Bronze Age Europe (Archaeology)

"""""Abstract
The eruption of Thera ca. 1600 BC is associated with striking cultural changes in the eastern Mediterranean and it may also have influenced other parts of Europe. However, on the Iberian Meseta, the event does not appear to have affected the cultural development of the Proto-Cogotas phase, which is characterised by the use of beautifully-decorated pottery, incipient bronze metal-working, communities that are not definitively sedentary, and social practices rooted in local traditions. The true changes in direction in this region took place several centuries before ca. 1800 BC, when these groups began to evolve, and later ca. 1450 BC, when the full Cogotas I phase began, involving several new developments in the material repertory and cultural practices.

Zusammenfassung
        Der Ausbruch des Thera-Vulkans ca. 1600 BC ist eng mit der kulturellen Transformation der östlichen Mittelmeerregion verknüpft. Seine Auswirkungen erstreckten sich auch auf andere Gebiete innerhalb Europas.
        Die kulturelle Entwicklung auf der iberischen Hochebene scheint das Ereignis in der Proto-Cogotas-Phase jedoch kaum beeinflusst zu haben. Diese zeichnete sich durch die Verwendung von underschöner dekorierter Keramik, den Beginn der Bronzebearbeitung, eine noch nicht vollständige Sesshaftigkeit und in den lokalen Traditionen verwurzelte Bräuche aus. Die wirklich tief greifenden Veränderungen in dieser Region fanden schon
mehrere Jahrhunderte zuvor (ca. 1800 BC), als diese Gruppen begonnen sich weiterzuentwickeln, und später (ca. 1450 BC) als die Blütezeit der Phase Cogotas I begann, in der verschiedene Gebrauchsgegenstände erfunden wurden und sich neue kulturelle Verhaltensweisen herausbildeten, statt."

Gaṇeśa is 1. Marut, kharva, 'dwarf', dancer, kavi, Brahmaṇaspati, Br̥haspati, 2. त्रिधातु, 'aggregate of 3 minerals', 3. R̥bhu founder of yajña, artist, rayi, 'wealth'.

Gaṇeśa is a कवि kavi, m. a singer , bard , poet (but in this sense without any technical application in the वेद) RV. VS. TS. AV. S3Br. i , 4 , 2 , 8Kat2hUp. iii , 14 MBh. Bhag. Bha1gP. Mn. vii , 49 R. Ragh.

Gaṇeśa is a scribe, a R̥bhu, 'artist' In the tradition of Indus Script, a scribe is also an artist because the writing system is composed with hypertextss incorporating hieroglyphs -- both pictorial motifs and 'signs or symbols', say, syllabic representations in Brāhmī or 'signs' of the Indus Script Corpora.

Since Mahābhārata is the fifth Veda itihāsa with ākhyāna-s and upākhyāna-s, the scribe of the sacred kāvya, by the kavi, -- is Gaṇeśa who is kavīnām kavi, he is the suprme kavi among kavi-s. The scribal narratiave is an affirmation of divine sanction for the documented narratives.

Hence, Gaṇeśa utters the praṇava, says 'om' accepting the terms stipulated by Vyāsa.

This tradition is exemplified by many manuscripts of Mahābhārata which are profusely illustrated to communicate the narrative effectivey.
Battle Between Ghatotkacha And Karna, Illustrated Folio

Battle of Kurukshetra.


Page from a Manuscript of the Mahabharata: Kichaka and Draupadi Disguised as the Maidservant Shairandhri 1670.
Indian, India, Deccan, Southern Karnataka 17th century opaque watercolor, ink, gold on paper 8 x 19⅜ in 20.32 x 49.21 cm Friends of Indian Art in memory of Dr. Meena Hazra 95.6

Read more at https://vmfa.museum/collections/art/page-manuscript-mahabharata-kichaka-draupadi-disguised-maidservant-shairandhri/#OpbYhP0yIZ7h6MRW.99

Illustrated palmleaf manuscripts in the collection of Orissa State Museum. Read more at:  http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/02-07/features555.htm

H: 11.8 W: 16.6 cm. Probably Seringapatam, South India, India


Newari Mahabharata, 14th-15th c. Philadelphia Museum of Art

Gaṇeśa is 1. scribe of Mahābhārata, 2. kavi; Brahmaṇaspati, Br̥haspati, 3. त्रिधातु, 'aggregate of 3 minerals', 4. R̥bhu founder of yajña, artist, rayi, 'wealth' Gaṇeśa is a Marut, R̥bhukṣa, who wields a thunderbolt. This is a metaphor for his tusk used as a writing instrument. That Gaṇeśa is a member of Marut Gaṇa is signified on a sculptural frieze of Kanchipuram Kailāsanātha temple.

See:

Bhāratīya ādhyātmikā itihāsa of tridhātu Gaṇeśa, śarva Śiva, Rāma, Kr̥ṣṇa 
https://tinyurl.com/yc95usjo

Tridhātu as Gaṇeśa, Tridhātu on Indus Script metalwork for crucible steel, ādhyātmikā metaphor pr̥thvyaptejorūpadhātu (R̥gveda)
http://tinyurl.com/kptlbz3

Gaṇeśa is Brāhmī scribe of Mahābhārata in the tradition of Indus Script cipher of Bronze Age
https://tinyurl.com/y79j8rxp

http://sanskritdocuments.org/mirrors/mahabharata/mahabharata-sarit.html

Gaṇeśa -- the leader of Marut Gaṇa, a scribe with dāt, an ivory stylus -- and Kṣṇadwaipāyana Vyāsa -- the black narrator, a Ganga-island dweller --  unite together after Gaṇeśa consents to be a scribe utteringom and together start with an invocation for success to Nara and Nārāyaṇa (nārāyaṇaṃ namaskṛtya naraṃ caiva narottamam; 1.1.0) and to goddess Sarasvatī (devīṃ sarasvatīṃ caiva tato jayam udīrayet; 1.1.0). Om is part of the iconography, pratimā, 'ādhyātmikā symbol' which refers to ātman (soul, self within) and Brahman (ultimate reality, entirety of the universe, truth, divine, supreme spirit, cosmic principles, knowledge). So, they start with ओम् Om pratimā which is प्रणव, praṇava. Om is the last sound a Yogi hears before entering the state of Turīya level of language, script and reality. The mystic syllable is affirmation of something divine in the narration and scripted text of Mahābhārata.

Why does Gaṇeśa uttar Om assenting to be a scribe of Vyasa's oral narrative?

Om (ॐ) is the pratigara (agreement) with a hymn. Likewise is tatha (so be it) with a song. But Om is something divine, and tatha is something human.
— Aitareya Aranyaka 23.6

तस्य वाचकः प्रणवः ॥२७॥

His word is Om.

— Yogasutra 1.27

ओं नमः (Oṃ namaḥ) Siddhanam (6 syllables), Om Nhi (2 syllables) and just Om (1 syllable) are the short forms of the Paramesthi-Mantra, also called Namokar Mantra or Navkar Mantra in Jainism

"Om Mani Padmi Hum" to be AUM,  the totality of sound, existence and consciousness in Bauddham

Oankar ('the Primal Sound') created Brahma, Oankar fashioned the consciousness,
From Oankar came mountains and ages, Oankar produced the Vedas,
By the grace of Oankar, people were saved through the divine word,
By the grace of Oankar, they were liberated through the teachings of the Guru.

— Ramakali Dakkhani, Adi Granth 929-930, Translated by Pashaura Singh.

Tamil version of the great epic venerates Gaṇeśa as scribe of the epic:

The information is given in the very first verse of Villi Bharatham and is quite famous as the "Kadavul Vaazhththu" (Prayer to the Divine). A rough/prosaic but literal translation would be:
"To make it firm as the fifth along with the four Vedas
On this sea-girt earth,
When the Mahabharata was spoken by the King of sages
Who possess unfading askesis and Truth,
Vinayaka wrote with the Mount Meru
As the cadjan leaf,
And His own tusk as the sharp stylus.
I salute Him with shoreless love."

(fifth along with the four Vedas -- Bharatah Panchamao Vedah; Vyasa is described as the king of sages; the sages are described as possessing unfading askesis and Truth (vaadaa thavam meymmai muni raajan); Mount Meru is described as "edu" which is palm or cadjan leaf).
Some copies of the work tack this and the following verse which is also a prayer to Vinayaka to the verses of praise by Villi's son Varantharuvaar that are always printed as a preface to the work.
http://mahabharata-resources.org/variations/prema-villi1.html

Two anient manuscripts announce Gaṇeśa as scribe of the epic:

Arrival of Heramba Gaṇeśa to write Mahābhārata announced in ādiparva:
सौतिरुवाच ।
एवमाभाष्य तं ब्रह्मा जगाम स्वं निवेशनम् ।
भगवान्स जगत्स्रष्टा ऋषिदेवगणैः सह ॥
ततः सस्मार हेरम्बं व्यासः सत्यवतीसुतः ॥
स्मृतमात्रो गणेशानो भक्तचिन्तितपूरकः ।
तत्राजगाम विघ्नेशो वेदव्यासो यतः स्थितः ॥
पूजितश्चोपविष्टश्च व्यासेनोक्तस्तदानघ ।
लेखको भारतस्यास्य भव त्वं गणनायक ॥
मयैव प्रोच्यमानस्य मनसा कल्पितस्य च ॥
श्रुत्वैतत्प्राह विघ्नेशो यदि मे लेखनी क्षणम् ।
लिखतो नावतिष्ठेत तदा स्यां लेखको ह्यहम् ॥

व्यासोऽप्युवाच तं देवमबुद्ध्वा मा लिख क्वचित् ।
ओमित्युक्त्वा गणेशोपि बभूव किल लेखकः ॥
ग्रन्थग्रन्थिं तदा चक्रे मुनिर्गूढं कुतूहलात् ।
यस्मिन्प्रतिज्ञया प्राह मुनिर्द्वैपायनस्त्विदम् ॥
अष्टौ श्लोकसहस्राणि अष्टौ श्लोकशतानि च ।
अहं वेद्मि शुको वेत्ति संजयो वेत्ति वा न वा ॥
तच्छ्लोककूटमद्यापि ग्रथितं सुदृढं मुने ।
भेत्तुं न शक्यतेऽर्थस्यं गूढत्वात्प्रश्रितस्य च ॥
सर्वज्ञोपि गणेशो यत्क्षणमास्ते विचारयन् ।
तावच्चकार व्यासोपि श्लोकानन्यान्बहूनपि ॥
तस्य वृक्षस्य वक्ष्यामि शाखापुष्पफलोदयम् ।
स्वादुमेध्यरसोपेतमच्छेद्यममरैरपि ॥
अनुक्रमणिकाध्यायं वृत्तान्तं सर्वपर्वणाम् ।
इदं द्वैपायनः पूर्वं पुत्रमध्यापयच्छुकम् ॥
ततोऽन्येभ्योऽनुरूपेभ्यः शिष्येभ्यः प्रददौ प्रभुषष्टिं शतसहस्राणि चकारान्यां स संहिताम् ।
त्रिंशच्छतसहस्रं च देवलोके प्रतिष्ठितम् ॥
पित्र्ये पञ्चदश प्रोक्तं रक्षोयक्षे चतुर्दश ।
एकं शतसहस्रं तु मानुषेषु प्रतिष्ठितम् ॥

http://sarit.indology.info/exist/apps/sarit/works/%C4%81diparva.html
 





http://asi.nic.in/asi_books/9002.pdf






Gaṇeśa with Gaṇa-s in Kailasanatha temple, Kanchipuram (685 to 705 CE, Rajasimha, Pallava dynasty)
Source: http://swamisblog.blogspot.in/2009/12/
These Marut Gaṇa are associated with the smelter work as seen on Bhuteshwar sculptural friezes.


 
Smelter. Kharva, dwarfs venerate linga atop smelter and tree (kuṭi 'tree' rebus: kuṭhi 'smelter'). Ekamukha Sivalinga atop smelter.

Gaṇeśa with Saptamatrikas, Aihole, Karnataka, 8th century CE.

The Devi Matrikas (flanked by Shiva and Ganesha), representing various Shakti aspects, from 9th-century Madhya Pradesh

Saptamātr̥kā-s with Gaṇeśa, at Panchalingeshvara temple in Karnataka.

Gaṇeśa. Entrance to Ellora caves.


Ellora Caves - Kailasa Temple - Group Of mātr̥kā-s with Gaṇeśa

Stone sculpture in National Museum, New Delhi, India. Śiva and Saptamātr̥kā-s.

Nataraja–Shiva (left) with Virabhadra and the first three mātr̥kā-s depicted with children – Ellora

This article explores how the practice of including rock art in burials from the Bronze Age in Scandinavia was influenced by and incorporated into the new ideas and practices brought about by the introduction of cremation. Three portable stones with rock art found on the exterior of a cairn at the Late Bronze Age site of Sandbrauta in Central Norway are the point of departure for the discussion. Clay from a Late Bronze Age landslide that occurred soon after the ritual activity had sealed off the site, thus revealing the stones with the petroglyphs to be part of the ritual context. It is argued that the stones with rock art displaying different stages of decoration reflect stages in the stones` biography as well as stages in the process of bodily transformation, thus rendering the cairn to be a place for integrated rites involving both the transformation of bodies and rock art.

When JRB Stewart and his team excavated at the Early Cypriot necropolis at Bellapais-Vounous they uncovered a wealth of material which shaped our understanding of this formative stage of the island’s Bronze Age. Amongst this material was a curious collection of figurative objects, including elaborate vessels decorated with animal and object protomes and life-size clay models of inanimate objects. These generally well-preserved and visually attractive objects have since become emblematic of Early Cypriot art and religion and, since many forms are still known exclusively from this influential context, of the site of Vounous itself. This paper draws on a comprehensive programme of iconographical and contextual analyses to offer a new interpretation of this fascinating yet enigmatic corpus. Calling on a diverse range of evidence, including spatial analysis within the cemetery, contemporary faunal data and analysis of Early Cypriot figurative material from elsewhere on the island, this paper will present a re-evaluation of the function and significance of Vounous’ figurative material. The paper will conclude by presenting the implications of these new interpretations for our understanding of the changing nature of burial ritual at Vounous and the manifestation of individual and group identities within the cemetery.

This chapter presents the important but not very well known
archival material relating to James Stewart’s
Vounous excavations kept in the archive of the
Medelhavsmuseet, Stockholm. The Medelhavsmuseet
was founded in 1954 as a direct result of the Swedish
Cyprus Expedition in order to store the Swedish share
of the finds from the excavations. The archival material
from the Swedish Cyprus Expedition, including field
diaries, drawings, photographs, manuscripts and
correspondence, is kept in the archive of the museum.
Stewart’s excavations at Vounous were published by the
Swedish Institute in Rome in 1950 and Einar Gjerstad
invited Stewart to write about the Early Bronze Age in
Cyprus for Swedish Cyprus Expedition Volume IV, Part
1A (Stewart 1962). The good collaboration between
Stewart and Gjerstad prompted Stewart to donate
his field records to the Swedish Cyprus Expedition,
which thus duly came to the museum.

This monograph posits the presence of Meluhha artisans and seafaring merchants in Dilmun and failaka. This presence explains the decipherment of Dilmun seals, Barbar temple bronze bull's head and Failaka seals as Indus Script inscriptions constituting wealth-accounting ledgers, metalwork catalogues. Dilmun and Failaka seals are archives recording trade transactions with Meluhha (Sarasvati Civilization). Dilmun finds mention in cuneiform texts as a trade partner and as a trading post of the Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilization trade route. The bronze bull's head found in Barbar Temple of Bahrein is paralleled by the artifacts of Early Dynastic Sumer as posited by Elisabeth CL During Caspers and also by the Indus Script rebus representation of ḍhangra 'bull' Rebus: ṭhakkura m. ʻ idol, deity (Pkt.); Mth. ṭhākur ʻ blacksmith.ʼ Thus, the deity venerated as the bull's head is a veneration of the ancestor blacksmith who has attained divinity; hence, ṭhakkura m. ʻ idol, deity in Meluhha (Indian sprachbund, 'speech union'). Three temples were discovered in Barbar village, Bahrein, and the oldest is dated to 3000 BCE. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbar_Temple

चषालः caṣāla on Yupa, made of wheat straw, an Indus Script hieroglyph, signifies pyrolysis/carburization in smelting ores into steel/hard alloys

Yupa is a kunda, a pillar of bricks. This kunda signifies a fire-alter or agnikunda in Vedic tradition. A signifier of the pillar is a चषालः caṣāla as its top piece. This चषालः caṣāla (Rigveda) is made of wheat straw for pyrolysis to convert firewood into coke to react with ore to create hard alloys, e.g. iron reacting with coke to create crucible steel or carburization of wrought iron in a crucible to produce steel. See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_steel

The sacredness associated with चषालः caṣāla is demonstrated by the architectural splendour of ancient varaha sculptures in the Hindu tradition. On the varaha monolith in Khajuraho, the चषालः caṣāla is signified by Devi Sarasvati. On many other sculptures of varaha, the चषालः caṣāla is associated with Mother Earth भूदेवी bhudevi. A gallery of varaha sculptural splendour is embedded together with explanatory notes on the dcipherment of  metal work catalogue in a Rakhigarhi seal with a rhinoceros decorated with a scarf (dhatu 'scarf' rebus: dhatu 'ore').

The Indus Script hieroglyphic hypertexts get expanded into metaphors during the historical periods narrating Varaha as the third Avatara of Vishnu. In archaeometallurgical parlance, the चषालः caṣāla is the core pyrolysis process to create crucible steel and/or hard alloys in smelting processes.

See the yupa as a signifier on Kuwait gold disc with Indus Script hieroglyphs:

Hieroglyph: kunda = a pillar of bricks (Ka.); pillar, post (Tu.Te.); block, log (Malt.); kantu = pillar, post (Ta.)(DEDR 1723).

Rebus: kun.d. = a pit (Santali) kun.d.amu = a pit for receiving and preserving consecrated fire; a hole in the ground (Te.) kun.d.am, kun.d.a sacrificial fire
pit (Skt.) kun.d.a an altar on which sacrifices are made (G.)[i] gun.d.amu fire-pit; (Inscr.)
See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/01/octagonal-yupo-bhavati-satapatha.html चषालः caṣāla is made of wheat straw according to Satapatha Brāhmana.
caṣāla चषाल This is a Rigveda word which signifies the top-piece of the Yūpa.


1.162.01 Let neither Mitra nor Varun.a, Aryaman, A_yu, Indra, R.bhuks.in,nor the Maruts, censure us; when we proclaim in the sacrifice the virtus of the swift horse sprung from the gods. [a_yu = va_yu (a_yuh satataganta_ va_yuh, vaka_ralopo va_); r.bhuks.in = Indra; but,here Praja_pati, he in whom the r.bhus,or the devas, abide (ks.iyanti); sprung from the gods: devaja-tasya = born as the type of various divinities, who are identified with different parts (e.g. us.a_ va_ as'vasya medhyasya s'irah: Br.hada_ran.yaka Upanis.ad 1.1.1); legend: the horse's origin from the sun, either direct, or through the agency of the Vasus: sura_d as'vam vasavo niratas.t.a].
1.162.02 When they, (the priests), bring the prepared offering to the presence (of the horse), who has been bathed and decorated with rich (trappings), the various-coloured goat going before him, bleating, becomes an acceptable offering to Indra and Pu_s.an. [The prepared offering: ra_tim-gr.bhi_ta_m = lit. the seized wealth; the offering to be made for the horse; pu_s.an = Agni; the goat is to be tied to the front of the horse at the sacrificial post, such a goat, black-necked, kr.s.nagri_va (a_gneyah kr.s.n.agri_vah: Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 5.5.22), being always regarded as an a_gneya pas'u, or victim sacred to Agni, and to be offered to him (Ka_tya_yana Su_tra 98). A black goat is also dedicated to pu_s.an, along with soma (Yajus. xxix.58; but, he is also to be attached to the na_bhi or middle of the horse (Yajus. xxiv.1)].
1.162.03 This goat, the portion of Pu+s.an fit for all the gods, is brought first with the fleet courser, to that Tvas.t.a_ may prepare him along with the horse, as an acceptable preliminary offering for the (sacrificial) food. [The portion of Pu_s.an: he is to be offered in sacrifice to Pu_s.an or Agni; Tvas.t.a_ = sarvasyotpa_daka, the producer of all forms; tvas.t.a_ ru_pa_n.i vikaroti (Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 1.5.92); or, identified wiith Agni;preliminary offering purod.a_s'am = offering of cakes and butter; purasta_d-da_tavyam, that which is to be first offered].
1.162.04 When the priests at the season (of the ceremony), lead forth the horse, the offering devoted to the gods, thrice round (the sacrificial fire); then the goat, the portion of Pu_s.an, goes first, announcing the sacrificer to the gods. [The goat is to be first immolated]. 1.162.05 The invoker of the gods, the minister of the rite, the offerer of the oblation, the kindler of the fire, the bruiser of the Soma, the director of the ceremony, the saage (superintendent of the whole); do you replenish the rivers by this well-ordered, well-conducted, sacrifice. [The invoker of the gods: designations applied to eight of the sixteen priests employed at a solemn rite: the two first are: hota_ and adhvaryu; avaya_j = pratiprastha_ta_, who brings and places the offering; agnimindha = agni_dh, the kindler of the fire; gra_vagra_bha = the praiser of the stones that bruise the Soma,or he who applies the stones to that purpose; s'am.sta_ = pras'a_sta_; suvipra = Brahma_ (brahmaiko ja_te ja_te vidya_m vadatibrahma_ sarvavidyah sarva veditumarhati: Nirukta 1.8); replenish the rivers: vaks.an.a_ apr.n.adhvam, nadi_h pu_rayata, fill the rivers; the consequence of sacrifice being rain and fertility; or, it may mean, offer rivers of butter, milk, curds, and the like].
1.162.06 Whether they be those who cut the (sacrificial) post, or those who bear the post, or those who fasten the rings on the top of the post, to which the horse (is bound); or those who prepare the vessels in which the food of the horse is dressed; let the exertions of them all fulfil our expectation. [The post: twenty-one posts, of different kinds of wood, each twenty-one cubits long, are to be set up, to which the different animals are to be fastened, amounting to three hundred and forty-nine, besides two hundred and sixty wild animals, making a total of six hundred and nine (Ka_tya_yana); the text seems to refer to a single post: cas.a_lam ye as'vayu_pa_ya taks.ati: cas.a_la = a wooden ring, or bracelet, on the top of the sacrificial post; or, it was perhaps a metal ring at the foot of the post]. 

Satapatha Brāhmana describes this as made of wheaten dough (gaudhūma).

गौधूम [p= 369,3] mf(ई g. बिल्वा*दि)n. made of wheat MaitrS. i Hcat. i , 7 (f(आ).) made of wheat straw S3Br. v , 2 , 1 , 6 Ka1tyS3r. xiv , 1 , 22 and 5 , 7.

http://www.sanskritdictionary.com/agnir/961/6#sthash.aDu8onbZ.dpuf

"Pyrolysis has been used since ancient times for turning wood into charcoal on an industrial scale...Pyrolysis is used on a massive scale to turn coal into
coke for metallurgy, especially steelmaking."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis In archaeometallurgical terms, the use of wheat straw to prepare the चषालः caṣāla fixed atop a Yupa may relate to such pyrolysis process to convert charcoal used in the fire-altar (furnace) into charcoal/coke to react with the dhAtu in the earth subjected to smelting/melting process (e.g. iron reacting with coke in a crucible to be transmuted as steel).

చషాలము [ caṣālamu ] chashālamu. [Skt.] n. A chalice, or cup used in sacrifice. A ring attached to the sacrificial post in a horse sacrifice. రాజ మాయము నందు యూపస్తంభమునకు అడుగున తగిలించే కడియము.څليَ ṯs̱alaey, s.m. (1st) A ring for the finger. 2. A pillar of mud or stones as a mark for land. 3. A butt or mark for arrows. 4. A mound or platform for watching a field. 5. A temporary building or shed. Pl. يِ ī. See منا (Pashto)

चषाल [p= 391,2]mn. (g. अर्धर्चा*दि) a wooden ring on the top of a sacrificial post RV. i , 162 , 6 TS. vi Ka1t2h.xxvi , 4 (चशाल) S3Br. &c चषालः caṣālḥचषालः 1 A wooden ring on the top of a sacrificial post; चषालं ये अश्वयूपाय तक्षति Rv.1.162.6; चषालयूपत- च्छन्नो हिरण्यरशनं विभुः Bhāg.4.19.19.-2 An iron ring at the base of the post.-3 A hive.

In lokokti, the yupa is associated with potaraju. The word pota signifies casting or smelting of metal.

పోతురాజు or పోతరాజు pōtu-rāḍsu. n. The name of a rustic god, like Pan, worshipped throughout the Telugu, Canarese and Mahratta countries. He represents the male principle associated with the village goddesses Gangamma, Peddamma, &c. A proverb says పాడుఊరికి మంచపుకోడుపోతురాజు in a ruined village the leg of a cot is a god. cf., 'a Triton of the minnows' (Shakespeare.) పోత [ pōta ] pōta. [Tel. from పోయు.] n. Pouring, పోయుట. Casting, as of melted metal. Bathing, washing. Eruption of the small pox. ఆకుపోత putting plants into the ground. పెట్టుపోతలు శాశ్వతములుకావు meat and drink (literally, feeding and bathing) are not matters of eternal consequence. పోత pōta. adj. Molten, cast in metal. పోతచెంబు a metal bottle or jug, which has been cast not hammered.

పోతము [ pōtamu ] pōtamu. [Skt.] n. A vessel, boat, ship. ఓడ. The young of any animal. పిల్ల. శిశువు. An elephant ten years old, పదేండ్ల యేనుగు. A cloth,వస్త్రము. శుకపోతము a young parrot. వాతపోతము a young breeze, i.e., a light wind. పోతపాత్రిక pōta-pātrika. n. A vessel, a ship, ఓడ. "సంసార సాగరమతుల ధైర్యపోత పాత్రికనిస్తరింపుముకు మార." M. XII. vi. 222. పోతవణిక్కు or పోతవణిజుడు pōta-vaṇikku. n. A sea-faring merchant. ఓడను కేవుకు పుచ్చుకొన్నవాడు, ఓడ బేరగాడు. పోతవహుడు or పోతనాహుడు pōta-vahuḍu. n. A rower, a boatman, a steersman. ఓడనడుపువాడు, తండేలు.

Shapes of Yupa: A. Commemorative stone yupa, Isapur – from Vogel, 1910-11, plate 23; drawing based on Vedic texts – from Madeleine Biardeau, 1988, 108, fig. 1; cf. 1989, fig. 2); C. Miniature wooden yupa and caSAla from Vaidika Samsodana Mandala Museum of Vedic sacrificial utensils – from Dharmadhikari 1989, 70) (After Fig. 5 in Alf Hiltebeitel, 1988, The Cult of Draupadi, Vol. 2, Univ. of Chicago Press, p.22)

Continuation of the Atlantic Theory of Homer's Ilias and Odyssey (part 1: Atlantic Troy; part 2:  Atlantic Ismaros-Kikones). Odysseus' wanderings after his departure from Troy: Route Brittany-Senegal. Study of Atlantic authors De Grave, Cailleux, Gideon, Wilkens, Vinci. Identification of his first stop as North of Spain (Ulla, A Coruña), Kuthera as El Araich (Maroc) and Lotophagia as Senegambia.

Data mining of Indus Script Corpora reveal the purpose of ceramic (stoneware) bangles (22), seals, fillets as dharma saṁjñā, 'badges of responsibility'.They are Corporate badges, with deciphered Indus Script inscriptions. Socio-cultural framework of a workshop (smithy-forge as a temple) for a cluster of Vedic villages unravels organization of artisanal-seafaring merchant society as a Corporation with ancient guilds.

The reference to an archaeological settlement of Sarasvati civilization is based on the finds of fire-altars in many sites (80% or over 2000 sites out of 2600 sites of the Indus valley civilization are on the banks of Vedic River Sarasvati), exemplified by the octagonal brick found in Binjor fire-altar (close to Anupgarh and Ganweriwala). At Anupgarh, the river forks into two channels: one flowing southwards towards Jaisalmer and another westwards towards Ganweriwala.


Binjor Indus Script seal PLUS fire-altar with octagonal brick (a signature tune of Vedic culture). See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/12/binjor-seal-with-indus-script.html 
Binjor seal with Indus Script deciphered. Binjor attests Vedic River Sarasvati as a Himalayan navigable channel en route to Persian Gulf
Locus of Binjor, near Anupgarh on Vedic River Sarasvati

There are clear intimations of precursors to corporate life in ancient Bharatam with the social organization of the samajam governed by the weltanchauung of dharma. By unambiguous allocation of socio-cultural responsibilities governing the economic activity and businesses (production and marketing) of Bharatam Janam in clusters of villages, dharma was enshrined as the inviolate principle of all cosmic phenomena manifested in material aspects of living.

There are clear indications that cororate form (sreni) was used for the business of people. One one ceramic (stoneware) bangle (m1639) such a sreni is clearly identified headed by a sreshthin, guild-master. Thus, millennia before the Roman proto-corporations, Bharatam Janam, 'metalcaster folk' had evolved a system of socio-cultural organization of commonwealths (janapadas) for conducting businesses. Assets of the sreni were deposited into the treasury of the commonwealth and were distinct from the assets of the individual members of the sreni, many of whom were artisans and seafaring merchants.
Location of Balakot, a site of Saraswvati civilization where a ceramic (stoneware) bangle with inscription was found. (Balakot 06)
See: http://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/shell-working-at-ancient-balakot-pakistan/ Shell working at Ancient Balakot, Pakistan (Expedition, UPenn., Vol. 19, Issue 2, January, 1977)
  Balakot 06 Ceramic (stoneware) bangle with inscription

Intimations of such janapadas are seen in the way distinct badges (as corporate badges) evolved for specific functionaries. Roots of the corporate form detailed in Kautilya's Arthas'astra are to be found in the corporate identities indicated by distinct structural elements in Indus Script corpora such as ceramic (stoneware) bangles, fillets, seals -- all with inscriptions -- as Dharma saṁjñā Corporate badges. For an Economic History of Corporate form in Ancient India, see a paper by Vikramaditya S. Khanna (2005): http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=796464

It is possible to read the sã̄gāḍā°ḍī 'lathe, portable furnace' hieroglyph-multiplex as rebus: sanghar 'fortification'; jangada 'consignments on approval' The pronunciation in Gujarati is jangaḍ relatable to jangāḍiyo ‘a military guard who accompanies treasure into the treasury’ (of the commonwealth or guild)(Gujarati). Such a dharma saṁjñā 'corporate badge' may be the gold fillet with 'lathe' hieroglyph.

Gold paṭa, 'fillet'. Punctuated design on both ends. Mohenjodaro.


Executive summary: Socio-cultural framework of Vedic village clusters of Bronze Age

The workshops evidenced by circular platforms are Corporations of the Bronze Age, with the emergence of guilds of artisans with specific functions and responsibilities to promote the Corporation as a commonwealth. It was a smiths' guild at work on circular platforms of Harappa using tablets as category 'tallies' for the final shipment of package with a seal impression. each functionary in the guild had a recognizable paṭa 'badge' (Corporate badge of dharma, of responsibility assigned in a socio-cultural organization of the samajam). A Bronze Age village of Bharatam Janam or a cluster of such villages was a janapada, a Corporation of artisan guilds.

Three paṭa 'badges' are shown on the stone statue of the so-called 'priest-king' who wears a fillet on his forehead and also on hi right shoulder. A third badge is signified on his uttariyam (shawl) which is embellished with the hieroglyphs of 'trefoils' signifying tri-dhAtu 'three mineral' strands of dhā̆vaḍ 'smelter', with assigned functional responsibility.of a Potr 'purifier'.

It is suggested that many such badges were worn by artisans of a Vedic village of the Bronze Age; such badges were ceramic (stoneware) bangles.
  An "eye bead" made of gold with steatite inlay, Harappa. Fired steatite beads appear to have been extremely important to the Indus people because they were incorporated into exquisite ornaments, such as this "eye bead" made of gold with steatite inlay found in 1995 at Harappa [Harappa Phase]. https://www.harappa.com/slide/gold-disc
The central ornament worn on the forehead of the famous "priest-king" sculpture from Mohenjo-daro appears to represent an eye bead, possibly made of gold with steatite inlay in the center. https://www.harappa.com/slide/priest-king-forehead

 
The weltanchauung, 'world perception' of artisans in a Vedic village was governed by 1. dharma, assigned responsibilities and 2. the metaphor of a kole.l 'smithy-forge' as a kole.l 'temple'.
Male head probably broken from a seated sculpture. Finely braided or wavy combed hair tied into a double bun on the back of the head and a plain fillet or headband with hanging ribbons falling down the back. The upper lip is shaved and a closely cropped and combed beard lines the pronounced lower jaw.
  Male head shows the typical arrangement of the hair in a double bun, held in place by a thin fillet (badge) tied on the forehead.

Functions assigned were recognized by distribution of ceramic (stoneware) bangles worn as paṭa, 'socio-cultural honour-badges'. Such a paṭa m. ʻ slab, tablet, metal plate ʼ,was distinct from the seals and tablets.

Such a paṭa was a gold fillet with the inscribed sã̄gāḍā°ḍī 'lathe, portable furnace' hieroglyph-multiplex .

Hieroglyph: सांगड [ sāṅgaḍa ]  That member of a turner's apparatus by which the piece to be turned is confined and steadied. सांगडीस धरणें To take into linkedness or close connection with, lit. fig.Rebus 1: Sangara [fr. saŋ+gṛ1 to sing, proclaim, cp. gāyati & gīta] 1. a promise, agreement J iv.105, 111, 473; v.25, 479; sangaraŋ karoti to make a compact Vin i.247; J (Pali) Rebus 2: śã̄gaḍa 'catamaran'. Such a सांगड [ sāṅgaḍa ] is alsoa hieroglyph-multiplex, f A body formed of two or more (fruits, animals, men) linked or joined together.

Such a paṭa were two anthropomorphs of copper/bronze with spread legs of a human body. The rebus reading of the hieroglyph-multiplex (hypertext) on the badges: 1. helmsman, merchantman, (metal) suercargo, engraver, merchant, worker in wood and iron; 2. helmsman, (metal) supercargo, iron worker

Spread legs on both anthropomorphs signify कर्णक 'spread legs' rebus: 'helmsman'

Sharply defined inscriptions on each of the 22 ceramic (stoneware) bangles indicate 21 sharply assigned responsibilities within the guild for metalwork, for e.g. 21 functional allocations of responsibilitie of artisans delineated in a Vedic village:
1. iron smelting, furnace work (m1659)
2. metal casting, engraving, documenting supercargo (m1647)
3. bronze (casting)(m1646)
4. gota (laterite) (m1641)
5. Seafaring merchant, magnetite ingot workshop (m1643)
6. Smithy, forge (m1641)
7. Moltencast copper, brass (m1640)
8. Alloy metal mint, weapons, implements workshop, guild master workshop (m1639)
9. Bronze ingots, implements, magnetite ingots (m1638)
10. Metalcasting workshop (cire perdue?)(m1637)
11. Metal implements, weapons, smithy, forge (m1636)
12. Blacksmith, seafaring merchant (m1634)
13. Helman for supercargo boat, iron furnace work, metals workshop (m1633)
14. Metal casting, alloy mixing workshop (m1632)
15. dhā̆vaḍ 'smelter', supercargo of implements (m1631)
16. Magnetite ingots, furnace work, supercargo engraver (m1630)
17. Iron furnace work, metal casting of tin, helmsman supercargo of metals, bharat ‘mixed alloys’  metalworker (m1629)
18. Minerals workshop guild (h2576)
19. Magnetite ingots, smelter (h1010)
20. dhā̆vaḍ 'smelter' tri-dhAtu, '‘three minerals (H98-3516/8667-01)
21. Seafaring merchant, supercargo engraver(Blkt-6)

Continuation of the Atlantic Theory of Homer's Ilias and Odyssey (part 1: Atlantic Troy). Odysseus' wanderings after his departure from Troy. Study of Atlantic authors De Grave, Cailleux, Gideon, Wilkens, Vinci. Identification of Ismaros as Brittany, Bay of Douarnenez.

Clothes are not only made to protect against the cold, sun, or rain, but also to have an impact on the wearer, provide information and create moods. They are experienced both sensually by the person wearing them
and visually by the audience and since clothing can also be used to alter body shapes, it becomes an object of art.
When worn on the human body, clothing serves as a medium of non-verbal communication and as such can be used to demonstrate cultural, social and individual identities. Strategies for communication via dress exist in all parts of the world, and these systems vary not only geographically but also through time. The task of tailoring as a profession is to create garments which cover both these personal and social demands. This paper is based on observations and considerations that were made during the reconstruction of Bronze Age garments by using experimental archaeology methods.

Continuation of the Atlantic Theory of Homer's Ilias and Odyssey (part 1: Atlantic Troy; part 2:  Atlantic Ismaros-Kikones; part 3: Atlantic Kuthera-Lotophages; part 4: Atlantic Land of the Cyclopes; part 5: Atlantic Aiolia). Odysseus' wanderings after his departure from Troy: Route: from Corvo, Azores, to La Havana, Cuba. Study of Atlantic authors De Grave, Cailleux, Gideon, Wilkens, Vinci.

There are more types of borders today than ever before in history. Borders of all kinds define every aspect of social life in the twenty-first century. From the biometric data that divides the smallest aspects of our bodies to the aerial drones that patrol the immense expanse of our domestic and international airspace, we are defined by borders. They can no longer simply be understood as the geographical divisions between nation-states. Today, their form and function has become too complex, too hybrid. What we need now is a theory of the border that can make sense of this hybridity across multiple domains of social life.

Rather than viewing borders as the result or outcome of pre-established social entities like states, Thomas Nail reinterprets social history from the perspective of the continual and constitutive movement of the borders that organize and divide society in the first place. Societies and states are the products of bordering, Nail argues, not the other way around. Applying his original movement-oriented theoretical framework "kinopolitics" to several major historical border regimes (fences, walls, cells, and checkpoints), Theory of the Border pioneers a new methodology of "critical limology," that provides fresh tools for the analysis of contemporary border politics.

Poigt, Th., Les instruments de pesée en Europe occidentale aux âges des Métaux : Conception, usages et utilisateurs (XIVe-IIIe s. av. n.è.). In : Nordez M., Rousseau L. et Cervel M., Recherches sur l'âge du Bronze, Nouvelles approches et perspectives, Actes de la journée d'étude de l'Association pour la promotion des recherches archéologiques sur l'âge du Bronze, 28 février 2014, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Bulletin de l'APRAB, suppl. n° 1 (Nantes, 2015), p. 177-179.

Un résumé de la thèse en cours, portant le même titre, publié dans le supplément n°1 du bulletin de l'APRAB.

This monograph is compiled in two sections.

Section 1 reports the insights of Daniel Salas who finds common hypertext strings on copper plate inscriptions reported by Rick Willis and Vasant Shinde and compares the strings with hypertext strings on 1. Kabul mss and 2. Indus Script Corpora.

Section 2 presents a decipherment of the hypertext strings on copper plate inscriptions (9) reported by Rick Willis and Vasant Shinde. The strings of hieroglyph-multiplexes are metalwork catalogues.

For a background note on Kabul mss. reviewed in a thesis by Lucy Zuberbuhler see: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2012/10/a-comparison-of-manuscript-with-indus.html

Thus, the strings of hypertexts on Kabul mss are also sangraha, 'metalwork catalogues' or  indicating the possibility that any skepticism about the authenticity of the Kabul mss on birchbark should be re-visited, revised.

Rick Willis and Vasant Shinde have made a breathtaking demonstration of the possible use of copper plates with inscriptions as printers' plates to be used with ferrous oxide as ink. Such a possibiity could have resulted in reproduction of copies of metalwork catalogues for dissemination -- as the earliest recorded marketing campaign in civilizational history -- by seafaring merchants of Meluhha.

The authors make an insightful comment that the plates could have been used for printing, taking the discovery of first known printing techniques to ca. 2300 BCE in Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization.

The size of the copper plates is comparable to the size of such plates found in Mohenjo-daro, in archaeological contexts and hence included in the Indus Script corpora.  In addition to the sizes making the discovery notable, the hieroglyphs deployed in the inscribed copper plates are also comparable to those used on Mohenjo-daro copper plates. That the artisans had the competence to create such inscriptions in bas relief (as raised script), on copper is also evidenced by the multiple solid copper tablets found in Harappa and reported by HARP. An example is provided by Kenoyer who was in the HARP project team:

Copper tablet (H2000-4498/9889-01) with raised script found in Trench 43 Source:http://www.harappa.com/indus4/351.html
“For example, the characteristic square steatite seals with animal motifs and short inscriptions begins in late Period 2 as noted above, is found in 3A and continues into Period 3C, but the carving style for both the animal motifs, and the inscriptions shows stylistic changes. The greatest variation and widespread use of such seals appears to be during Period 3B. Small rectangular inscribed tablets made from steatite begin to appear at the beginning of Period 3B and by the end of 3B there is a wide variety of tiny tablets in many different shapes and materials. They were made of fired steatite or of molded terracotta or faience. Some of the steatite tablets were decorated with red pigment and the faience tablets were covered with a thick blue-green glaze. These various forms of inscribed tablets continued on into Period 3C where we also find evidence for copper tablets all bearing the same raised inscription.”http://www.harappa.com/indus4/print.html Kenoyer and Meadow date the Period 3 between c.600 BCE – 1900 BCE.(Period 3A c.2600BCE -2450BCE; Period 3B c.2450BCE – c. 2200BCEl Period 3C c. 2200BCE -1900BCE) This particular inscription on the tablet is one of the most frequently occurring texts in Indus Script corpora, in particular the hieroglyphs of ‘back-hone + rim-of-jar’

The full text is seen at http://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/article/view/63


(Readings for Plate 1 have been given at http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2014/10/indus-script-on-copper-plate-reported.html).

Rebus Meluhha readings of hieroglyphs on the copper plates 2-8 are given below


Horned, scarfed standing person, wearing bangles: मंडन [ maṇḍana ] n (S) corruptly मंडण n Ornament or decoration: also the adorning material; jewels, trinkets &c. (Marathi) Rebus: meḍ (Ho.); mẽṛhet ‘iron’ (Mu.Ho.)mẽṛh t iron; ispat m. = steel; dul m. = cast iron (Munda)

dhatu ‘scarf’ (WPah.) Rebus: धातु [ dhātu ] m pl (S) metals (Marathi)

meḍ ‘body’ (Santali) Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.Munda) काठी  [ kāṭhī The frame or structure of the body (Marathi) Rebus: ‘fire-trench’ (Tamil)
koḍ ‘horns’ Rebus: koḍ ‘workshop’.

पेंढें [ pēṇḍhēṃ ] n Weaver's term. A cord-loop or metal ring (as attached to the गुलडा of the बैली and to certain other fixtures).
पेंडकें [ pēṇḍakēṃ ] n Weaver's term. A cord-loop or metal ring. Rebus:
पेठ or पेंठ [ pēṭha or pēṇṭha ] f ( H) A manufacturing or trading town, an emporium, a mart: also a markettown.



Ta. meṭṭu mound, heap of earth; mēṭu height, eminence, hillock; muṭṭu rising ground, high ground, heap. Ma. mēṭu rising ground, hillock; māṭu hillock, raised ground; miṭṭāl rising ground, an alluvial bank; (Tiyya) maṭṭa hill. Ka. mēḍu height, rising ground, hillock; miṭṭu rising or high ground, hill; miṭṭe state of being high, rising ground, hill, mass, a large number; (Hav.) muṭṭe heap (as of straw). Tu. miṭṭè prominent, protruding; muṭṭe heap. Te. meṭṭa raised or high ground, hill; (K.) meṭṭu mound;
miṭṭa high ground, hillock, mound; high, elevated, raised, projecting; (VPK) mēṭu, mēṭa, mēṭi stack of hay; (Inscr.) meṇṭa-cēnu dry field (cf. meṭṭu-nēla, meṭṭu-vari). Kol. (SR.) meṭṭā hill; (Kin.) meṭṭ, (Hislop) met mountain. Nk. meṭṭ hill, mountain.
Ga. (S.3, LSB 20.3) meṭṭa high land. Go. (Tr. W. Ph.) maṭṭā, (Mu.) maṭṭa mountain; (M. L.) meṭāid., hill; (A. D. Ko.) meṭṭa, (Y. Ma. M.) meṭa hill; (SR.) meṭṭā hillock Konḍa meṭa id. Kuwi (S.) metta hill; (Isr.) meṭa sand hill.(DEDR 5058). Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.Munda)


G. bhaṛ m. ʻ warrior, hero, opulent person ʼ, adj. ʻ strong, opulent ʼ, S.kcch. bhaṛ ʻ brave ʼ; Garh. (Śrīnagrī dial.) bhɔṛ, (Salānī dial.) bheṛ ʻ warrior ʼ.(CDIAL 9588) Rebus: baṭa ‘iron’ (Gujarati) bhaṭa ‘furnace’ bhātaḍ n. ʻ bellows, quiver ʼ; <-> (X bhráṣṭra -- ?) N. bhã̄ṭi ʻ bellows ʼ, H. bhāṭhī f OA. bhāthi ʻ bellows ʼ (CDIAL 9424) bhráṣṭra n. ʻ frying pan, gridiron ʼ MaitrS. [√bhrajj]Pk. bhaṭṭha -- m.n. ʻ gridiron ʼ; K. büṭhü f. ʻ level surface by kitchen fireplace on which vessels are put when taken off fire ʼ; S. baṭhu m. ʻ large pot in which grain is parched, large cooking fire ʼ, baṭhī f. ʻ distilling furnace ʼ; L. bhaṭṭh m. ʻ grain -- parcher's oven ʼ, bhaṭṭhī f. ʻ kiln, distillery ʼ, awāṇ. bhaṭh; P. bhaṭṭh m., °ṭhī f. ʻ furnace ʼ, bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ; N. bhāṭi ʻ oven or vessel in which clothes are steamed for washing ʼ; A.bhaṭā ʻ brick -- or lime -- kiln ʼ; B. bhāṭi ʻ kiln ʼ; Or. bhāṭi ʻ brick -- kiln, distilling pot ʼ; Mth. bhaṭhī, bhaṭṭī ʻ brick -- kiln, furnace, still ʼ; Aw.lakh. bhāṭhā ʻ kiln ʼ; H. bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ, bhaṭ f. ʻ kiln, oven, fireplace ʼ; M. bhaṭṭā m. ʻ pot of fire’S.kcch. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ʻ distil (spirits) ʼ(CDIAL 9656)


aḍaren, ḍaren lid, cover (Santali) Rebus: aduru ‘native metal’ (Ka.) aduru = gan.iyinda tegadu karagade iruva aduru = ore taken from the mine and not subjected to melting in a furnace (Kannada) (Siddhānti Subrahmaṇya’ śāstri’s new interpretation of the Amarakośa, Bangalore, Vicaradarpana Press, 1872, p. 330)
dula ‘two’ Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’. Thus, native metal casting.

kana, kanac = corner (Santali); kañcu = bronze (Te.) kan- copper work (Ta.)
Pa. kuṭila— ‘bent’, n. ‘bend’; Pk. kuḍila— ‘crooked’, °illa— ‘humpbacked’, °illaya— ‘bent’ (CDIAL 3231) Rebus: kuṭila ’bronze’


‘Sloping’: ढाळदार [ ḍhāḷadāra ] a ( H) Sloping esp. steeply sloping.(Marathi) Rebus: ḍhāḷako ‘large ingot’ (Gujarati)


’rim of jar’: kaṇḍ kan-ka, ‘rim-of-jar’; rebus: ‘furnace-scribe’ (Santali). कारणी or कारणीक [ kāraṇī or kāraṇīka ] the supercargo of a ship &c. (Marathi)


See an earlier occurrence read rebus in the inscription. kuṭila ’curved’ Rebus: ‘bronze’


kolom ‘three’ Rebus: kolami ‘smithy, forge’ PLUS meṭa sand hill.(DEDR 5058). Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.Munda) PLUS पिढें [ piḍhēṃ ] n (पीठ S) A sort of stool. Rebus: पेठ or पेंठ [ pēṭha or pēṇṭha ] f ( H) A manufacturing or trading town, an emporium, a mart: also a markettown. Vikalpa: Kur. kaṇḍō a stool. Malt. kanḍo stool, seat. (DEDR 1179) Rebus: kaṇḍ ‘fire-altar, furnace’ (Santali) kāṇḍa ’stone ore’.

kole.l ‘temple’ Rebus: kole.l ‘smithy’.



ranku ‘liquid measure’ Rebus: ranku ‘tin’ (Santali)




Rebus: baṭa ‘quail’ Rebus: baṭa ‘iron’ (Gujarati) bhaṭa ‘furnace’ baṭa = kiln (Santali).


ḍõgā trough, canoe, ladle (H.)(CDIAL 5568). Rebus: ḍānro  term of contempt for a blacksmith (N.); ḍangar (H.) (CDIAL 5524) Vikalpa: muka ‘ladle’ muh ‘ingot’ (Santali) blacksmith (N.); ḍangar (H.) (CDIAL 5524) PLUS baṭa ‘rimless pot’ Rebus: Rebus: baṭa ‘iron’ (Gujarati) bhaṭa ‘furnace’ baṭa = kiln (Santali).. Thus, ingot kiln.


mogge ‘sprout’ Rebus: muh ‘ingot’ PLUS kolmo ‘paddy plant’ Rebus: kolami ‘smithy, forge’.

‘Sloping’: ढाळदार [ ḍhāḷadāra ] a ( H) Sloping esp. steeply sloping.(Marathi) Rebus: ḍhāḷako ‘large ingot’ (Gujarati)



ayo ‘fish’ Rebus: ayas ‘metal (alloy)’(Vedic); aya ‘iron’ (Gujarati)



See an earlier occurrence on a copper plate. kolom ‘three’ Rebus: kolami ‘smithy, forge’ PLUS meṭa sand hill.(DEDR 5058). Rebus: meḍ ‘iron’ (Ho.Munda) PLUS पिढें [ piḍhēṃ ] n (पीठ S) A sort of stool. Rebus: पेठ or पेंठ [ pēṭha or pēṇṭha ] f ( H) A manufacturing or trading town, an emporium, a mart: also a markettown. Vikalpa: Kur. kaṇḍō a stool. Malt. kanḍo stool, seat. (DEDR 1179) Rebus: kaṇḍ ‘fire-altar, furnace’ (Santali) kāṇḍa ’stone ore’.

Second hieroglyph from right on the text is comparable to the ‘triple hillock’ motif read rebus above. Other hieroglyphs on the text are hazy and hence decipherment not done.
kol ‘tiger’ Rebus: kolhe ‘smelter’ kol ‘working in iron’ (Tamil) PLUS koḍ ‘horns’ Rebus: koḍ ‘workshop’.
loa ‘ficus religiosa’ (Santali) Rebus: lo ‘copper’ (Assamese. Bengali); loh id. (Sanskrit)

GeoarchaeologIcal perspective to the reconstruction of coastal landscapes and settlement strategies of the Bronze Age Salento - Investigations of coastal landscape archaeology conducted over the last 10 years on the Adriatic and Ionian coastlines of the Salento allowed us to map many geoarchaeological markers of relative sea level changes; these data can give us accurate information on late Holocene phenomena of marine transgression offering a good opportunity to submit some fresh proposals of paleogeographic reconstructions of these territories. A particular attention was paid to the analysis of spatial, chronological and functional data of a group of archaeological markers (sunken and not) connected with forti ed and open settlements dated to the  rst half of the II millennium BC. Torre Santa Sabina, Torre Guaceto-Scogli di Apani and Scalo di Furno-Porto Cesareo stand out among long-lived settlements for the relevance of the research outcomes. Many archaeological evidences (forti cation walls, moats, pavements, occupation layers, dwelling structures, etc.) mark the ancient position and height of the relative sea level, but postholes have a leading role. The mapping and recording of these structural elements allow us to reconstruct the real extension of Bronze Age inhabited areas.

Though Odysseus’ tales to Eumaios and Aninoos in Odyssey 14.199–359 and 17.417–44, respectively, are presented as fictional tales within Homer’s larger myth, some elements have striking analogs in Late Bronze–Early Iron Age reality.

This article examines these portions of the hero’s false ainoi within their fictive context for the purpose of identifying and evaluating those elements. Particular focus is given to Odysseus’ declaration that he led nine successful maritime raids prior to the Trojan War; to his twice–described ill–fated assault on Egypt; and to his claim not only to have been spared in the wake of that Egyptian raid, but to have spent a subsequent seven years in the land of the pharaohs, during which he gathered great wealth.

Through a comparative examination of literary and archaeological evidence from the Late Bronze–Early Iron transition in the Eastern Mediterranean, it is shown that these aspects of Odysseus’ stories are not only reflective of the historical reality surrounding the time in which the epic is set, but that Odysseus’ fictive experience is remarkably similar to that of one specific member of the ‘Sea Peoples’ groups best known from 19th and 20th dynasty Egyptian records: the ‘Sherden of the Sea.’

In molti contesti preistorici e protostorici italiani sono largamente rinvenuti resti strutturali in terra e conglomerati architettonici combusti o parzialmente cementati. La loro caratterizzazione tecnologica è un passo importante per ottenere dati rigurdanti la paleoeconomia,  lo sfruttamento delle risorse e l’esistenza di tradizioni costruttive su scala locale o regionale. L’integrazione al protocollo di analisi tecnologica di osservazioni effettuate ad occhio nudo o con microscopio ottico su sezioni levigate può aiutare ad una migliore comprensione dei resti in una fase intermedia dello studio, successiva alla loro caratterizzazione morfologica ed al riconoscimento di classi di impasto, ma preliminare all’approfondimento dello studio per mezzo di analisi specialistiche. La realizzazione su alcuni campioni di una sezione rettificata e polita (sezione levigata) permette infatti di descrivere con maggiore completezza l’organizzazione e la natura dei componenti, nonché le alterazioni subite dal materiale, ad esempio in caso di esposizione al calore. Si tratta dunque di associare le caratteristiche osservate ai meccanismi di deformazione della materia e a gesti specifici, che una volta messi in sequenza potranno permettere di ricostruire materie prime utilizzate, tecniche e catene operative. Qualche osservazione rilevante può riguardare anche le dinamiche di funzionamento delle strutture o il loro ingresso nel record archeologico. Sono qua presentati alcuni casi studio e chiavi di lettura preliminari, da completare ed affinare con l’avanzamento delle ricerche. Le prime applicazioni di tale tecnica hanno fornito risultati incoraggianti, soprattutto per il rapporto positivo tra massa di dati prodotta e costo finanziario ridotto.

This document presents the collated results of a three-year programme of excavation and post-excavation assessment at Ham Hill, Stoke-sub-Hamdon, Somerset by the Cambridge Archaeological Unit of the University of Cambridge and the Department of Archaeology at Cardiff University. An Update Project Design (UPD), issued in conjunction with this Post Excavation Assessment (PXA), provides an in-depth statement of potential and research programme.

Second report on excavations at Britain's largest hillfort. Excavations revealed a complex sequence of Iron Age rampart construction overlying features dated to the Neolithic, along with the interior and entrance to a large rectangular enclosure. Extensive middle and late Bronze Age field systems and structures were also examined.

SUMMARY: Chapter 5, in Renfrew & Bahn's textbook (Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice), covers past social organizations, including hunter-gatherer groups (bands), segmentary societies (tribal societies), chiefdoms, and early state complex societies, with approaches to assessing settlement patterns, interpreting pertinent historical data, ethnoarchaeology, various ways to examine the various types of past social organizations and their variants, and looking at individuals, identity and society, gender and childhood, and other aspects.  Two additional case studies highlighting social organization in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Rome.  In my view, this is one of the best college textbooks available, and is invaluable for students, archaeologists, and the public in general, to obtain a top notch overview of approaching and interpreting the archaeological record.  REVISED: Feb. 2023.

Die Wirtschaft der antiken Welt steht zunehmend im Mittelpunkt des Interesses der althistorischen Forschung. Obwohl seit Jahrzehnten vor allem um die quantitative wie qualitative Beurteilung des Handels in der Antike erbittert gerungen wird, wird in der Forschungsliteratur häufig nicht scharf zwischen Handel und Distribution differenziert. Um die Auswertung des antiken Quellenmaterials aus dem Mittelmeerraum mit dem aus dem Vorderen Orient zu verbinden, fand im April 2013 in Marburg eine interdisziplinäre Tagung statt, die sich der Thematik am Beispiel des Handels und der Distribution von Textilien vom 2. Jahrtausend v.Chr. bis ins frühe 2. Jahrtausend n.Chr. widmete.
Textilien eignen sich in besonderer Weise dazu, Einblicke in die Funktionsweise des antiken Warenaustauschs zu erhalten. Zwar gibt es bereits in vielen Disziplinen Forschungen zu Handel und Distribution von Textilien, aber diese werden häufig über die jeweiligen Fächergrenzen hinaus nicht wahrgenommen. Der zur Tagung gehörige Sammelband vereint daher Analysen internationaler Expertinnen und Experten aus unterschiedlichen Fachdisziplinen: Alte Geschichte, Altorientalistik, Archäologie, Textilforschung und Naturwissenschaften bilden den analytisch-methodischen Rahmen. Gerade der neuere Ansatz, dokumentarische Quellen mit archäologischen Funden und naturwissenschaftlichen Analysemethoden zu verknüpfen, erlaubt einen tief greifenden Einblick in die Funktionsweise antiker Warendistribution, der Auskunft über das „Wer?“, das „Wie?“ und das „Warum?“ gleichermaßen gibt. Überlegungen zu Absatz- und Beschaffungsmärkten, Warenpreisen und involvierten Akteuren (Institutionen) geben zudem entscheidende Informationen über den Warenaustausch im engeren Sinne hinaus.

This paper focus on the significance that weapons assume in various moments of pre- and protohistory and their comunication skills. To briefly investigate the problem, we analyse, as a common thread, the stele and the statues that represent the induvidual with different typologies of weapons, from Chalcolithic to late protohistory, and their association with the representation of the identification elements, such as ideological and religious symbols, the rich garments, the ornaments and the symbols of wealth: hunted and bred animals. Thereby, we try to
include the weapons in pre- and protohistory’s cultural world and the values that characterized said world.

The aim of this study is to collect evidence for textile recycling from a prehistoric and historic perspective. The basis are original textile finds and not, as might be expected, written or pictorial sources. The material presented here focuses on archaeological finds, especially on prehistoric to early medieval evidence from Central Europe, also mentioning some interesting examples from medieval and Early Modern times.
This is not a comprehensive study of all possible secondary uses of textiles, but it shall demonstrate different interesting case studies such as re-use and recycling of garments with examples from Bronze Age till early modern period. We also learn from Early Medieval evidence that textile rags have been employed for production processes e.g. of ceramic vessels, clay figurines or for thin bronze objects. In the salt-mines Hallstatt and Dürrnberg in Austria, hundreds of textile scraps have been found, left back in the mines after secondary use as make-shift binding material or sanitary items.
Worn-out textiles were used for caulking wooden ships, as sealing for water-management in prehistoric copper mines and as insulation material for medieval castles. At least, textile scraps also ended in medieval and early modern latrinae – after they have been used as “toilet-paper”. The evidence collected demonstrates a careful resource-management.

The article’s aim is to foster an interdisciplinary debate regarding the direction that archaeometallurgical studies in the central Mediterranean region, from the late Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age (c4500-1650 BC), ought to take in the next decade. It is argued that early metallurgical studies in the area have followed an idiosyncratic course due to the sway held on the discipline by Idealism, an influential philosophical movement that greatly hindered the development of science-based archaeology until the late 20th century. The last fifteen years, however, have witnessed an unprecedented if rather tumultuous expansion of metallurgical research, and important advances have been made in the chronology and chaîne opératoire of early metal technology and artefacts. Yet it is the author’s contention that, in order to reap full benefits from the recent disciplinary growth, an explicit research agenda must be set. Above all, it is argued that the new agenda must be grounded in the cross-disciplinary examination of the materiality of metalwork, hitherto poorly explored in this region.

Forthcoming April 2017

http://upers.kuleuven.be/en/book/9789462701052

Chapters by:
Simon Jusseret (The University of Texas at Austin, Université catholique de Louvain)
Manuel Sintubin (KU Leuven)
Jan Driessen (Université catholique de Louvain)
Susan E. Hough (U.S. Geological Survey)
James P. McCalpin (GEO-HAZ Consulting Inc.)
Christoph Grützner (RWTH Aachen University, University of Cambridge)
Thomas Wiatr (RWTH Aachen University, German Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy)
Charalampos Fassoulas (Natural History Museum of Crete, University of Crete)
Gerassimos A. Papadopoulos (National Observatory of Athens)
Jack Mason (RWTH Aachen University)
Klaus Reicherter (RWTH Aachen University)
Clairy Palyvou (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki)
Eleftheria Tsakanika (National Technical University of Athens)
Jeffrey S. Soles (University of North Carolina – Greensboro)
Floyd W. McCoy (University of Hawaii – Windward)
Rhonda Suka (Research Corporation of the University of Hawaii)
Colin F. Macdonald (The British School at Athens)
Tim Cunningham (Université catholique de Louvain)

China&#39;s historiographical traditions tell of the successful control of a Great Flood leading to the establishment of the Xia dynasty and the beginning of civilization. However, the historicity of the flood and Xia remain controversial. Here, we reconstruct an earthquake-induced landslide dam outburst flood on the Yellow River about 1920 BCE that ranks as one of the largest freshwater floods of the Holocene and could account for the Great Flood. This would place the beginning of Xia at ~1900 BCE, several centuries later than traditionally thought. This date coincides with the major transition from the Neolithic to Bronze Age in the Yellow River valley and supports hypotheses that the primary state-level society of the Erlitou culture is an archaeological manifestation of the Xia dynasty.

What is the significance of the metaphor of Naṭarāja, cosmic dancer subduing अप-स्मार  Apasmāra with his dancing steps?

I suggest that a possible answer likes in unerstanding conciousness in neuroscience terrms. One line of enquiry is Epilepsy which is defined as अप-स्मार 'lapse of consciousness or inconstant state of memory'.

I suggest that the term 'consciousness' in neuroscience can be defined in terms of changed or altered states of consciousness, apparent in situations of epilepsy which are termed Apasmāra (or altered states of consciousness).

If the blink of an eye can result in perceptions of altered states of consciousness, what is the reality of consciousness? स्मार m. remembrance , recollection of (comp.) TA1r.; (fr. स्मर) relating or belonging to the god of love Naish.  स्मर  smar-a [√smri] remembering (--°, rare); m. recollection, memory; love; god of love; expounder of the Veda (rare); -ana, n. remembering, recollection, of (g., --°); memory (rare); teaching (rare): -padavî, f. path of memory: -m gamitah, caused to go the way of memory=dead.  स्मृति  smrí-ti remembrance, recollection, of (lc., --°); memory; authoritative tradition (exclusive of sruti or Vedicwritings), canonical traditional law-book, code, statement of a law-book: smritim api na te yânti, they are not even remembered: -kârin, a. awakening memory, producing recollection; -tantra, n. law-book; -da, a. strengthening the memory; -patha, m. path of memory: -m gâ, go the way of memory, perish; -pâthaka, m. one learned in the law; -bhû, m. god of love; -bhramsa, m. loss of memory; -mat, a. having recollection; possessing full consciousness; having a good memory; versed in law; -rodha, m. failure of memory; -vartman, n. path of memory: ac. w. i, be remembered; -vibhrama, m. derangement of memory; -vishaya, m. range of memory: -tâm gamita, dead; -sâstra, n. law-book; -sîla, n. du. tradition and usage; -sesha, a. surviving in memory only, destroyed: -m kri, destroy. स्मृत  smri-ta recollection: -mâtra̮ âgata, pp. come (when only=) as soon as thought of. (Monier-Williams)    स्मरः  smarḥ स्मरः [स्मृ-भावे अप्] 1 Recollection, remembrance; स्मरो वावाकाशाद्भूयः Ch. Up.7.13.1,2. -2 Love; स्मर एव तापहेतुर्निर्वापयिता स एव मे जातः Ś.3.11. -3 Cupid, the god of love; स्मर पर्युसुक एष माधवः Ku.4.28,42,43. -4 The 7th astrological mansion. -Comp. -अङ्कुशः 1 a finger-nail. -2a lover, lascivious person. -अगारम्, -कूपकः, -गृहम्, -मन्दिरम् the female organ. -अधिवोसः the Aśoka tree. -अन्धः a. blinded by love, infatuated with passion. -आकुल, -आतुर, -आर्त, -उत्सुक a. pining with love, love-sick, smit with love. -आसवः saliva. -उद्दीपनः a sort of hair-oil. -उन्मादःamorous folly. -उपकरणम् implement of love (as perfumes &c.). -कथा lovers' prattle. -कर्मन् n. any amorous action, a wanton act. -कार a. exciting love. -गुरुः an epithet of Viṣṇu. -चक्रः, -चन्द्रः a kind of sexual union. -छत्रम् the clitoris. -दशा a state of love, state of the body produced by being in love (these are ten). -दुर्मद a. infatuated by love. -ध्वजः 1 the male organ. -2 a fabu- lous fish. -3 N. of a musical instrument. (-जम्) the female organ. (-जा) a bright moon-light night. -प्रिया an epithet of Rati. -भासित a. inflamed by love. -मोहः infatuation of love, passion. -लेखः a love- letter. -लेखनी the Sārikā bird. -वल्लभः 1 an epithet of Spring. -2 of Aniruddha. -वीथिका a prostitute, harlot. -शासनः an epithet of Śiva. -शास्त्रम् a manual of erotics. -सखः 1 the moon. -2 the spring. -स्तम्भः the male organ. -स्मर्यः a donkey, an ass. -हरः an epithet of Śiva; श्मशानेष्वाक्रीडा स्मरहर पिशाचाः सहचराः Śiva-mahimna 24. स्मरमय  smaramaya स्मरमय a. Produced by love; प्रकटयन्त्यनुरागमकृत्रिमं स्मरमयं रमयन्ति विलासिनः Śi.6.61.  स्मरवती  smaravatī स्मरवती A woman in love.  स्मरणम्  smaraṇam स्मरणम् [स्मृ-ल्युट्] 1 Remembering, remembrance, recollection; केवलं स्मरणेनैव पुनासि पुरुषं यतः R.1.29. -2 Thinking of or about; यदि हरिस्मरणे सरसं मनः Gīt.1. -3 Memory. -4 Tradition, traditional precept; इति भृगुस्मरणात् (opp. श्रुति). -5 Mental recitation of the name of a deity. -6 Remembering with regret, regret- ting. -7 Rhetorical recollection, regarded as a figure of speech; thus defined:-यथानुभवमर्थस्य दृष्टे तत्सदृशे स्मृतिः स्मरणम् K. P.1. -णी A rosary of beads (for counting). -Comp. -अनुग्रहः 1 a kind remembrance. -2 the favour of remembrance; अद्य तूच्चैस्तरं ताभ्यां स्मरणानुग्रहात्तव Ku. 6.19. -अपत्यतर्पकः a turtle, tortoise. -अयौगपद्यम् the non-simultaneousness of recollections. -पदवी death.  स्मरणीय स्मर्तव्य स्मर्य  smaraṇīya smartavya smarya स्मरणीय स्मर्तव्य स्मर्य a. To be remembered, memorable.  स्मर्तृ  smartṛ स्मर्तृ A teacher, preceptor.  स्मार  smāra स्मार a. Relating to Smara or the god of love; रूक्षस्मारेक्षुचापच्युतशरनिकरक्षीणलक्ष्मीकटाक्ष...... Viṣṇupāda. S.43; स्मारं पुष्पमयं चापं बाणाः पुष्पमया अपि । तथाप्यनङ्गस्त्रैलोक्यं करोति वशमात्मनः ॥ -रम् Recollection, memory; स सभाद्वारमागम्य विदुरः स्मारमोहितः Mb.3.6.3.  स्मारक  smāraka स्मारक a. (-रिका f.) Reminding. -कम् A memorial (a modern use).  स्मारणम्  smāraṇam स्मारणम् 1 Calling to mind, reminding, causing to remember. -2 Calculating, checking; रमणीयेषु देशेषु घोषाः संप्रति कौरव । स्मारणे समयः प्राप्तो वत्सानामपि चाङ्कनम् ॥ Mb.3.239.4.  स्मार्त  smārta स्मार्त a. [स्मृतौ विहितः, स्मृतिं वेत्त्यधीते वा अण्] 1 Relating to memory, remembered, memorial. -2 Being within memory; स्मार्तमस्ति पुराणं मे यथैवाधिगतं तथा Mb.3. 179.2. -3 Based on or recorded in a Smṛiti, prescrib- ed in a code of laws; कर्म स्मार्तविवाहाग्नौ कुर्वीत प्रत्यहं गृही Y.1.97; Ms.1.18. -4 Legal. -5 Following or pro- fessing the law-books. -र्तः 1 A Brāhmaṇa well-versed in traditional law. -2 One who follows the traditional law; धर्मो$यं गृहमेधिनां निगदितः स्मार्तैर्लघुः स्वर्गदः Pt.1.253. -3 N. of a sect. -तम् An act or rite enjoined by the Smṛiti, a legal act. -Comp. -कालः 1 the period to which memory may extend. -2 a century.  स्मार्तिक  smārtika स्मार्तिक a. Traditional. (Apte)

Die Entdeckung einer fast lebensgrossen Bronzehand und eines Dolches im Oktober 2017 bei Prêles (Plateau de Diesse) im Berner Jura überraschte die Fachwelt und löste ein grosses Medienecho aus. Die Nachgrabung vor Ort und die Untersuchungen an der Bronzehand durch den Archäologischen Dienst des Kantons Bern führten zu weiteren Erkenntnissen. Die Publikation versammelt die Beiträge des Kolloquiums vom 30. Oktober 2019 und ergänzt sie mit weiteren Texten zum Kontext dieses bedeutenden Fundes.

En este artículo, el lector encontrará una síntesis del conjunto de investigaciones que han aplicado la experimentación para el estudio de las técnicas prehistóricas de transformación de minerales de cobre. Se trata de un corpus experimental de trabajos clasificados según la cronología y el ámbito geográfico que ofrece una visión de conjunto de esta cuestión, y además puede ser utilizado para consultas específicas. Tras valorar los procedimientos y los resultados de cada aportación según el criterio de rigor de la teoría de la experimentación en arqueología, he podido constatar la escasez de proyectos a largo plazo así como de experimentaciones abordadas de manera realista.

*dvāraskambhastha ʻ resting on doorpost ʼ. [Cf. dvārastambha -- m. ʻ doorpost ʼ lex. -- dvāˊra -- , skambhá -- , stha -- ]
Dholavira. Pillar with stone rings. In situ.

Dm. darkámbat ʻ door -- frame ʼ.(CDIAL 6669)
skambhá1 m. ʻ prop, pillar ʼ RV. 2. ʻ *pit ʼ (semant. cf. kūˊpa -- 1). [√skambh]
1. Pa. khambha -- m. ʻ prop ʼ; Pk. khaṁbha -- m. ʻ post, pillar ʼ; Pr. iškyöp, üšköb ʻ bridge ʼ NTS xv 251; L. (Ju.) khabbā m., mult. khambbā m. ʻ stake forming fulcrum for oar ʼ; P. khambh, khambhā, khammhā m. ʻ wooden prop, post ʼ; WPah.bhal. kham m. ʻ a part of the yoke of a plough ʼ, (Joshi) khāmbā m. ʻ beam, pier ʼ; Ku. khāmo ʻ a support ʼ, gng. khām ʻ pillar (of wood or bricks) ʼ; N. khã̄bo ʻ pillar, post ʼ, B. khām, khāmbā; Or. khamba ʻ post, stake ʼ; Bi. khāmā ʻ post of brick -- crushing machine ʼ, khāmhī ʻ support of betel -- cage roof ʼ,khamhiyā ʻ wooden pillar supporting roof ʼ; Mth. khāmh, khāmhī ʻ pillar, post ʼ, khamhā ʻ rudder -- post ʼ; Bhoj. khambhā ʻ pillar ʼ, khambhiyā ʻ prop ʼ; OAw. khāṁbhe m. pl. ʻ pillars ʼ, lakh. khambhā; H. khām m. ʻ post, pillar, mast ʼ, khambh f. ʻ pillar, pole ʼ; G. khām m. ʻ pillar ʼ, khã̄bhi, °bi f. ʻ post ʼ, M. khã̄b m., Ko. khāmbho, °bo, Si. kap (< *kab); -- X gambhīra -- , sthāṇú -- , sthūˊṇā -- qq.v.
2. K. khambürü f. ʻ hollow left in a heap of grain when some is removed ʼ; Or. khamā ʻ long pit, hole in the earth ʼ, khamiā ʻ small hole ʼ; Marw. khã̄baṛo ʻ hole ʼ; G. khã̄bhũ n. ʻ pit for sweepings and manure ʼ.
*skambhaghara -- , *skambhākara -- , *skambhāgār(CDIAL 13639)


thã̄bh 'pillar' rebus: tã̄bā 'copper'


The sufffix -kambat in darkambat 'door-frame (Dm.) is instructive. It appear that the -kambat was the early phonetic form to signify hambha 'post, pillar' (Pkt.) Rebus for this is: Ta. kampaṭṭam coinage, coin. Ma. kammaṭṭam, kammiṭṭam coinage, mint. Ka. kammaṭa id.; kammaṭi a coiner. (DEDR 1236)


Examples of ringstones discovered in Mohenjo-daro:

Banded limestone ring-stone, Mohenjo-daro.
 
Harappa. Ringstones.

Ringstone, Mohenjo-daro.

Image sources:http://www.mohenjodaro.net/ancientringstone97.html
http://www.Harappa.com  See the ringstones discovered in Dholavira as bases for wooden columns at gateway.

Stone pillars, remains of large pillars, Dholavira (See appended images).

What do the two pillars of Dholavira signify? It appears from their location close to a circular structure with a ring-stone in the middle, the pillars may denote cosmic stambhas described in the Atharva Veda. The pillars may also evoke the memories retained in the konda-habba fire-walking festivity traditions of Lingavantas. If so, the two linga skambhas may denote the re-enactment of the cosmic creation exemplified by the fiery pillars of stone of bronze-age Dholavira, a site dominated by a 10-sign hieroglyph advertisement board on the gateway heralding the metallurgical repertoire of Dholavira artisan-lapidary-smith guild. Maybe, they were memorials erected to venerate the contributions made by the ancestors, a practice which seems to have continued as evidenced by the many linga stones erected close to Galagesvara Mahadeva temple at Ittagi, Koppal district, (64 kms. west of Hampi) Karnataka – built by Mahadeva, a commander in the army of the Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI.

http://www.gujarattourism.com/showgalleryphotos.aspx?contentid=36

http://www.panoramio.com/user/1004720?comment_page=6&photo_page=5&show=all

http://theramblingshoes.blogspot.in/2012/01/glimpse-of-lost-civilization-dholavira.html

Dholavira. Ring-stone used to hold a pillar. Inside castle-wall.

Pillar members found from various trenches from Dholavira
http://asi.nic.in/images/exec_dholavira/pages/022.html

Dholavira. Polished stone pillars.

Dholavira (Kotda).The two 'sthambs', or polished pillars, which are claimed to resemble Sivalingas, in the citadel.

[quote] Bisht was non-committal when asked if the two “sthambs” found at the Dholavira site and the phallus-like stone artefacts excavated there but kept in Purana Qila, New Delhi, looked like Sivalingas. Nauriyal said, separately: “They definitely resemble male organs. What the concept was, it is difficult to comment. Whether they were used for worship, magic, ritual or as a good omen, we do not know.” On what led to the collapse of Dholavira, Nauriyal said: “The snap in the trade relationship with foreign countries, possibly.” It was largely maritime trade. Goods could not be traded any more. “There must have been a host of factors and the economic factor must have been one of them,” he said. [unquote] http://www.frontline.in/arts-and-culture/heritage/the-harappan-hub/article4840474.ece#test
























ḍula m. ʻ rolling stone ʼ (Kashmiri)(CDIAL 6582) WPah.kṭg. (kc.) ḍhōˋḷ m. ʻ stone ʼ, kṭg. ḍhòḷṭɔ m. ʻ big stone or boulder ʼ, ḍhòḷṭu ʻ small id. ʼ Him.I 87.(CDIAL 5536) Rebus: dul ‘cast metal’ (Santali)