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2001, Enduring Records, The Environmental and Cultural Heritage of Wetlands, Edited by Barbara A. Purdy
On the Northwest Coast of North America we have been actively recovering perishable artifacts from wet sites over the past thirty plus years, revealing many new prehistoric cultural dimensions concerning thousands of years of cultural evolution (Figure 9.1). Early attempts to use the sensitivity of basketry and cordage had some success in identifying the individual weavers in prehistoric houses at the Ozette Village wet site (Croes and Davis 1977). Though an interesting approach to the new wood and fiber wet sites data base, a more culturally revealing tack may be to use this sensitive new artifact data (and especially basketry and cordage here) to track how these perishable artifacts might reflect a person's life-cycle, from one's birth and placement in a basketry cradle to a person's social position and occupation to one's death and shroud of basketry mats at the grave location. This represents a fairly experimental approach, so I cannot guarantee a completely successful data transformation, but this approach may reveal some new ways to view perishable artifacts becoming more abundant from along the Northwest Coast (Figure 9.1). In this effort I will first delineate the basketry and cordage data to be presented in association with a person's life-cycle sequence as follows: (1) cradles, baskets specifically constructed to contain humans at birth, (2) hats, worn as indicators of a person's developing social status/role, (3) specific basketry and cordage items to assist in specialized occupational roles, such as whaling harpoon baskets, harpoon sheaths, harpoon ropes, and fishing tackle bags, and (4) woven mats used as shrouds following death. Though the specific individual is important in archaeological research, they also change through their own life-cycle and this can be reflected by the basketry/cordage items associated with different parts of the life-cycle from Northwest Coast wet sites over the past several thousand years.
Journal for Northwest Anthropology, 76th Northwest Anthropological Conference Proceedings Volume
GENERATIONALLY‐LINKED ARCHAEOLOGY The Use of Ancient Basketry (and Cordage) fromWet/Waterlogged Sites On the Northwest Coast to Show Cultural Ancestry and Identity.2023 •
Through five decades of basketry and cordage research, I have tested style similarities in specific regions of the Northwest Coast. In recent work with Salishan Master Basketmaker Ed Carriere, Suquamish Elder, we have coined our approach as Generationally-Linked Archaeology, defined and explained in our JONA Memoir Re-Awakening Ancient Salish Sea Basketry, Fifty Years of Basketry Studies in Culture and Science (Carriere and Croes 2018, Croes, Carriere and Stapp 2018). Working from as far back as possible (deep time), and as additional wet sites have been reported, I have tested degrees of similarity of basketry and cordage attributes (modes) and types using Average-Linkage Cluster, Cladistic, and Bayesian phylogenetic test time-calibrated analyses. These tests conducted over four decades continue to support the hypothesis and demonstrate stable cultural styles through time, especially with Ed’s work (Salishan region) in contrast to those from the outside (Wakashan/Makah) West Coast sites for at least 3,000 years. Together we have experimentally replicated ancient wet site basketry in museums as old as 4,500 years, where Ed, supported by my statistical hypotheses, has learned from over 200 generations of his Salishan grandparents, compiling layers of weaves from 4,500-, 3,000-, 2,000-, and 1,000-year-old styles in a single basket he calls an Archaeology Basket—analogous to a Salishan 4+ millennia history book. In July 2022, Carriere was awarded the Community Spirit Award by the First Peoples Fund, and in February 2023, Carriere received the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) National Heritage Fellowship, both in large part from his work with Northwest archaeological basketry. On the Science side, Ed Carriere and I were awarded the March 2023 Society for American Archaeology (SAA) Award for Excellence in Archaeological Analysis, based on our Generationally-Linked Archaeological approach and demonstrating the synergy of culture and science produces more conjointly. Because of these awards, our publisher, Northwest Anthropology, LLC, has issued a hard cover version of our book, now available on their Storefront, or Amazon. The following are PowerPoint slides (Slide 1, 2, 3, 4,……) with captions as presented at the 76th Northwest Anthropological Conference held from April 12th to 15th, 2023, in Spokane, Washington.
Washington State University Project Reports No. 9, Laboratory of Archaeology and History
Cordage from the Ozette Village Archaeological Site: A Technological, Functional, and Comparative Study [Original 1980 Report, see 40 year ancient NWC Cordage UPDATE, 2021 with expanded illustration and comparisons]1980 •
In this report ancient cordage artifacts from the Ozette Village archaeological site (45CA24) and other Northwest Coast waterlogged sites are examined on three analytical levels. First, the cord age attribute (modes) are considered and compared between sites. Second, cordage stylistic/technological classes (types) and subclasses are created using a paradigmatic classification scheme. These cordage types and subtypes are compared between sites through the use of cluster analysis techniques. The results of these comparisons indicate a continuity of cordage styles in three separate regions of the Northwest Coast for the last 2000 to 3000 years, potentially indicating cultural continuity in these regions. These results were obtained when comparing basketry modes and types from these sites (Croes 1977b) and, in combination, these data support a hypothesis of regional cultural continuity in these regions. And third, a techno-functional classification of cordage artifacts sets from Ozette Village and other sites is considered. The Ozette cordage materials are especially useful for this purpose since they generally are recovered in their original context in the Ozette household. Comparisons of cordage functional sets from each Northwest Coast wet site demonstrate specific site-use differences. Not only can fishing stations be suggested by the abundance of nets or fishline leaders recovered at different sites, but the type of fishing practiced can be demonstrated. The three-level analysis of cordage from Ozette Village and other Northwest Coast wet sites demonstrates a special analytic value for cordage in Northwest Coast archaeological research.
American Antiquity
Gendered Crafts in the Great Salt Lake Desert: A Comparative Analysis of Late Holocene Cordage and Coiled BasketryPerishable artifacts are invaluable tools for reconstructing past lifeways of hunter-gatherers, and when preserved in arid settings, they can inform on dynamic interactions between communities and the environment. Many such materials were recovered from early archaeological surveys in Utah and Nevada but were largely excluded from contemporary analyses because of small sample sizes, their fragmentary nature, and insecure proveniences. This synchronic reanalysis of cordage and coiled basketry from 10 late Holocene sites in the Great Salt Lake Desert utilizes newer approaches to perishables analysis so as to collect data more conducive to statistical comparisons of subsistence and craft traditions absent from earlier Great Basin studies. Regional trends of conformity of fine cordage contrasted with a diversity of basketry manufacture suggest contemporaneous social stressors directing the production of materials and two potentially gendered subclasses of utilitarian objects. Feminine a...
Washington State University Ph.D. Dissertation
BASKETRY FROM THE OZETTE VILLAGE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE: A TECHNOLOGICAL, FUNCTIONAL, AND COMPARATIVE STUDY [45 Year Update available on Amazon (see above)]1977 •
In this study prehistoric basketry items, including baskets, cradles, hats, mats, and tumplines, from the Ozette Village Archaeological site and other Northwest Coast water-saturated archaeological sites are examined on three analytical levels. First, the basketry attributes (modes) are considered and compared between the sites. Second, basketry stylistic/technological classes are created using a paradigmatic classification framework. These basket, hat, and mat classes are also compared between sites through the use of cluster analysis techniques. The results of these comparisons clearly indicate a continuity of basketry styles in three separate regions of the Northwest Coast for the last 2,000 to 3,000 years, potentially indicating techno-cultural continuity in these regions. Third, a functional classification of the basketry items from Ozette Village and other sites is considered. The Ozette basketry artifacts are ideal for this purpose, since they generally are recovered in their original position in a prehistoric household and contain original contents. The arrangement of the basketry objects in Ozette House I indicate the location of different family units. Functional categories of basketry in each family area reflect the status and activities of the household members. Comparisons of basketry functional categories from each Northwest Coast wet site demonstrate site-use differences. Major village sites, fishing stations, and shellfish gathering areas are separated in cluster analysis since they produce different frequencies of basketry categories. The three-level analysis of basketry from Ozette Village and other Northwest Coast wet sites demonstrates a special analytic value for basketry artifacts in Northwest Coast prehistory research.
2017 •
The SAA Archaeological Record
GENERATIONALLY-LINKED ARCHAEOLOGY explained2018 •
The research involved the efforts of a wet archaeological site specialist (Dale Croes) and a Master Basketmaker and Elder from the Suquamish Tribe (Ed Carriere), who joined together to replicate and scientifically analyze the 2,000-year-old basketry collection from the Biderbost wet site, Snoqualmie Tribal Territory, housed at the University of Washington (UW) Burke Museum Archaeology Program (Figure 1). Working on this analysis and replication project over the past four years, we concluded that it was not enough to call this a case of Experimental Archaeology; we describe our work as a new approach termed Generationally-Linked Archaeology, an approach that chronologically connects from both directions, linking contemporary cultural specialists with ancient and ancestral basketmakers through the science of archaeology. We present our approach here after publicly presenting our efforts to both indigenous and scientific archaeological audiences, including Native peoples at the Northwest Native American Basketweavers Association, Indigenous Ainu of northern Japan, and at a National Maori Weavers conference in New Zealand, and to archaeological scientists at two annual SAA conferences, the Wetland Archaeo-logical Research Project (WARP) 30th Anniversary Conference in Bradford, England, and a Wetland Archaeology Conference in central France.
2004 •
2014 •
This dissertation examines multiple scales of Indigenous history on the Northwest Coast from the disciplinary perspective of archaeology. I focus on cultural lifeways archaeologically represented in two key domains of human existence: food and settlement. The dissertation consists of six individual case studies that demonstrate the utility of applying multiple spatial and temporal scales to refine archaeological understanding of cultural and historical variability on the Northwest Coast over the Mid-to-Late Holocene (ca. 5,000-200 BP). The first of three regionally scaled analyses presents a coast-wide examination of fisheries data indicating that Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii) exhibit a pervasive and previously under-recognized importance in Northwest Coast Indigenous subsistence practices. Next, I use zooarchaeological data from the southern British Columbia coast to identify a pattern of regional coherence in Coast Salish and Nuu-chah-nulth hunting traditions reflecting the scale of intergenerational cultural practice. The third study re-calibrates the settlement history of a small and historically significant locality in Coast Tsimshian territory (Prince Rupert Harbour) to clarify the temporal resolution of existing radiocarbon datasets and test inferences about social and political change. Following this regional exploration of scale, I document site-specific temporal variability in archaeological fisheries data from a Nuu-chah-nulth ‘big-house’ reflecting climatic and socio-economic change. I examine Indigenous oral histories and archaeological datasets to evaluate these parallel records of settlement in the neighbouring territory of an autonomous Nuu-chah-nulth polity before and during the occupation of a large defensive fortress. Finally, I demonstrate how everyday foodways are archaeologically expressed and reflect ecological differences and active management strategies within several spatially associated sites over millennial timescales. These linked case studies offer new clarity into long-standing debates concerning archaeologically relevant scales of cultural-historical variability on the NWC. They collectively demonstrate an enduring regional and temporal coherence for key aspects of Indigenous resource use and settlement and a historical dynamism at finer scales. I argue this has cultural, historical, and archaeological significance as well as relevance for contemporary understandings of the Northwest Coast environment. I conclude that a focus on the pervasive aspects of the everyday over millennia offers insight into individual actions across broader patterns of history.
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