Rampurva pillar copperbolt and some Indo-Greek artifacts with Indus Script hieroglyphs with trade links from Abiria (Abhira peole of Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization) --Rampurva pillar copperbolt with Indus Script --Heliodorus Pillar with Brahmi inscription -- Numismatic Traditions linked with Vasudevasa Garudadhvajo A remarkable feature of Bactrian coins of Agathocles is the use of Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts and presentation of themes on Sri Krishna and Sri Balarama. Clearly, Meluhha artisans and mints with Meluhha artificers were involved in the production of such coins. Mappa (nomi romani) del commercio dell'oceano indiano (mar Eritreo) http://www.fmboschetto.it/Utopiaucronia/ucronia_yavana.htm Indus Script hieroglyphs continued to be used on Rampurva copper bolt (Asokan pillar) and together with Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi scripts on Sohgaura copper plate and on thousands of punch-marked coins of mints from Taxila to Karur. See: Fourth Rosetta stone: Sohgaura Copper plate. Syllabic Brāhmī details Indus Script crypt hieroglyphic writing https://tinyurl.com/y47e32e4 The continued use with syllabic scripts was in the context of metalwork either in mints or erection of pillar with bull capital joined by a copper bolt in Rampurva. This is conclusive 1 validation of decipherment of Indus Script Corpora as catalogus catalogorum of metalwork using Proto-Prakritam lexis. The challenge is to trace not only the Maritime Tin Route but also the roots of Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi scripts not only on metalwork but also on birch-bark and other media manuscripts. Comparable to the archaeometallurgical challenge of delineating the Maritime Tin Route linking Hanoi and Haifa is the epigraphical challenge of tracing the roots of Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi scripts which signify Prakritam language, Meluhha speech syllables (together with Indus Script words of Proto-Prakritam) on artifacts such as Asoka edicts, punch-marked/cast coins, Sohgaura copper plate, Rampurva Asoka pillar copper bolt. Indus Script signified Proto-Prakritam words of metalwork; Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi scripts signified syllables of Prakritam speech (parole), i.e. Meluhha. Indus Script hieroglyphs (ca. 500 signs on text + ca. 100 pictorial motifs on artifacts of seals, tablets, etc.) are rebus-metonymy layers of words from Meluhha (Proto-Prakritam) lexis of metalwork. Kharoṣṭhī and Brahmi scripts deployed together with Indus Script hieroglyphs, for example, on punch-marked coins identified by W. Theobald signified syllabic pronunciation of names of janapadas or guild-masters of mints or rulers. Hieroglyphs such as tree-on-railing, svastika, elephant, tiger, fishes, crocodile snatching fish in its jaws, mountain-ranges continue to be used on early punch-marked coins to signify metalwork catalogues, following the Indus Script tradition of using the hieroglyph-multiplexes to signify technical specifications of metalwork or metalcastings in mints. See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/an-object-lesson-for-art-historians.html http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/07/nature-of-indus-writing-system-defined.html http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/08/itihasa-of-bharatam-janam-traced-from.html http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2014/10/indus-script-hieroglyphs-continued-use.html In his 1890 monograph, Theobald lists 312 'symbols' deployed on punch-marked coins. He revises the list to 342 symbols in his 1901 monograph. (W. Theobald, 1890, Notes on some of the symbols found on the punch-marked coins of Hindustan, and on their relationship to the archaic symbolism of other races and distant lands, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Bombay Branch (JASB), Part 1. History , Literature etc., Nos. III & IV, 1890, pp. 181 to 268, Plates VIII to XI W. Theobald, 1901, A revision of the symbols on the ‘Karshapana’ Coinage, described in Vol. LIX, JASB, 1890, Part I, No. 3, and Descriptions of many additional symbols, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Bombay Branch (JASB), No. 2, 1901 (Read December, 1899). Coin of Gurgamoya, king of Khotan. Khotan, 1st century CE. Obverse: Kharoṣṭhī legend: "Of the great king of kings, king of Khotan, Gurgamoya. Reverse: Chinese legend: "Twenty-four grain copper coin." 2 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kharosthi#/media/File:KingGurgamoyaKhotan1stCent uryCE.jpg Bactrian and Indo-Scythian Kingdoms, Apollodotus I, AR Drachm, 160-150 BC, Taxila Mint BAΣIΛEΩΣ-AΠOΛΛOΔOTOY-ΣΩTHPOΣ Elephant standing right, KP ligate below Kharoṣṭhī script (Maharajasa Apaladatasa tratasara) Humped bull standing right, C below 16mm across the flats, 2.44g Mitchener 1754; Bopearachchi Série 4 http://www.beastcoins.com/Bactria-IndoScythian/Bactrian.htm The Coin Galleries: Indo-Scythians: Azes I Robert Senior has argued that there was only one king named Azes and that he ruled c. 58-12 BCE. Previously, it had been thought that there were two kings by that name, perhaps grandfather and grandson, sandwiched around a king named Azilises. Senior places Azilises earlier in the series (right after Maues and before the Vonones family). I have not studied the 3 series closely enough to have formed a clear opinion on the matter. Some other things Senior has argued for as part of his overall argument are clearly incorrect, such as his belief that the Saka era was founded by Kanishka, thus dating that king to the year 78 rather than the almost universally accepted date of 127. On the other hand, Senior did a painstaking study of the Indo-Scythian coinage and has recently found a coin that he says is an overstrike of an "Azes I"" coin over an "Azes II" coin, something that is clearly impossible under the two-Azes theory. For now, I am presenting the coins as if they are the issues of two separate kings, realizing that they may belong together. Azes, AE chalkous or quarter unit Weight: 2.76 gm. Dimensions: 20 x 15 mm Die axis: 12 o'clock Balarama walking left, holding club and plough, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ BA / ΣIΛEΩN M / EΓAΛOY AZOY Female deity standing right, holding fillet, monogram at right, Kharoshthi legend around (on 3 sides only): maharajasa rajatirajasa mahatasa ayasa MIG 742, Sen 78.1 Mitchiner identifies the obverse figure as an unidentified male deity, but Senior has correctly noted the plough, suggesting that the figure is Balarama (Senior calls him Bala-Krishna). The type follows the similar type issued by Maues (Sen 20). Source: http://coinindia.com/galleries-azes1.html The Coin Galleries: Indo-Greeks: Archebios (c. 90-80 BCE) According to Bopearachchi, Archebios (also spelled Archebius) was the last Indo-Greek king to rule in Taxila before it was conquered by Maues. Apart from the Taxila monogram (seen below on the first silver coin and on several of the bronze coins), which was used also by Maues and Apollodotus II, all the monograms used by Archebios disappear from the coins. 4 Archebios, Silver tetradrachm Weight: 9.56 gm. Diameter: n.a. Die axis: 12h Bare-headed, diademed bust of king right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ ΔIKAIOY NIKHΦOPOY / APXEBIOY (Basileos Dikaiou Nikephorou Archebiou ... of King Archebios, the just, the victorious) Zeus standing facing, holding a scepter and hurling a thunderbolt, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa dhramikasa jayadharasa / arkhebiyasa Reference: MIG 356e, Bop 2F This coin features the monogram of Taxila, identified as such by Jenkins on the basis of the fact that many coins bearing this monogram were found in that city. (photo courtesy CNG, as are some others on this page). http://coinindia.com/galleries-archebios.html Saṃkarṣaṇa on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria, circa 190-180 BCE.This is "the earliest unambiguous image" of the deity. (Saṃkarṣaṇa on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria, circa 190-180 BCE. (Osmund Bopearachchi, Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence, 2016; Srinivasan, Doris (1997). Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art. BRILL. p. 215; Austin, Christopher R. (2019). Pradyumna: Lover, Magician, and Scion of the Avatara. Oxford University Press. p. 22). Source: Vāshīshthıputra Vāsusenā @Abhirjana Agathocles may have been Pantaleon's brother, as both ruled at around the same time. Agathocles is dated to c. 185-170 BCE. We are not sure which of the two ruled first, but I have elected to present the coins of Agathocles second because he issued a coin commemorating Pantaleon, indicating he came "after" Pantaleon in some sense. Agathocles produced some of the most interesting coins of the Bactrian series, both because of their artsitry and their content. Notably, he issued a series of "Pedigree" coins honoring his predecessors on the Bactrian throne, starting with Alexander the Great himself. Most of that series can be seen below. We do not know of coins commemorating Euthydemos II. The one 5 known coin type missing from the series below is a type honoring Diodotos and carrying the legend ΘEOY. Bactria: Agathocles, Silver tetradrachm, c. 185-170 BCE Weight: 16.90 gm., Diam: 30 mm., Die axis: 12 h Diademed head of king facing right, pearled border around / Zeus standing facing, holding sceptre with his left hand and holding Hecate bearing flaming torches in his right hand, Greek legend: BAΣIΛEΩΣ AΓAΘOKΛEOYΣ monogram in lower left field Bactria: Agathocles, AE double karshapana, c. 185-170 BCE Weight: 14.45 gm., Dim: 22 x 27 mm., Die axis: 12 h Female deity moving left, holding flower Brahmi legend: Rajane Agathukleyasasa / Lion standing right, Greek legend: BAΣIΛEΩΣ AΓAΘOKΛEOYΣ This coin parallels the similar issue of Pantaleon, and so has a claim to being the first Greek coin aimed at an Indian audience (since we are not sure whose coins were issued earlier, Agathocles's or Pantaleon's. But we have an Indian style deity (thought by some to represent Lakshmi) holding a lotus blossom), a square flan (recall that Mauryan coins were typically square), a legend in Brahmi, and a weight-standard that seems to be associated with an Indian standard. 6 Bactria: Agathocles, AE one and a half karshapana, c. 185-170 BCE Weight: 11.10 gm., Dim: 20 x 20 mm., Die axis: 12 h Female deity moving left, holding flower Brahmi legend: Rajane Agathukleyasasa / Lion standing right, Greek legend: BAΣIΛEΩΣ AΓAΘOKΛEOYΣ http://coinindia.com/galleries-agathocles.html Portrait. Agathocles "the Just" (Δίκαιος) Identical regnal names Agathuklayesa (Brahmi: 𑀅𑀕𑀣𑀼𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀮𑁂𑀬𑁂𑀲) and Agathokles (Greek: ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ) on a bilingual coin of Agathocles, used by Christian Lassen to decipher securely the first Brahmi letters.(Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2017). Buddhism and Gandhara: An Archaeology of Museum Collections. Taylor & Francis. p. 181.) 7 Early representation of Balarama at the lower right of a Mauryan empire punch-marked coin, holding a mace and conch; 3rd BC, British Museum. Coin of Agathocles with Hindu deities. 'Obv Balarama-Samkarshana with Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ (Basileōs Agathokleous). Rev Vasudeva-Krishna with Brahmi legend:𑀭𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀅𑀕𑀣𑀼𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀮𑁂𑀬𑁂𑀲 Rajane Agathukleyesa "King Agathocles". Indian coinage of Agathocles. Obv Lion with Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ. Rev Lakshmi, with Brahmi legend Rajane Agathukleyasa "King Agathocles". "Agathocles Dikaios (Greek: Ἀγαθοκλῆς ὁ Δίκαιος; epithet meaning: "the Just") was a Greco-Bactrian/ Indo-Greek king, who reigned between around 190 and 180 BCE. He might have been a son of Demetrius and one of his sub-kings in charge of the Paropamisade between Bactria and Indus-Ganges plains. In that case, he was a grandson of Euthydemus whom he qualified on his coins as Βασιλεὺς Θεός, Basileus Theos (Greek for "God-King").Agathocles was contemporary with or a successor of king Pantaleon. He seems to have been attacked and killed by the usurper Eucratides, who took control of the GrecoBactrian territory. Little is known about him, apart from his extensive coinage." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathocles_of_Bactria 8 Bactria: Agathocles, AE dichalkon, c. 185-170 BCE Weight: 4.90 gm., Dim: 20 x 14 mm., Die axis: 12 h Railed tree, Kharoshthi legend below: hiranasme (golden hermitage) / Six-arched hill, Kharoshthi legend below: akathukreyasa Greek legend: BAΣIΛEΩΣ AΓAΘOKΛEOYΣ Agathocles issued this enigmatic coin, thought to have been minted in Taxila. The significance of this type is still not properly understood. Agathokles coin Rajaye Agathukleya (Brahmi script). Agathocles, with stupa surmounted by a star, and vegetal symbol A six-arched hill symbol surmounted by a star. Kharoshthi legend Akathukreyasa "Agathocles". Tree-in-railing, Kharoshthi legend Hirañasame.(Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Bopearachchi, p.176; Krishan, Yuvraj; Tadikonda, Kalpana K. (1996). The Buddha Image: Its Origin and DevelopmentBharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 22.) Review: [Untitled] Reviewed Work: Monnaies gréco-bactriennes et indogrecques: catalogue raisonné by Osmund Bopearachchi Review by: Frank L. Holt American Journal of Numismatics (1989-) Vol. 3/4 (1992), pp. 215-222 Published by: American Numismatic Society https://www.jstor.org/stable/43580435 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 The coinage of Agathocles (circa 180 BCE) incorporated the Brahmi script and several deities from India, which have been variously interpreted as Vishnu, Shiva, Vasudeva, Balarama or the Buddha.[5][6] 1. Zeus standing with goddess Hecate.[7] Greek: "King Agathokles". 2. Deity wearing a long himation with a volume on the head, arm partly bent, and contrapposto pose. Greek: "King Agathokles".[7] This coin is in bronze. 3. Hindu god Balarama-Samkarshana with attributes. Greek: "King Agathokles".[8] 4. Hindu god Vasudeva-Krishna with attributes.[8] Brahmi: “Rajane Agathukleyasa”, "King Agathokles". 5. Goddess Lakshmi, holding a lotus in her right hand.[9] Brahmi: “Rajane Agathukleyasa”, "King Agathokles". The Coin Galleries: Vasudeva I Huvishka was succeeded by Vasudeva. The last date known for Huvishka is 62 (Kanishka era), while Vasudeva is known from inscriptions to have been ruling as early as year 68 and as late as year 98. Therefore Vasudeva must have taken the throne some time between years 62 and 68 (189 and 195 CE) and his reign must have ended some time soon after year 98 (225 CE). This dating is supported further by numismatic and other evidence that, at the end of his reign, Vasudeva came under military attack from the Sasanian emperor Ardashir I, who had ascended the throne in 224 and soon added to his empire the province of Balkh, which must at the time have been a Kushan domain. It is possible that Vasudeva was the son (presumably of Huvishka) by a Hindu mother. This would account for his Hindu name and also for the fact that his coinage almost entirely eliminates the pantheon of deities featured on the coins of Kanishka and Huvishka. Other than a few very rare coins with Mao and Nana, Vasudeva's coins all feature Oesho on the reverse, who most see as a form of Shiva. Recall that Vima Kadphises also featured only Oesho on his coins, so Shaivism was not new to Kushan royalty. It is conceivable, however, that this religious break with the more catholic environment that held sway during the 65 years of Kanishka's and Huvishka's reigns may have created a less stable political environment. There may well have been nobles, particularly in the far western, presumably more heavily Iranian, provinces who chafed under 18 the less tolerant environment and may even have welcomed (dare we speculate, aided and abetted?) the Sasanian invasion. Vasudeva issued coins in gold (dinars and quarter dinars) and copper (single denomination declining in weight over time). The designs were the same, regardless of metal. The obverse design was a restoration of Kanishka's coinage: the king standing, sacrificing at a fire altar at left. One difference from Kanishka's coinage was that Vasudeva is shown holding a trident, presumably a homage to Shiva, instead of the spear or standard that Kanishka held. In addition, Vasudeva always shows himself nimbate, something Kanishka almost never did. A third difference crept in after some intial issues: Vasudeva added a trident above the fire altar. Perhaps this was to emphasize that Vasudeva's sacrifice was meant for Shiva, who is often symbolized by his trident. Recall that Vima Kadphises, who was a devotee of Shiva, placed only his trident on the reverse of his quarter dinar. The reverse design on Vasudeva's coinage clearly derives from Vima's bronze coinage, showing Shiva with his bull Nandi. Gold coinage Gold dinar, c. 195 CE Weight: 7.84 gm., Diam: 21 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, Bactrian legend around: þAONANOþAO BA ... ZOΔηO KOþANO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan) / Goddess Nana standing right, nimbate, holding bowl and protome of animal, Bactrian legend left: NANA, tamgha at right Göbl 514 One of the very few coins of Vasudeva featuring a deity other than Oesho. I suspect this may have been a coronation issue. (Photo courtesy CNG.) Gold quarter dinar, c. 195 CE Weight: 1.76 gm., Diam: 12 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king 19 standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, Bactrian legend around: þAONAONþAO ... BAZOΔηOþAO (King of Kings Bazodeo King) / Lunar deity Mao standing left, left hand on sword hilt, right hand held out hand in blessing, lunar crescents on shoulders, Bactrian legend right: MAO, tamgha at left Göbl 510A One more coin type featuring a deity other than Oesho, the only other one recorded by Göbl. Note the shortened obverse legend in light of the small flan ... the last word KOþANO has been replaced by þAO. Some other quarter dinars eliminate the last word entirely. Göbl mistakenly grouped this coin type with other coins belonging to the later series with the additional trident above the fire altar. It clearly belongs with the early series that lacked the additional trident. Note further that the tamgha on the reverse is not Vasudeva's but Huvishka's ... in fact the die used for this coin was an old Huvishka die; it had been used to strike the Huvishka coin Göbl 277. Again, I suspect this coin was issued in Vasudeva's first year, never to appear again. The Mao reverse is known only in the quarter dinar denomination, although it would be surprising if it 20 had not been issued as a dinar also. Gold dinar, c. 195 CE Weight: 8.07 gm., Diam: 21 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, Bactrian legend around: þAONANOþAO BA ... ZOΔηO KOþANO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan) / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend left: OηþO, tamgha at right Göbl 504 An example of the early Vasudeva issues in which there is nothing above the fire altar, and and featuring Oesho on the reverse. After this time, Vasudeva did not feature any deity other than Oesho on his coins. Gold dinar, c. 195 CE Weight: 8.06 gm., Diam: 20 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, Bactrian legend around: þAONANOþAO BA ... ZOΔηO KOþANO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan) / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend left: OηþO, tamgha at right Oesho is shown with three faces...an 21 early version of the famous Trimurti sculpture of Elephant island. Gold quarter dinar, c. 195 CE Weight: 2.01 gm. (including loop), Diam: 14 mm., Die axis: 11 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, Corrupt Bactrian legend around: þAONAONþAO ... BAZOKþHOHH / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend right: OηþO, tamgha at left Göbl --- (unlisted) An unpublished variant of Gobl 505...this coin has Nandi behind Shiva, while G 505 does not. Gold dinar, c. 200-225 CE Weight: 7.80 gm., Diam: 21 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, second trident above fire altar, Bactrian legend around: þAONANOþAO BA .. ZOΔηO KOþN (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan) / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend left: OηþO, tamgha at right Göbl 504 Note an unusual feature of this coin ... the celator ran out of room as 22 he carved the obverse legend, so he left out the vowels ... KOþANO became KOþN. Gold dinar, c. 200-225 CE Weight: 8.02 gm., Diam: 21 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, second trident above fire altar, Bactrian legend around: þAONANOþAO BA .. ZOΔηO KOþANO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan) / Four-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, lotus and water pot, Bull Nandi right behind, Bactrian legend left: OηþO, tamgha at right Göbl 506 This coin has a number of unusual features. Oesho here has four arms and three heads, and the bull faces right rather than left. One of the objects in the deity's lower right hand is unusual for Shiva: a lotus. Gold quarter dinar, c. 200225 CE Weight: 1.97 gm., Diam: 12 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, Bactrian legend around: þAONAONþAO ... BAZOΔηOþAO (King of Kings Bazodeo King) / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left 23 behind, Bactrian legend right: OηþO, tamgha at left Göbl 510 The shortened legend is clearly visible on this coin. Gold dinar, c. 200-225 CE Weight: 8.04 gm., Diam: 21 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, with long hair, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, second trident above fire altar, Bactrian legend around: þAONANOþAO BA .. ZOΔηO KOþANO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan), Brahmi pri in right field / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend right: OηþO, tamgha at left Göbl 533 Later in his reign, Vasudeva started issuing coins with additional letters and symbols. Here he has added a Brahmi letter pri in the right reverse field. This may have been a mintmark, but we don't know for sure. This coin also has the king with long hair, and the obverse legend starts at 1 o'clock rather than the usual 7 o'clock. In his major study of Kushan coins Münzprägung des Kusanreiches, Göbl incorrectly assigned this and subsequent issues of Vasudeva to a second king named Vasudeva ... Vasudeva II. However, in his later work, 24 notably Donum Burns, the catalog of Kushan coins in the Bern Museum (including notably the Burns Collection), Göbl acknowledged his error. However, this continues to cause much confusion among observers not familiar with all the details. Gold dinar, c. 200-225 CE Weight: 7.97 gm., Diam: 2324 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, second trident above fire altar, Bactrian legend around: þAONONOþAO BA .. ZΔOηO KOþONO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan), nandipada in right field / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend right: OηþO, tamgha at left Göbl 657 var As time wore on, Vasudeva's coins got cruder and more stylized, and the legend started to get blundered. One major innovation, seen on this coin, was the introduction of a nandipada, the hoofprint of the bull Nandi, in the obverse right field. This was carried through on all subsequent issues, including those that imitated the coins of Vasudeva issued by the newly emerging power ... the Kushanshahs or Kushano-Sasanians. 25 Gold dinar, c. 200-225 CE Weight: 8.06 gm., Diam: 2628 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, second trident above fire altar, Bactrian legend around: þOONOþOO BO .. ZOOΔOηO KOþONO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan), nandipada in right field, swastika between king's legs / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend right: OηþO, tamgha at left Göbl 688 var One of the last of Vasudeva's issues, at least in the northwest. Here a swastika has appeared between the king's legs and a crescent moon has for the first time decorated Shiva's forehead, an iconographical innovation that continues in representations of Shiva to this day. The coin has a slightly scyphate shape, something we see in a very pronounced way in succeeding KushanoSasanian issues. This coin must have been issued shortly before Vasudeva lost his northwest provinces to the Sasanian invader Ardashir ... Ardashir's first issues from this area look very similar to this type. 26 Copper coins Copper unit (tetradrachm?), c. 195 CE Weight: 11.02 gm., Diam: 25 mm., Die axis: 12 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, Bactrian legend around: þAONANOþAO BA ... ZOΔηO KOþANO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan) / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend left: OηþO, tamgha at right Göbl 1000, MAC 340708 The earliest copper coins match the early gold issues in which there is nothing above the fire altar. As far as we know, Vasudeva did not ever feature any deity other than Oesho on his copper coins. Later coins feature the second trident above the altar. Copper unit (tetradrachm?), c. 195-225 CE Weight: 8.94 gm., Diam: 25 mm., Die axis: 11 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, standard above altar, Bactrian legend around: þAONANOþAO BA ... ZOΔηO KOþANO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan) / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and 27 diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend left: OηþO, tamgha at right Göbl ---, MAC 3412 var Copper unit (tetradrachm?), c. 200-225 CE Weight: 9.28 gm., Diam: 23 mm., Die axis: 11 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, second trident above altar, Bactrian legend around: þAONANOþAO BA ... ZOΔηO KOþANO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan) / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend left: OηþO, tamgha at right Göbl 1001, MAC 3413 Copper unit (tetradrachm?), c. 200-225 CE Weight: 8.93 gm., Diam: 22 mm., Die axis: 1 o'clock Crowned, diademed king standing facing, nimbate, holding trident and sacrificing at altar at left, second trident above altar, Bactrian legend around: þAONANOþAO BA ... ZOΔηO KOþANO (King of Kings Bazodeo Kushan), nandipada in right field / Two-armed Shiva standing facing, holding trident and diadem, Bull Nandi left behind, Bactrian legend left: OηþO, 28 tamgha at right http://coinindia.com/galleriesvasudeva.html Rampurva copper bolt of Aśoka pillar, has Indus Script hypertexts signify metalwork catalogue, पोळ pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus' rebus 'magnetite, ferrite ore', पोलाद pōlāda, 'crucible steel cake' https://tinyurl.com/y9dgckgl "The Rampurva capitals are the capitals of a pair of Ashoka Pillars discovered in c. 1876 by A.C.L. Carlleyle.The archaeological site is called Rampurva, and is located in the West Champaran district of the Indian state of Bihar, situated very close to the border with Nepal.[3] The two capitals are in the Indian Museum in Kolkota." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rampurva_capitals Indus Script hypertexts seen on Rampurva Aśoka pillars, copper bolt (metal dowel), bull & lion capitals are proclamations, ketu -- yajñasya ketu-- of Soma Yāga performance. All the pillars of Ashoka are built at Buddhist monasteries. “The pillars have four component parts in two pieces: the three sections of the capitals are made in a single piece, often of a different stone to that of the monolithic shaft to which they are attached by a large metal dowel. The shafts are always plain and smooth, circular in cross-section, slightly tapering upwards and always chiselled out of a single piece of stone. The lower parts of the capitals have the shape and appearance of a gently arched bell formed of lotus petals. The abaci are of two types: square and plain and circular and decorated and these are of different proportions. The crowning animals are masterpieces of Mauryan art, shown either seated or standing, always in the round and chiselled as a single piece with the abaci.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Ashoka#cite_ref-7 29 Geographical spread of known pillar capitals. 30 Bull capital, lion capital on Rampurva Aśoka pillarss An Indus Script hypertext message on the copper bolt which joins the bull capital with the pillar is about metalwork competence of artisans of Rampurva who made the pillar with 31 capital. The decorative motifs on the abacus are also Indus Script hypertexts documenting metallurgical competence. An early representation of a zebu, on the Rampurva capital of the Pillars of Ashoka, third century BCE.पोळ pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus' rebus: पोळ pōḷa 'magnetite (a ferrite ore)' पोळा (p. 305) pōḷā m (पोळ) A festive day for cattle,--the day of new moon of श्रावण or of भाद्रपद. Bullocks are exempted from labor; variously daubed and decorated; and paraded about in worship. पोळ (p. 305) pōḷa m A bull dedicated to the gods, marked with a trident and discus, and set at large. कणणक kárṇaka, 'pericarp of lotus' karaṇī 'scribe, supercargo', kañi-āra 'helmsman'. Supercargo is a representative of the ship's owner on board a merchant ship, responsible for overseeing the cargo and its sale. tāmarasa 'lotus' (Pkt.) rebus: tāmra, tamba 'copper' 32 Lotus base of an Ashokan capital from Odisha. Frieze of the lost capital of the Allahabad pillar, with two lotuses with multiple calyx, framing a "flame palmette" surrounded by small rosette flowers, over a band of beads and reels. John Murray, 1876 - Illustration for History of Indian and Eastern Architecture by James Fergusson (John Murray, 1876). "The palmette is a motif in decorative art which, in its most characteristic expression, resembles the fan-shaped leaves of a palm tree. It has a far-reaching history, originating in ancient Egypt with a subsequent development through the art of most of Eurasia, often in forms that bear relatively little resemblance to the original. In ancient Greek and ancient Roman uses it is also known as the anthemion (from the Greekανθέμιον, a flower)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmette An antefix (from Latin antefigere, to fasten before) is a vertical block which terminates the covering tiles of a tiled roof. Antefixes in position. 33 An antefix in the form of a palmette. Frond is a large, fanlike leaf of a palm tree.. Ta. kara-tāḷam palmyra palm. Ka. kara-tāḷa fan-palm, Corypha umbraculifera Lin. Tu. karatāḷa cadjan. Te. (B.) kara-tāḷamu the small-leaved palm tree.(DEDR 1270) *tāḍa3 ʻ fan -- palm ʼ, tāḍī -- 2 f. in tāḍī -- puṭa -- ʻ palm -- leaf ʼ Kād., tāla -- 2 m. ʻ Borassus flabelliformis ʼ Mn., tālī -- , °lakī -- f. ʻ palm -- wine ʼ W. [Cf. hintāla -- ] Pa. tāla -- m. ʻ fan -- palm ʼ, Pk. tāḍa -- , tāla -- , tala -- m., tāḍī -- , tālī -- f., K. tāl m., P. tāṛ m., N. tār (tāṛ ← H.), A. tāl, B. tāṛ, Or. tāṛa, tāṛi, tāḷa, Bi. tār, tāṛ, OAw. tāra, H. G. tāṛm., M. tāḍ m., Si. tala. -- Gy. gr. taró m., tarí f. ʻ rum ʼ, rum. tari ʻ brandy ʼ, pal. tar ʻ date -- spirit ʼ; S. tāṛī f. ʻ juice of the palmyra ʼ; P. tāṛī ʻ the fermented juice ʼ; N. tāṛī ʻ id., yeast ʼ (← H.); A. tāri ʻ the fermented juice ʼ, B. Or. tāṛi, Bi. tārī, tāṛī, Bhoj. tāṛī; H. tāṛī f. ʻ the juice, the fermented juice ʼ; G. tāṛī f. ʻ the juice ʼ, M. tāḍī f. <-> X hintāla -- q.v.tālavr̥nta -- ; *madatāḍikā -- Addenda: tāḍa -- 3: S.kcch. tāṛ m. ʻ palm tree ʼ.(CDIAL 6750) tālavr̥nta n. ʻ palm -- leaf fan ʼ MBh., °aka -- n. lex. [*tāḍa - 3, vr̥nta -- 1]Pa. tālavaṇṭa -- , ta° m. ʻ fan ʼ, Pk. tālaveṁṭa -- , °voṁṭa -- , tāliaṁṭa -, talaveṁṭa -- , °viṁṭa -- n.; Si. talväṭa ʻ palmyra fan' (CDIAL 5802) "From the 5th century, palmettes tended to have sharply splaying leaves. From the 4th century however, the end of the leaves tend to turn in, forming what is called the "flame palmette" design. This is the design that was adopted in Hellenistic architecture and became very popular on a wide geographical scale. This is the design that was adopted by India in the 3rd century BCE for some of its sculptural friezes, such as on the abaci of the Pillars of Ashoka, or the central design of the Pataliputra capital, probably through the Seleucid Empire or Hellenistic cities such as AiKhanoum." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmette (loc.cit. "Reflections on The origins of Indian Stone Architecture", John Boardman, p.16). Reflections on the Origins of Indian Stone Architecture JOHN BOARDMAN Bulletin of the Asia Institute New Series, Vol. 12, Alexander's Legacy in the East Studies in Honor of Paul Bernard (1998), pp. 13-22 Published by: Bulletin of the Asia Institute, a Non-Profit Corporation http://www.jstor.org/stable/24049089 34 "Flame palmette" design (center) at Didyma, 3rd century BCE. Several antefixae with "flame palmette" designs, Ai Khanoum, Afghanistan, 2nd century BCE. 35 sangi 'mollusc', sangi 'pilgrim'; sippi 'mollusc', śilpin, sippi 'artificer'. sippī f. ʻ shell, spathe of date palm ʼ Rebus: sippī 'sculpture, sculptor'. Hieroglyph: spathe, buds flanked by molluscs -- atop a ring flanked by two petas, dala 'petal'. DhALako 'ingot'. 36 Hackin 1954, p.169, figs.18 Ivory? Size: 10.6 x 15.8 x 0.4 cm Begram rectangular plaque depicting three palmettos with curled-up ends, held together by rings made up of lotus petals. Between the palmettos elongated fruit is shown . This scene is bordered by a band depicting a series of four-leaved flowers set in a square frame. In this hieroglyhphic multiplex, there are three distinct orthographic components: Mollusc 1. mollusc (snail) pair depicted by a pair of antithetical S curved lines: sã̄khī Rebus: sã̄kh ʻconch-shell-cutterʼ Palmetto or Spathe 2. spathe of a palm or palmetto: sippī f. ʻspathe of date palmʼ Rebus: sippi 'artificer, craftsman'. It could also be seen as a chisel:śaṅkula Rebus: sangin 'shell-cutter'. Tied together, cord 3. a thread or cord that ties the mollusc pair and spath in the centre together into a composite orthographic unit. dām ʻropeʼ Rebus: dhamma 'dharma' dham̄a ʻemployment in the royal administrationʼ. http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/06/deciphering-indus-scriptmeluhha.html Hieroglyph on a Begram ivory plaque: a pair of molluscs tied with a chisel Hieroglyph: śaṅkula 'chisel' Rebus: sangin 'shell-cutter'. sangi 'mollusc' Rebus: sangi 'pilgrim'. Dama 'cord, tying' Rebus: dhamma 'moral conduct, religious merit'. A variant 37 ties a fish with the hieroglyph complex: ayira, ayila 'fish' Rebus: ayira, ariya 'noble conduct'. Thus connoting ariya-dhama, ayira-dhamma; ariya-sangha, ayira-sangha (Pali). Torana from Mathura and Mathura lion capital which incorporates many hieroglyph elements later to be found in Bharhut-Sanchi: Pair of tigers (lions?), molluscs, srivatsa Bharhut. Capital of Gateway post (After Cunningham) Frieze of capital of Lat at Allahabad, with flame palmette within multiple calyx lotuses. Similarities with a frieze from Delphi featuring lotus with multiple calyx: 38 "Flame palmettes" around a lotus, Detail of Rampurva bull capital, detail of the abacus. The abacus of the bull capital shows pericarp of lotus, rhizomes, palm fronds. These signify: कर्णणक, कर्णणका f. the pericarp of a lotus rebus: कर्णणका 'steersman, helmsman' (seafaring merchant) PLUS (base of the abacus) tāmarasa 'lotus' rebus: tāmra 'copper' PLUS sippi 'mollusc', śilpin, sippi 'artificer'. Thus, the hypertext message is: helmsman, coppersmith artificer. 39 Lion Capital Chunar Sandstone Circa Century BCE Rampurva AC CN 62 98 62 99 Indian Museum Kolkata 2014 4350Lion Capital found at Rampurva. The abscus is decorated with varāha. The abacus of the lion capital show decorative motifs of aquatic birds, hamsa 40 and varāha 'boars'. These Indus Script motifs signify: বরাহ barāha 'boar'Rebus: bāṛaï 'carpenter' (Bengali) bari 'merchant' barea 'merchant' (Santali) बारकश or बारकस [bārakaśa or bārakasa] n ( P) A trading vessel, a merchantman. karaṇḍa ‘duck’ (Sanskrit) karaṛa ‘a very large aquatic bird’ (Sindhi) Rebus: करडा [karaḍā] Hard from alloy--iron, silver &c. (Marathi) The animals on the capital are Indus Script hypertexts: 1. Zebu: पोळ pōḷa 'zebu, bos indicus' rebus: पोळ pōḷa 'magnetite (a ferrite ore)' 2.. arā 'lion' rebus: āra 'brass', ārakūṭa 'brass alloy' The pillars upholding the capital are Indus Script hypertexts: skambha 'pillar' rebus: kampaṭṭam, kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. Thus, these pillars with animal capitals of Rampurva are proclamations of metal- and mint-work by artisans of Rampurva. The tradition of mounting a pillar as a proclamation of performance of Soma Yāga is a tradition documented in R̥gveda which refers to an octagonal pillar as ketu. aṣṭāśri yūpa, a ketu to proclaim a somasamsthā yāga. The expression used describe the purport of the yūpa is: yajñasya ketu (RV 3.8.8). Location Rampurwa, Champaran, Bihar, India Date Upto 3rd century BC ca 299-200 BCE Description Plaster of Paris Stucco, 200 x 135 cm Status Architectural fragment Presently located at: Calcutta, Indian Museum View Overview Image Identification Accession No 36104 Negative No 249.87 American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi Notes American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi "According to Cunningham, who wrote about the pillars says, that he excavated the surrounding of the site and disconnected its broken Capital from the shaft. The Capital was fastened to the shaft by a solid barrel shaped bolt of pure copper, measuring two and a half feet long and 5-5/16 inches in diameter at the centre and tapered slightly towards the ends where its circumference was 3-5/8 inches. The bolt projected exactly half its length or 1-1/4 inches from the shaft, and the projecting portion received the Capital; both 41 ends were beautifully fitted into the stone, thus dispensing with any cement substance to firmly hold it together. The copper bolt was an exquisite piece of work, created into shape apparently with a hammer. The bolt is now kept in the Indian Museum, Kolkata and weighs 79 ½ lbs." Ref: Cunningham, ASI, XVI, pp.110-117; Carlleyle, CASI, XXII, pp.51-57; An. Rep., ASI, 1902-3, pp.38-40; 1907-8, pp.181-88; An Rep., ASI, E.C. 19067, p.16; 1912-13, p.36; BDG, Champaran, pp. 17274. http://bhpromo.org.in/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid= 54 The bolt is apparently forged into form by hammer after being cast. This is confirmed by the inscription on the bolt written in Indus writing. The lexeme is: koṭe ‘forging (metal)(Munda) The use of the Indus script glyphs on Rampurva copperbolt*** reinforce the decoding of smithy repertoire. ***Rampurva copper bolt “The starting place for the inquiry is the Rampurva copper bolt at present in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. This was discovered in 1880 by Cunningham and H.B. Garrick. It was buried beside the fallen southerly pillar on which was engraved a set of Asoka’s pillar edicts. The pillar and its lion capital were subsequently fully excavated by Daya Ram Sahni. The more northerly Rampurva pillar is that associated with the famous bull capital. The bolt was examined by Cunningham who concluded that there could be n doubt of its being original and that it must have served to hold the lion capital in place upon its pillar. It is probable that other Asokan pillars and capitals bear mortises for similar bolts. This one is described as barrel shaped, of pure copper measuring 2 ft. ½ in. in length, with a diameter of 4 5/16 in. in the centre, and 3 42 5/8 in. at each end. Cunningham makes no mention of any marks upon the bolt, but Durga Prasad published an impression of four marks. They are made of lines of impressed dots and include the hill-with-crescent, the taurine or Nandipada, and the open cross: Here these signs occur upon an object which must have been made by craftsmen working for Asoka or one of his predessors.” (F.R. Allchin, 1959, Upon the contextual significance of certain groups of ancient signs, School of Oriental and African Studies, London.) goṭ 'seed' Rebus: koṭe ‘forging (metal)(Munda); khoṭ 'alloy ingot'. खोट (p. 212) [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. (Marathi) kanda 'fire-altar' Rebus: khaṇḍa 'metal implements'. goṭ 'round object' Rebus: khoṭ 'alloy ingot' PLUS bhaṭa 'rimless pot' Rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'; dhanga 'mountain-range' Rebus: dhangar 'metalsmith' PLUS bhaṭa 'rimless pot' Rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'. Thus, the inscription on the Rampurva copperbolt provides technical specification on the metal object, the copper bolt: that it was made of an alloy ingot (from) furnace, (made by) metal implements metalsmith. Alternative: goṭ 'round object' Rebus: khoṭ 'alloy ingot' PLUS dula 'pair' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS ayo 'fish' rebus: aya 'iron' ayas 'alloy metal'PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mint. Ka. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner. (DEDR 1236) Thus, the Indus Script hypertext on the Rampurva copper alloy bolt is a message of the professional competence of metalsmiths of the Bronze Age at Rampurva: alloy metal castings, metal furnaces, ingots, metalsmithy, mintwork. Hieroglyphs on the two-and-a-half feet long Rampurva copper bolt which joinss the bull capital to the pillar: 1. goṭ 'seed' Rebus: koṭe ‘forging (metal) 2. kanda 'fire altar' rebus: khaṇḍa 'metal implements'. 3. goṭ 'round, stone' Rebus: khoṭ 'alloy ingot' PLUS aya khambhaṛā 'fish fin' Rebus: aya kammaṭa 'iron mint' 4. ḍanga 'mountain range' rebus: ḍangar 'blacksmith' PLUS bhaṭa 'rimless pot' rebus: bhaṭa 'furnace'. Thus, the hypertext on the Rampurva copper bolt is 1. a professional calling card of the metalsmithy/forge artisan with competence in forging metal implements, with iron mint and furnace and 2. proclamation of the performance of a Soma Yāga. Thus, Indus Script hypertexts seen on Rampurva Aśoka pillars, copper bolt, bull & lion capitals are proclamations, ketu -- yajñasya ketu-- of Soma Yāga performance. Surprising confirmation of Bronze Age Linguistic Doctrine comes from a copper alloy bolt which holds the Rampurva Capital to the Asokan pillar. The copper bolt is inscribed with hieroglyphs of Indus writing attesting to two facts: 1. hieroglyphic writing system as a continuum in Indian sprachbund; 2. hieroglyphs denote metallurgical processing. Rampurva pillar edict text: 43 • Thus saith king Priyadarsi, Beloved of the Gods. Twelve years after my coronation, records relating to Dharma were caused to be written by me for the first time for the welfare and happiness of the people, so that, without violation thereof, they might attain the growth of Dharma in various respects. • Thinking: “Only in this way the welfare and happiness of the people may be secured.” I scrutinize as to how I may bring happiness to the people, no matter whether they are my relatives or residents of the neighborhood of my capital or of distant localities. And I act accordingly. In the same manner, I scrutinize in respect of all classes of people. Moreover, all the religious sects have been honored by me with various kinds of honors. But what I consider my principal duty is meeting the people of different sects personally. This record relating to Dharma has been caused to be written by me twentysix years after my coronation. A solid copper bolt (24 ½” in length and a circumference of 14” at the center and 12” at the ends), was found in the Rampurva Asoka Pillar near Nepal border. 44 Indus Script hypertext, hieroglyphs on the two-and-a-half feet long Rampurva copper bolt which joinss the bull capital to the pillar: On some cast copper coins coming out of mints, in addition to these four hieroglyphs, two additional hieroglyphs are inscribed: 45 All these six hieroglyphs are a continuum of the legacy of Indus writing. The language is Meluhha (mleccha) of Indian sprachbund. The rebus readings of these six hieroglyphs evolved in the context of Bronze Age are as follows, the readings validate the Bronze Age Linguistic Doctrine which should replace the 'Aryan invasion' Linguistic Doctrine which is the ruling paradigm in language studies. The Asur are found in the districts of Gumla, Lohardaga, Palamau and Latehar of Jharkhand state. They have been iron-smelters. The modern Asur vanavasi are divided into three sub-extended family divisions, namely Bir(Kol) Asur, Birjia Asur and Agaria Asur. Rebus readings L: to R. are: 1. kōṭai mountain (Tamil) Rebus: kōṭṭam = temple (Tamil) koṭe ‘forging (metal)(Mu.) koḍ ‘workshop’ (G.) खोट [ khōṭa ] f ‘A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge’ (Kashmiri) baṭa = rimless pot (Kannada) Rebus: baṭa = furnace (Santali) 2. Glyph: dulo ‘hole’ (N.); rebus: dul ‘to cast metal in a mould’ (Santali) baṭa = rimless pot (Kannada) Rebus: baṭa = furnace (Santali) 3. gaṇḍa ‘four’ (Santali) Rebus: kaṇḍ = fire-altar (Santali); kan = copper (Tamil) 4. Pali. kuṭila— ‘bent’, n. ‘bend’; Prakrit. kuḍila— ‘crooked’ Rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) Thus, the inscription on Rampurva copper bolt describes the metallurgical processes of makiing the bolt: 1. a mass of khōṭa metal melted down in furnace; koṭe ‘forged' 2. the metal cast (dul) in a mould 3. ingot subjected to fire-altar (kaṇḍ) furnace 4. Bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) used in casting the alloy, kuṭila Rimless-pot glyph is ligatured to two glyphs: 1. mountain; 2. circle baṭa = rimless pot (Kannada) Rebus: baṭa = furnace (Santali) bhrāṣṭra = furnace (Skt.) kōṭu summit of a hill, peak, mountain; kōṭai mountain (Tamil) kūṭa = peak (Telugu) kūṭam = workshop (Tamil); koṭṭamu, koṭṭama. [Tel.] n. A pent roofed chamber or house as distinguished from ‘midde' which is flat-roofed. Pounding in a mortar. A stable for elephants or horses, or cattle A. i. 43. [ koṭṭāmu ] koṭṭāmu. [Tel.] n. A pent roofed house. [ koṭṭaruvu ] koṭṭaruvu. [Tel.] n. A barn, a grain store. [koṭāru], [Tel.] n. A store, a granary. A place to keep grain, salt, &c. కొఠారు [ koṭhāru ] Same as [ koṭhī ] koṭhī. [H.] n. A bank. A mercantile house or firm (Telugu) kṓṣṭha2 n. ʻ pot ʼ Kauś., ʻ granary, storeroom ʼ MBh., ʻ inner apartment ʼ lex., aka -- n. ʻ treasury ʼ, ikā f. ʻ pan ʼ Bhpr. [Cf. *kōttha -- , *kōtthala -- : same as prec.?] Pa. koṭṭha -- n. ʻ monk's cell, storeroom ʼ, aka<-> n. ʻ storeroom ʼ; Pk. koṭṭha -- 46 , kuṭ, koṭṭhaya -- m. ʻ granary, storeroom ʼ; Sv. dāntar -- kuṭha ʻ fire -- place ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) kōti (ṭh?) ʻ wooden vessel for mixing yeast ʼ; K. kōṭha m. ʻ granary ʼ, kuṭhu m. ʻ room ʼ, kuṭhü f. ʻ granary, storehouse ʼ; S. koṭho m. ʻ large room ʼ, ṭhī f. ʻ storeroom ʼ; L. koṭhā m. ʻ hut, room, house ʼ, ṭhī f. ʻ shop, brothel ʼ, awāṇ. koṭhā ʻ house ʼ; P. koṭṭhā, koṭhā m. ʻ house with mud roof and walls, granary ʼ, koṭṭhī, koṭhī f. ʻ big well -built house, house for married women to prostitute themselves in ʼ; WPah. pāḍ. kuṭhī ʻ house ʼ; Ku. koṭho ʻ large square house ʼ, gng. kōṭhi ʻ room, building ʼ; N. koṭho ʻ chamber ʼ, ṭhi ʻ shop ʼ; A. koṭhā, kõṭhā ʻ room ʼ,kuṭhī ʻ factory ʼ; B. koṭhā ʻ brick -- built house ʼ, kuṭhī ʻ bank, granary ʼ; Or. koṭhā ʻ brick -- built house ʼ,ṭhī ʻ factory, granary ʼ; Bi. koṭhī ʻ granary of straw or brushwood in the open ʼ; Mth. koṭhīʻ grain -- chest ʼ; OAw. koṭha ʻstoreroom ʼ; H. koṭhā m. ʻ granary ʼ, ṭhī f. ʻ granary, large house ʼ, Marw. koṭho m. ʻ room ʼ; G. koṭhɔ m. ʻ jar in which indigo is stored, warehouse ʼ, ṭhī f. ʻ large earthen jar, factory ʼ; M. koṭhā m. ʻ large granary ʼ, ṭhī f. ʻ granary, factory ʼ; Si. koṭa ʻ storehouse ʼ. -- Ext. with -- ḍa -- : K. kūṭhürü f. ʻ small room ʼ; L. koṭhṛī f. ʻ small side room ʼ; P. koṭhṛī f. ʻ room, house ʼ; Ku. koṭheṛī ʻ small room ʼ; H. koṭhrī f. ʻ room, granary ʼ; M. koṭhḍī f. ʻ room ʼ; -- with -- ra -- : A. kuṭharī ʻ chamber ʼ, B. kuṭhrī, Or. koṭhari; -- with -- lla -- : Sh. (Lor.) kotul (ṭh?) ʻ wattle and mud erection for storing grain ʼ; H. koṭhlā m., lī f. ʻ room, granary ʼ; G. koṭhlɔ m. ʻ wooden box ʼ kōṣṭhapāla -, *kōṣṭharūpa -- , *kōṣṭhāṁśa -- , kōṣṭhāgāra -- ; *kajjalakōṣṭha -- , *duvārakōṣṭha-, *dēvakōṣṭha -- , dvārakōṣṭhaka -- .Addenda: kṓṣṭha -- 2: WPah.kṭg.kóṭṭhi f. ʻ house, quarters, temple treasury, name of a partic. temple ʼ, J. koṭhā m. ʻ granary ʼ, koṭhī f. ʻ granary, bungalow ʼ; Garh. koṭhu ʻ house surrounded by a wall ʼ; Md. koḍi ʻ frame ʼ, <> koři ʻ cage ʼ (Xkōṭṭa -- ). -- with ext.: OP. koṭhārī f. ʻ crucible ʼ, P. kuṭhālī f., H.kuṭhārī f.; -- Md. koṭari ʻ room ʼ.(CDIAL 3546) kōṣṭhapāla m. ʻ storekeeper ʼ W. [kṓṣṭha -- 2, pāla -- ] M. koṭhvaḷā m. (CDIAL 3547) 3550 kōṣṭhāgāra n. ʻ storeroom, store ʼ Mn. [kṓṣṭha -- 2, agāra -- ] Pa. koṭṭhāgāra -- n. ʻ storehouse, granary ʼ; Pk. koṭṭhāgāra -- , koṭṭhāra -- n. ʻ storehouse ʼ; K. kuṭhār m. ʻ wooden granary ʼ, WPah. bhal. kóṭhār m.; A. B. kuṭharī ʻ apartment ʼ, Or. koṭhari; Aw. lakh. koṭhār ʻ zemindar's residence ʼ; H. kuṭhiyār ʻ granary ʼ; G. koṭhār m. ʻ granary, storehouse ʼ, koṭhāriyũ n. ʻ small do. ʼ; M. koṭhār n., koṭhārẽ n. ʻ large granary ʼ, -- rī f. ʻ small one ʼ; Si. koṭāra ʻ granary, store ʼ.kōṣṭhāgārika -- .Addenda: kōṣṭhāgāra -- : WPah.kṭg. kəṭhāˊr, kc. kuṭhār m. ʻ granary, storeroom ʼ, J. kuṭhār, kṭhār m.; -- Md. kořāru ʻ storehouse ʼ ← Ind. (CDIAL 3550). kōṣṭhāgārika m. ʻ storekeeper ʼ BHSk. [Cf. kōṣṭhā- gārin -- m. ʻ wasp ʼ Suśr.: kōṣṭhāgāra - ] Pa. koṭṭhāgārika -- m. ʻ storekeeper ʼ; S. koṭhārī m. ʻ one who in a body of faqirs looks after the provision store ʼ; Or. koṭhārī ʻ treasurer ʼ; Bhoj. koṭhārī ʻ storekeeper ʼ, H. kuṭhiyārī m. Addenda: kōṣṭhāgārika -- : G. koṭhārī m. ʻ storekeeper ʼ. kōṣṭhin -- see kuṣṭhin -- Add2. (CDIAL 3552) Ta. koṭṭakaished with sloping roofs, cow-stall; marriage pandal; koṭṭam cattle-shed; koṭṭil cow-stall, shed, hut; (STD)koṭambe feeding place for cattle. Ma. koṭṭil cowhouse, shed, workshop, house. Ka. koṭṭage, koṭige, koṭṭige stall or outhouse (esp. for cattle), barn, room. Koḍ. koṭṭï shed. Tu.koṭṭa hut or dwelling of Koragars; koṭya shed, stall. Te. koṭṭā̆mu stable for cattle or horses; koṭṭāyi thatched shed. Kol. (Kin.)koṛka, (SR.) korkācowshed; (Pat., p. 59) konṭoḍi henhouse. Nk. khoṭa cowshed. Nk. (Ch.) koṛka id. Go.(Y.) koṭa, (Ko.) koṭam (pl. koṭak) id. (Voc. 880); (SR.) koṭka shed; (W. G. Mu. Ma.) koṛka, (Ph.) korka, kurka cowshed (Voc. 886); (Mu.) koṭorla, koṭorli shed for goats (Voc. 884). Malt. koṭa hamlet. / Influenced by Skt. goṣṭha-. (DEDR 2058) கைொட்டகை koṭṭakai, n. < gōṣṭhaka. [T. koṭṭamu, K. koṭṭage, Tu. koṭya.] Shed with sloping roofs, cow-stall, marriage- 47 pandal; பந்தல் விசேடம் . கைொட்டகைத்தூண்சபொற் ைொலிலங் ை (குற் றொ. குற. 84, 4). கைொட்டம் koṭṭam, n. House; வீடு. ஒரு கைொட்டம் ஒழிே்சுை் குடுத்துருங் சைொ (எங் ைளூர், 47). சைொட்டம் ² kōṭṭam, n. < kōṣṭha. 1. Room, enclosure; அகற.சுடும சணொங் கிய கநடு நிகலை் சைொட்டமும் (மணி. 6, 59). 2. Temple; சைொயில் . சைொழிே் சேவற் கைொடிசயொன் சைொட்டமும் (சிலப் . 14, 10). Glyph: dulo ‘hole’ (N.); rebus: dul ‘to cast metal in a mould’ (Santali) This may signify crucible steel cake. See: Indus Script hypertext पोळ pōḷa, 'zebu, bos indicus' signifies pōḷa ‘magnetite, ferrous-ferric oxide Fe3O4', पोलाद pōlāda, 'crucible steel cake' https://tinyurl.com/y9so6ubv Alternative: kuṭila ‘bent’; kuṭi— in cmpd. ‘curve’ (Skt.)(CDIAL 3231); rebus: kuṭhi ‘smelter’ (Santali) CDIAL 3231 kuṭilá— ‘bent, crooked’ KātyŚr., aka— Pañcat., n. ‘a partic. plant’ lex. [√kuṭ 1] Pa. kuṭila— ‘bent’, n. ‘bend’; Pk. kuḍila— ‘crooked’ rebus: kuṭila, katthīl = bronze (8 parts copper and 2 parts tin) [cf. āra-kūṭa, ‘brass’ (Skt.) (CDIAL 3230) खाांडा [khāṇḍā] m a jag, notch, or indentation (as upon the edge of a tool or weapon). khāṇḍā ‘tools, pots and pans, metal-ware’. Glyph: ‘piece’: kōḍ कोड् m. a kernel (Kashmiri) खोट [khōṭa] A lump or solid bit (as of phlegm, gore, curds, inspissated milk); any concretion or clot. (Marathi) guḍá—1. — In sense ‘fruit, kernel’ cert. ← Drav., cf. Tam. koṭṭai ‘nut, kernel’; A. goṭ ‘a fruit, whole piece’, °ṭā ‘globular, solid’, guṭi ‘small ball, seed, kernel’; B. goṭā ‘seed, bean, whole’; Or. goṭā ‘whole, undivided’, goṭi ‘small ball, cocoon’, goṭāli ‘small round piece of chalk’; Bi. goṭā ‘seed’; Mth. goṭa ‘numerative particle’ (CDIAL 4271) Rebus: koṭe ‘forging (metal)(Mu.) koḍ ‘workshop’ (G.).Sa. gOta? `to scrape, scratch'.Mu. gOta? `to scrape, scratch'.KW gOta?@(M087) Rebus: खोट [ khōṭa ] f ‘A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge’ (Kashmiri) L. khoṭ f. ʻalloy, impurityʼ, °ṭā ʻalloyedʼ, awāṇ. khoṭā ʻforgedʼ; P. khoṭ m. ʻbase, alloyʼ M.khoṭā ʻalloyedʼ, (CDIAL 3931) Mohenjjo-daro seal. Dotted circles + pellets + fire-altar 48 gaṇḍa 'four' rebus: kaṇḍa 'fire-altar' PLUS गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'round pebbles, stones' rebus: गोटी [ gōṭī ] 'A lump of silver'. goṭa 'laterite, ferrite ore'. arye 'lion' (Akkadian) Rebus: āra 'brass' Malt. múqe id. / Cf. Skt. mūkaka- id. (DEDR 5023) Rebus: mū̃h 'ingot' mũhe 'ingot' mũhã = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native furnace. gaṇḍa ‘four’ (Santali) Rebus: kaṇḍ = fire-altar (Santali); kan = copper (Tamil) sangaḍa ‘lathe, portable furnace’. Rebus: jaṅgaḍ ‘entrusment articles’. jangaḍiyo ‘military guard who accompanies treasure into the treasury’ (G.) sangaḍa ‘association, guild’. sangatarāsu ‘stone cutter’ (Telugu) sãghāḍiyo a worker on a lathe (G.) Vikalpa: meḍhi ‘pillar’. meḍ ‘iron’ : mẽṛhẽt, meḍ ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.) Glyph:kuṭi ‘tree’; kuṭi, kuṭhi, kuṭa, kuṭha a tree (Kaus'.); kud.a tree (Pkt.); kuṛā tree; kaṛek tree, oak (Pas;.)(CDIAL 3228). kuṭha, kuṭa (Ka.), kudal (Go.) kudar. (Go.) kuṭha_ra, kuṭha, kuṭaka = a tree (Skt.lex.) kuṭ, kurun: = stump of a tree (Bond.a); khut. = id. (Or.) kuṭamu = a tree (Te.lex.) Glyph: tree, rebus: smelting furnace kuṭhi kuṭa, kuṭi, kuṭha a tree (Kaus’.); kuḍa tree (Pkt.); kuṛā tree; kaṛek tree, oak (Pas;.)(CDIAL 3228). Kuṭha, kuṭa (Ka.), kudal (Go.) kudar. (Go.) kuṭhāra, kuṭha, kuṭaka = a tree (Skt.lex.) kuṭ, kurun: = stump of a tree (Bond.a); khuṭ = id. (Or.) kuṭa, kuṭha = a tree (Ka.lex.) guṇḍra = a stump; khuṇṭut = a stump of a tree left in the ground (Santali.lex.) kuṭamu = a tree (Te.lex.) কুঁ দ2 [ kun̐da2 ] n a stock or butt (of a gun); a stump or trunk (of a tree); a log (of wood); a lump (of sugar etc.). (Bengali) Rebus: kũdār ‘turner’ (B.) কুঁ দন, ককাুঁদন [ kun̐dana, kōn̐dana ] n act of turning (a thing) on a lathe; act of carving; act of rushing forward to attack or beat; act of skip ping or frisking; act of bragging. (Bengali)কুঁ দ [ kun̐da ] n a (turner's) lathe; a 49 variety of multi-petalled jasmine.কুঁ দ1 [ kun̐da1 ] v to turn (a thing) on a lathe, to shape by turning on a lathe; to carve; to rush forward to attack or beat; to skip, to frisk; to brag. kuṭi, ‘smelting furnace’ (Mundari.lex.).kuṭhi, kuṭi (Or.; Sad. Koṭhi) (1) the smelting furnace of the blacksmith; kuṭire bica duljaḍko talkena, they were feeding the furnace with ore; (2) the name of ēkuṭi has been given to the fire which, in lac factories, warms the water bath for softening the lac so that it can be spread into sheets; to make a smelting furnace; kut.hi-o of a smelting furnace, to be made; the smelting furnace of the blacksmith is made of mud, cone-shaped, 2’ 6” dia. At the base and 1’ 6” at the top. The hole in the center, into which the mixture of charcoal and iron ore is poured, is about 6” to 7” in dia. At the base it has two holes, a smaller one into which the nozzle of the bellow is inserted, and a larger one on the opposite side through which the molten iron flows out into a cavity. Vikalpa: M. ḍāhaḷ m. ʻloppings of treesʼ, ḍāhḷā m. ʻleafy branchʼ, °ḷī f. ʻtwigʼ, ḍhāḷā m. ʻsprigʼ, °ḷī f. ʻbranchʼ. (CDIAL 5546).ḍhāḷako = a large metal ingot (G.) ḍhālakī = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (Gujarati) Sri Krishna of Vrishni kula, historical person, remembered on Indus Script which retains the memory of Krishna legends of 4th m.BCE https://tinyurl.com/yemcqjpv This monograph establishes the Indus Script as a continuum of Mahabharata events which constitute the sheet-anchor of Bharatiya Itihaasa and demonstrates the continuum of wealth-production activities of artisans in ancient Indian mints and documented on sculptural epigraphs such as the inscription on Heliodorus pillar of Vidisha. I submit that since the Mohenjo-daro tablets of a date later than the Mahabharata events, seem to evoke the Krishna legend of Nalakubera and Manigriva episode; hence, evoke the memory of Sri Krishna legends which are memories of Mahabharata period events which date to 4th m. BCE. The tablets date to ca. 2500 BCE, the mature period of Sarasvati Civilization and contain both pictorial motifs and sign sequences as text message which clearly refer to a period when the Indus Script had stabilised as a writing system in the expansive civilization area which spreads from Sinauli (Yamuna river basi) to Susa in Ancient Near East.. A book by Dr. ML Raja, 2019, Astronomical Evidence of the Date of Mahabharata War, Kochi, Kurukshetra Prakashan, dates the event to 3143 BCE based on the Nirayana method of calendrical trigonometrical computation, which takes Mesha 0degree as fixed. The wealth-accounting ledgers of Indus Script Corpora (from ca. 3300 BCE which is the archaeologically attested first potsherd with Indus Script hieroglyph) are 50 continued in the Indus Script hieroglyphs of punch-marked coins of mints from Eurasia from Taxila to Karur; the recollected memories of MBh legends are also reflected on these hieroglyphs on coins. The memories and legends of Sri Krishna are the reality and the metaphors are as close to truth as can be gleaned from ancient evidences of Indus Script inscriptions, ancient sculptures and inscriptions on pillars as on Heliodorus pillar of Vidisha, ancient Indian coins and ancient texts such as MBh and Harivamsa. That Vrishnikula is a historical reality is proved by a remarkable coin with Indus Script hieroglyphs. See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/10/vrishni-janapada-coin-withhieroglyphs.html वृष्णि is a term in Rigveda. A Vrishni silver coin from Alexander Cunningham's Coins of Ancient India: From the Earliest Times Down to the Seventh Century (1891) (loc.cit., Lahiri, Bela (1974). Indigenous States of Northern India (Circa 200 B.C.E to 320 C.E.), Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.242 3). वृष्णि [p= 1013,2] वृि्/इ or व्/ऋष्णि, mfn. manly , strong , powerful , mighty RV.m. a ram VS. TS. S3Br.m. a bull L.m. a ray of light L.m. N. of र्शव MBh.m. of र्विुकृि L.m.of इन्द्र L.m. of अर्ि L.m. pl. N. of a tribe or family (from which कृि is descended , = यादव or माधव ; often mentioned together with the अन्धकs) MBh. Hariv. &cn. N. of a सामन् A1rshBr. (Monier-Williams) An identical ancient silver coin (perhaps produced from the same ancient mint) of Vrishni janapada ca. 10 CE with kharoṣṭhī, Brahmi inscriptions and Harappa Script hieroglyphs was sold in an auction in Ahmedabad (August 2016) for Rs. 27 lakhs. In fact, the treasure is priceless and defines the heritage of Bhāratam Janam, 'metalcaster folk' dating back to the 7th millennium of Vedic culture. It signifies a spoked wheel which is the centre-piece of Bharat's national flag. साांगड sāṅgaḍa 'joined animal', rebus: sangaDa ‘lathe’ sanghaṭṭana ‘bracelet’ rebus 1: .sanghāṭa ‘raft’ sAngaDa ‘catamaran, double-canoe’rebusčaṇṇāḍam (Tu. ജംഗാല, Port. Jangada). Ferryboat, junction of 2 boats, also rafts. 2 jangaḍia 'military guard accompanying treasure into the treasury' ചങ്ങാതം čaṇṇāδam (Tdbh.; സംഘാതം) 1. Convoy, guard; responsible Nāyar guide through foreign territories. rebus 3: जाकड़ ja:kaṛ जाांगड़ jāngāḍ‘entrustment note’ जखडणें tying up (as a beast to a stake) rebus 4: sanghāṭa ‘accumulation, collection’ rebus 5. sangaDa ‘portable furnace, brazier’ rebus 6: sanghAta ‘adamantine glue‘ rebus 7: sangara ‘fortification’ rebus 8: sangara ‘proclamation’ 9: samgraha, samgaha 'arranger, manager'. On the VRSNi coin, tiger and elephant are joined to create a composite hyperext. This is Harappa Script orthographic cipher. Hieroglyph: ढाल (p. 204) ḍhāla f (S through H) The grand flag of an army directing its march and encampments: also the standard or banner of a chieftain: also a flag flying on forts &c. v दे . ढाल्या (p. 204) ḍhālyā a ढाल That bears the ढाल or grand flag of an army. 51 Rebus/Hieroglyph: ढाल (p. 204) ḍhāla f (S through H) A shield. ढालपट्टा (p. 204) ḍhālapaṭṭā m (Shield and sword.) A soldier's accoutrements comprehensively. ढाल्या (p. 204) ḍhālyā a ढाल Armed with a Shield.ḍhāla n. ʻ shield ʼ lex. 2. *ḍhāllā -- .1. Tir. (Leech) "dàl"ʻ shield ʼ, Bshk. ḍāl, Ku. ḍhāl, gng. ḍhāw, N. A. B. ḍhāl, Or. ḍhāḷa, Mth. H. ḍhāl m.2. Sh. ḍal (pl. °le̯) f., K. ḍāl f., S. ḍhāla, L. ḍhāl (pl. °lã) f., P. ḍhāl f., G. M. ḍhāl f.Addenda: ḍhāla -- . 2. *ḍhāllā -- : WPah.kṭg. (kc.) ḍhāˋl f. (obl. -- a) ʻ shield ʼ (a word used in salutation), J. ḍhāl f.(CDIAL 5583) தளவொய் taḷa-vāy , n. prob. தளம் ³ + வொய் . [T. daḷavāyi, K. dalavāy.] Military commander, minister of war; பகடத்தகலவன் . ஒன் ன லகரகவன் று வருகின் ற தளவொய் (திருசவங் . ேத. 89). Rebus: ḍhālako = a large metal ingot (G.) ḍhālakī = a metal heated and poured into a mould; a solid piece of metal; an ingot (Gujarati) ढाळ (p. 204) Cast, mould, form (as of metal vessels, trinkets &c.) This Indus Script cipher signifies that an ox-hide ingot of Ancient Near East was called ḍhāla 'a large metal ingot' -- a parole (speech) word from Indian sprachbund (language union or speech linguistic area) of the Bronze Age. kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'blacksmith' kolhe 'smelter' The pellet border is composed of: goṭā 'seed', round pebble, stone' rebus: goṭā ''laterite, ferrite ore''gold braid' खोट [ khōṭa ] f A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down). The railing for the pillar is Vedi, sacred fire-altar for Soma samsthā Yāga. There is evidence dated to ca. 2500 BCE for the performance of such a yajna in Binjor (4MSR) on the banks of Vedic River Sarasvati. The fire-altar yielded an octagonal pillar, which is detailed in ancient Vedic texts as a proclamation of Soma samsthā Yāga. Three hour-glass shaped vajra-s are shown in a cartouche below the yupa on the coin. Normally Vajrapani is shown such a vajra which has octagonal edges. kolom'three' rebus: kolimi, kole.l 'smithy, forge' kole.l 'temple' It is a record of the performance of a Soma samsthā Yāga. It is Vrishni Janapada coin of ca. 10 CE.Cakra, pavi in Vedic tradition is also a vajra. Rudra is vajrabāhu 'vajra weapon wielder'; said also of Agni and Indra. वज्र [p=913,1] mn. " the hard or mighty one " , a thunderbolt (esp. that of इन्द्र , said to have been formed out of the bones of the ऋर्ि दधीच or दधीर्च [q.v.] , and shaped like a circular discus , or in later times regarded as having the form of two transverse bolts crossing each other thus x ; sometimes also applied to similar weapons used by various gods or superhuman beings , or to any mythical weapon destructive of spells or charms , also to मन्यु , " wrath "RV. or [with अपाम्] to a jet of water AV. &c ; also applied to a thunderbolt in general or to the lightning evolved from the centrifugal energy of the circular thunderbolt of इन्द्र when launched at a foe ; in Northern Buddhist countries it is shaped like a dumb-bell and called Dorje ; » MWB. 201 ; 322 &c ) RV. &c; a diamond 52 (thought to be as hard as the thunderbolt or of the same substance with it) , Shad2vBr. Mn. MBh. &c; m. a kind of column or pillar VarBr2S.; m. a kind of hard mortar or cement (कल्क) VarBr2S. (cf. -लेप); n. a kind of hard iron or steel L. On some sculptural friezes, three tigers or three elephants carry the wheel hypertext to signify iron working in smithy/forge: kolom 'three' rebus: kolimi 'smithy, forge' PLUS karabha, ibha 'elephant' rebus:karba, ib 'iron' ibbo 'merchant' PLUS kola 'tiger' rebus: kol 'working in iron'. Art historian and scholar of Bauddham studies, Huntington has identified the following characteristic, common features on the hypertext signified on these coins. I suggest that conclusions indicated by Huntington need to be revised in the context of life-activities of the artisans related to mint-metalwork signified on sculptural hypertexts and Punchmarked coin hypertexts. Magadha janapada, Silver karshapana, c. 4th century BCE Weight: 3.45 gm., Dim: 25 x 23 mm. Five punches: sun, 6-arm, and three others / Banker's mark Ref: GH 48. karibha 'elephant' ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba 'iron' ib 'iron' eraka 'knave of wheel' rebus: erako 'moltencast, copper'; arA 'spokes, rebus: Ara 'brass' khaNDa 'division' rebus: kaNDa 'implements' arka 'sun' rebus: arka, eraka 'copper'. Six-spoked hypertext emanating from 53 dotted circle is: dhAu 'element, mineral ferrite' PLUS muhA 'furnace quantity, ingot' PLUS kANDa 'arrow' rebus: kaNDa 'implements;. Thus, the five PMC hypertexts signify mintwork with iron, molten cast copper, iron implements, ingots, furnace work. On some sculptural friezes, the 'fish-fin' hypertext is ligatured to the tip of the spokes of the wheel emanating from the dotted circle. This signifies: ayo 'fish' rebus: ayas 'metal' aya 'iron'. PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus: kammaTa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. Bhaja Chaitya ca. 100 BCE. Hieroglyphs are: fish-fin pair; pine-cone; yupa: kandə ʻpine' rebus: kaṇḍa 'implements, fire-altar' khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' (Lahnda CDIAL 13640) Ta. kampaṭṭam, kammaṭa 'mint, coiner, coinage'. Yupa: Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻstalk, arrow ʼ(CDIAL 3023). Rebus: kāṇḍa,'implements'. Ligature to 'mintwork' signifier is also shown on the wheel sculptural friezes of Amaravati -- spokes are ligatured on their tips with 'fish-fins' joined together:ayo kammaTa 'iron mintwork' ayo 'fish' PLUS khambhaṛā 'fish-fin'.; Amaravati sculpturel friezes: cakra with ligatures. 54 Elaborate orthography on sanchi stupa relates the spoked wheel to 'fish-fin' hypertext (mintwork) and also to tAmarasa 'lotus' rebus: tAmra 'copper'. 1. dotted circle 2. arrow (three) 3. twist (three) Some examples replace the 'twist' with 'buns-shaped ingots'. Thus, total six hypertexts emanate from dotted circle as spokes. Four components of hypertext are read rebus in Meluhha: 1. Dotted circle is a Harappa Script hieroglyph and signifies a 'strand' of rope. dhāī˜ 'strand' rebus: dhāu'soft red stone, element'(ferrite ore) 2. Twist is: मेढा mēḍhā A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl. (Marathi) Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’(Ho.)med 'copper' (Slavic languages) medha 'yajña, dhanam'. mũh 'face' (Hindi) rebus: mũhe 'ingot' (Santali) mũhã̄ = the quantity of iron produced at one time in a native smelting furnace of the Kolhes; iron produced by the Kolhes and formed like a four-cornered piece a little pointed at each end; mūhā mẽṛhẽt = iron smelted by the Kolhes and formed into an equilateral lump a little pointed at each of four ends;kolhe tehen mẽṛhẽt ko mūhā akata = the Kolhes have to-day produced pig iron (Santali). 3. Six spokes of wheel emanating from dotted circle: bhaṭa ‘six (hair-curls)’ Rebus: bhaṭa ‘furnace’. 4.. Hieroglyph: Or. kāṇḍa, kã̄ṛ ʻstalk, arrow ʼ(CDIAL 3023). Rebus: kāṇḍa,'implements'. Connection to a rope imagery is seen here: 'strand' of rope. dhāī˜ 'strand' rebus: dhāu 'soft red stone, element'(ferrite ore) PLUS मेढा mēḍhā A twist or tangle arising in thread or cord, a curl or snarl. (Marathi) Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’(Ho.) Thus, the signifiers are: meD dhAtu 'iron element' PLUS ayo khambhaṛā 'fish-fin' rebus:aya kammaTa 'iron mint'. Eight spokes relate to अष्टार्श्र yūpo bhavati 'eight-corneres yupa' of a Soma Samsthā yāga 55 Thus, together, the hypertext of dotted circle linked to six spokes as the चिालः caṣāla or cakra signifies a weapon with multiple prongs orthographed by sculptors and mintworkers who punched symbols on punch-marked coins. The arrows and twists thus signify: implements and furnaced ingots of dhatu'(ferrite) minerals'. Santali glosses Hieroglyph: S. dhāī f. ʻ wisp of fibres added from time to time to a rope that is being twisted ʼ, L. dhāī˜ f.(CDIAL 6773). Rebus: Pk. dhāu -- m. ʻ metal, red chalk ʼ; N. dhāu ʻ ore (esp. of copper) ʼ; Or. ḍhāu ʻ red chalk, red ochre ʼ (whence ḍhāuā ʻ reddish ʼ; M. dhāū, dhāv m.f. ʻ a partic. soft red stone ʼ (whence dhā̄̆vaḍ m. ʻ a caste of iron -- smelters ʼ, dhāvḍī ʻ composed of or relating to iron ʼ); -- Si. dā ʻ relic ʼ(CDIAL 6773) British Museum. 2nd cent. Hoshiarpur, Punjab. 56 Republic of the Vrishni Peoples (10-40AD), Silver Drachm, MIGIS Type 928 variation, 2.15g. Obv: Standard, topped by a Nandipada finial and an elephant's head and forepart of a leaping lion below it, in an ornamental railing; Brahmi legend (Vŗ)shņi Rajaña Ganasya Tratarasya (वृ)िी राजञ गणस्य त्रतरस्य reading anticlockwise outwards below. Rev: Ornate 14-spoked wheel with scalloped outer rim; Kharoshthi legend from 3 o'clock to 9 o'clock "The Vrishnis were known to Panini and to Kautilya; the latter describes them as a Sangha. In the Mahabharata they are counted amongst the Vratya brotherhood of Kshatriyas. As one of the Yadava clans they are closely associated with Krishna in myth and lore. It is said that they migrated to Dwaraka from Mathura, after Krishna's capital was besieged by the demon Kalayavana. The reference to 'Yavana' here and the subsequent migration from Mathura may have had some historical basis" The coins of the Vrishnis are by far the rarest of the so-called 'Tribal' coins of India. Only one silver specimen, from the Alexander Cunningham collection, is known to exist in the British Museum and has been published by Mitchiner as Type 928 in MIGIS. http://classicalnumismaticgallery.com/advancesearch.aspx Hala gets repeated as Indus Script hypertext on cast coins. On the coin on the right, three hieroglyphs are signified, one below the other: snake, pupil of the eye; plough Hala shape also occurs on punchmarked coins, together with sun hieroglyph. 57 The hala shown on this coin also appears on Vasudeva coin. See the hieroglyph on the Vasudeva coin (right bottom) Osmund Bopearachchi, Emergence of Viṣṇu and Śiva Images in India: Numismatic and Sculptural Evidence, 2016. Mirror: https://www.academia.edu/25807197/Emergence_of_Vi%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9 %87u_and_%C5%9Aiva_Images_in_India_Numismatic_and_Sculptural_Evidence 58 59 Source: https://www.academia.edu/25807197/Emergence_of_Viṣṇu_and_Śiva_Images_in _India_Numismatic_and_Sculptural_Evidence 60 Krishna कृि-वासुदेव as warrior and king. Earliest extant image on coin, from the borderlands, northwest India. Krishna (कृि-वासुदेव) in Bactrian garb on silver coin of Vaishnava King Agathocles (~180 BCE). With शङ् ख, चक्र, छत्र. Balarāma in the 61 bronze coin of Emperor Moasa (Maues) with the characteristic हल and मुसल. Takshashila, Northwest India, ~70 BCE. The earliest known representation of Balarāma (बलराम), elder brother of Krishna. Silver coin of Agathocles (~180 BCE). Notice हल, मुसल, छत्र Pāṇini, 5th century BCE, says images used in shrines. Mahābhāṣya, 2nd Century BCE, mentions temples to Rāma, Kṛṣṇa, Śiva, and Viṣṇu. 62 Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana,'Balarama & ass-demon' Weight: 3.86 gm., Diameter: 15x14 mm. Human figure on left holding stick and kamandalu standing towards a horse-like animal which faces him from right; palm tree on right; Ujjain symbol on top; a taurine above the animal and taurine and svastika at the bottom. Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb and taurines in the angles. Reference: Pieper 346 In a note to the SACG website Shailendra Bhandare suggested the scene on this coin representing the mythical story of 'Balarama killing the ass demon' and the depiction seems to reflect that story indeed quite well- even if the deity on this coin has no specific Vaishnavite attributes. We are told that there had been a large grove where there were palmyras bearing delicious fruits. But nobody dared to go there because the site was guarded by Dhenuka, a demon in the form of an ass. Finally Balarama, inseparable companion of Krishna, killed the demon by crashing him against one of the palm trees. In his contribution to 'Between the Empires' Bhandare discusses the story of 'Balarama killing the ass-demon' in the context of the coinage of Erikachha where the palm-tree and ass had been characteristic coin devices. Typologically this coin type may thus rather belong to Erikachha than to Ujjain. "Shiva and Lakshmi other deities are also depicted on the coins of ancient Ujjain, such as Karttikeya, Shashthi, Vasudhara, Krishna, Brahma and others, according to the wellfounded identifications of Devendra Handa." http://coinindia.com/galleries-ujjain2.html Azes, AE chalkous or quarter unit Weight: 2.76 gm. Dimensions: 20 x 15 mm Die axis: 12 o'clock Balarama walking left, holding club and plough, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ BA / ΣIΛEΩN M / EΓAΛOY AZOY Female deity standing right, holding fillet, monogram at right, Kharoshthi legend around (on 3 sides only): maharajasa rajatirajasa mahatasa ayasa MIG 742, Sen 78.1 63 Mitchiner identifies the obverse figure as an unidentified male deity, but Senior has correctly noted the plough, suggesting that the figure is Balarama (Senior calls him BalaKrishna). The type follows the similar type issued by Maues (Sen 20). "The Scythians or Sakas were originally a nomadic people from Central Asia who made their way into Bactria in the second century BCE. It is likely it is they who were responsible for the burning of AiKhanoum in what is now northern Afghanistan around 150 BCE. Maues was a king of this tribe who appears to have conquered territory in Kashmir and then acquired control of the area around Taxila in the Punjab. At this point, the Scythians were perhaps not as distinct from the Greeks as might be imagined, as considerable inter-marriage was probably taking place. There is a coin telling us that the so-called "Indo-Greek" king Artemidoros was the son of Maues. We also see this inter-mingling in the fact that most of Maues's coin types follow Greek prototypes. The date of Maues is still not entirely clear.The traditional dates are c. 90-60 BCE, but Artemidoros is dated to c. 85 BCE, which suggests Maues should be earlier." http://coinindia.com/galleries-maues.html Vrishni Janapada coin with hieroglyphs of iron mint and cakra. Harappa Script hieroglyphs on coins from Ancient Bharata mints. Unraveling pāradān 'mercury traders' & śrivatsa metaphor on coins and Bharhut/Sanchi sculptural friezes. Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/z57vd89 Trésor de monnaies indiennes et indo-grecques d'Aï Khanoum (Afghanistan). Les monnaies indo-grecques.(Rémy... by Srini Kalyanaraman on Scribd Krishna legends date to 4th m.BCE, since the date of Mahabharata war is 4th m.BCE. Indus Script corpora dates from ca. 3300 BCE. Yamalarjuna episodes may be evoked on the narratives of two persons contesting with uprooted trees on three Mohenjo-daro tablets. The two persons are named in Harivamsa as Nalakubera and Manigriva. Nalakubera lit. means nala 'red arsenic' PLUS kubera 'wealthy person'. Manigriva litmeans 'neck adorned with jewels, gems'.grīvāˊ f. ʻ nape of neck ʼ RV. &rcirclemacr; Pa. Pk. gīvā -- f. ʻ neck ʼ; Wg. girīw ʻ collar ʼ, grēw -aṭīˊ ʻ collar -- bone ʼ; Kt. gŕək ʻ neck ʼ, Pr. gīk; Kal. rumb. gŕā̤ ʻ neck, throat ʼ; Sh. (Lor.) grĩ ʻ dewlap (of bull), collar (of coat) ʼ, bro. grī ʻ neck ʼ; OB. gīva ʻ throat ʼ, MB. gĭ̄ma < *gīw̃a ODBL 305; Mth. gīm ʻ neck ʼ; OAw. gīva, gīu f. ʻ neck, throat ʼ, OH gī˜w f., gīw m.; G. grīv f., Si. giva. -- Poss. Kho. gri ʻ narrow pass ʼ but see girí -- .(CDIAL 4387)maṇí1 m. ʻ jewel, ornament ʼ RV.Pa. maṇi -- m. ʻ jewel ʼ, NiDoc. mani, maṁni, Pk. maṇi<-> m.f.; Gy. pal. máni ʻ button ʼ; 64 K. man m. ʻ precious stone ʼ, muñu m., müñü f. ʻ pupil of eye ʼ; S. maṇi f. ʻ jewel ʼ, maṇyo m. ʻ jewels ʼ; P. maṇī f. ʻ jewel ʼ, N. mani, Or. maṇī, Mth. manī, H. man m., manī f., maniyã̄ m.; M. maṇī m. ʻ pearl, jewel ʼ; Si. miṇa, pl. miṇi ʻ jewel ʼ; -- ext. -- kk -- : Gy. gr. minrikló m. ʻ ornament ʼ, rum. mərənkló, hung. miriklo ʻ pearl, coral ʼ, boh. miliklo, germ. merikle ʻ agate ʼ, eng. mérikli ʻ bead ʼ; Kal.rumb. ãdotdot; ʻ bead necklace ʼ; K. manka m. ʻ snake -- stone ʼ; L. maṇkā m. ʻ bead ʼ, awāṇ. miṇkā; P. maṇkā m. ʻ bead, jewel ʼ; G. maṇkɔ m. ʻ gem, bead ʼ; M. maṇkā m. ʻ large gem or bead ʼ.(CDIAL 9731) Decipherment of ALL the Indus Script Corpora inscriptions has demonstrated that they are wealth-accounting ledgers of metalwork and lapidary work with gems and jewels (e.g. etched carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli etc.beads of precious stones). It is NOT unreasonable to interpret the narrative of two contestants holding uprooted trees as recollected memories associated with Sri Krishna of 4th m. BCE. The text Harivamsa describes them as Nalakubera and Manigriva with clear association with Indus Script Corpora as wealth-accounting ledgers and catalogues. The narrative on Mohenjo-daro tablets has been conclusively deciphered with a reinforcing narrative of a spy on a tree branch. Both narratives on the tablets convey the message of eraka 'moltencast,metal infusion' Hieroglyphs: heraka'spy' erga 'jungle clearance', rebus: eraka 'moltencast,metal infusion'. Harivamsa text metaphor is that both Nalakubera (red arsenic wealth) PLUS Manigriva (neck with gems, jewels on neck) emerge from trees. The tree is an Indus Script hieroglyph: kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'.In front of a tree, an adorant kneels with a pot offering, Sign 45. bhaTa 'adorant' rebus: bhaTa 'furnace', baTa 'iron' PLUS baTa 'rimless pot' rebus: baTa 'iron' (Semantic determinative). The narrow-necked jar with lid is dhakka karaNika 'lid rim-of-jar' rebus: dhag karaNika 'blazing,bright articles (in-charge of) karaNI, Supercargo,karaNaka, helmsman'. The currycomb sign is Hieroglyph: khareḍo 'a currycomb' (Gujarati) rebus: kharada खरडें 'daybooks'. || Two linear strokes circumscribe standing person: dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting' PLUS karaNaka 'spread legs' (AV) rebus: karaaNaka 'helmsman'. Thus, helmsman with cargo of metalcastings. Read on the full decipherment at... Decipherment of three identical Harappa tablets m478 to m480 with uprooted trees narrative https://tinyurl.com/yh4n334v 65 "A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is undoubtedly Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored... In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors". Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum." https://www.speakingtree.in/allslides/shocking-facts-about-lordkrishna-no-one-knows/205896 Coin of Agathocles with Hindu deities. 'Obv Balarama-Samkarshana with Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ (Basileōs Agathokleous). Rev Vasudeva-Krishna with Brahmi legend:𑀭𑀚𑀦𑁂 𑀅𑀕𑀣𑀼𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀮𑁂𑀬𑁂𑀲 Rajane 66 Agathukleyesa "King Agathocles". Baktria, Agathokles. Circa 185-170 BC. AR Drachm. Bilingual series. BASILEWS AGAQOKLEOUS, the Indian god BalaramaSamkarshana standing facing, in ornate headdress, earrings, & sheathed sword, brandishing gada in his right hand, holding plowsymbol in left / “Rajane Agathuklayasa” in Karosthi, the Indian god Vasudeva-Krishna standing facing, in ornate headdress, earrings, & sheathed sword, holding sankha in his right hand. http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/baktria/kings/agathokles/t.html Identical regnal names Agathuklayesa (Brahmi: 𑀅𑀕𑀣𑀼𑀼𑀓𑁆𑀮𑁂𑀬𑁂𑀲) and Agathokles (Greek: ΑΓΑΘΟΚΛΕΟΥΣ) on a bilingual coin of Agathocles, used by Christian Lassen to decipher securely the first Brahmi letters. 25 Shocking facts about Lord Krishna no one knows! PRAVIN AGRAWAL, DEC 07, 2014, 16:10 IST 67 1. The Sanskrit word in its origin language Kṛṣṇa is primarily an adjective meaning "black" or "dark", sometimes it is also translated as "all attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement. As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th Name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on His Name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect His many associations and attributes. Among the most common Names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows", or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's Childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh). Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular Incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India. 68 2. A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is undoubtedly Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored. 69 3. The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu. Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth. 4. The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles". Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna. Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa, krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13. Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna. 70 5. Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (KrishnaKamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva. 6. In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors". Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum. 7. Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kansa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kāliyā, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kāliyā. 8. Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources. In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra. In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella. 9. Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens—collectively called the Ashtabharya—including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana. Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour. Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass women rehabilitation. In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi— consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi. 10. When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the 71 one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision during this time to be able to see this form of Krishna. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both reincarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha. 11. Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya, or patrani (Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura he rescued these 16,100 women and freed them. However, all of them returned to Krishna saying that because they had been kept by Narakasura none of their families would accept them and also nobody would marry any of them. So to stop them from being unprotected Krishna married them all on a single day, by taking 16,100 forms. The chief amongst them is sometimes called Rohini. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. However he never had any relations with those 16,100 women, and many Hindu scriptures describe them as dancing around Krishna, singing songs of praise. 12. The first son of Queen Rukmini was Pradyumna, and also born of her were Charudeshna, Sudeshna and the powerful Charudeha, along with Sucharu, Chharugupta, Bhadracaru, Charuchandra, Vicaru and Caru, the tenth. Pradyumna fathered the greatly powerful Aniruddha in the womb of Rukmavati, the daughter of Rukmi. This took place while they were living in the city of Bhojakata. 13. The ten sons of Satyabhama were Bhanu, Subhanu, Svarbhanu, Prabhanu, Bhanuman, Chandrabhanu, Brihadbhanu, Atibhanu (the eighth), Sribhanu and Pratibhanu. Krishna is an important deity in Hinduism and seen as a very symbolic Lord. Samba, Sumitra, Purujit, Satajit, Sahasrajit, Vijaya, Citraketu, Vasuman, Dravida and Kratu were the sons of Jambavati. These ten, headed by Samba, were their father's favorites. The sons of Nagnajiti were Vira, Candra, Asvasena, Citragu, Vegavan, Vrisha, Ama, Sanku, Vasu and the opulent Kunti. 14. Sruta, Kavi, Vrisha, Vira, Subahu, Bhadra, Santi, Darsa and Purnamasa were sons of Kalindi. Her youngest son was Somaka. Mitravinda's sons were Vrika, Harsha, Anila, Gridhra, Vardhana, Unnada, Mahamsa, Pavana, Vahni and Kshudhi. Sangramajit, Brihatsena, Sura, Praharana, Arijith, Jaya and Subhadra were the sons of Bhadra, together with Vama, Ayur and Satyaka. Lakshmana's sons were Praghosha, Gatravan, Simha, Bala, Prabala, Urdhaga, Mahasakti, Saha, Oja and Aparajita. Diptiman, Tamratapta and others were the sons of Krishna and Rohini. 15. According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all 100 sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it). 16. Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabhārata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of 72 nature. While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him.[95] Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere. 17. The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country. A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre. Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage. 18. In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba, a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century. In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu. 19. In South India, Vaishnavas usually belong to the Sri Sampradaya. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverentially about Krishna in most of their works like the Thiruppavai by Andal and Gopala Vimshati by Vedanta Desika. In South India, devotion to Krishna, as an avatar of Vishnu, spread in the face of opposition to Buddhism, Shaktism, and Shaivism and ritualistic Vedic sacrifices. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya like Manavala Mamunigal, Vedanta Desika strongly advocated surrender to Vishnu as the aim of the Vedas. Out of 108 Divya Desams there are 97 Divya Desams in South India. 20. From the 10th century AD, with the growing bhakti movement, Krishna became a favorite subject of the arts. The songs of the Gita Govinda became popular across India, and had many imitations. The songs composed by the Bhakti poets added to the repository of both folk and classical singing. The classical Indian dances, especially Odissi and Manipuri, draw heavily on the story. The 'Rasa lila' dances performed in Vrindavan shares elements with Kathak, and the Krisnattam, with some cycles, such as Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the Guruvayur temple, the precursor of Kathakali. 21. The most exalted figures in Jainism are the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Krishna, when he was incorporated into the Jain list of heroic figures, presented a problem with his activities which are not pacifist. The concept of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva was used to solve it. The Jain list of sixty-three Shalakapurshas or notable figures includes, amongst others, the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of this triad. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. He was a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsha of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahābhārata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra. 22. The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism, in the Vaibhav Jataka as a prince and legendary conqueror and king of India. In the Buddhist version, Krishna is called Vasudeva, Kanha and Keshava, and Balarama is his older brother, Baladeva. These details resemble that of the story given in the Bhagavata Purana. Vasudeva, along with his nine other brothers (each son a powerful wrestler) and one elder sister (Anjana) capture all of Jambudvipa (many consider this to be India) after beheading their evil uncle, King Kansa, and later all other kings of Jambudvipa with his Sudarshana Chakra. Much of the 73 story involving the defeat of Kansa follows the story given in the Bhagavata Purana. 23. Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Muhammad, Jesus, the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh. 24. Members of the Ahmadiyya Community believe Krishna to be a great prophet of God as described by their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. This belief is maintained by the Qur'anic Principle that God has sent prophets and messengers to every nation of the world leaving no region without divine guidance (see for instance Quran 10:47 and Quran 16:36). There is also a saying reportedly of the Islamic prophet Muhammad which says There was a prophet of God in India who was dark in colour and his name was Kanha. 25. Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century, and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, Biblical and even historical figures. For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate; while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha. Krishna was canonized by Aleister Crowley and is recognized as a saint in the Gnostic Mass of Ordo Templi Orientis. https://www.speakingtree.in/allslides/shocking-facts-about-lord-krishna-no-one-knows See: https://www.thestatesman.com/books-education/book-review-mahabharata-manthanstory-of-tangible-intangible-heritage-1502739207.html Book review.Neera Misra & Rajesh Lal, eds., 2019, Mahabharata Manthan, Delhi, BR Publishing Book: Mahabharata Manthan, Vols 1 & 2 Editors: Neera Misra & Rajesh Lal Publication: BR Publishing Corporation, 2019 74 "The Dwarkadhish temple, also known as the Jagat Mandir and occasionally spelled Dwarakadheesh, is a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Krishna, who is worshiped here by the name Dwarkadhish, or 'King of Dwarka'. The temple is located at Dwarka, Gujarat, India. The main shrine of the five storied building, supported by 72 pillars, is known as Jagat Mandir or Nija Mandir, archaeological findings suggest it to be 2,000 - 2,200 years old." 1. 1988. -Marine Archaeology of Indian Ocean Countries- S. R. Rao, page.18, text = "The Kharoshti inscription in the first floor of Sabhamandapa of Dwarkadhish Temple is assignable to 200 BC.", page.25 text = "Excavation was done by the veteran archaeologist H.D. Sankalia some twenty years ago on the western side of the present Jagat-Man- dir at Modern Dwarka and he declared that the present Dwarka was not earlier than about 200 BC." 2. 2005, L. P. Vidyarthi -Journal of Social Research - Volume 17-, text= "Inscription in brahmi found in the temple supports the fact of its construction during the Mauryan regime. Apart from this beginning, the pages of history of Dwarka and Dwarkadhish temple are full of accounts of its destruction and reconstruction in the last 2000 years." 3. 2005. -Remote Sensing And Archaeology- Alok Tripathi, page.79, text = In 1963 H.D. Sankalia carried out an archaeological excavation.. at Dwarkadheesh temple at Dwarka to solve the problem. Archaeological evidences found in this excavation were only 2000 years old https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarkadhish_Temple 75 http://www.dwarkadhish.org/ Dwarakadish temple. Dwarka the headquarters of Okhamandal taluka is in the extreme west of the Saurashtra peninsula on the Arabian Sea. It is a station on the Ahmedabad-Okha broad gauge railway line, about 137-km from Jamnagar, 217 km from Rajkot and 3v78 km from Ahmedabad. A state highwazay with Jamnagar and Okha also connects it. Nearest airport is Jamnagar. Turbinella pyrum seal. Dwaraka. Decipherment: khoNDa singhin 'spiny-horned young bull' rebus: koD singi 'ornament gold workshop' PLUS ranku 'antelope' rebus: ranku 'tin' PLUS barad, balad 'ox' rebus: baran, bharat 'mixed copper, zinc, tin alloy metal'. Thus, the seal signifies a goldsmith workshop working with tin and producing bharat 'mixed alloy metal'. See: 76 Heliodorus Vishnordhvaja, Antialkidas coins (110 BCE), ancient mint/metallurgical traditions; Chandragupta II Vikramaditya non-rusting iron Vishnordhvaja (375–414 CE). Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/zxpjjfr (Reproduced in Annex) A six-arched hill symbol surmounted by a star. Kharoshthi legend Akathukreyasa "Agathocles". Tree-in-railing, Kharoshthi legend Hirañasame. These are Indus Script hieroglyphs. dang 'hill range' rebus: dhangar 'blacksmith'; kuTi 'tree' rebus: kuThi 'smelter'. The coinage of Agathocles (circa 180 BCE) incorporated the Brahmi script and several deities from India, which have been variously interpreted as Vishnu, Shiva, Vasudeva, Balarama or the Buddha. 1. Zeus standing with goddess Hecate.[7] Greek: "King Agathokles". 2. Deity wearing a long himation with a volume on the head, arm partly bent, and contrapposto pose. Greek: "King Agathokles". This coin is in bronze. 3. Hindu god Balarama-Samkarshana with attributes. Greek: "King Agathokles". 4. Hindu god Vasudeva-Krishna with attributes. Brahmi: “Rajane Agathukleyasa”, "King Agathokles". 5. Goddess Lakshmi, holding a lotus in her right hand. Brahmi: “Rajane Agathukleyasa”, "King Agathokles". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agathocles_of_Bactria 77 Krishna Govardhana. Gupta, 4th - 6th century Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, India. This important early sculpture shows Krishna as he holds up Mt. Govardhana to shelter his disciples from a storm. The weight of the mountain does not stiffen Krishna's relaxed, tribhanga posture. The god's arms have been restored; the originals would have been more slender and graceful. Bharat Kala Bhavan is a museum on the campus of Benares Hindu University.http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/museums/bkb1.html Krishna holding Mount Govardhana, Gupta period, 4th century, from Varanasi; Bharat Kala Bhavan Museum, Varanasi. http://ganapati.free.fr/voyage/uttar/photos/p50457b.html 78 Dancing Balakrishna in sculpture. National Museum. Delhi. 8th century, Chola. 79 Balakrishna, 8th cent. bronze. Mukul Banerjee. [quote] Bala Krishna (Sanskrit: बाल-कृि bālakṛṣṇa, literally "child Krishna") sometimes translated to "Divine Child Krishna",[1] is historically one of the early forms of worship in Krishnaism and an element of the history of Krishna worship in antiquity. This tradition is considered as a part of the number of other traditions that led to amalgamation in a later stage of the historical development and culminate in worship of Radha Krishna as Svayam bhagavan. Other monotheist traditions are Bhagavatism and Cult of Gopala, that along with Cult of Krishna-Vasudeva form the basis of the current tradition of the monotheistic Krishna religion. The worship of Balakrishna, the divine child, while a significant feature of the Krishna religion, often receives less attention, however it is one of the most popular deities of Krishna in many parts of India today. Early evidence of such worship can be found or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vāsudeva (as the son of Vasudeva 80 was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme Being was perfect, eternal and full of grace. Some of the miraculous acts of the form are notable. Its is believed that Putana, a huge monster, was killed when the baby Krishna sucked her life from her by taking the poisoned breast she offered him. Bala-Krishna is often depicted as a small child crawling on his hands and knees or dancing with a piece of butter in his hand. In the Bhagavad Gita, it appears Krishna is teaching a universal monotheistic religion of personal God and reveals himself to be all-God, svayam bhagavan. The historical fusion of Krishna with Vishnu involved a transfer of many of Vishnu's epithets, as well as his functions, to Krishna. The childhood episodes of Krishna's legend became the focus of the medieval devotional cults that started to develop in a number of movements in medieval India. The Chola Empire ---------------The Chola dynasty (Tamil: சேொழர் குலம் [ˈt͡ʃoːɻə]) was a Tamil dynasty which was one of the longest-ruling in some parts of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Hindu dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, a northern ruler; the dynasty continued to reign over varying territory until the 13th century AD. The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-east Asia. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the celebrated expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the overthrow after an unprecedented naval war of the maritime empire of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated embassies to China. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of what is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago. The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyas, who ultimately caused their downfall. The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture.The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity.They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. 81 The Chola Art ------------The period of the imperial Cholas (c. 850 CE - 1250 CE) was an age of continuous improvement and refinement of the Dravidian art and architecture. They utilised their prodigious wealth earned through their extensive conquests in building long-lasting stone temples and exquisite bronze sculptures. Most of these still stand proudly articulating those glorious days. The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Among the existing specimens in the various museums of the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, Siva saints and many more. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptor worked in great freedom in the eleventh and the twelfth centuries and the sculptures and bronzes show classic grace, grandeur and perfect taste. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer. While the stone sculptures and the inner sanctum image empowering the temple remained immovable, changing religious concepts during the 10th century demanded that the deities take part in a variety of public roles similar to those of a human monarch. As a result, large bronze images were created to be carried outside the temple to participate in daily rituals, processions, and temple festivals. The round lugs and holes found on the bases of many of these sculptures are for the poles that were used to carry the heavy images. Admired for the sensuous depiction of the figure and the detailed treatment of their clothing and jewelry, Although bronze casting has a long history in south India, a much larger and a much greater number of bronze sculptures were cast during the Chola period than before, further attesting to the importance of bronze sculpture during this period. It should be noted that when in worship, these images are covered in silk cloths, garlands, and jewels, and would not appear as they do outside a religious context. Decorating the bronzes in this way is a tradition at least a thousand years old as such decorations are referred to in 10th-century Chola inscriptions. Hundreds of Chola bronzes have been smuggled out of India and have found their way into the private museums of art-collectors. Chola period bronzes were created using the lost wax technique. It is known in artistic terms as "Cire Perdue". The Sanskrit Shilpa texts call it the Madhu Uchchishtta Vidhana. Beeswax and kungilium (a type of camphor) are mixed with a little oil and kneaded well. The figure is sculpted from this mixture fashioning all the minute details. This is the wax model original. The entire figure is then coated with clay made from termite hills until the mould is of a necessary thickness. Then the whole thing is dried and fired in an oven with cow-dung cakes. The wax model melts and flows out, while some of it vapourises. The metal alloy of bronze is melted and poured into the empty clay-mould. This particular bronze alloy is known as Pancha Loham. When the metal has filled all crevices and has settled and hardened and cooled, the mould is broken off. The bronze figure thus obtained is 82 then cleaned, finer details are added, blemishes are removed, smoothened, and polished well. Hence each bronze icon is unique and the mould cannot be used to create copies. The forms of Chola bronzes are very plastic. They are devoid of intricate ornaments and designs. They are very expressive. There is grace, elegance, beauty, and above all else - life. By means of the facial expressions and gestures or mudras and the pose, we can imagine the surroundings of the figure of the god or goddess; what instrument or weapon he or she is holding; what he or she is leaning on; and what he or she is doing or about to do. There is a pose called Rishabaandhika pose. We see Siva standing with one leg crossed over to the other side, across the other leg . We see that the way His arm is flexed and raised, it is resting on something. The way that His body is tilted suggests that He is leaning on something. In this scenario, Siva is leaning on his bull-vahana, Nandhi, on whose shoulders He is resting His arm. The most famous of all the bronze icons is that of Nataraja.The symbolism presents Siva as lord of the cosmic dance of creation and destruction. He is active, yet aloof, like the gods on the Parthenon Frieze. Surrounding Siva, a circle of flames represents the universe, whose fire is held in Shiva's left rear palm. His left front arm crosses his chest, the hand pointing in "elephant trunk" position (gaja hasta) to his upraised left foot, which signifies liberation. His right foot tramples the dwarf Apasmara, who represents ignorance. Siva's right front hand is raised in the "fear-not" gesture of benediction (abhaya mudra), while his right rear hand holds a drum with which he beats the measure of the dance. The snake, an emblem of Siva, curls around his arm. His hair holds the crescent moon - another emblem - and a small image of Ganges, the river-goddess whose precipitous fall from heaven to earth is broken by Siva's matted locks. In 1931, Chola frescoes were discovered within the circumambulatory corridor of the Brihadisvara Temple, by S.K.Govindasamy, a professor at the Annamalai University. These are the first Chola paintings discovered. The passage of the corridor is dark and the walls on either side are covered with two layers of paintings from floor to ceiling. Researchers have discovered the technique used in these frescoes. A smooth batter of limestone mixture is applied over the stones, which took two to three days to set. Within that short span, such large paintings were painted with natural organic pigments. During the Nayak period, the Chola paintings were painted over. The Chola frescos lying underneath have an ardent spirit of saivism is expressed in them. They probably synchronised with the completion of the temple by Rajaraja Chola. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholas en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_art[unquote] Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/mukulb/5316058577 83 Balakrishna dancing, 14th cent. bronze. Honolulu Academy of Arts. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dancing_Krishna,_India,_Tanjore,_Tamil_Nad u,_Chola_dynasty,_14th_century,_bronze,_HAA.JPG Bala Krishna dancing, 8th CE Chola sculpture, Tamil Nadu.from National Museum, New Delhi. The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horsecharioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna. 84 https://www.speakingtree.in/blog/lord-lord-krishna-2 Annex Heliodorus Vishnordhvaja, Antialkidas coins (110 BCE), ancient mint/metallurgical traditions; Chandragupta II Vikramaditya non-rusting iron Vishnordhvaja (375–414 CE). Mirror: http://tinyurl.com/zxpjjfr Greek culture in Afghanistan and India: Shane Wallace. Vaishnavam pre-dates Christ by 2 centuries, Brahmi inscription on Besnagar Heliodorus pillar. Commemoration by erecting a yūpa (skambha) is a tradition traceable to Binjor on Saravati River Basin which evidences अष्टार्श्र yūpa of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization ca. 2500 BCE commemorating Soma Samsthā yāga (in Rigveda tradition). I suggest that the cakra atop the Vishnordhvaja of Chandragupta Vikramaditya signifies vajra as caṣāla of Skambha (yūpa) in Rigveda tradition (of Khamb baba in local tradition, of Atharva Veda Skambha sukta AV X.7,8) -- a metaphor which unites Vaiṣṇava and Śaiva traditions related to ancient metallurgy (carburization of metal using godhūma, wheat-chaff carbon fumes) of Bhāratam Janam. The abiding mint/metallurgical traditions are traceable to: (1) Heliodorus Vishnordhvaja and Antialkidas coins of ca. 110 BCE and (2) Harappa Script hypertext signifiers (elephant, spoked-wheel, yūpa -- as at अष्टार्श्र yūpa of Binjor on Sarasvati River basin) of metal-/mint-work. अष्टार्श्र yūpa of Binjor, ca. 2500 BCE 85 Schematic of chakra image atop the Delhi iron pillar capital. The relative proportions of the various sections have been strictly maintained based on actual measurements. . (After Fig. 8 in Balasubramaniam&Meera I Dass, 2004) Standing Vishnu panel to the left of the entrance of cave 6 at Udayagiri (Photograph courtesy: Kern Institute Leiden and G. Foekema). (After Fig. 9 in Balasubramaniam&Meera I Dass, 2004) Iron pillar inscription specifically refers to Vishnordhvajah. The non-rusting iron pillar of Vidisha now in Delhi is dated to Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–414 CE). http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/apr252004/1134.pdf On the astronomical significance of the Delhi iron pillar R. Balasubramaniam1,* and Meera I. Dass2 in: CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 86, NO. 8, 25 APRIL 2004. A stone pillar which is a model for the iron pillar is by the Vaishnava Heliodorus dated to ca. 110 BCE. 86 On ancient coins, Antialkidas wears a helmet with bull's horns or a flat kausia. An elephant appears on the reverse/obverse of many coins. This is a Harappa Script hieroglyph which signifies Meluhha: karba, ibha 'elephant' rebus: karba, ib 'iron'; ibbo 'merchant. He also appears to brandish a spear on one coin. A thunderbolt appears over his shoulder on another coin. Baktria, Antialkidas AR Tetradrachm. Bilingual series. BASILEWS NIKHFOROU ANTIALKIDOU, heroic diademed bust left, in aegis, brandishing spear in his right hand / Maharajasa jayadharasa Amtialikidasa in Karosthi, Zeus standing facing, holding sceptre in his right hand; behind, elephant standing left, small Nike standing left on its head, holding wreath; monogram to lower left. http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/greece/baktria/kings/antialkidas/t.html Classical Numismatic Group BAKTRIA, Indo-Greek Kingdom. Antialkidas Nikephoros. Circa 130-120 BC. AR Drachm (18mm, 2.43 g, 12h). Diademed, draped, and cuirassed bust right, wearing crested helmet adorned with bull's horn and ear / Zeus Nikephoros enthroned slightly left; to left, forepart of elephant left, holding wreath in trunk; monogram below throne. Bopearachchi 12C; HGC 12, 258 . EF, traces of toning in devices, lustrous. From the 87 Allan Smith, M.D. Collection. http://www.coinarchives.com/a/results.php?results=100&search=Antialkidas Abstract In 1888 Rudyard Kipling published a collection of short-stories entitled The Phantom Rickshaw and Other Eerie Tales. Perhaps the most famous of these stories, ‘The Man Who Would Be King’, recounted the adventures of two British military veterans, Peachy Carnahan and Daniel Dravot Esq., played by Michael Caine and Sean Connery in John Huston's 1975 film of the same name. Both men have seen India's cities and jungles, jails and palaces, and have decided that she is too small for the likes of they. So, they set out to become kings of Kafiristan, a mountainous, isolated, and unstudied country beyond the Hindu Kush in north-eastern Afghanistan. They confide their plan to their recent acquaintance Rudyard Kipling (Christopher Plummer), then editor of the Northern Star, who calls them mad. No man, he says, has made it to Kafiristan since Alexander the Great, to which Peachy replies ‘If a Greek can do it, we can do it.’ What they find in north-eastern Afghanistan are the last remnants of Alexander the Great's empire, a local culture and religion part-Greek and part-Kafiri. The story is fiction, but aspects of its historical context are true. Alexander spent most of the years 330–325 campaigning in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India, and he left behind Greek kingdoms and culture that flourished throughout the Hellenistic period and even later. Traces of these Greek kingdoms are continually coming to light and the archaeological, artistic, and epigraphic evidence coming out of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India reveals a prosperous and culturally diverse kingdom. Source: Wallace, Shane, 2016, Greek culture in Afghanistan and India: old evidence and new discoveries, in: Greece and Rome, Volume 63, Issue 2October 2016, pp. 205-226 https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/greece -and-rome/article/greekculture-in-afghanistan-and-india-old-evidence-and-newdiscoveries/B3F52FAB547670C9C6FE9F4 9BA1CFD66 Full text of the article has been uploaded on academia.edu.The URL is: https://www.academia.edu/25638818/Greek_Culture_in_Af (embedded) Corresponding author: swallace@tcd.ie https://www.scribd.com/document/329096101/Wallace-Shane-2016-Greek-culture-inAfghanistan-and-India-old-evidence-and-new-discoveries-Shane-Wallace-2016 Linked references R.Mairs , The Hellenistic Far East. Archaeology, Language, and Identity in Greek Central Asia (Berkeley, CA, 2014) P.Kosmin , The Land of the Elephant Kings. Space, Territory, and Ideology in the Seleucid Empire (Cambridge, MA, 2014) 88 M.Austin , The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest. A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation (Cambridge, 2006) E Erik Seldeslachts , ‘Greece, the Final Frontier? The Westward Spread of Buddhism’, in A.Heirman and S. P.Bumbacher (eds.), The Spread of Buddhism (Leiden, 2007), 131–66 V.-P.Yailenko , ‘Les maximes delphiques d'Ai Khanoum et la formation de la doctrine du dhamma d'Asoka’, DHA 16 (1990), 239–56 C.Rapin , ‘Les inscriptions économiques de la trésorerie d'Aï Khanoum (Afghanistan)’, BCH 107 (1983), 315–72; Narain (n. 47) I present excerpts from this article on Prakrtam inscription (on Heliodorus pillar of VIdisha) and coin legend (Antiaklidas) referred to and discussed by Shane Wallace. 89 Map of Central Asia from the end of the Achaemenid period to the Hellenistic period, including Sogdiana and Bactria. (C) Claude Rapin The pillar of Heliodora, India [quote]This pillar, from modern Besnagar, is a dedication to the god Vasudeva and preserves the dedicatory inscription of one Heliodora son of Diya of Takhkhasila (Heliodoros son of Dion of Taxila), a ‘Greek’ ambassador from King Amtalikita (Antialkidas). It dates from the late second century.56 The script is Brahmi but the language is Pra krit. Excavationsfrom 1963 to 1965 detected the remains of an elliptical temple building around the pillar which dated from the fourth century. Other pillars originally stood on site, and at least three capitals have been found. The Heliodora pillar, like Heliodotos’ altar, existed as part of a wider religious complex.57 [De]vadevasa V[ã][sude]vasa garudadhvaje ayam kãrit[e] i[a?] Heliodorena bhãgavatena Diyasa putrena Ta[khkha]silãkena Yonadûtena ãgatena mahãrãjasa Amtalikitasa upa[m]tã sakãsam raño 5 Kãsîput[r]asa Bhãgabhadrasa trãtãrasa vasena ca[tu]dasena rãjena vadhamãnasa trini amuta-pãd[ã]ni [i][me?] [su]anuthitãni neyamti sva[gam] dam[e] cãga apramãda This Garuda-pillar of Vãsudeva, the god of gods, was constructed here by Heliodora, the Bhãgavata, son of Diya, of Takhkhasilã, the Greek ambassador who came from the Great King Amtalikita to King Kãsîputra Bhãgabhadra, the Savior, prospering in (his) fourteenth regnal year. (These?) three steps to immortality, when correctly followed, lead to heaven: control, generosity, and attention.58 A man with an Indianized Greek name dedicates an Indian -style pillar, in an Indian language, at an Indian religious site, to an Indian deity. He is clearly presenting himself within an Indian cultural and religious context. This is possibly connected with his mission to the Indian court, but as a resident of Taxila in Pakistan – a site which has produced evidence of Indian deities – it is possible that Heliodora was already a worshipper of Vasudeva. 56 Narain (n. 3 [1957]), 118–20. 57 J. Irwin, ‘The Heliodorus Pillar at Besnagar’, Pur ātattva 8 (1975–6), 166– 76; Mairs (n. 3), 117–33. 58 Translation from R. Salomon, Indian Epigraphy. A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo -Aryan Languages (Oxford, 1998), 265–7. 90 As with the dedication of Heliodotos and the stele of Sophytos, this monument is culturally monolingual, but it does describe Heliodora as a yona-dutena or ‘Greek ambassador’ of King Amtalikita, known from his frequently bilingual coins as Antialkidas Nikephoros, who ruled part of the Punjab in the late second and early first centuries (see figure 3). We do not know whether this is Heliodora’s self-representation as the pillar’s dedicator or a description of him by the text’s author, but it highlights a strong contrast between the Indian context of the dedication and theGreek definition of the dedicator. With his movement from the royal court of an Indo-Greek king to the religious world of Indian dedications, Heliodora expresses – but does not necessarily prove – a greater degree of cultural fluency than Sophytos. By the use of a specific ethnic title, this monument reveals his cultural bilingualism, moving from a Greek diplomatic context to an Indian religious one. However, this dedication is a single moment in Heliodora’s life.We do not know how he would have presented himself in a Greek text or a Greek context, nor do we know how his Indian and Greek identities overlapped in his family, upbringing, daily life, or career. Administrative texts from Ai Khanoum, Sangcharak, and Takht-i Sangin Fig. 3 Silver tetradrachm of King Antialkidas, c.115–95. Obverse: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΝΙΚΗΦΟΡΟΥ ΑΝΤΑΛΚΙΔΟΥ in Greek. Reverse: Maharajasa jayadharasa amtialikidasa in Karoshti. © Classical Numismatic Group A series of administrative texts from throughout Bactria reveal the stratigraphy of the ruling class during the Hellenistic period. From thesedocuments it appears that the upper echelon of the administration consisted primarily of people with Greek names, while the lower echelon consisted by and large of people with Bactrian and Iranian names. While such social stratigraphy might reflect the realities of a bilingual administrative system – Greek at the upper levels, Bactrian at the lower – it might also represent the use of situational identities, whereby a person assumed different cultural identities in different contexts, meaning that a Greek name might reflect an individual’s position in the GrecoMacedonian socio-political hierarchy rather than his ethnicity. In short, we should be careful not to ascribe ethnicity from names alone. [unquote](pp.222-224) 91 Heliodorus pillar, Besnagar (Vidisha), ca. 113 BCE 92 http://dsal.uchicago.edu/images/aiis/aiis_search.html?depth=large&id=35801 93 The dedication of the Heliodorus pillar was made by Heliodorus, ambassador of the IndoGreek king Antialkidas (here depicted on one of his coins).c. 115-95 BCE Silver drachm of King Antialcidas. Obv: Bust of Antialcidas wearing a helmet, with Greek legend BASILEOS NIKEPHOROU ANTIALKIDOU "Of Victorious King Antialkidas". Rev:Seated Zeus holding sceptre, with Nike on his extended arm, holding out a wreath to a baby elephant with bell. Kharoshti legend: MAHARAJASA JAYADHARASA ANTIALIKITASA "Victorious King Antialkidas". Reign 130 BCE - 120 BCE (RC Senior) 115 BCE - 95 BCE (Boppearachchi) Titles NIKEPHOROU "Victorious" [quote]Coins minted during the time period of Antialcidas depict Dios Krishna with lotustipped sceptre, in front of an elephant with a bell (symbol of Taxila), surmouted by Nike holding a wreath, crowning the elephant. The coins carry the inscription "BASILEOS NIKEPHOROU ANTIALKIDOU". These coins were also minted at the Pushkalavati mint and carry the same inscription in Kharoṣṭhī script. Zeus' Eagle messenger and companion Aetos Dios,[2] was considered as Zeus himself. "When you [Zeus] were an eagle, when you picked up the boy [Ganymede] on the slopes of Teukrian Ida with greedy gentle claw, and brought him to heaven." - Nonnus, Dionysiaca 10. 308 ff Aetos Dios was also considered a "messenger of God (Zeus)" and adopted by the Greek and Roman military: "he put a golden eagle on his war standards and dedicated it as a protection for his valour" - Anacreon, Fragment 505d (from Fulgentius, Mythologies) (trans. Campbell, Vol. Greek Lyric II) (Greek lyric 6th century BC)[unquote] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliodorus_pillar http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2011/11/antialcidas-coins-in-kharosti-but-his.html 94 Antialcidas coins in kharoṣṭī but his ambassador Heriodorus prayer in brāhmī script Antialcidas sent an Embassy (Heliodorus) to Vidisa in central India. at the court of the Sunga king Bhagabhadra at Vidisha, near Sanchi. Antialcidas and his contemporary, Lycias who minted coins, inscribed on their coins using Greek and kharoṣṭī scripts. But the inscription on the Vidisa pillar (stone) is only in brāhmī script. Antialcidas also minted some series of Attic tetradrachms and drachms (with legend in Greek only), used for circulation in Bactria. Antialkidas Nikephoros 'Victorious' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antialcidas 95 Coin of the Indo-Graeco king Antialkidas. Obverse: Bust of Antialcidas wearing aegis and holding a spear, with Greek legend BASILEOS NIKEPHOROU ANTIALKIDOU "Of Victorious King Antialkidas". Reverse: Zeus with lotus-tipped sceptre, in front of an elephant with a bell (symbol of Taxila), surmouted by Nike holding a wreath, crowning the elephant. Kharoshti legend: MAHARAJASA JAYADHARASA ANTIALIKITASA "Victorious King Antialcidas". Pushkalavati mint. Reign 130–120 BCE (R. C. Senior) 115–95 BCE (Boppearachchi) Pillar with the Brahmi inscription 1) Devadevasu Va[sude]vasa Garudadhvajo ayam 2) Karito ia Heliodorena bhaga 3) Vatena Diyasa putrena Takhasilakena 4) Yonadatena agatena maharajasa 5) Amtalikitasa upa[m]ta samkasam-rano 6) Kasiput[r]asa [Bh]agabhadrasa tratarasa 7) Vasena [chatu]dasena rajena vadhamanasa 96 "This Garuda-standard was made by order of the Bhagavata ……….Heliodoros, the son of Dion, a man of Taxila, a Greek ambassador from King Antialkidas, to King Bhagabhadra, the son of the Princess from Benares, the saviour, while prospering in the fourteenth year of his reign."(Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (19081909) Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1912, p.129 Bhagabhadra was one of the kings of the Indian Sunga dynasty. Heruled in north, central , and eastern India around 110 BCE. Although the capital of the Sungas was at Pataliputra , hewas also known to have held court at Vidisha. He is best known from an inscription at the site of Vidisha in central India, the Heliodorus pillar, in which contactswith an embassy from the IndoGreek king Antialcidas is recorded, and where he is named "KasiputraBhagabhadra, the S aviorson of the princess from Benares": :"Devadevasa Va [sude] vasa Garudadhvajo ayam:"karito i [a] Heliodorena bhaga- :"va tena Diyasa putrenaTakhasilakena:"Yonadatena agatena maharajasa:"Amtalikitasa upa [m] ta samkasamrano :"Kasiput [r] asa [Bh] agabhadrasa tratarasa:"vasena [chatu] dasena rajena vadha manasa" :"This Garuda standard of Vasudeva (Krishna or Vishnu), the God of Gods:was erected h ere by the devoteeHeliodoros,:the son of Dion, a man of Taxila,:sent by the Great Greek ( Yona) King :Antialkidas, as ambassadorto:King Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, the Savior:son o f the princess from Benares, in the fourteenth year of his reign." :(Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (1908-1909)) This inscription is important in that in tends to validate that the Sungas ruled in the area of Vidisa around 100 BCE. This is also corroborated by some artistic realization on the nea rby Sanchi stupa thought to belong to the period of the Sungas. Altogether, three Sunga pillars have also been found in the area. [ [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00043648%281975%2937%3A1%2F2%3C101%3AASCFV%3E2.0.CO%3B2R&size=LARGE Source] ] It is thought that name Bhagabhadra also appears in the regnal lists of the Sungas in the P uranic records, underthe name Bhadraka, fifth Sunga ruler of the Sungas. http://partners.a cademic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/1820831 97 Inscription on the board by ASI on the base of the pillar First inscription of Heliodorus, 110 BCE The second inscription on the pillar describes in more detail the spiritual content of the faith supported by Heliodorus: 98 Trini amutapadani‹[su] anuthitani nayamti svaga damo chago apramado Three immortal precepts (footsteps)... when practiced lead to heaven: self-restraint, charity, conscientiousness "It is also interesting to note that the Heliodorus column has other historical merits. Around the turn of the century, a number of Indologists (Weber, Macnicol, and others) had noted " points of similarity' between the Vaisnava philosophy of unalloyed devotion and Christian doctrine. They had argued that Vaishnavism (worship of Visnu and Krsna) must have been an offshoot of Christianity, and cited the similarity between stories about Krsna and about Christ to further support their claim.(9) But the discovery of the inscription on the Heliodorus column laid their speculations to rest. Here was conclusive archaeological proof that the Vaisnava tradition antedated Christianity by at least two hundred years. The column also struck down another popular notion. For centuries it was a common belief among scholars that India's orthodox tradition did not accept converts. An Islamic historian, Abu Raihan Alberuni, who went to India in A.D. 1017, tried to explain in his book Indica why the Indian orthodoxy did not admit foreigners. Alberuni suggested that the practice developed only after the Moslem incursion into India, sometime after A.D. 674.(10) Antagonism between the Moslems and Hindus seems to be the main reason behind the non conversion practice. For many centuries prior to Moslem presence, however, there had been no bar to conversion into the orthodox fold, as attested by the Heliodorus column." Notes 1. Suvari Jaiswal, The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism (New Delhi: Munsiram Manoharlal, 1980), p.116 2. A.L. Basham, ed., A Cultural History of India (London: Clarendon Press, 1974), p. 431. 3. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (London: JRAS, Pub., 1909) pp.1053-54. 4. Ibid 5. Ibid 6. Kunja Govinda Goswami, A Study of Vaisnavism (Calcutta: Oriental Book Agency, 1956) p.6. 7. A.L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India 3rd ed.( Oxford: Taplinger Pub. Co,1967), p.60. 8. Steven J. Gelberg, ed., Hare Krsna Hare Krsna ( New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1983), p.117. 9. Jaiswal, Op. Cit., p.2 10. Ahmad H. Dani, Alberuni's India (Lexhore, India: Univ. of Islamabad, 1973), p.37. http://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/heliodorus-column • • • • The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies by Thomas McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual Arts, 2002) ISBN 1-58115-203-5 Buddhism in Central Asia by B. N. Puri (Motilal Banarsidass, January 1, 2000) ISBN 81-208-0372-8 The Greeks in Bactria and India, W. W. Tarn, Cambridge University Press. The Indo-Greeks, A. K. Narain, B.R Publications 99 • The Decline of the Indo-Greeks, R. C. Senior & D. MacDonald, the Hellenistic Numismatic Society https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliodorus_pillar Indo-Greeks: Antialcidas (c. 115-95 BCE) Antialcidas (also spelled Antialkidas) was one of the few Indo-Greek kings for whom we have evidence other than his coins. A few miles from the ancient city of Sanchi, there is a stone pillar (known as the Heliodorus pillar) that mentions him as the Greek king who sent his ambassador Heliodorus to the court of the king Bhagabhadra. At the time, the Sungas ruled in the area, so Bhagabhadra must have been a Sunga king. The purpose of the embassy is not specified. In all likelihood, Antialcidas followed Lysias in the area of Kabul and Kapisa. The two kings share all the same monograms, and there exist two mule coins that consist of the obverse of one king and the reverse of the other. The common monograms and the mules show that the two kings used the same mints, either contemporaneously or, more probably, in immediate sequence. Monolingual (Attic standard) Coins Antialcidas, Silver (Attic weight) tetradrachm Weight: 16.73 gm. Diameter: n.a. Die axis: 11h Diademed, helmeted bust of king right, bead and reel border around Zeus enthroned three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, forepart of elephant at left monogram at right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Basileos Nikepherou Antialkidou ... (of King Antialcidas, the Victorious) Reference: MIG 270a, Bop 2A Antialcidas issued at least four different types of Attic weight tetradrachms which carried only Greek legends. These included two with the helmeted bust, as on this coin, but with two different legend arrangements (see next coin for the other arrangement), and one each with a bare-headed bust and a bust with the king wearing a kausia.He also issued at least two different monolingual drachms, a helmeted type and a kausia type. Thus his Attic coinage was the most extensive of all the Greek kings who ruled south of the Hindu Kush. Whether this was because he 100 acquired territory in Bactria, north of the Hindu Kush, or simply an indication of a stronger nostalgia for the days when Greek kings ruled in Bactria, is not known. By this time, as far as we can tell, Bactria was under Scythian rule. (photo, courtesy CNG) Antialcidas, Silver drachm Weight: 2.18 gm. Diameter: n.a. Die axis: 11h Diademed, helmeted bust of king right, bead and reel border around Zeus enthroned three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, forepart of elephant at left monogram at right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Reference: MIG 270a, Bop 2A This coin, offered in a recent auction sale, is a new discovery, as no monolingual helmeted drachm was known previously. The coin shows an alternative legend arrangement to the one in the previous coin; this arrangement is known on the tetradrachm. Bilingual (Indian standard) issues 101 Antialcidas, Silver tetradrachm Weight: 9.79 gm. Diameter: 25 mm Die axis: 12h Diademed, bare-headed bust of king right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Zeus standing three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, behind Zeus, Elephant walking left with trunk raised, standing on elephant's head, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, monogram at left, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 273a, Bop 6A Indian standard, bilingual, tetradrachms are known with the bare-headed bust (this coin), the helmeted bust, (next coin) and the spearthruster bust (following two coins). No bilingual tetradrachms with the king wearing a kausia are known. Antialcidas, Silver tetradrachm Weight: 9.59 gm. Diameter: 26 mm Die axis: 12h Diademed, helmeted bust of king right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY 102 Zeus standing three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, behind Zeus, Elephant walking left with trunk raised, standing on elephant's head, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, monogram at left, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG ---, Bop 7E Antialcidas, Silver tetradrachm Weight: 9.59 gm. Diameter: 26 mm Die axis: 12h Diademed, helmeted bust of king right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Zeus standing three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, behind Zeus, Elephant walking left with trunk raised, standing on elephant's head, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, monogram at left, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG ---, Bop 7E Antialcidas, Silver tetradrachm Weight: 9.62 gm. Diameter: 27 mm Die axis: 1h Seen from behind, diademed bust of king left, holding spear in right hand 103 Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Zeus standing three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, behind Zeus, Elephant walking left with trunk raised, standing on elephant's head, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, monogram at left, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 274a, Bop 8A Antialcidas, Silver tetradrachm Weight: 9.13 gm. Diameter: 24 mm Die axis: 1h Seen from behind, diademed bust of king left, holding spear in right hand Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Zeus standing three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, behind Zeus, Elephant walking left with trunk raised, standing on elephant's head, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, monogram at left, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 274a, Bop 8A Antialcidas, Silver drachm Weight: 2.40 gm. Diameter: 17 mm Die axis: 11h 104 Diademed bust of king right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Zeus enthroned three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, forepart of elephant at left monogram at right, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 275b, Bop 9A Indian standard, bilingual, drachms are known with the bare-headed bust (this and the next two varieties), the helmeted bust, and the kausia-topped bust. No bilingual drachms with the spearthruster bust are known. Antialcidas, Silver drachm Weight: 2.46 gm. Diameter: 17 mm Die axis: 1h Diademed bust of king right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Zeus enthroned three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, forepart of elephant at left monogram at right, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 275b, Bop 9A On this variety of the previous coin, the forepart of elephant in the reverse left field faces left rather than right. (photo, courtesy CNG) 105 Antialcidas, Silver drachm Weight: 2.40 gm. Diameter: na Die axis: 11h Diademed bust of king right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Zeus enthroned three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, wreath and palm in right hand, forepart of elephant at left, monogram at right, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 276 type, Bop 10A On this variety, Zeus holds a wreath and palm instead of Nike. (photo, courtesy CNG) Antialcidas, Silver drachm Weight: 2.44 gm. Diameter: 16 mm Die axis: 12h Diademed, helmeted bust of king right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Zeus enthroned three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, forepart of elephant at left 106 monogram at right, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 279a, Bop 12A Antialcidas, Silver drachm Weight: 2.49 gm. Diameter: 17 mm Die axis: 12h Diademed, helmeted bust of king right, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Zeus enthroned three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, forepart of elephant at left monogram at right, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 279a, Bop 12A Antialcidas, Silver drachm Weight: 2.43 gm. Diameter: 17 mm Die axis: 12h Diademed bust of king right, wearing kausia, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Zeus enthroned three-quarters left, holding sceptre in left hand, 107 Winged Nike holding wreath in right hand, forepart of elephant at left monogram at right, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 277a, Bop 13A Antialcidas, Bronze Quadruple Weight: 8.41 gm. Diameter: 26 mm Die axis: 12h Bust of Zeus right, holding thunderbolt in right hand, Greek legend around: BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Caps and palms of the Dioscuri (sons of Zeus), monogram at left, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 281a, Bop 14A The use of the caps and palms of the Dioscuri on the reverse of the bronze coinage connects Antialkidas with Eucratides. (photo, courtesy CNG) Antialcidas, Bronze Double Weight: 4.00 gm. Diameter: 22 mm Die axis: 12h Bust of Zeus right, holding thunderbolt in right hand, Greek legend around: 108 BAΣIΛEΩΣ NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Caps and palms of the Dioscuri (sons of Zeus), monogram at left, Kharoshthi legend around: maharajasa jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 282a, Bop 15A This is one of the few Indo-Greek bronze coins in multiple denominations. Antialcidas, Bronze Quadruple Weight: 7.65 gm. Dimensions: 18 x 17 mm Die axis: 12h Bust of Zeus right, holding thunderbolt in right hand, Greek legend on three sides: BAΣIΛEΩΣ / NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY Caps and palms of the Dioscuri, monogram at left, Kharoshthi legend on three sides: maharajasa / jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 280b, Bop 16B Antialcidas, Bronze Quadruple Weight: 9.36 gm. Dimensions: na Die axis: na Bust of Zeus right, thunderbolt over left shoulder, Greek legend on three sides: BAΣIΛEΩΣ / NIKHΦOPOY / ANTIAΛKIΔOY 109 Caps and palms of the Dioscuri, monogram at left, Kharoshthi legend on three sides: maharajasa / jayadharasa / amtialikidasa Reference: MIG 280c, Bop 17C On this variety, the thunderbolt is perched on Zeus's left shoulder, rather than being held in his right hand. (photo, courtesy CNG) http://coinindia.com/galleries-antialcidas.html Note: Are they 'caps' or śivalinga which signify two (dula 'two' rebus: dul 'metal casting') Skambha (yūpa) with caṣāla (vajra) or carburization to harden metal alloys in smelters of mints? S. Kalyanaraman Sarasvati Research Center October 27, 2016 Wallace, Shane, 2016, Greek culture in Afghanistan and India: old evidence and new discoveries (Shane Walla... by Srini Kalyanaraman on Scribd Legacy of the Indo-Greeks The Legacy of the Indo-Greeks starts with the formal end of the Indo-Greek Kingdom from the 1st century CE, as the Greek communities of central Asia and northwestern India lived under the control of the Kushan branch of the Yuezhi, apart from a short-lived invasion of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom. ["Though the Indo-Greek monarchies seem to have ended in the first century BC, the Greek presence in India and Bactria remained strong", McEvilley, p.379] The Kushans founded the Kushan Empire, which was to prosper for several centuries. In the south, the Greeks were under the rule of the Western Kshatrapas. 110 It is unclear how much longer the Greeks managed to maintain a distinct presence in the Indian sub-continent. Political legacy The 36 Indo-Greek kings known through epigraphy or through their coins belong to the period between 180 BCE to 10–20 CE. [Boppearachchi, "Monnaies IndoGrecques"] There are a few hints of a later Indo-Greek political presence in the Indian subcontinent. Theodamas, known from an inscription on a signet, may have been an Indo-Greek ruler in the Bajaur area in the 1st century CE. In the 3rd century, the Scythian Western Satraps seem to have relied on Greeks, such as Yavanesvara ("Lord of the Greeks"), who may have been organized in more or less independent "poleis". [McEvilley, p385] Some sort of Greek political organization is thought to have existed in the first half of the 4th century after the rule of the Satavahanas. [David Pingree, "The Yavanajataka of Sphujidhvaja", p4. Quotes in McEvilley, p385] This is also suggested by the Puranas (the Matsya Purana, the Vayu Purana, the Brahmanda Purana, the Vishnu Purana, the Bhagavata Purana) which give a list of the dynasties who ruled following the decline of the Satavahanas: this list includes 8 Yavana kings, thought to be some dynasty of Greek descent, although they are not otherwise known. [Comments given in Rapson "Catalogue of the Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc...", Rapson, p LXVIII: "These must, no doubt, belong to some dynasty of Greek descent, but it is impossible to determine which dynasty this could have been" The full list, with comments, is given in Rapson "Catalogue of the Indian coins in the British Museum. Andhras etc...", Rapson, p LXVIII::* 7 other Andhras kings (called "Andhrabhrytias", or "Servant of the Andhras", probably the Chutus in the Western and Southern districts.:* 10 Abhira kings, who ruled in the area of Nasik.:* 7 Gardabhila kings, who ruled in the area of Ujjain:* 18 Saka kings, probably the Western Satraps.:* 8 Yavana kings, thought to be some dynasty of Greek descent.:* 14 Tusara kings (also called Tuskaras), thought to be the Kushans (who are called "Turuska" in the Rajatarangini).:* 13 Murunda or Gurunda kings.:* 21 Huna kings (also called Maunas), probably the Indo-Hephthalites.] According to one theory however, the Southern Indian dynasty of the Chalukyas was named after "Seleukia" (the Seleucids), [Dr. Lewis Rice, S. R. Sharma and M. V. Krishna Rao Greek era A Greek "Yona" calendar era seems to have been in use in Northwestern Indian for several centuries following the foundation of the Indo-Greek kingdom. A recently discovered inscription in Kharoshthi on a Buddhist reliquary gives a relationship between several eras of the period::"In the twenty-seventh - 27 - year in the reign of Lord Vijayamitra, the King of the Apraca; in the seventy-third - 73 - year which is called "of Azes", in the two hundred and first - 201 - year of the Yonas (Greeks), on the eighth day of the month of Sravana; on this day was established [this] stupa by Rukhana, the wife of the King of Apraca, [and] by Vijayamitra, the king of Apraca, [and] by Indravarma (Indravasu?), the commander (stratega), [together] with their wives and sons." ["Afghanistan, carrefour en l'Est et l'Ouest" p.373. Also Senior 2003] As the Azes era is usually considered identical to the Vikrama era starting in 58 BCE, the Yona era would correspond to 186 BCE, which falls in the reign of Demetrius I, although dates ranging from 186 to 150 BCE are still debated. [See 111 [http://www.kushan.org/essays/chronology/azesvikrama.htm Chronology of Indian eras] ] The inscription would date to circa 15 CE. A second inscription, called the Maghera inscription, found in the Mathura district, is dated to the year 116 of the "Era of the Greeks" ("Yavanarajyasya sodasuttare varsasate 100 10 6), which would correspond to 70 BCE. ["Afghanistan, carrefour en l'Est et l'Ouest" p.373] Macedonian calendar The names of the months belonging to the Ancient Macedonian calendar remained in use under the Indo-Scythians and the Kushans until around the 2nd century CE. For example the Indo-Scythian Taxila copper plate inscription uses the Macedonian month of "Panemos". [Tarn, p.494] Later, the Dast-i Nawur inscription mentionning the Kushan king Vima Kadphises (reigned circa 90–100 CE) is dated to the 279th year (possibly in the Yona era, which would make it 93 CE, but alternatively in "the Great Arya era" mentioned by Kanishka in the Rabatak inscription, possibly an era started by Mithridates I which would give 108 CE), and the 15th day of the month of "Gorpaios" (Γορπιαίος), which is the 11th month of the Macedonian calendar, corresponding to the moon of August. [Mario Bussagli, "L'art du Gandhara", p187] Astronomy and astrology One of the earliest Indian writings on astronomy and astrology (although not the earliest, as the "Vedanga Jyotisha" is dated to around 1350 BCE), titled the "Yavanajataka" or "The Saying of the Greeks", is a translation from Greek to Sanskrit made by "Yavanesvara" ("Lord of the Greeks") in 149–150 CE under the rule of the Western Kshatrapa king Rudrakarman I. The Yavanajataka contains instructions on calculating astrological charts (horoscopes) from the time and place of one's birth. Astrology flourished in the Hellenistic world (particularly Alexandria) and the Yavanajataka reflects astrological techniques developed in the Greekspeaking world. Various astronomical and mathematical methods, such as the calculation of the 'horoskopos' (the zodiac sign on the eastern horizon), were used in the service of astrology. [McEvilley, p.384-386] Another set of treatises, the Paulisa Siddhanta and the Romaka Siddhantas, are attributed to later Greco-Roman influence in India. The Paulisa Siddhanta has been tentatively identified with the works of Paulus Alexandrinus, who wrote a well-known astrological hand-book.Fact|date=October 2007 Indian astronomy is widely acknowledged to be influenced by the Alexandrian school, and its technical nomenclature is essentially Greek: "The Yavanas are barbarians, yet the science of astronomy originated with them and for this they must be reverenced like gods" (The Gargi-Samhita). Several other Indian texts show appreciation for the scientific knowledge of the "Yavana" Greeks. [Indian sources on Yavana learning: *A comment in "Brihat-Samhita" by the mathematician Varahamihira says: "The Greeks, though impure, must be honored since they were trained in sciences and therein, excelled others....." ("mleccha hi yavanah tesu samyak shastram kdamsthitam/ rsivat te 'p i pujyante kim punar daivavid dvijah" (Brihat-Samhita 2.15)). *Also the Mahabharata compliments the Greeks as "the all-knowing Yavanas" (sarvajnaa yavanaa): "The Yavanas, O king, are all-knowing; the Suras are particularly so. The mlecchas are wedded to the creations of their own fancy." 112 ("sarvajnaa yavanaa rajan shuraaz caiva vishesatah/ mlecchah svasamjnaa niyataanaanukta itaro janah (Mahabharata VIII.31.80)) ] Influence of Indo-Greek coinage Overall, the coinage of the Indo-Greeks remained extremely influential for several centuries throughout the Indian subcontinent: *The Indo-Greek weight and size standard for silver drachms was adopted by the contemporary Buddhist kingdom of the Kunindas in Punjab,Fact|date=October 2007 the first attempt by an Indian kingdom to produce coins that could compare with those of the Indo-Greeks. [Tarn, p.324-325] *In central India, the Satavahanas (2nd century BCE- 2nd century CE) adopted the practice of representing their kings in profile, within circular legends. [Rapson, clxxxvi-] *The direct successors of the Indo-Greeks in the northwest, the IndoScythians and Indo-Parthians continued displaying their kings within a legend in Greek, and on the obverse Greek deities. [Whitehead, p.91-97] *To the south, the Western Kshatrapas (1st-4th century) represented their kings in profile with circular legends in corrupted Greek. [Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. p.cix] ["It was their (the Indo-Greek's) commercial success that led the western Satraps to imitate them." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks", p.115] *The Kushans (1st-4th century) used the Greek language on their coinage until the first few years of the reign of Kanishka, whence they adopted the Bactrian language, written with the Greek script. [Whitehead, p.171-177] *The Guptas (4th-6th century), in turn imitating the Western Kshatrapas, also showed their rulers in profile, within a legend in corrupted Greek, in the coinage of their western territories. ["Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli] The latest use of the Greek script on coins corresponds to the rule of the Turkish Shahi of Kabul, around 850. Genetic contribution Limited population genetics studies have been made on genetic markers such as mitochondrial DNA in the populations of the Indian subcontinent, to estimate the contribution of the Greeks to the genetic pool. Although some of the markers which are present in a large proportion of Greeks today have not been found, the Greek/European genetic contribution to the Punjab region has been estimated between 0%–15%: Some pockets of Greek populations probably remained for some time, and to this day, some communities in the Hindu Kush claim to be descendants of the Greeks, such as the Kalasha and Hunza in Pakistan, and the neighbouring Nuristani in Afghanistan. [Tarn, p.408] Failed verification|date=October 2007 One cannot assume however that the present Greek population is representative of the Macedonian army under Alexander. This army probably contained a large number of Persians and other groups such as Scythians and Thracians.Fact|date=October 2007 113 Greco-Roman exchanges with India Although the political power of the Greeks had waned in the north, mainly due to nomadic invasions, trade relations between the Mediterranean and India continued for several centuries. The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept on increasing, and according to Strabo (II.5.12), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. So much gold was used for this trade, and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny (NH VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to India. In practice, this trade was still handled by Greek middlemen, as all the recorded names of ship captains for the period are Greek. Also various exchanges are recorded between India and Rome during this period. In particular, embassies from India, as well as several missions from "Sramanas" to the Roman emperors are known (see Buddhism and the Roman world). Finally, Roman goods and works of art found their way to the Kushans, as archaeological finds in Begram have confirmed. Artistic legacy The "Kanishka casket", dated to the first year of Kanishka's reign in 127 CE, was signed by a Greek artist named "Agesilas", who oversaw work at Kanishka's stupas (caitya), confirming the direct involvement of Greeks with Buddhist realizations at such a late date. [Tarn, p.355] Failed verification|date=October 2007 Greek representations and artistic styles, with some possible admixtures from the Roman world, continued to maintain a strong identity down to the 3rd–4th century, as indicated by the archaeological remains of such sites as Hadda in eastern Afghanistan. [Boardman, p.141-144] The Greco-Buddhist image of the Buddha was transmitted progressively through Central Asia and China until it reached Japan in the 6th century. ["Needless to say, the influence of Greek art on Japanese Buddhist art, via the Buddhist art of Gandhara and India, was already partly known in, for example, the comparison of the wavy drapery of the Buddha images, in what was, originally, a typical Greek style" (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p19)] Numerous elements of Greek mythology and iconography, introduced in northwestern India by the Indo-Greeks through their coinage at the very least, were then adopted throughout Asia within a Buddhist context, especially along the Silk Road. The Japanese Buddhist deity Shukongoshin, one of the wrath-filled protector deities of Buddhist temples in Japan, is an interesting case of transmission of the image of the famous Greek god Herakles to the Far-East along the Silk Road. The image of Herakles was introduced in India with the coinage of Demetrius and several of his successors, used in Greco-Buddhist art to represent Vajrapani the protector of the Buddha, and was then used in Central Asia, China and Japan to depict the protector gods of Buddhist temples. ["The origin of the image of Vajrapani should be explained. This deity is the protector and guide of the Buddha Sakyamuni. His image was modelled after that of Hercules. (...) The Gandharan Vajrapani was transformed in Central Asia and China and afterwards transmitted to Japan, where it exerted stylistic influences on the wrestler-like statues of the Guardian Deities (Nio)." (Katsumi Tanabe, "Alexander the Great, East-West cultural contacts from Greece to Japan", p23)] Intellectual and religious legacy 114 The impact of the Indo-Greeks on Indian thought and religion is unknown, although many influences have been suggested. Scholars believe that Mahayana Buddhism as a distinct movement began around the 1st century BCE in the North-western Indian subcontinent, corresponding to the time and place of Indo-Greek florescence. Intense multi-cultural influences have indeed been suggested in the appearance of Mahayana: "Key formative influences on the early development of the Mahayana and Pure Land movements, which became so much part of East Asian civilization, are to be sought in Buddhism's earlier encounters along the Silk Road". [Foltz, "Religions on the Silk Road", p8.] As Mahayana Buddhism emerged, it received "influences from popular Hindu devotional cults (bhakti), Persian and Greco-Roman theologies which filtered into India from the northwest". [Tom Lowenstein, "The Vision of the Buddha, p63.] Many of the early Mahayana theories of reality and knowledge can be related to Greek philosophical schools of thought: Mahayana Buddhism has been described as "the form of Buddhism which (regardless of how Hinduized its later forms became) seems to have originated in the Greco-Buddhist communities of India, through a conflation of the Greek Democritean-Sophistic-Skeptical tradition with the rudimentary and unformalized empirical and skeptical elements already present in early Buddhism". [McEvilley, "The Shape of Ancient Thought", p503.] However, this view can hardly explain the origin of the bodhisattva ideal, already delineated in the Aagamas, which also already contained a well developed theory of selflessness (anaatman) and emptiness (shunyaata), none of these essential Mahayaana tenets being traceable to Greek roots. https://enacademic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/7658379 115