Dhar, Parul Pandya, Chapter 10.3: Understanding Indian Art: changing perspectives

Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Subj e ct : H ist or y Unit : Cu lt u r a l D e ve lopm en t Le sson: 1 0 .3 : Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Le sson D e ve lope r : D r . Pa r ul Pa ndya D ha r Colle ge / D e pa r t m e nt : Associa t e Pr ofe ssor , D e pa r t m e nt of H ist or y, Unive r sit y of D e lhi I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Table of cont ent s Cha pt e r • • • • • 1 0 : Cu lt u r a l de ve lopm e nt s 10.3: Under st anding I ndian art : changing perspect ives Sum m ary Ex er cises Glossary Furt her r eadings I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s 10.3: Underst anding I ndian art : changing perspect ives The aest het ic qualit y, hist oricit y and validit y of ancient I ndian art are well- accept ed t oday. Yet , t his was not always so and during t he lat e m edieval t im es, t he art ist ic herit age of I ndia had been lost in t he m ist s of t im e and seem ed t oo rem ot e t o com prehend. I t s form s, m eanings, m at erials, t echniques and m et hods barely survived in pock et s of t radit ional knowledge. For t he r est , it was eit her m isunder st ood or ignor ed. Gradually, t he m yriad form s, st yles, m eanings, m et hods, and pr ocesses of ancient I ndian art and it s m any percept ions and int erpr et at ions have becom e int elligible t o us in t he m odern t im es. Pe r ce pt ions of a r t in colonia l I ndia The r ediscovery of t he ancient and rich art ist ic t radit ion of I ndia began only in t he lat e 18 t h and 19 t h cent uries, during t he period of Br it ish colonial rule in I ndia. I t is t hen t hat t he process of r et rieving, conser ving and underst anding t he nuances of t he cult ure of t he colonized people - t heir script s, languages, religions, t ext s, art and archaeological rem ains - com m enced in earnest . But it was t o be a long and arduous j ourney befor e I ndian art and ar chit ect ure cam e t o be underst ood and appr eciat ed on it s own t erm s. I ndividua l a nd inst it ut iona l init ia t ive s The est ablishm ent of inst it ut ions such as t he Asiat ic Societ y of Bengal ( 1784) and t he Archaeological Survey of I ndia ( 1871) , alongside individual init iat ives, result ed in t he shared scient ific beginnings of t he m odern disciplines of I ndian Archaeology and t he Hist ory of I ndian Art . These w er e ex cit ing t im es. Ext ensive sur vey and docum ent at ion effort s by t he likes of Colin MacKenzie ( 1753- 1821) , and t he decipherm ent of t he Brahm i script by Jam es Prinsep ( 1838) , had given a boost t o I ndological st udies. Aft er several m issed opport unit ies, Harappa was finally uneart hed and Marshall’s announcem ent in 1924 pushed back t he ant iquit y of t he I ndian civilizat ion t o t he t hird m illennium BCE. This singular discovery gained respect for I ndia as a count ry wit h a rich past ( Lahiri 2005, xvi) . Va lue a ddit ion: in t e r e st ing de t a ils The e st a blishm e n t of t he Ar cha e ologica l Sur ve y of I n dia Mem orandum subm it t ed by Alexander Cunningham t o Lord Canning in 1861, urging t he need for t he est ablishm ent of t he Ar chaeological Survey of I ndia: “ During t he one hundred year s of Brit ish dom inion in I ndia, t he Gov ernm ent has done lit t le or not hing t owards t he pr eser vat ion of it s ancient m onum ent s, which, in t he alm ost t ot al absence of any w rit t en hist ory, form t he only reliable sources of inform at ion as t o t he early condit ion of t he count ry. Som e of t hese m onum ent s have already endur ed for ages, and ar e likely t o last for ages st ill t o com e; but I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s t here are m any ot hers t hat are daily suffering from t he effect s of t im e and which m ust soon disappear alt oget her, unless pr eser ved by t he accurat e dr awings and fait hful descript ions of t he ar chaeologist .” The Archaeological Survey of I ndia was form ally est ablished in 1871. Sou r ce : Sin gh , Up in de r . 2 0 0 4 . Th e D iscove r y of An cie n t I n dia : Ea r ly Ar ch a e ologist s a n d Be gin n in gs of Ar ch a e ology. D e lh i: Pe r m a n e n t Bla ck , 57-58. Alexander Cunningham ( 1814- 1893) , who becam e t he first Direct or of ASI , and Jam es Fergusson ( 1808- 1886) , who had sur veyed t he ancient and m edieval I ndian m onum ent s ext ensively, repr esent ed dist inct approaches t o t he st udy of I ndia’s past . Though bot h approached t he past of t he colonized t hrough t he biased lens of t he colonizer and assert ed t he supr em acy of t he “ Anglo- Saxon” over t he “ Asian” , Cunningham largely followed t he ar chaeologist ’s approach whereas Fergusson’s enquiries were t hose of an archit ect ural hist orian, m or e concerned wit h t he principles of beaut y , st yle and form t hat t he m onum ent s revealed t o him . Jam es Burgess, Henry Cousens, Alexander Rea and ot her s t ook t he surv ey and docum ent at ion wor k furt her. Va lue a ddit ion: did you k now ? Ja m e s Fe r gusson’s vie w s on I ndia n a r chit e ct ur e On ar chit ect ure as a sou r ce of hist ory: “ [ The ar chit ect ure of I ndia is] a great st one book, in which each t ribe and race has writ t en it s annals and recorded it s fait h.” ( Fig. 2) On t he t heory of pr ogr e ssive de ca y of I ndian art : “ I know of no one char act erist ic t hat can be predicat ed wit h perfect cert aint y of all t he st yles of archit ect ur e in Hindost an except t he m elancholy one t hat t heir h ist or y is w r it t e n in de ca y; for whenever we m eet wit h ….. t wo specim ens of any sort in t he whole count ry bet ween Cape Com orin and t he Him alayas, if one is m or e perfect … t han t he ot her , we m ay at once feel cert ain t hat it is also t he m or e ancient of t he t wo; and it only requires sufficient fam iliarit y wit h t he rat e of downward progress t o be enabled t o use it as a graduat ed scale by which t o m easure t he t im e t hat m ust have elapsed before t he m ore per fect could have sunk int o t he m or e debased specim en. And I fear t he charact erist ic is no less applicable t o all t he inst it ut ions, bot h m oral and polit ical, of t he people t han t o t heir art s.” Sou r ce : Fe r g u sson , Ja m e s. 1 8 4 8 . Pict u r e squ e I llu st r a t ion s of An cie n t Ar ch it e ct u r e f r om H in dost a n. Lon d on , 1 1 - 1 3 . Sem inal progress was m ade during t his period in t he discov ery , docum ent at ion and decipherm ent of I ndia’s art and ar chit ect ure. Som e specific art hist orical concerns w er e also addressed, such as t he beginnings of t he st udy of form and st yle, not ably by Fergusson, and init ial at t em pt s at underst anding t radit ional t ext s and t he indigenous cult ural basis of I ndian m onum ent s and ot her form s by Ram Raz, Raj endralala Mit ra and a few ot her s. Yet , t he m any- headed and m ult i- arm ed gods and goddesses of t he Hindu pant heon oft en appear ed ridiculous and m onst er- like t o European ey es, t rained in t he realism of Gr eco- Rom an art ( Mit t er, 1977) . To t hem , t hese ( I ndian) “ grot esque form s” I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s revealed a “ decadent ” and “ uncivilized cult ure” in need of reform , which was t he m oral responsibilit y of t he colonizer ( Fig. 1) . Va lue a ddit ion: did you k now ? Eur ope a n r e a ct ions t o I ndia n sculpt ur e This is what George Birdwood had t o say about t he ancient religious sculpt ures of I ndia, in 1880: “ The m onst r ous shapes of t he Puranic deit ies ar e unsuit able for t he higher form s of art ist ic expression and t his is possibly why sculpt ure and paint ing are unknown, as fine art s, in I ndia.” While t he im aginary hybrid form s in art t hat com bined hum an, anim al and plant for m s ( i.e. t he grot esque) in European Got hic art was j ust ified as t he abilit y of superior races t o com bine int ellect wit h im aginat ion, t he grot esque in I ndian art was linked t o “ evil idolat ry” . These ar e t he views of John Ruskin on represent at ions of t he ‘grot esque’ in I ndian sculpt ure: “ The r eader who has not befor e t urned his at t ent ion t o t his subj ect m ay, however, at first have som e difficult y in dist inguishing bet ween t he noble grot esque of t hese great nat ions, and t he barbar ous grot esque of m ere savageness, as seen in t he wor k of t he Hindoo and ot her I ndian nat ions...” Sou r ce : Bir d w ood, Goe r ge . 1 8 8 0 . I n du st r ia l Ar t s of I n dia . Lon don , 1 2 5 ; Ru sk in , Joh n . 1 9 0 4 . St on e s of V e n ice , I I I . Figure 10.3.1: Ganesha – m ult i- arm ed and elephant headed god, Hoy saleshvara t em ple, Halebidu. Such im ages wer e described as “ m onst rous” by t he Eur opeans. Source: Chedha Tingsanchali I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Figure 10.3.2: The Sun t em ple at Modhera, c. 1075 CE; I ndian t em ple walls are replet e wit h iconic, narrat ive and grot esque im agery t hat lend t hem selves t o being “ read” for t he purposes of hist orical reconst ruct ion and cult ural int erpret at ion. Source: Parul Pandya Dhar The na t iona list r e sponse The defence against t he alleged superiorit y of west ern art pr opounded by colonial and Orient alist int erpret at ions was sought in an int ense, inward- looking, and ‘nat ionalist ic’ approach t hat delved int o t he vast r esour ces of t he t radit ional t ext s on vast u, sh ilpa , chit ra, t he r eligious canonical lit erat ure and non- canonical sources t o ar rive at t he purpose and m eaning of I ndian art , t o ext ol it s virt ues and t o underline it s unique and dist inct cont ribut ions. Not all west ern scholars wer e biased against I ndian art , t hough, and it m ust be said t hat I ndologist s such as E.B. Hav ell, Heinrich Zim m er and St ella Kram risch cont ribut ed significant ly t owards an underst anding of t he inher ent sym bolism and aest het ic m erit of I ndian art and archit ect ure. Or igins, m e a nings a nd t he or ie s of a r t At t he forefr ont of invest igat ions on t he purpose, m eaning and sym bolism of I ndian art wer e t he w orks of Ananda Coom araswam y ( 1877- 1947) and St ella Kram risch. Coom araswam y delved int o prim ary source m at erial – canonical and non- canonical t ext s, visual sources as w ell as ot her hist orical sour ces in a spirit ed defence of t he origins, rat ionale and ant iquit y of I ndian art and ar chit ect ur e. The origins of t he Buddha im age in I ndian art ( Figs. 3 and 4) , t he sym bolism of t he st upa, t he layer ed m eanings and hist oricit y of figures and m ot ifs seen in I ndian art , int erpret at ions of t he ( t ext ual) sh a da n g a or six t radit ional lim bs of I ndian paint ing ( Fig. 6) , and t he early beginnings of I ndian archit ect ure ar e only a few sam plers of t he m agnit ude and int ensit y of enquiry t hat was em bar ked upon by him . St ella Kram risch’s inquiries about I ndian art wer e of a I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s m or e philosophical nat ure. Trained in t he Vienna school of art hist ory, she becam e a devout r esear cher of t he m et aphysical underpinnings of I ndian art , her m ost fam ous wor ks being t he volum inous st udy of The Hindu Tem ple and t he Presence of Siva. Figure 10.3.3: Gandhar a Buddha, Toky o Nat ional Museum Source: ht t p: / / en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/ Buddhist _art Figure 10.3.4: Mat hura Buddha, Govindanagar, Mat hura Museum I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Source: Am erican I nst it ut e of I ndian St udies, Gurgaon Va lue a ddit ion: in t e r e st ing de t a ils The de ba t e r e la t ing t o t he or igin of t he Buddha im a ge A. Foucher had derived t he origins of t he Buddha im age in Gandhara art as a derivat ive of West er n Classical prot ot ypes. Coom araswam y convincingly dem onst rat ed t he sim ult aneous dev elopm ent of t he ant hr opom orphic represent at ion of Buddha in t he Mat hura school of art , t hrough t he prot ot ype of Yaksha im ages. Sou r ce : Or igin a l Va lue a ddit ion: w ha t t he sour ce s sa y The six lim bs of t r a dit iona l I ndia n pa int ing Ancient I ndian t ext s such as t he Vishnudharm ot t ara Purana m ent ion six essent ial lim bs of I ndian paint ing. The Jayam angala- t ika by Yashodhara is a lat er com m ent ary on t he Kam asut ra of Vat syayana, which m ent ions t he six lim bs of I ndian paint ing in verse- form : Rupabhedah pram anani bhava lavanyay oj anam / Sadrishyam v arnikabhangam it i chit ra shadangakam Tr. Differ ent iat ion of for m s, corr ect ness of proport ions, em ot ional cont ent , gracefulness in com posit ion, sim ilit ude or likeness ( t o nat ur e: in spirit or in form ) , and different iat ion of colours and t ones – These are t he six lim bs of paint ing ( see Fig. 6) . Sou r ce : V isn u d h a r m ot t a r a Pu r a n a , Th ir d Kh a n da , Vols. I a n d I I , e d. Pr iy a b a la Sh a h , Ga e k w a d , Or ie n t a l Se r ie s no. 1 3 7 , Ba r oda : Or ie n t a l I n st it u t e ; a n d Ya sh od h a r a ’s Com m e n t a r y on t h e Ka m a su t r a of V a t sy a y a n . I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Figure 10.3.6: Bodhisat t va Padm apani, Aj ant a, Cave 1, c. fift h cent ury CE. The Aj ant a paint ings are fine r epr esent at ives of shadanga or t he six lim bs of I ndian paint ing. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ajanta_Padmapani.jpg The m anner of rendit ion of I ndian art also received due at t ent ion from som e west ern I ndologist s such as St ella Kram risch and Heinrich Zim m er. Thus, it was est ablished t hat ancient I ndian art followed norm s and convent ions which were vast ly differ ent from t hose of t he Gr eco- Rom an world. I t was t hen felt t hat t he norm s of realism or nat uralism of Classical west ern art could not be applied t o an appr eciat ion of I ndian art , which was m or e concept ual in nat ure. The ways in which t im e and space were underst ood by t radit ion and it s bearing on perspect ive, pr oport ion, and com posit ion in I ndian sculpt ure wer e deliberat ed upon at lengt h. Thus, for ex am ple, t here was no single phot ographic per spect ive fr om which I ndian narrat ive sculpt ure could be viewed, nor was t her e a sequent ial arrangem ent of ev ent s t aking place at differ ent point s in t im e ( Fig. 7) . The int erdependence of t radit ional art form s wit h each ot her and wit h t he basic not ions of space, t im e and ot her key concept s cont ained in t he philosophical and aest het ic t radit ions of I ndia, found em phasis in t he wr it ings of Kapila Vat syayan ( 1968, 1991, 1996) . Theories and canons of I ndian art as m ent ioned in ancient t ext s, w ere also brought t o t he for e and analyzed. I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s I m a ge a nd t e x t : t e r m inology, for m , st yle , a nd iconogr a phy The st udy of ancient and m edieval t reat ises on art and ar chit ect ure and t he r elat ionship of t ext t o pract ice t hat had earlier begun in t he w or ks of Ram Raz and ot her s, gained m om ent um wit h t he w r it ings of P. K. Acharya ( 1927) , Manm ohan Ganguli, N. K. Bose, Gopinat h Rao, Ganapat i Sast ri and ot her s. St udies in t he form , st yle, and nom enclat ure of t em ple art and archit ect ur e r eceived a fresh boost in t he succeeding phase, wit h t he ency clopaedic effort s of scholars like M. A. Dhaky, Krishna Deva, K. V. Soundararaj an, K. Srinivasan, and M. W. Meist er . Sem inal work was done t o ar rive at t he I ndian t erm s em ployed t o ident ify elem ent s of art and archit ect ur e in t heir specific cult ural cont ext s – regional as well as nat ional. The t echnical t reat ises and t heir relat ionship t o pract ice, and t he evolut ion as well as elaborat ions of form s and regional st yles were a chief area of focus. Dict ionaries and ency clopedias of art and archit ect ur e, researched and published t hrough t he m arat hon effort s of t hese scholars, have t oday becom e st andard reference wor ks for t he st udy of t he subj ect . Ot her t han t he t echnical t reat ises, t he lit erary flavour of I ndian art and t he r elevance of regional language t ext s t o art and allied cult ural pract ices were also explor ed by som e leading scholars. C. Sivaram am urt i’s w or ks, for exam ple, em phasized t he r elat ionship of art form s t o cont em por aneous lit erat ure – pr ose as w ell as poet ry . Va lue a ddit ion: did you k now ? M e t hods of sculpt ing: ‘low r e lie f’, ‘high r e lie f’ a nd ‘in t he r ound’ Sculpt ure can be carv ed on a support ing m at rix of st one or anot her m at erial in a m anner t hat : 1. t he wor k of art is only slight ly elevat ed fr om t he surface upon which it is carv ed. This is called sculpt ure in ‘low relief’. 2. The m ain body of w or k is considerably m ore elevat ed t han t he sur face upon which it is car ved. This is called sculpt ure in ‘high relief’. 3. The final work of art is t ot ally liberat ed from t he surrounding m at rix of st one or such m at erial from which it is m ade. This is called sculpt ure ‘in t he r ound’. Sou r ce : Or igin a l I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Figure 10.3.7: Maya’s Dream , sculpt ure in ‘low relief’, Bharhut , c. second cent ury BCE, now in I ndian Museum Kolkat a; Not e also t he differ ent spat ial perspect ives incor porat ed wit hin a single m edallion: bird’s ey e view for t he r eclining lady ( Maya) , pr ofile for t he elephant , and rear view for t he seat ed w om en. Source: Am erican I nst it ut e of I ndian St udies, Gurgaon I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Figure 10.3.8: Didarganj Yakshi, Sculpt ure in very high relief – alm ost in t he r ound, c. t hird cent ur y BCE, now in Pat na Museum . The figure is alm ost com plet ely free of t he m at rix of st one upon which it has been carv ed. Only t he r ear port ion of t his sculpt ure seem s t o hold on t o t he st one fram e and m aint ains a som ewhat flat surface. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didarganj_Yakshi Ar t ve r sus cr a ft The appr eciat ion of I ndian art had by now com e a long way fr om t he day s of colonial biases and prej udices. The m et aphysical underpinnings and t he concept ual and t erm inological basis of I ndian art had been explor ed, giving I ndian art a kind of exalt ed and ‘ot her- w orldly’ st at us. But t he m ore hum anist ic, day- t o- day, and socio- cult ural issues pert aining t o I ndian art had not been adequat ely addressed. Scholars such as Niharranj an Ray brought such concerns t o t he for e. The r elat ionship of craft and art in t he t radit ional cont ext , t heir gradual differ ent iat ion, and ot her such aspect s wer e em phasized by him and som e ot hers. Va lue a ddit ion: did you k now ? Ar t a nd cr a ft : how diffe r e nt w e r e t he y in a ncie nt I ndia ? The dist inct ion bet ween ‘art ’ and ‘craft ’ was not clearly m arked in ancient I ndia. Early t ext ual sources indicat e t hat all product s of t he hum an hand which involved skill in t heir m aking were called shilpa. Vedic lit erat ur e indicat es an awareness of sev eral skills, and t he Mahabharat a and Jat akas speak of t he 18 t radit ional shilpas. The Ait ar eya Brahm ana ( VI .5.1) post ulat es t wo condit ions for a work of art : t hat ( a) it m ust be a wor k of skill, and ( b) it m ust be ch h a n d om a y a , i.e. endow ed wit h rhyt hm , balance, pr oport ion, et c. According t o t his denom inat or, any wor k of hum an skill conform ing t o t he laws of rhyt hm , balance, proport ions, harm ony, et c. was shilpa ( even if it did not involve conscious act ivit y of t he m ind and produced no appr eciable response in t he senses and im aginat ion of t he viewer) . Yet , m any of t he ancient lit erary and visual t radit ions reflect t he highest in hum an im aginat ion and spirit . The Arany akas and Upanishads indicat e t hat t her e was a great deal of speculat ion about t he nat ure of visual im ages, form and for m lessness ( rupa, arupa) , form and m at t er, subj ect and obj ect , et c. Som e of t he im ages and sim iles in t hese speculat ions are drawn from art . Fr om t he available art ist ic work s and t ext s such as t he Nat yashast ra, it appears t hat by t he early cent uries CE, som e shilpas such as poet ry , dram a, dance, m usic, paint ing and sculpt ure had com e t o be r ecognized as m or e significant t han t hose t hat were product s of m er e skill and chhanda. These ar t s involved an act ivit y of t he m ind besides skill and chhanda, com m unicat ed cert ain em ot ions t o t he observ er and generat ed a unique experience, which was lat er t erm ed as rasa ( aest het ic experience) . I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s The t erm k a la is m et lat er t han shilpa in t ext s. I n a ver se ext olling t he virt ues of t heat re, t he aut hor of t he Nat yashast r a em ploys kala and shilpa sim ult aneously in one verse ( see Prim ary Sour ces – 2) . This suggest s t hat t he t erm s w ere underst ood differ ent ly. Speculat ions on t he nat ure of art ( aest het ics) are em bedded in t he t radit ion of poet ics or alam kara- shast r as, part icularly t he Navina School repr esent ed by Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupt a ( c. nint h cent ury CE onwards) . Fr om t he ear ly m edieval period, t he principles gov erning t he art for m s wer e codified in a num ber of t ext s devot ed t o shilpa ( sculpt ure) vast u ( archit ect ure) , and sangit a ( m usic and dance) . Sou r ce : Ra y, N ih a r r a n j a n . 1 9 8 4 . An App r oa ch t o I n dia n Ar t . Ch a n diga r h ( Re p r in t ) , 3 3 - 6 3 ; Au t h or ’s pe r son a l n ot e s. Va lue a ddit ion: w ha t t he sour ce s sa y Re fe r e nce t o a r t a nd cr a ft a nd t he scope of t he a t r e , in t he N a t ya sha st r a of Bha r a t a m uni. Na t aj gnyanam na t at shilpam na sa vidya na sa kala Na sau y ogo na t at karm a nat yesm in yanna drishyat e Tr. The Nat yashast ra m ent ions t hat t here is no knowledge ( gnyana) , craft ( shilpa) , science ( vidya) , art ( kala) , yoga, or act ion ( karm a) t hat cannot be depict ed in t heat re. The usage of kala and shilpa sim ult aneously in one v er se indicat es t hat t he t erm s were differ ent ly underst ood by t his t im e. Sou r ce : Gh osh , M a n m oh a n e d. Th e N a t y a sa st r a of Bh a r a t a m u n i ( se con d r e vise d e dit ion ) , Ba r oda : Ga e k w a d Or ie n t a l Se r ie s. Ar t ist s a nd pa t r ons The hum an processes of art product ion – t he m akers and benefact or s of art - received at t ent ion relat ively lat e. The issues of aut horship and agency in art wer e addr essed in t he work s of S. Set t ar , R. N. Misra ( archit ect ure and sculpt ure) and B. N. Goswam y ( m edieval paint ing) . The com m on m isconcept ion t hat all t radit ional art was anonym ous was quest ioned. The signat ures of art ist s, m ason’s m ark s, it inerar y and social st at us of art ist s, t heir collect ives and organizat ions, as also t he nat ur e of ar t pat ronage w er e sour ced in inscript ions, t ext s and field survey s. Va lue a ddit ion: com m on m isconce pt ions W ho w e r e t he a r t ist s? H ow w e r e t he y or ga nize d? W ho w e r e t he pa t r ons? Alt hough t he aut horship of a subst ant ial port ion of t radit ional I ndian art is unknown, som e art isans and art ist s have indeed left t heir signat ures on t heir cr eat ions. Fr om t he Ashokan t im es, t her e is evidence t hat art isans t ravelled acr oss vast r egions t hat wer e under Mauryan cont rol, t o inscribe t he edict s. I t has also been est ablished t hat som e Khar osht hi art isans t rav elled from t he nort h- I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s west ern r egions t o as far as t he Deccan and at least one of t hem , Chapada, is known t o have left his signat ure on t he edict s. I n ancient and early m edieval I ndia, pat ronage t o t he art s cam e from m any agencies: t he lay com m unit y, m onks and nuns, r oyalt y, and t he rich and elit e social groups. I t appears t hat alt hough t he occupat ional groups of pot t ers, weav er s, et c. wer e organized in shr e n is ( guilds) , t he collect ives of sculpt ors and archit ect s w er e m or e loosely st ruct ured in gh a r a n a s ( clans or fam ilies) or hierarchical cadres com prising t he su t r a dh a r a , v ij n a n ik a , sh ilpi, r u pa k a r a , et c. wit h possibilit ies of upward m obilit y in st at us. Som e w er e confer red high t it les which indicat ed t heir st at us and lev els of pat ronage. Alt hough t he dist inct ion bet ween t he art ist and t he craft sm an r em ained blurred, t he differ ences bet ween a m ast er- art ist and apprent ices did exist . I nscript ional not ices also point t o inst ances wher e an ar t ist not only m ent ions his nam e but also records his allegiance t o a m ast er- art ist . There ar e sev eral inscript ions in which art ist s ext ol t heir m erit s even as t hey run down rivals. Oft en, t he art ist s m ov ed fr om place t o place, in sear ch of new er pat r ons and assignm ent s. Sou r ce : M isr a , R. N . 1 9 7 5 . An cie n t I n dia n Ar t ist s a n d Ar t Act iv it y, Sim la ; Se t t a r , S. 1 9 9 2 . “ Ar t ist s a n d Cr a ft sm e n : t h e ir socia l a n d e con om ic life ” a n d “Pe r e gr in a t ion s of Ar t ist s” in S. Se t t a r , Th e H oy sa la Te m p le s, Vol. I , Ba n ga lor e : Ka la Ya t r a Pu b lica t ion s, 8 3 - 1 2 2 ; Se t t e r , S. 2 0 0 3 . Foot pr in t s of Ar t isa n s in H ist or y: Som e Re fle ct ion s on Ea r ly Ar t isa n s of I n d ia . M ysor e : Ge n e r a l Pr e side n t ’s Addr e ss, 6 4 t h Se ssion of t h e I n d ia n H ist or y Con g r e ss. Re ce nt t r e nds I nt erdisciplinary resear ch in art and art hist ory, allied t o disciplines such as hist ory , m useology, gender st udies and ant hropology has increased in recent decades. Underst anding art as a funct ion of it s part icular hist orical circum st ance and em ploying art as a source of hist ory ar e com plem ent ary concerns t hat cont inue t o engage t he hist orian of art . Underst anding specific processes of art ist ic creat ion and recept ion are cont inuing areas of int erest and r esearch. 1 0 .3 Sum m a r y • I ndia’s cult ural past was rediscover ed during Brit ish colonial t im es, when t he m odern disciplines of I ndian archaeology and ar t hist ory w er e inst it ut ionalized. • The colonial and Orient alist underst anding of art was biased in favour of t he assum ed superiorit y of t he colonizer. • These biases generat ed a nat ionalist response t o t he underst anding of I ndian art t hat delved int o it s indigenous and cult ure- specific basis. I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s • Text s – t echnical, canonical as well as non- canonical - and ot her hist orical records were st udied in relat ion t o art . • The dist inct ion bet ween art and craft was not a clearly m arked one in ancient and m edieval I ndia. • The principles of art had begun t o be cry st allized and codified by t he sevent h cent ury CE. • The m or e hum anist ic and social aspect s of I ndian art w er e st udied subsequent t o it s m et aphysical and religious aspect s. • Resear ches indicat e t hat all t radit ional I ndian art is not anony m ous and individual art ist s are known from t he early hist oric period. • Art was pat r onized by t he lay com m unit y, m onks and nuns, royalt y, and elit e groups of societ y. • Mor e recent at t em pt s t o under st and I ndian art have focused on it s r elat ionship t o societ y, cont em porar y r eadings of ancient ar t , m useum st udies, ant hropology and ot her such aspect s. 1 0 .3 : Ex e r cise s Essa y que st ions 1. What wer e t he chief concerns of t he colonial scholars in at t em pt ing t o underst and I ndian art ? What biases did t hey suffer fr om ? 2. How did t he early nat ionalist scholars respond t o t he colonial and Orient alist underst andings of I ndian art ? 3. What have been t he significant advances in under st anding t he socio- cult ural and ot her dim ensions of I ndian art in independent I ndia? Obj e ct ive que st ions Qu e st ion N u m be r Type of q u e st ion LOD 1 True or False 1 Qu e st ion I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Which of t he following st at em ent s underst andings of ancient I ndian ar t ? in false regarding colonial a) The colonial invest igat ors assum ed t he superior it y of t he art and cult ure of t he colonizer. b) The idea and im age of I ndian religious sculpt ure was underst ood by t he colonial scholars. c) Tradit ional I ndian archit ect ure was at t em pt ed by som e colonial scholars t o be read as a book in st one. Cor r e ct An sw e r / Opt ion ( s) b) Just ifica t ion / Fe e db a ck for t h e cor r e ct a n sw e r The colonial scholar s were unable t o com prehend t he religious and concept ual basis of ancient I ndian sculpt ure and t hought of t he m anyheaded and m ult i- ar m ed gods and goddesses as “ m onst rous” . Re sou r ce / H in t s/ Fe e d ba ck for t h e w r on g a n sw e r Early colonial enquir ies about I ndian ar t were based on ant iquar ian int erest s t hat assum ed t he suprem acy of t he art of t he colonizer and at t em pt ed t o “ civilize” t he colonized. However, it was in t heir int erest s t o underst and t he cult ure and beliefs of t he land t hey had colonized and t herefore art and archit ect ure offered t hem a visual m eans t o do so. Reviewer’s Com m ent : Qu e st ion N u m be r Type of q u e st ion LOD 2 True or False 1 Qu e st ion I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Which of t he follow ing st at em ent s is t rue: a) All t radit ional I ndian art is anonym ous. b) The aut horship of all ancient I ndian art is now well- known. c) Som e art ist s of ancient I ndia have left t heir signat ures on t heir art ist ic creat ions. Cor r e ct An sw e r / Opt ion ( s) c) Just ifica t ion / Fe e db a ck for t h e cor r e ct a n sw e r Recent research has shown t hat alt hough t he nam es of art ist s who m ade t he ancient I ndian m ast erpieces are not always known, in som e cases t hey have indeed left t heir m arks and signat ures on t heir art works. Re sou r ce / H in t s/ Fe e d ba ck for t h e w r on g a n sw e r I t was believed for a long t im e t hat since t radit ional I ndian art was in t he service of gods and served t ranscendent al purposes, t he ident it y of it s m aker was not im port ant . Recent research has disproved t his as we do have several art works from ancient I ndia which have been signed by t heir creat ors. Even so, not all ancient art works bear art ist s’ signat ures ( indeed several don’t ) . Reviewer’s Com m ent : Qu e st ion N u m be r Type of q u e st ion 3 LOD Mult iple choice quest ion 2 Qu e st ion I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s The nat ionalist response t o colonial underst andings of I ndian art : a) I nit ially focused on t he m et aphysical and concept ual under pinnings of I ndian art in a spir it ed defence of it s indigenous origins and validit y. b) Were at first concerned wit h t he social processes of art – it s m akers and benefact ors. c) Were int erest ed in discussing t he connect ions and int er- relat edness of I ndian art and west ern art . Cor r e ct An sw e r / Opt ion ( s) a) Just ifica t ion / Fe e db a ck for t h e cor r e ct a n sw e r The nat ionalist scholars init ially devot ed m ost of t heir researches t o disprove t he assum ed superior it y of west ern art . They discussed I ndian art in relat ion t o ancient I ndian t ext s and est ablished it s religious and concept ual basis. Re sou r ce / H in t s/ Fe e d ba ck for t h e w r on g a n sw e r The social processes of I ndian art received at t ent ion m uch lat er – aft er t he first flush of defence as regards it s concept s and t heories est ablished. The early nat ionalist s wer e in fact t rying t o free int erpret at ion of I ndian art from being w eighed by West ern scales st andards. only was t he and Reviewer’s Com m ent : 1 0 .3 Glossa r y Ch h a n d om a ya : rhyt hm ic, harm onious, and balanced Gh a r a n a : clan or fam ily pract ising a specific art form in t he guru- shishya ( t eacherst udent ) param para ( t r adit ion) Ka la : art Ru p a k a r a : one who cr eat es form s – sculpt or, archit ect , paint er Sh a da n g a : six lim bs of t radit ional I ndian paint ing Sh ilpa : cr aft or art in a broader sense I n st it u t e of Life lon g Le a r n in g, Un iv e r sit y of D e lh i Unde r st a nding I ndia n Ar t : Cha nging Pe r spe ct ive s Sh ilpi: craft sm an or sculpt or Sh r e n i: guild Su t r a dh a r a : m ast er- ar t ist , lit . ‘t hread- bear er ’ Vij n a n ik a : one possessing knowledge of a part icular science 1 0 .3 Fur t he r r e a dings Chandra, Pram od, ed. 1975. 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