A peer-reviewed version of this preprint was published in PeerJ on 5
January 2017.
View the peer-reviewed version (peerj.com/articles/2856), which is the
preferred citable publication unless you specifically need to cite this preprint.
Rouzé H, Lecellier GJ, Saulnier D, Planes S, Gueguen Y, Wirshing HH,
Berteaux-Lecellier V. 2017. An updated assessment of Symbiodinium spp.
that associate with common scleractinian corals from Moorea (French
Polynesia) reveals high diversity among background symbionts and a novel
finding of clade B. PeerJ 5:e2856 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2856
An updated assessment of Symbiodinium that associate with
common scleractinian corals from Moorea (French Polynesia)
reveals high diversity among background symbionts and a
novel finding of clade B.
Héloïse Rouzé Corresp., 1 , Gaël J Lecellier 1, 2 , Denis Saulnier
Wirshing 5 , Véronique Berteaux-Lecellier 1
1
2
3
4
5
3
, Serge Planes
1
, Yannick Gueguen
4
, Herman H
PSL CRIOBE USR3278 CNRS-EPHE-UPVD, Labex CORAIL, BP 1013 Papetoai, 98729 Moorea, French Polynesia
Université de Paris Saclay, Departement de Biologie _ Versailles-Saint Quentin, 55 Avenue de Paris, 78035 Versailles Cedex, France
UMR241 EIO Ifremer-ILM-IRD-UPF, Labex CORAIL, BP 49, 98719 Taravao, French Polynesia
UMR5244 IHPE, CNRS-Ifremer-UM-UPVD, Université de Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier, France
Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Washington DC, USA
Corresponding Author: Héloïse Rouzé
Email address: heloise.rouze@gmail.com
The adaptative bleaching hypothesis (ABH) states that depending on the symbiotic
flexibility of coral hosts (i.e., the ability of corals to “switch” or “shuffle” their algal
symbionts), coral bleaching can lead to a change in the composition of their associated
Symbiodinium community, and, thus, contribute to the coral’s overall survival. In order to
determine the flexibility of corals, molecular tools are required to provide accurate species
delineations, and to detect low levels of coral-associated Symbiodinium. Here, we used
highly sensitive quantitative (real-time) PCR (qPCR) technology to analyse five common
coral species from Moorea (French Polynesia), previously screened using only traditional
conventional molecular methods, to assess the presence of low-abundance (background)
Symbiodinium. Similar to other studies, each coral species exhibited a strong specificity to
a particular clade, irrespective of the environment. In addition, however, each of the five
species harboured at least one additional Symbiodinium clade, among clades A-D, at
background levels. Unexpectedly, and for the first time in French Polynesia, clade B was
detected as a coral symbiont. These results increase the number of known
coral-Symbiodinium associations from corals found in French Polynesia, and likely indicate
an underestimation of the ability of the corals in this region to associate with and/or
“shuffle” different Symbiodinium clades. Altogether our data suggest that corals from
French Polynesia may manage a trade-off between optimizing symbioses with a specific
Symbiodinium clade(s), and maintaining associations with particular background clades
that may play a role in the ability of corals to respond to environmental change.
PeerJ Preprints | https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.2607v1 | CC BY 4.0 Open Access | rec: 22 Nov 2016, publ:
1
An updated assessment of Symbiodinium that associate with common scleractinian corals
2
from Moorea (French Polynesia) reveals high diversity among background symbionts and
3
a novel finding of clade B.
4
H. Rouzé1,#, G. Lecellier1,2,*#, D. Saulnier3,#, S. Planes1,#, Y. Gueguen4,#, H. H. Wirshing5, V.
5
Berteaux-Lecellier1,*#
6
7
1. PSL - USR3278 CRIOBE CNRS-EPHE-UPVD, BP 1013 Papetoai, 98729 Moorea, Polynésie
8
française
9
2. Université de Paris Saclay - Versailles-Saint Quentin, 55 Avenue de Paris, 78035 Versailles
10
Cedex, France.
11
3. UMR241 EIO Ifremer-ILM-IRD-UPF, BP 49, 98719 Taravao, Polynésie française
12
4. UMR5244 IHPE, CNRS-Ifremer-UM-UPVD, Université de Montpellier, 34095 Montpellier,
13
France
14
5. Department of Invertebrate Zoology, Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, P.O.
15
Box 37012, NHB MRC-163, Washington, DC 20013-7012, USA
16
* present address : UMR250/9220 ENTROPIE IRD-CNRS-UR, 101, promenade Roger-Laroque,
17
BP A5, 13 98848 Noumea cedex New Caledonia.
18
# Laboratoire d'Excellence "CORAIL"
19
20
Corresponding author: Héloïse Rouzé1,#
21
1. PSL - USR3278 CRIOBE CNRS-EPHE-UPVD, BP 1013 Papetoai, 98729 Moorea, Polynésie
22
française.
23
Email address: heloise.rouze@gmail.com
24
ABSTRACT
25
The adaptative bleaching hypothesis (ABH) states that depending on the symbiotic flexibility of
26
coral hosts (i.e., the ability of corals to “switch” or “shuffle” their algal symbionts), coral
27
bleaching can lead to a change in the composition of their associated Symbiodinium community,
28
and, thus, contribute to the coral’s overall survival. In order to determine the flexibility of corals,
29
molecular tools are required to provide accurate species delineations, and to detect low levels of
30
coral-associated Symbiodinium. Here, we used highly sensitive quantitative (real-time) PCR
31
(qPCR) technology to analyse five common coral species from Moorea (French Polynesia),
32
previously screened using only traditional conventional molecular methods, to assess the
33
presence of low-abundance (background) Symbiodinium. Similar to other studies, each coral
34
species exhibited a strong specificity to a particular clade, irrespective of the environment. In
35
addition, however, each of the five species harboured at least one additional Symbiodinium clade,
36
among clades A-D, at background levels. Unexpectedly, and for the first time in French
37
Polynesia, clade B was detected as a coral symbiont. These results increase the number of known
38
coral-Symbiodinium associations from corals found in French Polynesia, and likely indicate an
39
underestimation of the ability of the corals in this region to associate with and/or “shuffle”
40
different Symbiodinium clades. Altogether our data suggest that corals from French Polynesia
41
may manage a trade-off between optimizing symbioses with a specific Symbiodinium clade(s),
42
and maintaining associations with particular background clades that may play a role in the ability
43
of corals to respond to environmental change.
44
45
INTRODUCTION
46
The foundation of coral reefs is based on the symbiotic association between scleractinian
47
corals and dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium. Molecular phylogenetic analyses currently
48
subdivide Symbiodinium into nine clades (A-I), each divided further into sub-clades or types
49
based on various molecular techniques (reviewed in Pochon, Putnam & Gates, 2014). However,
50
corals most commonly associate with Symbiodinium in clades A-D (reviewed in Baker, 2003),
51
and, in rare cases, with members of clades F and G (LaJeunesse et al., 2010; Putnam et al., 2012;
52
Lee et al., 2016). Symbiodinium is assumed to provide up to 95% of the energy required for coral
53
metabolic activities (Muscatine & Porter, 1977; Davy, Allemand & Weis, 2012), mostly due to
54
their photosynthetic activity (i.e., production of carbohydrates). In return, the algae benefit by
55
receiving a protected habitat from predation, and a source of inorganic nutrients derived from the
56
host’s metabolism. However, this symbiosis can break down, depending on the degree of stress
57
tolerance of either partner, in response to various stressors that may include natural and/or
58
anthropogenic sources [e.g., increasing seasurface temperatures, ocean acidification, and
59
sedimentation; (Pandolfi et al., 2011)].
60
The overall fitness of a coral colony depends on the biological and functional traits of the
61
various organisms that comprise the coral holobiont, [i.e., the coral host, its Symbiodinium
62
assemblages (Mieog et al., 2009b), and other associated microorganisms (e.g. bacteria) (Neave et
63
al., 2016)]. Moreover, some coral holobionts are characterized as having different sensitivities to
64
environmental conditions, which can correlate with specific biological characteristics such as
65
morphology (van Woesik et al., 2011). For example, the massive coral Porites predominately
66
associates with a thermally tolerant Symbiodinium, type C15 (Fitt et al., 2009; Fabricius et al.,
67
2011), and has been shown to exhibit increased resistance to environmental stressors such as
68
temperature anomalies (Penin, Vidal-Dupiol & Adjeroud, 2012), and experience lower mortality
69
and/or bleaching rates compared to those observed for branching corals such as Acropora and
70
Pocillopora (Penin, Vidal-Dupiol & Adjeroud, 2012). To date, both in situ (e.g. Rowan et al.,
71
1997; Baker, 2003; Berkelmans & van Oppen, 2006; Sampayo et al., 2008) and in vitro
72
physiological studies (e.g. Banaszak, 2000; Kinzie et al., 2001; Hennige et al., 2009) suggest that
73
Symbiodinium species are characterized by intrinsic physiological properties that enable them to
74
be differentially suited for various environmental conditions.
75
Spatial partitioning of different Symbiodinium clades may occur at micro-scales within a
76
single coral colony depending on solar irradiance, or among individual colonies across different
77
depths (Rowan et al., 1997; Kemp et al. 2015). In addition, coral-Symbiodinium associations may
78
be diverse, and can include either mono or multi-clade associations (Fabina et al., 2012;
79
Silverstein, Correa & Baker, 2012). Moreover, these assorted Symbiodinium assemblages have
80
been described in different coral colonies from the same species (Cunning, Glynn & Baker,
81
2013), during coral ontogeny (Abrego, van Oppen & Willis, 2009; Little, van Oppen & Willis,
82
2004), and/or in ‘normal’ vs. ‘stressful’ environmental conditions (e.g. seawater temperature
83
anomalies) (Berkelmans & van Oppen, 2006). Symbiodinium in clade D have been identified as
84
the predominant algal symbiont in resistant coral colonies during and after massive bleaching
85
events, and/or, more generally, in reefs exposed to local stressors such as sedimentation and
86
eutrophication (van Oppen et al., 2001; Ulstrup & van Oppen, 2003; LaJeunesse et al., 2010,
87
2014; Cooper et al., 2011). These observations highlight the importance of coral-Symbiodinium
88
associations with respect to thermo-tolerance (Berkelmans & van Oppen, 2006; Stat, Carter &
89
Hoegh-Guldberg, 2006; LaJeunesse et al., 2009). Consequently, it has been proposed that corals
90
with flexible associations among various Symbiodinium clades (or types), those that result in a
91
range of host-Symbiodinium associations, may contain an ecological advantage in the context of
92
environmental change, and is the foundation of the ‘Adaptive Bleaching Hypothesis’ (ABH)
93
(Buddemeier & Fautin, 1993).
94
The ABH asserts that there is potential for rapid ‘adaptation’ of corals facing stressful
95
conditions by a dynamic modification of their Symbiodinium community composition either by i)
96
the acquisition of resistant Symbiodinium clades from free algae present in the environment (i.e.,
97
‘switching’) or ii) repopulation by background pre-existing resistant Symbiodinium clades (i.e.,
98
‘shuffling’). Therefore, in the context of the ABH, coral flexibility (the ability of a coral species
99
to associate with multiple Symbiodinium types) is of the utmost importance, and has led to the
100
characterization of coral hosts as either ‘specialists’ (associating with a specific Symbiodinium
101
clade) or ‘generalists’ (associating with multiple Symbiodinium clades) (Fabina et al., 2012;
102
Putnam et al., 2012; Silverstein, Correa & Baker, 2012).
103
The development of molecular tools with highly sensitive detection capacities such as
104
real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR), which is up to 1000 times more sensitive than conventional
105
methods (e.g. cloning, DGGEs, RFLP) (Mieog et al., 2007), allows for the detection of
106
background symbionts (in addition to the dominant symbionts), and provides a measurable
107
degree of host flexibility among corals (Silverstein, Correa & Baker, 2012). As a result, some
108
studies have suggested that corals may be more flexible than previously thought (Mieog et al.,
109
2007, 2009a; Silverstein, Correa & Baker, 2012). The goal of this study was to investigate the
110
degree of flexibility in host-symbiont partnerships among particular coral species from the
111
under-explored Moorea island in French Polynesia using qPCR. Coral flexibility, considered
112
here as the ability of a coral species to associate with multiple Symbiodinium clades or types in
113
different proportions, and which represents one of the main conditions of the ABH, was tested.
114
The presence of Symbiodinium clades A-F was quantified among five coral species,
115
Acropora cytherea, Acropora pulchra, Pocillopora damicornis, Porites rus and Pavona cactus.
116
Although each coral species displayed a high degree of specificity to a dominant Symbiodinium
117
clade, all of the coral species hosted multiple Symbiodinium clades in low abundance, including
118
partnerships never recorded in French Polynesia.
119
120
MATERIALS & METHODS
121
Choice of coral species
122
Five coral species, chosen among the most common scleractinian coral genera from the
123
Pacific: Pocillopora (P. damicornis type β sensu Schmidt-Roach et al., 2014; Genbank
124
references KY110998- KY111024), Acropora (A. cytherea and A. pulchra), Porites (P. rus) and
125
Pavona (P. cactus), were collected from a fringing reef with a depth 0.5-2.0 m off Moorea island
126
in French Polynesia (17°30’9S, 149°50’9W) (Fig. 1). These five coral species display different
127
biological traits, and were among corals characterized as having varying resistance during severe
128
local bleaching events in 2002 and 2007 (Penin, Vidal-Dupiol & Adjeroud, 2012). Acropora is
129
considered the “sentinel” coral genus, described as having high sensitivity to environmental
130
stressors (e.g. McClanahan et al., 2007; Penin et al., 2007; Penin, Vidal-Dupiol & Adjeroud,
131
2012). Conversely, the genus Porites was chosen for its high resistance to stress (e.g. Kayal et
132
al., 2012; Penin, Vidal-Dupiol & Adjeroud, 2012), living in a wide range of various habitats on
133
the island (e.g., sedimentary bays). Finally, the last two genera, Pocillopora and Pavona, were
134
chosen because they are considered to have intermediate degrees of sensitivity (Penin, Vidal-
135
Dupiol & Adjeroud, 2012).
136
All of the coral species were sampled during the dry season between August and October
137
2012, P. damicornis (N=27), P. rus (N=21) and A. cytherea (N=16) were sampled in greater
138
proportions compared to A. pulchra (N=6) and P. cactus (N=7). Sampling was performed among
139
five contrasting fringing reefs from the lagoon of Moorea island: Mahareapa (Ma) and Vaiare
140
(Va) are exposed to anthropogenic influence, and Teavaro (Te), Linareva (Li) and Tiahura (Ti)
141
are more isolated from human activities (Nahon et al., 2013; Rouzé et al., 2015).
142
143
DNA extraction
144
Small coral fragments (0.5-1 cm3) were sampled at several areas of the top of each coral
145
colony, placed directly into a tube underwater, and immediately transferred at the surface into a
146
new 1.5 mL centrifuge tube containing 80% ethanol. All samples were stored at - 20°C until
147
DNA extraction. Prior to extraction, all of the ethanol was discarded and the sample was gently
148
rinsed with sterile freshwater to eliminate all traces of mucus. This allows for better targeting of
149
Symbiodinium present in the host tissues.
150
Total coral DNA (i.e., Symbiodinium, polyps, and associated micro-organisms) was
151
extracted using a CTAB-based extraction protocol adapted from Mieog et al. (Mieog et al.,
152
2009a). To increase the efficiency of DNA extraction, coral samples were incubated in 600 μL of
153
extraction buffer CTAB 2% (2% CTAB, 1.4 M NaCl, 20 mM EDTA pH 8, 100 mM Tris-HCl
154
pH 8 and 20 µg/mL proteinase K). They were then exposed to 3 cryo-shock cycles (5 min in
155
nitrogen liquid following by 10 min at ambient temperature), and incubated at 60°C overnight
156
while rotating. Next, the CTAB buffer was recovered and placed into new tube in which 600 μL
157
of chloroform/iso-amyl alcohol (24:1 vol/vol) was added. The resulting solution was mixed
158
thoroughly and centrifuged for 15 min at 12000 g (4°C). The aqueous phase was then transferred
159
to a new tube and mixed with 600 μL of isopropanol at 0°C and incubated for 20 min at -20°C.
160
After a new round of centrifugation, the supernatant was discarded and the pellet rinsed with
161
500 μL of 70% ethanol. After a final centrifugation of 10 min at 12000 g, the ethanol was
162
removed and the DNA pellet air-dried before dilution in 100 μL sterile water (Sigma). All DNA
163
samples were then stored at -40°C.
164
165
qPCR assay
166
Primer set assessment
167
Six primer sets optimized for the amplification of nuclear ribosomal 28S in Symbiodinium
168
clades A-F (Yamashita et al., 2011), and one coral-specific 18S primer set for the coral host (i.e.,
169
polyps)
170
ATCGATGAAGAACGCCAGCCA-3’
171
5’CAAGAGCGCCATTTGCGTTC-3’) were designed with Primer 3 (Untergasser et al., 2012)
172
from the 18S rDNA sequence alignment (276 sequences) of 18 coral species that are among the
173
most abundant genera found in French Polynesia (Porites spp., Pocillopora spp., Acropora spp.,
174
Montipora spp., and Povona spp.) as well as Symbiodinium clades as negative controls.
were
used.
The
18S
coral
host
primers
and
(univPolyp-18SF:
5’-
univPolyp-18SR:
175
The quality of the different primer sets for qPCR was confirmed using the evaluation of
176
indicators of specificity and efficiency. Firstly, the specificity of the symbiont and host primer
177
sets were verified with DNA from cultured Symbiodinium strains [available from the BURR
178
Collection (http://www.nsm.buffalo.edu/Bio/burr/); clade A: CasskB8 and Flap1, B: Pe and
179
Flap2, C: Mp, D: A001 and A014, E: RT383 and F: Sin and Pdiv44b], and with coral DNA from
180
various species (Acropora: A. pulchra, A. cytherea, A. hyacynthus; Pocillopora: P. damicornis,
181
P. verrucosa, P. meandrina; Porites rus; Pavona cactus; Montipora spp. and Fungia spp.). A
182
percentage of specificity (Sp: expected with target / unexpected with non-target region) of the
183
symbiont-specific primer sets was calculated according to the formula: Sp= 1- ∑ (100/2(Cti-Ctx)),
184
where Cti and Ctx are Ct obtained from a specific primer set (Cti) and from other primer sets
185
(Ctx) on the same targeted DNA sample. Secondly, the efficiency of the different primer sets
186
was estimated from the standard curve method based on the log-linear regression of the Ct values
187
with 10-fold serial dilutions of the DNA over 7 concentrations. For both Symbiodinium and the
188
coral host, the matrix for dilution was based on a series of known DNA concentrations. In order
189
to mimic multiclade associations and/or the DNA complexity, the matrix was performed by a
190
mixture of several DNA extracts equally concentrated for Symbiodinium (70 ng of each clades
191
A-F; one reference strain per clade; clade A: CasskB8, B: Pe, C: Mp, D: A001, E: RT383 and F:
192
Sin), and the coral host (on 1/ mixture multi-specific: 50 ng of the ten coral species mentioned
193
above or 2/ mixture mono-specific: 50 ng of five DNAs from the same coral species for
194
P. damicornis, P. rus or A. cytherea). Additionally, for Symbiodinium the standard curve method
195
was applied on a series of known 28S rDNA copy numbers (amplified DNA for clades A-F;
196
Supplementary method), or a series of known cell densities of clade A, C and D isolated from the
197
coral hosts (clade B was not available; Supplementary method). Percentage of efficiency (100%
198
of efficiency indicates that the amount of PCR product doubles during each cycle) was the ratio
199
of the observed slope and the expected slope (-3.322) of the log-linear regression. In addition, the
200
standard curves of efficiency for each corresponding primer set denoted sensitivity, which
201
corresponded to the threshold of Ct ranges to insure an accurate amplification (i.e., the limits of
202
the detectable log-linear range of the PCR).
203
204
Quantification of Symbiodinium in coral hosts
205
In order to compare Symbiodinium clade amounts between different coral samples, the
206
raw number of 28S copies of each Symbiodinium clade (from A to F) was normalized within
207
coral hosts to evaluate the Symbiodinium densities per sample. For each coral DNA sample, a
208
value of polyp unit was estimated by the 18S copy quantification using the standard curve
209
equation (Fig. S1b) in order to normalize the quantification of the Symbiodinium clades in 28S
210
copy number, or in cell number per unit of 18S polyp.
211
All qPCR assays were conducted on a MX3000 Thermocycler (Stratagene) using SYBR-
212
Green. Each reaction was performed, in a final volume of 25 μL containing: 12.5 μL of Brillant®
213
SYBR Green Master Mix reagent, 2.5 μL of both reverse and forward primers diluted at the
214
concentration of 4 μM, and 10 μL of DNA at various concentrations for standard curve analysis
215
or at 1 ng.μL-1 for field sample analysis. The following run protocol was performed: 1 cycle of
216
pre-incubation of 10 min at 95°C; 40 cycles of amplification: 30s at 95°C, 1 min at 60°C or 64°C
217
for Symbiodinium and coral host respectively, and 1 min at 72°C; and a final step, for melting
218
temperature curve analysis, of 1 min at 95°C, 30s at 60°C and 30s at 95°C. Each sample was
219
analysed twice on the same plate, as one technical replicate, and averaged when the variation
220
between both Ct values was not exceeding 1 (if not, samples were re-processed until ∆Ct≤1). An
221
interplate calibrator (i.e., positive control with known concentrations and Ct values: mixture of
222
DNA from Symbiodinium clades A-F), tested in triplicate (one technical replicate), was added to
223
each plate to calibrate Ct values (performed manually on the MxPro software to set the
224
fluorescent threshold to a fixed Ct value) among different plates of coral DNA samples. Positive
225
amplifications were taken into account only when both technical replicates produced Ct values
226
inferior to the estimated threshold ranges (i.e., limit sensitivity to insure an accurate
227
quantification; Table S1) after correction with the interplate calibrator. In addition, all melting
228
curve analyses ensured the specificity of the amplifications (Table S1). For new partnerships
229
between Symbiodinium clade(s) and coral species, we further purified the qPCR products (~100
230
bp) using QiaEx II Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen GmbH, Hilden, Germany) and sequenced in both
231
directions [GATC Biotech (Cologne, Germany)].
232
233
Statistical analysis
234
All statistical analyses were performed using R version 3.3.1 software. For each
235
Symbiodinium clade, positively quantified in coral DNA, the symbiont/host ratio (i.e., S/H ratio)
236
were log+1 transformed for further analyses. Slopes, intercepts, and the Pearson correlation
237
coefficient (R2) were evaluated and compared by pairwise comparisons with Student’s t-tests
238
using R package RVAideMemoire version 0.9-27 (Hervé, 2013).
239
Discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) on S/H ratios, available for the 5
240
coral species, was performed in R package ade4 version 1.7-4 (Dray & Dufour, 2007) in order to
241
characterize their preferential endosymbiotic assemblages and densities. Therefore, the
242
discrimination represented by ellipses was applied through the coral species as factor.
243
244
RESULTS
245
Validation and optimization of qPCR assay
246
For all clade-specific primer sets, the specificity of each qPCR assay was greater than
247
98%, and was characterized by a unique melting temperature (Table S1), confirming the high
248
accuracy of each primer set to its targeted sequence. All clade-specific primers yielded a good fit
249
linear regression with similar efficiencies close to the desired efficiency of 100% (95-101%;
250
Table S1), strong linear correlations (R2 > 0.985; Fig. S1) between Ct and concentrations of
251
DNA template, and no significant differences among slopes. This indicates that the increase in
252
clade-specific Symbiodinium quantity is directly proportional to the number of amplification
253
cycles regardless of whether the tests were performed on DNA from either Symbiodinium culture
254
strains (Table S1 and see Yamashita et al., 2011), purified PCR products (Fig. S1a), or from
255
counted Symbiodinium cells (Fig. S2). The sensitivity of the clade-specific primers allowed two
256
groups of primer sets to be distinguished. Pairwise comparisons of the intercepts (Student’s t-
257
test, p<0.05) between the standard regression lines of 28S amplicons (Fig. S1a) showed earlier
258
detection of the primers specific to clades A, B, E and F (i = 16.36±0.39; Fig. S1a) when
259
compared with the clade-specific primers to clades C and D (i = 19.83±0.27; Fig. S1a). From the
260
Symbiodinium cell extraction, clade D sensitivity was significantly different from clades A and C
261
(Student’s t-tests, pairwise comparisons of slopes: D/A P < 0.005 and D/C P = 0.104; intercepts:
262
D/A P < 0.001 and D/C P = 0.015; Fig. S2). The threshold of 28S copy number estimation for
263
each clade A-F, evaluated by the absolute quantification of Symbiodinium clades, was effective
264
under 200 copies of the gene (Table S1 and Fig. S1a).
265
Similarly, the specificity of the coral-specific primer set was confirmed with positive
266
amplifications from 10 coral species and no amplifications with Symbiodinium DNA. In addition,
267
the amplification of multi (mixture of 10 coral species) vs. mono-specific (mixture of P. rus, P.
268
damicornis or A. cytherea) mixes with the coral-specific primer set yielded a good fit linear
269
regression with similar efficiencies that were close to the desired efficiency of 100% (101%;
270
Table S1b), contained strong linear correlations (R2 > 0.99; Fig. S1b) between Ct and
271
concentration of DNA template, and demonstrated no significant differences among linear
272
correlation slopes and intercepts (Student’s t-tests, pairwise comparisons among the 4 DNA
273
mixes: P > 0.05). In order to consider the higher complexity of multi-partner coral DNA, we
274
performed and used analyses on multi-specific mixes of Symbiodinium and coral hosts to
275
quantify the different Symbiodinium clades in coral DNA samples.
276
277
Diversity and flexibility of dominant vs. background Symbiodinium clades
278
Symbiodinium clades A, C and D (among the tested clades A-F) were detected at least
279
once in association with each of the five coral species studied, except for P. cactus which was
280
never found associated with clade A (Fig. 2). The quantification of these clades either by 28S
281
copy number or by cell density displayed similar orders of magnitudes when present, whatever
282
the species (Fig. 2A, B). For some coral species, this represents novel associations for corals
283
from Moorea: clade C for both Acropora species, A. cytherea and A. pulchra, clade D for
284
P. cactus, and clades A and D for P. rus (Table 1). The corresponding 28S sequences for these
285
novel coral-Symbiodinium partnerships revealed the presence of lineages within sub-clades: A13,
286
C15, C1, and D1 (Table 1; Fig. S3). In addition, Symbiodinium clade B was detected in
287
P. damicornis (N=2; Fig. 2), albeit in low abundances equivalent to 26 and 183 copies of 28S
288
(4.25 and 6.21 in log+1, respectively Fig. 2A). However, no relationship was available to
289
estimate this clade’s cell number. The presence of clade B was confirmed by a match to a
290
sequence within the sub-clade B1 (Fig. S3: PDAM2_Moo). Two slightly different profiles in
291
temperature melting curves were obtained with clade C amplification for P. rus. Their sequences
292
showed that each profile corresponded to two distinct lineages within sub-clades (Fig. S3): C1
293
(Tm~82.95°C; Fig. S3: PRUS5_Moo and PRUS6_Moo) and C15 (Tm~83.5°C; Fig. S3:
294
PRUS3_Moo and PRUS4_Moo). In subsequent analyses of the Symbiodinium community
295
composition, each clade was expressed by 28S copy number per unit of coral 18S in order to
296
cover clades A-F. The S/H ratio calculation displayed intra and inter-specific variation of the
297
total Symbiodinium densities harbored within the host (Fig. 2A), either for a specific clade or
298
from the total Symbiodinium density (all clade(s) included).
299
The occurrence of clades A, B, C, and D led to fifteen possible theoretical patterns among
300
which nine have been observed previously, including assemblages of three clades together (Fig.
301
2): ACD (A. cytherea and A. pulchra), BCD (P. damicornis) or ABC (P. damicornis). However,
302
Symbiodinium patterns that include clade B as either a unique clade (B) or as an additional clade
303
(BA, BC, BD, BAD and ABCD) have never been recorded. Using the Symbiodinium densities
304
(S/H ratio) within the coral host (Fig. 2C), relative proportions were determined, and allowed for
305
their classification as either dominant (>5 %) or background clade(s) (≤5 %; Table 2).
306
Symbiodinium clade B, only detected in P. damicornis, was always characterized as background
307
regardless of the clade pattern (0.0002-0.0009% of the Symbiodinium communities; Table 2),
308
and was systematically associated with at least clade C. All of the other three clades (A, C and
309
D) were observed at least once as background clades, depending on the species and on the clade
310
pattern. For example, clade A was occasionally background in P. rus with an AC-pattern
311
(0.0001 % within Li-05 and 0.002 % within Va-03), and was frequently observed as background
312
in A. cytherea (<2 %; Table 2). Clade D was background in P. rus (0.026 % within Va-05) or
313
P. cactus (0.003 % within Ti-05) with a CD-pattern. Clade C was observed as a background
314
clade only once in P. damicornis with a CD-pattern (0.04 % within Li-01). In some corals,
315
different Symbiodinium clades occurred in more even proportions. For example, clades C
316
(51.07 %) and D (48.93 %) within P. damicornis (Li-02; Fig. 2C) exhibited a BCD-pattern, and
317
clades A (57.13 %) and D (42.87 %) showed AD-pattern within A. cytherea (Va-03; Fig. 2C).
318
319
Selective coral-Symbiodinium partnerships
320
The discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC; Fig. 3) on the five coral
321
species showed compositional differences among associated communities of Symbiodinum
322
according to clade identity and to their density in the host. The first axis (43.9 % of total
323
variance) of the DAPC opposed Symbiodnium communities characterized with higher clade D
324
density (Pearson’s corelation: P < 0.001, t = 15.7) from communities composed of higher clade
325
C (Pearson’s correlation: P < 0.001, t = -21.5) and/or clade B (Pearson’s correlation: P = 0.01,
326
t = -2.5) densities. Clade D was strongly representative of P. damicornis Symbiodinium
327
communities (100 % of coral colonies sampled), nearly always appearing as a unique clade
328
(24/27 = 89 %; Fig. 2). In contrast, P. rus (18/21 = 85.7 %; Fig. 2) and P. cactus (6/7 = 85.7 %;
329
Fig. 2) colonies were nearly exclusively composed of mono-clade C communities. However, one
330
P. cactus colony also associated with clade D (Fig. 2), underlying a larger range of variation in
331
the density of the associated symbiotic communities (wide size of discriminant ellipse, Fig. 3).
332
The second axis (24.9 % of total variance) of the DAPC differentiated Symbiodinium
333
communities was composed of clade A (Pearson’s correlation: P < 0.001, t = 11.4), and was
334
comprised of both Acropora species. These two species mainly associated with multi-clade
335
communitities (A. cytherea: 81% and A. pulchra: 67 %) and were distinguished by a second
336
preferential clade in addition to clade A (Figs. 2, 3): D for A. cytherea (AD and ACD patterns
337
11/16 = 68.8 %) and C for A. pulchra (AC and ACD patterns 4/6 = 66.7 %).
338
339
DISCUSSION
340
This study analysed the Symbiodinium communities of five abundant coral species from
341
Moorea (A. cytherea, A. pulchra, P. damicornis, P. cactus and P. rus), and found Symbiodinium
342
clades A, C and D (from the six clades tested, A-F) in all of the species except P. cactus, which
343
was never observed in association with clade A. This is congruent with previous observations
344
that have described these three Symbiodinium clades as the principal clades inhabiting
345
scleractinian corals (van Oppen et al., 2005). In contrast, while Symbiodinium clade B is
346
commonly reported in Caribbean corals (Rowan et al., 1997; Diekmann et al., 2003; Pettay &
347
Lajeunesse, 2007; Cunning, Silverstein & Baker, 2015) it is rarely reported in corals from the
348
Central Pacific (e.g., LaJeunesse, 2001). This study is the first record of clade B found associated
349
with corals from French Polynesia (see previous studies by Magalon, Flot & Baudry, 2007;
350
Putnam et al., 2012). Clade B was detected exclusively as a background population in
351
P. damicornis, and genotyped as belonging to sub-clade B1. Coincidentally, among the few
352
detections of Symbiodinium clade B in Pacific corals to date (e.g. LaJeunesse, 2001; Silverstein,
353
Correa & Baker, 2012; Parkinson, Coffroth & Lajeunesse, 2015; Lee et al., 2016), lineages of B1
354
were found in association with P. damicornis in Hawaii (LaJeunesse, 2001). In addition, clade B
355
has also been found in Moorea, but as a symbiont with the nudibranch Aeolidiella alba (Wecker,
356
Fournier & Bosserelle, 2015).
357
The low abundances of clade B may also have come from an exogenous source (e.g., surface
358
environmental cells), and, therefore, represents a non-symbiotic interaction with the host.
359
However, the strict conditioning of the samples during DNA extraction (e.g., eliminating traces
360
of mucus; described in Rouzé et al., 2016), and the absence of any detection of clade B in the
361
other coral species from the same sampling site largely reduce this hypothesis. Instead, the rarity
362
and low abundance of B1 lineages in corals from Moorea may be consistent with a previous
363
report in which a B1 type was found to opportunistically associate with cold-bleached
364
Pocillopora colonies following a coral bleaching event (LaJeunesse et al., 2010). However, a
365
recent study by Lee et al. (2016) found clade B (type B2) to commonly reside in the host tissues
366
of Alveopora japonica. Alternatively, although Pacific corals rarely associate with clade B, the
367
function of this symbiosis may represent an, as of yet, unknown ecological niche. However,
368
given the rarity of this association, the significance of this partnership it likely to have minor
369
physiological consequences on the host’s survival (e.g. sensitivity to thermal stress; Loram et al.,
370
2007).
371
The qPCR assays revealed that each of the four clades A-D could be detected at least
372
once at a background level (i.e., ≤5%), a finding that is consistent with previous studies (e.g.
373
Mieog et al., 2007; Silverstein, Correa & Baker, 2012). In addition, this study increases the
374
number of known background clades, and presents novel partnerships between corals and
375
Symbiodinium (e.g. P. rus with clades A or D). However, some coral-Symbiodinium pairs were
376
not recovered. For example, P. cactus was not found to associate with clade A, and P. rus,
377
P. cactus and the Acropora spp. did not associate with clade B. This could be due to a limited
378
sampling effort among some of the corals (e.g., 6 A. pulchra sampled) rather than a selective
379
exclusion by the host or symbiont to a particular partner by cellular recognition mechanisms
380
(Silverstein, Correa & Baker, 2012; Davy, Allemand & Weis, 2012). While a majority of
381
background clades were only occasionally detected within some coral species (e.g., clades A and
382
D in P. rus or clade B in P. damicornis), the presence of clade A in low abundance in A. cytherea
383
was nearly exclusive. Consequently, the ability of corals to harbour multi-clade Symbiodinium
384
communities at background levels may be due to the environmental history of Moorea island,
385
which has experienced a variety of massive bleaching events (Penin, Vidal-Dupiol & Adjeroud,
386
2012), and, therefore, represents a meaningful ecological function that could influence holobiont
387
resistance (Berkelmans & van Oppen, 2006; Mieog et al., 2007). Indeed, background clades
388
support the potential for dynamic ecological strategies (e.g., switching vs. shuffling), as
389
described in the ABH, that could lead to a rapid selective mechanism of tolerant coral-
390
Symbiodinium partnerships in response to environmental change (Buddemeier & Fautin, 1993;
391
Baker, 2003).
392
Despite the observed increase in variation among Symbiodinium clade associations for the
393
five coral species studied, each species was restricted to a particular dominant or background
394
Symbiodinium clade(s). For example, clade A was exclusively observed (>95 %; Fig. 1) in the
395
Symbiodinium assemblages associated with both Acropora species, either as a background clade
396
or as a dominant clade. Similarly, other coral species exhibited a principal association with a
397
particular clade: either exclusively, as with clade C in P. rus and clade D in P damicornis, or
398
dominant, as with clade C in P. cactus. Similar to the study by Putnam et al. (2012), which
399
investigated a wide range of various fringing reefs during different seasons (i.e., dry season in
400
this study vs. April: wet season), our findings also support consistent associations of coral
401
species to particular Symbiodinium clades (LaJeunesse et al., 2008; Stat et al., 2009). The few
402
exceptions of the multi-clade associations found for P. damicornis or P. cactus could be
403
preferentially attributed to a transient acquisition (Muscatine, 1973; Yamashita et al., 2011; Lee
404
et al. 2016) of Symbiodinium clades, rather than to a spatial partitioning of Symbiodinium within
405
host colonies (e.g. Rowan & Knowlton, 1995) given our standardized sampling method. Overall,
406
our findings are consistent with corals as ‘specialists’ (low flexibility: specific to particular
407
symbiont(s)) or ‘generalists’ (high flexibility: associated with various symbionts). To further
408
explore symbiont diversity in corals, similar fine-scale molecular approaches (e.g., qPCR, next
409
generation sequencing; see Barbrook, Voolstra & Howe, 2014) should be performed on a wide
410
range of coral species throughout a large geographic range.
411
The association of coral species with specific clade(s) observed among Moorea’s reefs is
412
consistent with previous reports of stable partnerships between coral hosts and subsets of
413
Symbiodinium (e.g. Thornhill et al., 2006, 2009; Suwa, Hirose & Hidaka, 2008; Rouzé et al.,
414
2016). Such symbiotic specificity can be derived from the ‘winnowing’ of multiple symbiont
415
types initially present in the host (Nyholm & Mcfall-Ngai, 2004). This process occurs in many
416
mutualisms (e.g. legume-zhizobial bacteria: Hirsch, Lum & Downie, 2001; squid-luminous
417
bacteria: Nyholm & Mcfall-Ngai, 2004; cnidarian-Symbiodinium: Wolfowicz et al., 2016), and
418
consists of a complex series of molecular recognition interactions between the host and the
419
symbionts. It is likely that the specific partnerships observed between corals and Symbiodinium
420
are derived from various biological traits (Yost et al., 2013), as well as different physiological
421
and ecological attributes among Symbiodinium clades (Kinzie et al., 2001; Berkelmans & van
422
Oppen, 2006; Hennige et al., 2009; Baker et al., 2013) that ultimately lead to the ecological
423
success of distinct holobionts. For example, the high resistance of Porites to a variety of stressors
424
could be explained, in part, by its stable association with Symbiodinium type C15 (Putnam et al.,
425
2012). This symbiont has been characterized as thermally tolerant (LaJeunesse et al., 2003; Fitt
426
et al., 2009) and more resilient to extreme environmental conditions compared to other clade C
427
types (LaJeunesse et al., 2003), which may have contributed to an ecological radiation of this
428
Symbiodinium type throughout the Indo-Pacific (LaJeunesse, 2005; Pochon et al., 2007). In this
429
study, and similar to a previous report by Putnam et al. (2012), P. cactus always associated with
430
Symbiodinium in clade C. However, it likely belongs to type C1 (Fig. S3; Putnam et al., 2012)
431
which is described as thermo-sensitive (Deschaseaux et al., 2014), and that could explain the
432
lower resistance to environmental conditions of the species. Similarly, the ecological sensitivity
433
of branching corals from the genera Acropora and Pocillopora could be explained, in part, by
434
their specialization with Symbiodinium clade A, type A1 (Putnam et al., 2012) and A13, and
435
clade D, type D1/D1a (Putnam et al., 2012) respectively. Indeed, while both clades A and D are
436
characterized with eco-physiological benefits for the holobiont, including photo-protective and
437
thermo-tolerance abilities, respectively, it has been mainly described in stressful vs. non-stressful
438
conditions. This duality likely corresponds to trade-offs between coral host resistance and low
439
energetic budget contributions (reviewed in Lesser, Stat & Gates, 2013). In some cases,
440
Symbiodinium belonging to these clades have been reported as nominal contributors to host
441
metabolism [e.g., growth and reproduction (Little, van Oppen & Willis, 2004; Jones &
442
Berkelmans, 2010) and/or nutrition (Stat, Morris & Gates, 2008; Cantin et al., 2009; Baker et al.,
443
2013)].
444
The specialization of coral hosts to particular Symbiodinium clades likely represents a
445
driver resulting in stable mutualisms, initiated from selective pressure, that enhances the benefits
446
of specific symbiosis by co-evolution (Douglas, 2008; Thornhill et al., 2014). However, this
447
specialization is contrasted with the maintenance of the horizontal transmission of symbionts in
448
the majority of coral species as well as the detection of additional clades, at trace levels, within
449
the five coral species examined. Lee et al. (2016) suggest that low abundance ‘background’
450
Symbiodinium populations are not necessarily mutualistic but can reflect a transient relative
451
abundance in the surrounding environment, such as non-directional ingestion by polyps leading
452
to ephemeral symbiont shifts (LaJeunesse et al., 2009; Stat et al., 2009; Coffroth et al., 2010).
453
Nevertheless, every Symbiodinium species may not be transiently ingested. For example,
454
Symbiodinium clade F was never found in the host tissues of the five coral species examined,
455
despite clade F being detected in the surrounding environment (Supplementary data: Fig.S4),
456
and, although in a temperate environment, described as a dominant symbiont within
457
Alveopora japonica (Lee et al., 2016). This suggests a combination of physiological controlled
458
processes among the coral host and its background Symbiodinium communities. Therefore, two
459
opposite selection pressures may be co-occuring in the context of Moorea’s reef environment
460
(which has been exposed to consecutive massive bleaching events in the past): i) the
461
optimization of a symbiosis with a specific clade(s) and/or ii) the maintenance of the ability to
462
integrate several different (but not all) clades in low abundance that could yield an overall
463
benefit to the coral holobiont.
464
Altogether, these findings emphasize the need to better understand whether those
465
Symbiodinium present in low abundance play an ecological role for the holobiont over time, and
466
to further explore the processes that may govern the maintenance of Symbiodinium in low
467
abundance in addition to the dominant symbioses that occur with particular clades.
468
469
Acknowledgments. We thank B. Espiau and M. Vairaa from CRIOBE and J. Fievet (in charge
470
of qPCR platform utilization) from IFREMER from Taravao for their advices and assistance in
471
laboratory. We are also grateful to M.A. Coffroth and her laboratory (BURR ;
472
http://www.nsm.buffalo.edu/Bio/burr/) for providing us cultured Symbiodinium strains. We also
473
thank C. Bonneville who performed analyses of Symbiodinium diversity in the water column
474
during her master internship.
475
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Figure 1 Map of Moorea island (Archipelago of society, French Polynesia) and the locations of
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the fringing reefs studied (black circles). Locations with an “x” indicate the sites investigated
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previously by Putnam et al. (2012). Vaiare (Va), Teavaro (Te), Maharepa (Ma), Tiahura (Ti) and
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Linereva (Li).
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Figure 2 Quantitative composition of different Symbiodinium clades observed in association
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with ACYT: A. cytherea, APUL: A. pulchra, PCAC: P. cactus, PDAM: P. damicornis and
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PRUS: P. rus based on: (A) 28S copy number estimation (B) cell number estimation and (C)
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clade proportions within coral hosts: the grey circles represent the presence of background clades
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under a 5% threshold (dashed line).
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Figure 3 Spatio-temporal multivariate analysis of clade A-D quantifications converted in 28S
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copy number. Axis 1 and 2 of the discriminant analysis of principal component (DAPC)
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according to the five coral species: A. cytherea, A. pulchra, P. cactus, P. damicornis and P. rus.
718
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Table 1 Comparative census of Symbiodinium clades and types associated with common coral
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species from Moorea (A. cytherea, A. pulchra, P. damicornis, P. cactus, and P. rus) detected in a
722
previous report by Putnam et al. 2012 [1] vs. the present study.
723
A. cytherea
A. pulchra
P. damicornis
Previous report [1]
clade(s)
type
A, D
A1, D1
A, D
A1, D1
A, C, D
DA, A1, C15
clades
A, C*, D
A, C*, D
A, B*, C, D
P. rus
C
C15
A*, C**, D*
P. cactus
C
C1, C3, C45
D*
Coral species
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* novel detected clade from this study
** new type of previously reported clade
Present study
* type
* C1
* B1
*: A13, D1;
C15, **:C1
*: D1, **C1
727
Table 2 Proportion of background clades identified within the coral hosts A. cytherea,
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A. pulchra, P. cactus, P. damicornis and P. rus.
729
Species
Coral ID
Li-02
Li-03
Li-04
Va-01
Va-02
Va-04
Va-05
Te-02
Te-03
Te-04
Te-05
Te-06
Background clade proportion
A = 0.0012%
A = 0.0005%
A = 1.5718%
A = 0.7750%
A = 0.1496%
C = 3.0797%
A = 0.2089%
A = 0.3314%
A = 0.0242%
C = 1.5921%
A = 0.1931%
A = 0.8460%
A = 0.7958%
Ti-04
Ti-05
Ti-06
C = 5.0116%
A = 0.2073%
D = 0.7418%
P. cactus
Ti-05
D = 0.0029%
P. damicornis
Li-01
Li-02
Ti-01
C = 0.0380%
B = 0.0002%
B = 0.0009%
Li-05
Va-03
Va-05
A = 0.0001%
A = 0.0020%
D = 0.0259%
A. cytherea
A. pulchra
P. rus
730
A = 0.3984%
A = 0.0002%