Female Slave Owners

9/26/2019 Female Slave Owners - Atlantic History - Oxford Bibliographies Female Slave Owners Christine Walker LAST MODIFIED: 25 SEPTEMBER 2019 DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780199730414-0321 Introduction While scholarship on female slave ownership in the Atlantic world pales in comparison with the extensive literature on men’s activities as slaveholders, recent work on the topic has transformed our understanding of who the “typical” slaveholder was, and in turn, how European imperial regimes perpetuated chattel slavery throughout the Americas. Rather than being marginalized or passive, women acted as key agents of colonialism and chattel slavery. They actively participated as buyers and sellers of human beings in local and Atlantic markets; they managed, coerced, and abused enslaved people; and they derived material wealth and social capital from their participation in slavery. The women who acted as slave owners comprised a remarkably diverse group. Christian and Jewish women who migrated to the Americas readily participated in slavery. Women of African, Euro-African, and Amerindian descent living throughout the Atlantic basin were slave owners. Even women who had spent part of their own lives in bondage acquired captives. There were, of course, regional and chronological variations which shaped a woman’s ability to procure slaves, and more work needs to be done which investigates these differences. We still know relatively little about how status, ethnicity, race, and religion shaped female slaveholding patterns in various parts of the Atlantic world. This bibliography has been organized geographically rather than thematically or chronologically, which is a reflection of the relative paucity of literature on the subject. However, geographic boundaries themselves were porous and contested during the era of Atlantic slavery, and female slave owners moved within and between imperial zones— another subject which is in need of further study. The formal abolition of the slave trade with Africa by European empires and the United States in the early 19th century forms the rough chronological end point for this bibliography (Britain, 1807; United States, 1808; Portugal, 1810; Sweden, 1813; France, 1814; Netherlands, 1814; Spain, 1820). The abolition of the slave trade, of course, did not end slavery in the Americas, nor did it limit women’s engagement in slaveholding. However, the abolition of the slave trade officially constricted the Atlantic dimensions of the trade, and hence, the transportation of African captives to the Americas. Female slave owners continued to benefit from unfree labor until, and even after, the abolition of slavery, which occurred at various points in time in different nations and colonies. Female slave owners living in the British empire, for instance, received monetary compensation in return for emancipating their captives. More regional needs to be done which investigates both the differences and similarities in patterns of female slaveholding across imperial and national boundaries. Likewise, we need to understand how the abolition of the slave trade and then the abolition of slavery influenced the lives and the fortunes of female slave owners living throughout the Atlantic world. General Overviews Because the topic of female slave owners is relatively new, no general collections which focus specifically on this subject have been published. While the majority of the volumes which have been included in general overviews focus on enslaved women, a few of the collections include essays which refer to female slave owners. Some of the essays in Gaspar and Hine 2004, for instance, explore the lives of free women of color, including their participation in slavery. Likewise, the edited collection Campbell, et al. 2007, which focuses primarily on enslaved women, also includes evidence of women’s activities as slave owners in its introduction and in one essay. The remaining selections, Brereton 2013 and Byfield, et al. 2010, do not investigate women’s activities as slave owners. However, Brereton’s overview of the Anglophone Caribbean archives, which have been used in relation to the study of women and gender, is a useful starting point for future research on the topic. The collection of essays in Byfield, et al. 2010 relate to gender and slavery and cover a wide range of subjects and time periods. A few of the pieces in Part 2 of the volume may refer to female slaveholders. Brereton, Bridget. “Women and Gender in Caribbean (English-speaking) Historiography: Sources and Methods.” Caribbean Review of Gender Studies 7 (2013): 1–18. https://www-oxfordbibliographies-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0321.xml?rskey=tUbqBQ&result=81&p… 1/8 9/26/2019 Female Slave Owners - Atlantic History - Oxford Bibliographies An overview of scholarship that has been produced on the British West Indies, including Jamaica, Trinidad, Tobago, Barbados, and Guyana, over the past thirty years. Anyone interested in conducting historical research on women and gender in the Anglophone Atlantic will find descriptions of the variety of archival sources to be useful. Byfield, Judith A., LaRay Denzer, and Anthea Morrison. Gendering the African Diaspora: Women, Culture, and Historical Change in the Caribbean and Nigerian Hinterland. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010. This collection uses gender as a lens to explore the connections between the Caribbean, Africa, and Britain. The essays in Section 2, including the ones by Linda Sturtz and Antonia MacDonald-Smythe, may be of particular interest to scholars who are interested in female slave ownership. Campbell, Gwyn, Suzanne Miers, and Joseph C. Miller, eds. Women and Slavery: Africa, the Indian Ocean World, and the Medieval North Atlantic. Vol. 1. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2007. While the essays in this edited collection primarily study the lives of enslaved women, the introduction and a piece by Philip j. Havik entitled “From Pariahs to Patriots: Women Slavers in Nineteenth-Century ‘Portuguese’ Guinea,” both refer to female participation in slave ownership. Gaspar, David Barry, and Darlene Clark Hine, eds. Beyond Bondage: Free Women of Color in the Americas. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2004. Collection explores how race and gender shaped the lives of free women of color who lived throughout the Americas. While female slaveholding is not the focus of the work, several of the essays refer to free and freed women of African descent who were slaveholders. Journals No journal exists which is dedicated to the study of women and gender in the Atlantic world, of which female slaveholding is a subcategory. The journals listed in this section cover a wide range of subjects and time periods. They have been included because they have either published an article on the topic of female slave ownership, or are likely to publish one in the future. Atlantic Studies is a multidisciplinary journal which explores the global movements of peoples, goods, and ideas and the interconnections between the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans from the precolonial to the present era. Early American Studies publishes articles which focus specifically on North America until 1850. Gender & History is a theoretically inclined journal which features research on gender-related topics from every historical period. A regionally focused publication, the Journal of Caribbean History publishes scholarship on the Caribbean from the colonial era to the 20th century. The Journal of Women’s History features research on women and gender throughout the world during every historical era. Slavery & Abolition investigates human bondage from the ancient era to the present, with the objective of ending ongoing forms of enslavement and engaging with the legacy of slavery. The William & Mary Quarterly publishes work on a broad range of topics which relate to the Americas during the era of European colonialism, with a particular focus on Anglophone colonies. Atlantic Studies. 2004–. In print since 2004, this journal includes a wide range of historical and literary articles dealing with the Atlantic from the early modern period to the 20th century, with an interest in slavery and race. A few articles which relate to the topic of female slave ownership have been published by this journal. Early American Studies. 2003–. The McNeil Institute at the University of Pennsylvania sponsors this journal, which publishes articles on the culture and history of early America, including the Caribbean. https://www-oxfordbibliographies-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0321.xml?rskey=tUbqBQ&result=81&p… 2/8 9/26/2019 Female Slave Owners - Atlantic History - Oxford Bibliographies Gender & History. 1989–. Started in 1989, this international journal is the major source of articles on gender and sexuality covering a range of disciplines. Has published several articles which refer to the subject of female slave ownership. Journal of Caribbean History. This journal, started in 1967 and published twice each year by the Departments of History at the University of the West Indies, is the preeminent publication for the region’s history. Journal of Women’s History. 1989–. The preeminent publication for scholarship which studies women’s history in every time period and region of the world. Slavery & Abolition. Published on a quarterly basis, this journal interrogates every aspect of human bondage, from ancient times to the present. Launched in 1980, it includes many articles on gender and slavery, some which relate to female slave owners. William & Mary Quarterly. 1982–. The preeminent journal on early American history and culture, this journal is based at the Omohundro Institute and has been in print since 1892. Many articles on women, gender, and sexuality have been published in the journal over the years, including a few which refer to female slave owners. Specific Works Scholarly interest in the topic of female slave ownership has been increasing over the past ten years. However, the literature on this subject is still thin. Hence, the specific works have been grouped within broad geographical areas in the Atlantic basin: West Africa, the British Atlantic, the British Circum-Caribbean, the Dutch Atlantic, the French Atlantic, and the Iberian Atlantic. All of these regions participated in the Atlantic slave trade and relied upon chattel slavery as principle labor system. For instance, Adumbrate 2010 and Ipsen 2015, which study West Africa, have been grouped together. Scholars who study slaveholding in the British empire have produced the most comprehensive body of work on female slave owners. Thus, works which focus on colonies in mainland British America, including Dornan 2005 and Hartigan-O’Connor 2011, have been separated from Beckles 1999 and Walker 2015, which study the Caribbean. Scholars of the Iberian Atlantic, which here includes Mexico, Peru, Brazil, and the islands in the Caribbean that were under Spanish control, including Terrazas Williams 2018 (cited under The Iberian and Lusophone Atlantic) and Graubart 2013, have also aided in the development of a robust and growing literature on female slave ownership. Aside from Hoefte and Vrij 2004 and Palmer 2016, scholarship which investigates the roles played by women in perpetuating chattel slavery in the Dutch Atlantic and the French Atlantic, is especially sparse, and more work needs to be done which explores this subject. The African Atlantic As Adumbrate 2010 observes, studies of female slaveholding in Africa are limited. Recent work focusing on West Africa, including an article by Adumbrate 2010 and an article and a book by Ipsen 2013 and Ipsen 2015 are paving the way for future research on African women’s involvement in local slaveholding practices and their participation in the business of procuring and transporting captives across the Atlantic as slave traders. Adumbrate, Kwabena. “Abolition, Economics, Gender and Slavery: The Expansion of Women’s Slaveholding in Ghana, 1807– 1874.” Slavery & Abolition 31.1 (2010): 117–136. Argues that the British abolition of the slave trade in 1807 augmented, rather than diminished, women’s participation in slaveholding in Ghana. In the post-abolition era, the drop in slave prices increased women’s access to enslaved laborers. https://www-oxfordbibliographies-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0321.xml?rskey=tUbqBQ&result=81&p… 3/8 9/26/2019 Female Slave Owners - Atlantic History - Oxford Bibliographies Ipsen, Pernille. “The Christened Mulatresses”: Euro-African Families in a Slave-Trading Town.” William and Mary Quarterly 70.2 (2013): 371–398. Studies women of Ga-Danish descent living in Fort Christiansborg on the Gold Coast to highlight the powerful roles of Euro-African women who acted as important intermediaries in the West African slave trade, which they both benefited from and participated in as a means of protecting their own families. Ipsen, Pernille. Daughters of the Trade: Atlantic Slavers and Interracial Marriage on the Gold Coast. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015. Explores how the interracial marriages between five generations of Ga-speaking women and Danish men were essential to the Danish slave trade. As wives, women acted as important intermediaries between Europeans and African slave-trading families. The British Atlantic Over the past twenty years, scholars of the British Atlantic have produced the most comprehensive body of literature on female slave owners. Those who focus on mainland colonies in British America, especially the Carolinas (Anzilotti 1997, Dornan 2005, Jones 2007, Hartigan-O’Connor 2011) reach similar conclusions about the material, legal, and social gains derived by female colonists from slaveholding. Anzilotti, Cara. “Autonomy and the Female Planter in Colonial South Carolina.” The Journal of Southern History 63.2 (1997): 239–268. Offers evidence of widows frequently inheriting, managing, and bequeathing slaves in colonial South Carolina. Uses a study of one parish to determine that a considerable portion of the female household heads and property owners were also slaveholders. Dornan, Inge. “Masterful Women: Colonial Women Slaveholders in the Low Country.” Journal of American Studies 39.3 (2005): 383–402. Contends that female colonists in Georgia and South Carolina were vital participants in slavery, which afforded them considerable authority. Uses the runaway slave ads published by female owners to study urban slaveholding and offers evidence of women’s involvement in disciplining enslaved people. Hartigan-O’Connor, Ellen. The Ties that Buy: Women and Commerce in Revolutionary America. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011. Researches the economic activities of female colonists on Newport, Rhode Island, and Charleston, South Carolina. Shows that many were slaveholders who earned incomes from the practice of hiring out their captives. Jones, Cecily. Engendering Whiteness: White Women and Colonialism in Barbados and North Carolina, 1627–1865. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2007. Studies deeds, wills, and probated inventories and offers evidence of white women holding enslaved people as property. More broadly, shows how the slaveholding activities of white women living in Barbados and South Carolina contributed to the construction of whiteness as a primary category of identity. Schwartz, Marie Jenkins. Ties That Bound: Founding First Ladies and Slaves. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017. Identifies the wives of some of the “Founding Fathers” of the United States, including Martha Washington, Martha Jefferson, and Dolley Madison, as slaveholders. Interrogates the complicated relationships which existed between these women and the people whom they https://www-oxfordbibliographies-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0321.xml?rskey=tUbqBQ&result=81&p… 4/8 9/26/2019 Female Slave Owners - Atlantic History - Oxford Bibliographies held in bondage. The British Circum-Caribbean It is not surprising that free and freed women who lived in the region of the British empire with the largest slave populations were also the most intensively involved in slaveholding. Beckles 1993 determined that white women’s economic activities, in particular, were severely underestimated by scholars. Over the past two decades a small but steady stream of publications have responded to his critique. Most of the literature, including work by Jones 2006 and Fuentes 2017, focuses on either Barbados or Jamaica, including Mair 2006 and Walker 2015. Candlin and Pybus 2014 reference elite free and freed women of African descent who lived in less-studied colonies of Demerara and Grenada. With the exceptions of Butler 1995 and Walker 2015, these works do not focus explicitly on women as slaveholders. However, they each address a different dimension of female slave ownership. Beckles, Hilary McD. “White Women and Slavery in the Caribbean.” History Workshop 36 (1993): 66–82. Argues that white women’s economic, legal, and social authority as slaveholders has been underestimated and under-studied. Critiques the “victim” approach toward the treatment of white women in the region and calls for further investigation of their participation in slavery. Using evidence from colonial Barbados, demonstrates that the socioeconomic interests of white women were entangled in slaveholding. Beckles, Hilary McD. Centering Women: Gender Discourses in Caribbean Slave Society. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 1999. A useful comparison of 19th-century St. Lucia and Barbados in Part 2 of the book suggests that white women were typically small-scale slaveholders who lived in urban areas and owned predominately female slaves. Butler, Kathleen Mary. The Economics of Emancipation, Jamaica & Barbados, 1823–1843. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1995. Determines that as economic agents, white women made significant contributions to plantation slavery in Jamaica and Barbados. Chapter 6, in particular, focuses on white women, demonstrating that they accounted for a significant portion of the people who made compensation claims after emancipation. They were also heavily involved in extending credit to Barbadian planters and in plantation sales. Candlin, Kit, and Cassandra Pybus. Enterprising Women: Gender, Race and Power in the Revolutionary Atlantic. Savannah: University of Georgia Press, 2014. This account of the entrepreneurial activities of free Euro-African and African women in lesser studied regions of the Caribbean such as Demerara and Grenada, also offers instances of their involvement in slaveholding. Fuentes, Marisa. Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017. Though the book is primarily concerned with enslaved women, chapter 3 analyzes the gendered and racialized power exercised by white female slaveholders in colonial Barbados. Jones, Cecily. “Contesting the Boundaries of Gender, Race and Sexuality in Barbadian Plantation Society.” Women’s History Review 12.2 (2006): 195–232. A critical interrogation which reappraises white women’s marginalization in the literature on Caribbean slavery. Uses Barbados as a case study and contends that they were central actors in the construction and reproduction of slavery in Barbados. https://www-oxfordbibliographies-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0321.xml?rskey=tUbqBQ&result=81&p… 5/8 9/26/2019 Female Slave Owners - Atlantic History - Oxford Bibliographies Mair, Lucille Mathurin. A Historical Study of Women in Jamaica 1655–1844. Kingston, Jamaica: University of West Indies Press, 2006. Drawing upon probated inventories and wills, this publication of a dissertation which was written in the 1970s offers several examples of women’s participation in slaveholding in colonial Jamaica. Sturtz, Linda. “The ‘Dimduke’ and the Duchess of Chandos: Gender and Power in Jamaican Plantation Management – A Case Study or, A Different Story of ‘A Man [and his wife] from a Place Called Hope.’” Revista/Review Interamericana 29 (1999): 1–11. A case study of the wealthy absentee planter Anna Eliza Elletson, that describes her attitude toward and treatment of the enslaved people on her estate. Trahey, Erin. “Among Her Kinswomen: Legacies of Free Women of Color in Jamaica.” The William and Mary Quarterly 76.2 (April 2019): 257–288. Studies the property-holding practices of free women of Euro-African descent in colonial Jamaica. Shows how this group of women used slave ownership, and the transmission of enslaved people as property, to both strengthen their kinship networks and protect their own independence on the island. Walker, Christine. “Womanly Masters: Gendering Slave Ownership in Colonial Jamaica.” In Women in Early America: Transnational Histories, Rethinking Master Narratives. Edited by Thomas Foster, 139–158. New York: New York University Press, 2015. Contends that female colonists in Jamaica made a significant contribution to the expansion of chattel slavery in the colony. Analyzes how women in their roles as wives, mothers, and plantation managers naturalized slavery on the island. The Dutch Atlantic References to female slaveholding in the Dutch Atlantic are sparse. The few works which exist explore the slaveholding practices of free and freed people of African and Euro-African descent, and include brief references to the women in these communities. Hoefte and Vrij 2004, for instance, highlight the roles played by the members of a free slaveholding family of African descent in Paramaribo in Suriname. Ben-Ur 2015 also focuses on free people of color in Suriname and scrutinizes the practice of “close-kin ownership” wherein colonists, including women, held their own family members in bondage. Ben-Ur, Aviva. “Relative Property: Close-Kin Ownership in American Slave Societies.” New West Indian Guide 80 (2015): 1–29. Focusing on colonial Suriname, the author offers the first study of free people of color, some of whom were women, who held their own relatives in bondage. Terms this practice, which has received little scholarly attention, as “close-kin ownership” and shows how free people of African and Euro-African descent used close-kin ownership as a strategy for materialistic and legal reasons. Hoefte, Rosemarijn, and Jean Jacques Vrij. “Free Black and Colored Women in Early-Nineteenth-Century Paramaribo, Suriname.” In Beyond Bondage: Free Women of Color in the Americas. Edited by David Barry Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine, 145–168. Urbana: University of Illinois, 2004. Focuses on one elite slaveholding family of African descent who lived in Paramaribo in order to reveal the important roles played by free people of color in the colonial capital. Includes references to female relatives who were likely involved in slaveholding. The French Atlantic https://www-oxfordbibliographies-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0321.xml?rskey=tUbqBQ&result=81&p… 6/8 9/26/2019 Female Slave Owners - Atlantic History - Oxford Bibliographies The majority of the work on slavery in the French Atlantic focuses on male slaveholders or enslaved women. However, a few publications including Socolow 1996 and Palmer 2016 highlight different dimensions of female slave ownership. While Socolow 1996 studies free women of color who acted as slaveholders in the colonial capital of Cap Français, Palmer’s exploration of a slaveholding family whose members lived in the metropole and the colony reveals the intimate dimensions of the relationships which existed between female slave owners and their captives. Palmer, Jennifer L. Intimate Bonds: Family and Slavery in the French Atlantic. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016. One of the few works to study the female members of French slaveholding families who moved between Saint Domingue and La Rochelle. Focuses on the ambivalent closeness which defined the relationships between slave owners and captives. Socolow, Susan M. “Economic Roles of the Free Women of Color of Cap Français.” In More than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the America. Edited by David Barry Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine, 279–297. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996. Profiles the free women of African descent who acted as slaveholders in Saint Domingue. Finds that they preferred to purchase female African-born slaves. The Iberian and Lusophone Atlantic Though Barragan 2018 cites the dearth of literature on female slaveholders in Spanish and Portuguese America, recent work by a handful of scholars has drawn attention to the topic. While Franklin 2012 emphasizes the patriarchal nature of free society in Cuba she argues that white women played roles in upholding the island’s gendered and racialized social hierarchy. Barragan 2018, a study of female slave owners in Colombia, emphasizes their authority over captives as well as their participation in the local slave market. Similarly, Terrazas Williams 2018 identifies slaveholding as a practice used by women of African descent living in 17th-century Mexico to emphasize their legal status as free people. Barragan, Yesenia. “Gendering Mastery: Female Slaveholders in the Colombian Pacific Lowlands.” Slavery & Abolition 39.1 (2018): 1–26. Demonstrates that female slaveholders played essential roles in maintaining slavery in Colombia. Studies the legal and social authority wielded by women in the household over slaves as well as their engagement in the local slave trade. Ferreira, Furtado. Júnia. Chica Da Silva: A Brazilian Slave of the Eighteenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Explores the life of Francisca da Silva de Oliveira, known as Chica da Silva, a woman of Euro-African descent who was born into slavery, obtained her freedom, and then built up a vast fortune and became a considerable slaveholder. Exposes the gendered, sexualized, and racialized restrictions which Chica navigated, thereby overturning popular myths which portray her as both a seductress and a symbol of democratic racial integration. Franklin, Sarah. L. Women and Slavery in Nineteenth-Century Colonial Cuba. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2012. Argues that white women, as key members in Cuba’s rigid gender-, race-, and class-based social hierarchy, were essential to the upholding of slave society, which they supported through marriage, religion, motherhood, education, and benevolent activities. Graubart, Karen. “Los lazos que unen. Dueñas de esclavos negros, Lima, ss. XVI-XVII.” Nueva corónica 2 (Julio 2013): 625– 640. https://www-oxfordbibliographies-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0321.xml?rskey=tUbqBQ&result=81&p… 7/8 9/26/2019 Female Slave Owners - Atlantic History - Oxford Bibliographies Reviews fifteen testaments made by Afro-Peruvian women between 1565 and 1666. The majority were slave owners, and as the author argues slaveholding was possibly more attractive and lucrative for these women than landholding. Higgins, Kathleen J. “Licentious Liberty” in a Gold-Mining Region: Slavery, Gender, and Social Control in Eighteenth-Century Sabará, Minas Gerais. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999. Studies the diverse forms of enslavement which existed in a frontier mining town in colonial Brazil, and focuses on varied positions held by enslaved and free women of African and Euro-African descent. While the book is not focused on female slave ownership, the author observes that women became slaveholders via inheritance and widowhood. Pereira, Maria Angélica Alves, Vânia Gico, and Nelly P. Stromquist. “Chica da Silva: Myth and Reality in an Extreme Case of Social Mobility.” Iberoamericana 17 (2005): 7–28. Compares records which relate to the life of Francisca da Silva de Oliveira, known as Chica da Silva, with the myths that surround her. Includes a few references to Chica as a slave owner, though this topic is not the focus of the article. Poska, Allyson M. Gendered Crossings: Women and Migration in the Spanish Empire. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2016. The final chapter of the book describes how the female peasants who migrated from Spain to present-day Argentina and Uruguay became involved in slaveholding, which accordingly changed the nature of women’s work tasks in Spanish America. Terrazas Williams, Danielle. “‘My Conscience Is Free and Clear’: African-Descended Women, Status, and Slave Owning in MidColonial Mexico.” The Americas 75.3 (2018): 525–554. Studies free African-descended slaveholding women who lived in 17th-century Mexico. Contends that some of the women in this group used their status as slaveholders to distance themselves from slavery. As slave owners, these women wielded social influence in local patronage networks. back to top Copyright © 2019. All rights reserved. https://www-oxfordbibliographies-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/view/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0321.xml?rskey=tUbqBQ&result=81&p… 8/8