It is known the world over, that education determines not only earning capacity, but also the very quality of human life (Dike, 2002). In a society that appreciates the educated class, those with good education naturally earn higher incomes; they also are in an enhanced position to live better and healthier lives. Higher education gives one a greater sense of how to reduce risks in life and change w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 291 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). one’s behaviour. Greater confidence, self reliance, and adaptability are all hallmarks of advanced education (Davies, 2001). On the whole, it must be emphasized again that higher education could be an important part of the solutions to the ills of the Nigerian society because how much a nation progresses is a function of the quality of the educational attainment of its citizens. This is why Nigeria must build and maintain good schools, and accord education its rightful place as the only elixir that has full capability of curing all the ills of the society. The need to improve education should begin with giving greater attention to our preschool, elementary, secondary, and vocational schools. These areas are the building blocks of society's educational foundation, as not everyone may need a university education. Thus, the society must make meaningful use of the current Free and Compulsory Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme, which is expected to provide high quality education to children between the ages of seven and seventeen (Umar & Adola, 2001). For the Universal Basic Education to achieve the intended purpose, in addition to the free tuition, the government should guarantee free lunch, uniform, books, bags, computer, etc. as originally intended for the needy pupils, as no child can learn while hungry. To supplement the efforts of the government, the private sector should assist in the form of financial and material donations towards the success of the programme. This is pertinent because if adequate and quality education is not provided at the elementary and secondary levels, the tertiary level would continue to be populated by those who are least prepared to face the rigors of university education; and cultism, intimidation of professors into better grades, examination malpractice, and other vices will continue to blossom on the campuses across the nation. The result will be graduates that are worse than they were when they entered the university. Finally, while it is hoped that the government of Nigeria shall increase budgetary allocations of more than the minimum 26% of total annual budget to the education sector in frantic pursuance of its free quality education at all levels, a proper mix of public finance, corporate finance and individual finance of education is absolutely advocated. $ Adaralegbe, A (1990) Free education in a depressed economy and widespread unemployment. : # # & :! Kayode Ajayi & Taiwo Ajayi (Eds.). Ibadan: Vantage Publishers, 166 167. Adesua, A. (1981). “Education Finance in Nigeria” in . 7 ' ! Adesina, S. (ed) Ile Ife, University of Ife Press. Adeyemi, T. O. (2011). Financing of Education in Nigeria: An analytical review. + 5 % - ! $ C C $ C 8 Retrieved on 06/05/2013 from )EE+++ # E3C ' Albrecht, D. & Ziderman, A. (1994). 4 ! % ;! 7 , 4 ! % * $ 7%% 3 # & World Bank Discussion Paper: Washington, D. C. Retrieved on 13/05/2013 from Anya, O. A. (2001). “The dreams, vision and myth of Nigerian reality”. = 1 $5 $ C Retrieved on 10/05/2013 from Borokhovich, K. A., Bricker, R. J., Brunarski, K., & Simkins, B. J. (1998). Finance Research Productivity and Influence by Topic Area. 5 %4 7 $ C $ 8C Retrieved on * @ @ @% @ @ @+(4 09/05/2013 from Central Bank of Nigeria (2000). + 3# %+ Abuja: Central Bank of Nigeria 53, 103 104. Retrieved on 09/05/2013 from Central Bank of Nigeria (2013). A . % . Retrieved June 6, 2013 from http://www.nigeria.gov.ng Charles, H. (2002). “MPs should work on better education funding”. Lagos: M ! 7 0 - # $ 19 (5167), Thursday, December 19, 23. Civil Society Coalition for Poverty Eradication (2005). < * $ ) ! ' & % 7 & :! Abuja, CISCOPE. w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 292 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). Collins, P. (Ed.) (1980). + % & # : ! . Lagos: Redwood Limited. Davies, G. K. (2001). ( 3 & . November 30, 2001. Dike, V. (2002). The State of Education in Nigeria and the Health of the Nation. +% 7 + Tuesday, 05 February, 2002. Retrieved on 10/05/2013 from Education for All – EFA – Global Monitoring Report (2005). 7 % + , L . # &. France, UNUESCO. Retrieved on 08/05/2013 from Fanfuwa, A. B. (2003). : ! 7 ,K $: 4 in Abayomi, F., Atilade, D. and Matswamgbe, M. (Eds.) (2006). State of Education in Nigeria: What Hope for the Future? Lagos, Ajasin Foundation. Retrieved on 10/05/2013 from >! @ > @ " # #@ >! @ @ @ @ Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). :! ( Lagos: Government Printer. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999a). ( % 4 3 # * % : ! . Retrieved June 7, 2013 from http://www.nigeria law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). : ' 7 . Yaba, Lagos: NERDC Press. Finnie, R. (2002). Student Loans, Student Finacial Aid and Post Secondary Education in Canada. 5 %;! 7 ' - ! $C C$ 8 Retrieved on 10/05/2013 from Ibara, E. C. (2011). Funding Higher Education in a Dwindling Fiscal Resource Allocation: The Nigerian Perspective. 5 % * )& # +% 13(3), 1–9. Retrieved on 09/05/2013 from Kpolovie, P. J. (2010). + & . Owerri: SpringField Publishers Ltd. Kpolovie, P. J. (2011). B % & . Owerri: SpringField Publishers Ltd. Kpolovie, P. J. (2012). 7 % & ! , :! /. Owerri: SpringField Publishers Ltd. Kupoluyi, A. (2012). : ! , C A ! 83 !7 . Vanguard of 26th Nov., 2012. Retrieved on 09/05/2013 from E E,6*,**,76*<, Kwapong, A. A. (1995). “Meeting the Challenges of Education in Africa” in Onimode, B. & Synge, R. (Eds.), . +% )& # ,7 ; %+ * + > ? Ibadan, Heinemann Educational Books Nig. Plc. Retrieved on 07/05/2013 from @ @ % @% @ %8 &8C T # % Maiyashi, T. (2003). “Good education funding necessary for economic growth” Lagos: M ! 7 0- # 19 (5167), Thursday, January 9, 29 30. Marzano, A. (1988). ) % / !, + 4 /% ( . Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Virginia. Retrieved on 08/05/2013 from ! &@73.(2 *' @ ) D 7)C CCC Mo Ibrahim Foundation (2012). .* . " % +% =& . Retrieved June 9, 2013 from http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org/downloads/2012 IIAG summary report.pdf Nigeria Millennium Development Goals Report (2005). : ' !( Abuja. Nzeh, E. (2013). . # %!& H * ! # :! H . Retrieved June 10, 2013 from http://www.impactng.com/impact/news_one.php?article=63 Obilor, E. I. (2012). Human Capital Development: Efforts at Enhancing the Teaching and Learning of Science and Mathematics in Nigeria. 5 % M $ C8 Odiaka, T. I. (2013). 1# ,C * ! $ :! & . Retrieved June 10,2013 from http://omojuwa.com/2012/10/opinion 2013 budget education and nigerian universities by professor timothy isioma odiaka/ Ololube, N. P.; & Kpolovie, P. J. (Eds.) (2012). 7 ! & # ! ,( I H %% & B # & . Saarbucken, Germany: LAP LAMBERT Academic http://www.dnb.d nb.de http://www.get morebooks.com Publishing. info@lappublishing.com Ololube, N. P.; Egbezor, D. E.; Kpolovie, P. J. & Amaele, S. (2012). Theoretical debates on school effectiveness research: lessons for Third World education development agendas. In, N. P. Ololube & P. J. Kpolovie. 7 ! & # ! ,( I H %% & w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 293 March, 2013 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.21 (1). B # & . Saarbucken, Germany: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. ISBN 978 3 8465 8931 1. http://www.dnb.d nb.de 1 18. Onifade, A. (2003). “The Funding Problem”. Lagos: M ! 7 0 - # 19 (5167), Thursday, January 16, 27 29. Oseni, M. (2012). Adequacy of budgetary allocation to educational institutions in Nigeria. ' / 5 %A 7 3& M $: * C C 3(1), 143 157. Retrieved June 10, 2013 from http://www.journalsbank.com/pjber_3_4.pdf Osuntokun, J. (2003). “Financing Higher Education”. Lagos: ( C?? . Thursday, January 2, 14. Parsuramen, A. (2003). “Education must get proper funding in Africa”. Lagos: M ! 7 0 - # 19 (5167), Thursday, January 9, 27. Shanghai Ranking Consultancy (2012). + / ! % & C C. Retrieved May 28, 2013 from http://www.shanghairanking.com/ARWU2012.html. Taiwo, S. C. (2012). Financing University Education in Nigeria: Implications for Staff and Students’ Management in the South West Geo political Zone. 5 %7 ' 3 & . 4, 19– 30. Retrieved June 8, 2013 from http://www.cenresinpub.org/pub2/Financing%20University%20Education%20in%20Nigeria.p df Trucson Regional Economic Opportunities (2013). < ! # . Retrieved April 6, 2013 from http://www.treoaz.org/data center largest employers.aspx. U.S. Census Bureau (2003). 7 , C . Retrieved March 24, 2013 from http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr 24.pdf U.S. Census Bureau (2010). C ?8C + ( & 8 . Retrieved April 6, 2013 from http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/searchresults.xhtml?refresh=t. Umar, B. & Adola, I. (2001). “Senate passes UBE Bill”. ) $5 C$ C . UNESCO (1999). 7 + . Retrieved June 7, 2013 from http://www.unesco.org/education/educprog/erd/english/com/news/workshop_alb.html UNESCO (2000). 2 7 4 C . Retrieved June 7, 2013 from http://www.unesco.org/education/wef/en conf/index.shtm UNESCO (2000a). ) / 4 /% + 7 % ,- ! ( & ( . Retrieved June 7, 2013 from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001211/121147e.pdf UNESCO (2002). 74+ = * !3# C C 7 % + ,. 2 / Paris. Retrieved on 11/05/2013 from !@ ! @ C@ C @ C # % World Bank (2012). 2 A / C H * ! . Washington D.C.: The World Bank. !@ @! @ C C w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m Page 294