UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN MIND

UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN MIND Drawing on current research in anthropology, cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and the humanities, Understanding the Human Mind explores how and why we, as humans, find it so easy to believe we are right—even when we are outright wrong. Humans live out their own lives effectively trapped in their own mind and, despite being exceptional survivors and a highly social species, our inner mental world is often misaligned with reality. In order to understand why, John Edward Terrell and Gabriel Stowe Terrell suggest current dual-process models of the mind overlook our mind’s most decisive and unpredictable mode: creativity. Using a three-dimensional model of the mind, the authors examine the human struggle to stay in touch with reality—how we succeed, how we fail, and how winning this struggle is key to our survival in an age of mounting social problems of our own making. Using news stories of logic-defying behavior, analogies to famous fictitious characters, and analysis of evolutionary and cognitive psychology theory, this fascinating account of how the mind works is a must-read for all interested in anthropology and cognitive psychology. John Edward Terrell is internationally known for his pioneering research and publications on human biological and cultural diversity, social network analysis, human biogeography, and the peopling and prehistory of the Pacific Islands. Gabriel Stowe Terrell is studying industrial relations with an emphasis on conflict resolution techniques, organizational behavior, and labor history. “Why are humans so good at self-deception? What does that remarkable ability mean for our future on this planet? Terrell and Terrell provide a brilliantly provocative and honest assessment of the human condition and mind. Weaving insights from various scientific disciplines, from anthropology to neuroscience, they compellingly argue that evolution has bestowed humans with a handful of advantages, advantages that imperil humanity as a whole. This book is a remarkable achievement given both the breadth and complexity of ideas contained within, and their fidelity to those ideas in making them digestible and resonant with non-experts. It is a must read.” — Lane Beckes, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Neuroscience and Psychology, Bradley University “Explorers Terrell and Terrell take us on a guided tour of our own minds and the marvelous advantages and hidden uncertainties of our human commitment to social life. Informed by contemporary psychology and neuroscience, the Terrells’ collaboration offers original insights and perspectives on human nature and the future of our species illustrated using familiar, everyday experiences and stories. As a practicing psychologist, I think readers will benefit personally from the wellspring of meaning that flows from “knowing thyself ” in this illuminating way. The compelling conclusion asks us to consider “Do I need to do something? Should I look again?”—to which I would add “Should I read this book?” Yes, yes, and again yes.” — Thomas L. Clark, Ph.D., psychologist in private practice, Tallahassee FL “Terrell and Terrell draw upon deep time, trans-oceanic cultural research, and inter-generational cooperation in this bold, vivid work on self-persuasion and delusion. Brain function, social process, and ideology come together here in evolutionary perspective as the same topic in fresh, smooth prose, recruiting familiar characters from fiction. This engaging but humbling study contends that human creative thinking—including selective perception, logical reasoning, and dreaming—is also dangerous thinking. It urges us to recheck our own accruing presumptions, showing why it’s vital we do.” — Parker Shipton, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Anthropology, Research Fellow, African Studies Center, Boston University UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN MIND Why You Shouldn’t Trust What Your Brain is Telling You John Edward Terrell and Gabriel Stowe Terrell First published 2020 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 Taylor & Francis The right of John Edward Terrell and Gabriel Stowe Terrell to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this title has been requested ISBN: 978-0-367-85580-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-85578-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-01376-1 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by codeMantra QUESTION Why are all of us so good at believing what we want to believe (even when we don’t know we want to believe it)? CONTENTS List of Figures Acknowledgements: The Powers of More than Two Getting Started 1 How Your Mind Works: Travels in Wonderland ix xi 1 4 2 Models of the Human Mind: How Do We Think About Thinking? 13 3 Human Failings in Reasoning: Why Do You Trust Yourself? 24 4 The Great Human High-Five Advantage: What Makes Us Human? 40 5 The Brain As a Pattern Recognition Device: How Do You Know That? 54 6 The Brain As a Pattern Learning Device: Why Do We Have Habits? 66 7 The Brain As a Pattern Making Device: What Makes Us Creative? 77 viii Contents 8 The Impact of Creativity: How Did You Learn That? 9 Lies, Deceit, and Self-Deception: How Gullible Are You? 91 102 10 Human Isolation and Loneliness: Private Lives and Public Duties 115 11 Pros and Cons of Being Human: The War of the Worlds 125 12 Making Sense of Our Future Prospects: Are We an Endangered Species? 138 Index 151 FIGURES 2.1 Mr Sherlock Holmes (Credit: Strand Magazine, 1892) 2.2 George Edward Challenger (Credit: Chronicle/Alamy Stock Photo) 2.3 Alice and her cat Dinah (Credit: John Tennial, 1871) 4.1 The high-five advantage 11.1 SWOT matrix (Credit: adapted from SWOT analysis diagram in English Language by Xhienne) 12.1 Extinct “Irish elks” (Megaloceros giganteus) on display at the Natural History Museum (Músaem Stair an Dúlra) in downtown Dublin, Ireland 17 18 21 43 128 139 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Powers of More than Two We all know that two heads can be better than one. We ourselves are also quite sure that two heads are often not enough to get anything worth doing done well. We thank the staff and cuisine at Willalby’s Cafe, 1351 Williamson St, Madison, WI for facilitating our weekly writers’ breakfast on Saturday mornings while the two of us were crafting this book. Others have given us sustenance of another sort, namely their time, attention, and helpfully critical thoughts. We thank in particular Lane Beckes, Emma Cieslik, Tom Clark, Jane Connolly, Helen Dawson, Mark Golitko, Jim Koeppl, Scott Lidgard, Jonathan Maynord, Francie Muraski-Stotz, Neal Matherne, Esther Schechter, Pat Shipman, Parker Shipton, Uliana Solovieva, and John Stowe. It’s true what they say. It takes a community to raise a child. It also takes friends to write a book. GETTING STARTED The authors of this book are father and son. We suspect such a writing partnership is unusual enough to call for explanation. Let us begin, therefore, at the beginning. John and Jane, his twin, were born five minutes apart and a month premature in Washington, D.C., in 1942. John nearly died shortly after birth, but he managed to pull through more or less unscathed. He has never let Jane forget she is older than he is. Gabriel (Gabe) was born to a single mother in Lambaré, Paraguay, in 1990. The following year, John went down to Asunción, the capital city, to adopt Gabriel when he was 13 months old. That is a story in itself, but not one for here and now. John is seen by more than a few nowadays as a feisty senior citizen. Gabe qualifies as a millennial, but unlike the view of his generation as lazy, selfabsorbed, and without aspirations, he is definitely not afraid to challenge conventional wisdom. Regardless of how others see us, we both like to see ourselves as two thoughtful but kindly guys. Now it happens that beyond being father and son, we actually like talking to one another. By profession, John is an anthropologist who has been working in the South Pacific ever since he went out to New Zealand as a Fulbright Fellow in 1965. He has been trying to figure out what it means to be human ever since he took his first college anthropology course four years earlier. As a South American adoptee growing up in Wisconsin where the old dictum blood is thicker than water is still believed by many to make sense, Gabe has long known that for those of us living north of the Rio Grande, adoption is often seen as dangerous and a second-rate way of becoming a family (Terrell and Model 1994). Given these biographical facts, is it any wonder that the two of us might want to write a book together? But why this book? Chiefly for two reasons. 2 Getting Started First, Gabe’s mother in Paraguay tried to raise him successfully for the first five and a half months of his infancy. Thereafter, however, she had placed him in foster care in Asunción. He spent the next seven and a half months living mostly in a crib in a room filled with other babies in neighboring cribs. We have no firm idea what life was like for him all those months in a crib beyond feeding and diaper changes. We do know that he was evidently out of his crib so rarely that when John and he were introduced to one another for the first time in a hotel in Asunción, his feet were puffy and showed scant evidence of his ever trying to walk. We do know he only learned that vital set of motor skills after reaching his new home in Wisconsin on November 1st. Now without trying to go into clinical detail, the first year of life for any infant is a critically formative time. This is when babies begin to master the emotional and cognitive fundamentals of human social life. To be confined to a crib in a room filled with cribs may not be intentionally cruel, but social isolation of this sort can put any infant at risk. Hence one of the reasons we decided to write this book as a partnership is that by doing so we hoped we could find out more about what anthropology, psychology, and the cognitive sciences have discovered about why someone like Gabe had to struggle at times—as a child in grade school, and later, too, as a teenager—to know how much to trust the words, deeds, and reactions of other people. One reason for our writing partnership, therefore, is that we were able to take a journey together of self-discovery about what it means to be human. Our second reason is less personal. In his provocative book Powers of Two: Finding the Essence of Innovation in Creative Pairs (2014), Joshua Wolf Shenk has sought to document how, contrary perhaps to popular wisdom, the intellectual chemistry of two minds working together can spark a level of creativity and innovation far above and beyond the ordinary. He may well be right about the remarkable creativity of such dynamic pairs as John Lennon and Paul McCartney, or Marie and Pierre Curie, but as we explore in the chapters to follow, how Shenk accounts for the apparently elevated chemistry between such famous pairs of high achievers strikes us as simplistic. After all, Shenk himself acknowledges that 2 is not a magic number (2014, xxii–xxiii). Therefore, here is a hint about what follows in this book. All of us who are human struggle to get our thoughts, feelings, and hopes outside the confines of our own bony skulls. Elaborate explanations aside, it is a no-brainer to think that having at least one other person to talk to who is actually ready, willing, and able to listen to us and respond both positively and productively is a human connection that is literally priceless. What this ancient truth meant for the two of us is easily said. 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In other words we need to understand the mechanisms” (106–107). See also: Satel and Lilienfeld (2013). 2 Folk models of the mind are not always two-dimensional. Although what philosophers call “mind-body dualism” (Chambliss 2018) has long been popular, wisdom has also long maintained that the brain has three different ways of dealing with the world conventionally labeled as “thoughts,” “habits,” and “emotions.” 1 As Richard Passingham has explained in Cognitive Neuroscience: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford, 2016): “Now that we know so much about where there is activity in the brain while people perform cognitive tasks, the next stage is to find out how that activity makes cognition happen. In other words we need to understand the mechanisms” (106–107). See also: Satel and Lilienfeld (2013). 2 Folk models of the mind are not always two-dimensional. Although what philosophers call “mind-body dualism” (Chambliss 2018) has long been popular, wisdom has also long maintained that the brain has three different ways of dealing with the world conventionally labeled as “thoughts,” “habits,” and “emotions.” 1 A less charitable view of the trio of characters in our three-dimensional portrayal of the ways in which the human brain deals with the world: Sherlock wants to learn the truth about what is outside their yellow submarine; George’s orientation is toward personal convenience; and Alice, as young and charming as she undoubtedly is, aims at controlling the outer world not only in ways that are creative, but as we shall be arguing more fully later, also more predictable. It is not Sherlock or George who is the chief architect of our species ability to dumb down the world to fit our needs, wants, and desires. It is Alice. 1 Sherlock Holmes to John H. Watson in A Study in Scarlet by A. Conan Doyle, 1887, Chapter 2, “The science of deduction”: “You see,” he explained, “I consider that a man’s brain originally is like a little empty attic, and you have to stock it with such furniture as you choose. A fool takes in all the lumber of every sort that he comes across, so that the knowledge which might be useful to him gets crowded out, or at best is jumbled up with a lot of other things so that he has a difficulty in laying his hands upon it. Now the skillful workman is very careful indeed as to what he takes into his brain-attic. He will have nothing but the tools which may help him in doing his work, but of these he has a large assortment, and all in the most perfect order. It is a mistake to think that that little room has elastic walls and can distend to any extent. Depend upon it there comes a time when for every addition of knowledge you forget something that you knew before. It is of the highest importance, therefore, not to have useless facts elbowing out the useful ones.” 1 For an alternative way of saying this simple mantra, see: Gross (2014, fig. 1.2). We prefer our way of saying it because Gross’s “modal model of emotion” assumes that the brain is constantly assessing the situations it is dealing with in light of “relevant goals,” a core assumption that we feel begs the issue of how rational is habitual behavior. It would not be an exaggeration to say much of psychology today still accepts the Enlightenment fallacy that we are goal-oriented, rational animals. 2 Current thinking in neuroscience and the cognitive sciences evidently favors using the word prediction rather than recognition (e.g., Hohwy 2018). Our own understanding of how the brain interacts with the world and responds is closer to that of Anthony Chemero (2003), Chemero and Silberstein (2008), Lane Beckes and others 3 4 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 (2015), Gantman and Van Bavel (2016), Hawkins et al. (2017), and Henderson and Hayes (2017). For an example of what we mean here by “recognition,” see Barrett (2017, 25–26, 308). Barrett herself favors the idea that the brain is constantly and rapidly making predictions (59–60). For one possible model of how working memory plays a key role in perception, see Ding et al. (2017). We think it is important to add here that how someone reacts to what their senses are telling them need not be obvious to anyone watching them. For example, a recent study of how your eyes recognize what they are seeing supports the proposition that visualization is basically a neural reaction to what your eyes are showing you. Thus our guiding mantra could be restated as SENSE — RECOGNIZE — VISUALIZE. In short, what we “see” is something the brain reassembles for us out of our memories of prior experiences (perhaps from only a few milliseconds ago) as a response to a surprisingly small number of current visual cues. For further discussion, see Ponce et al. (2019); also Frankland et al. (2019). Currently, scientists are using computers to simulate how the brain accomplishes such work (Ananthaswamy 2017; Sanborn and Chater 2016). While we will not explore the likelihood here, instead of thinking the human brain does elaborate computer-like data analysis and probability calculation, a better model for what the brain is actually doing might be information science (Fleissner and Hof kirchner 1996; Frankland et al. 2019). It is hard not to conclude, somewhat tongue-in-cheek, that Dehaene would have us replace what has long been called the “homunculus fallacy” (Adolphs and Anderson 2018, 11–13)—the notion that each of us as a small “mini-me” in residence inside our skull—with a veritable corporate think tank of specialized computer programmers. Notably, Herbert Simon, awarded in 1978; Daniel Kahneman 2002; and Richard Thaler 2017. It is also evident that the habitual learned responses associated with George (System 1) can be prompted not only by input from Sherlock (System 2), but also from Alice without any obvious external provocation (Buckner and DiNicola 2019). For a broader perspective on mob violence versus the rule of law in the early years of twentieth century America, see Capozzola (2002). For a more recent example of mob violence, see Swenson (2017). Although we will not try to explore the issue here, an analogous problem in mathematics is captured by the fact that for a number to be computable, it is first necessary to define what is to be the finite number of symbols completing the calculation (Bernhardt 2016, 141–142). 1 It would not be farfetched to say also that like evolution, Alice also works like a tinkerer to come up with new ideas, ways of doing things, and the like.