Prepublication copy: at school and in higher education in Africa Self-directed learning Olivier, J. 2021. Online access and resources for open self-directed learning in Africa. In Burgos, D. & Olivier, J., eds. 2021. Radical Solutions for Education in Africa: Open education and self-directed learning in the continent. Singapore: Springer. pp. 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4099-5_2 Chapter 2 Self-Directed Learning at School and in Higher Education in Africa Jako Olivier Research Unit Self-Directed Learning, Faculty of Education, North-West University, Private Bag X2046, Mmabatho 2735, South Africa e-mail: jako.olivier@nwu.ac.za Antoinette Wentworth Centre for Open and Lifelong Learning at the Namibia University of Science and Technology, Private Bag 1338, Windhoek, Namibia e-mail: awentworth@nust.na Abstract: The changing educational context and dynamic needs around increasing online learning at all education levels highlight the importance of self-directed learning. In this regard, self-directed learning, which involves both a process and student characteristic, relates to the students taking charge of their learning in terms of setting aims, choosing material or human resources, choosing appropriate learning strategies and evaluating their learning. This chapter involves a systematic literature review that explores research on self-directed learning at school and higher education within the African context. This concept, despite the origins of the scholarship of self-directed learning being from the Global North and the West, is more expansive and, this chapter specifically aims to give an overview of the current discourses around self-directed learning in Africa. This chapter critically examined key literature regarding self-directed learning in this milieu and inductively identified general trends. Despite self-directed learning’s focus on the individual, it seems to be a very appropriate learning process towards communal learning utilising cooperative learning strategies that support self-directed learning. Finally, the chapter provides a synthesis of the main trends around self-directed learning in Africa while identifying certain areas for future research. Keywords: Africa, self-directed learning, university, higher education, schools, systematic literature review 17 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa 1. INTRODUCTION This chapter explores the nature of self-directed learning (SDL) research within the African continent within the past 20 years (1990-2020). To this end, the researchers conducted a systematic literature review of relevant journal articles and book chapters found in selected databases. The concept of SDL is understood in this chapter in terms of the classical definition by Malcolm Knowles. According to Knowles (1975, p. 18), SDL is “a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies and evaluating learning outcomes”. Furthermore, SDL is conceptualised as being both a student characteristic and process. The following research question served as the impetus for this research: what is the nature of SDL research on the African continent between 1990 and 2020? In the next section, SDL is further unpacked, after which the methodology and findings of the systematic literature review are presented. 2. SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING (SDL) 2.1 Background The origins of research on SDL can be traced to research on andragogy or adult learning in the 1960s and 1970s (Brockett & Hiemstra, 2019; Knowles 1975). However, the phenomenon has been relevant in learning contexts for ages, and different terms have been used to describe it (Brockett & Hiemstra, 2019). More recently, SDL has been researched wider with a focus not only on andragogy anymore but also with research being done at school level (Van Deur, 2017). In addition, despite an initial focus of SDL research within the Global North, this topic has since been explored by researchers on the African continent as well. In this regard, this research will aim to provide a snapshot of the research done regarding SDL in this milieu. In terms of learning theories, SDL is closely aligned with constructivism, especially in terms of related social-cultural models (Van Deur, 2017). In this context, active inquiry and independence are highly relevant. Despite the close association and interchangeable use between SDL and self-regulated learning (SRL) in some contexts, these concepts are not the same (Garrison, 1997; Robinson & Persky, 2020; Van Deur, 2017). Therefore, it is considered that SRL relates more to internal influences of students versus SDL’s focus on both internal and external influences (Van Deur, 2017). The research in this chapter considers what has been done on and related to SDL in Africa. This research ties in with a very strong focus on SDL within educational research on the continent. In this regard, 18 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa the notable key publications from authors from the North-West University in South Africa, show how the exponential growth of scholarship on SDL in this context (cf. De Beer, 2019a; De Beer, Petersen & Van Vuuren, 2020; Mentz & Bailey, 2020; Mentz, De Beer & Bailey, 2019; Mentz & Oosthuizen, 2016; Olivier, 2020). 2.2 Implementation of SDL Researchers have proposed many different models in terms of describing and operationalising SDL (Bosch, Mentz & Goede, 2019). Garrison (1997) proposed a model for SDL in which the self-management (contextual control), self-monitoring (cognitive responsibility), and motivational (entering and task) dimensions are integrated. Furthermore, Robinson and Persky (2020:293) identified six steps to develop SDL among students: ● ● ● ● ● ● developing goals for study; outlining assessment with respect to how the learner will know when they achieve those goals; identify the structure and sequence of activities; layout a timeline to complete activities; identify resources to achieve each goal; and locate a mentor/faculty member to provide feedback on the plan. Moreover, specific strategies have also been proven to support SDL, and this includes active learning, cooperative learning, problem-based learning and process-oriented learning (Bosch et al., 2019). Therefore, strategies such as these were considered in the analysis of the identified sources in the corpus. 3. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY This chapter takes the form of a systematic review. Review research aims to evaluate sets of research adhering to specific inclusion criteria to provide an overall impression of a set topic. Review research can be presented as narrative or systematic reviews (Gülpınar & Güçlü 2013). As for this chapter, the need was to provide a comprehensive and detailed review to generate an empirical, robust answer to the research question (Mallett, Hagen-Zanker, Slater, & Duvendack, 2012). Hence, we conducted a systematic review. For the purposes of this chapter, both quantitative and qualitative data was generated. However, the main focus was on qualitative data as the aim was to determine the nature of SDL research that has been conducted within the context of the African continent. 19 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa 3.1 Data collection and inclusion criteria The first step in the data collection was to determine the relevant inclusion criteria to obtain data sources relevant to the identified topic. To this end, the following elements made up the inclusion criteria: ● ● ● the sources had to be published between 1990 and 2020; the focus of the sources had to be on an African country or countries; and SDL should be central to the research. Therefore, the date limit was used as parameters for the literature search. In contrast “SDL”, “Africa” and the names of the 54 African states recognised by the United Nations and the African Union, were used as keywords. The data searches were conducted by searching for these keywords in the Sabinet African Journals database as well as Academic Search Complete and the Education Resource Information Center (ERIC) accessed through EBSCOhost. The first phase of searching resulted in 566 publications adhering to the criteria. However, after preliminary screening, these sources were reduced to 74 journal articles and chapters. From the analysis, any irrelevant publications – where SDL was only mentioned in a cursory manner or which did not adhere to the requirement of being an African publication - were eliminated. Consequently, the final corpus consisted of 54 publications. The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) study flow diagram (Čablová, Pates, Miovský & Noel, 2017) in Figure 2 illustrates the process followed for this research. 3.2 Data analysis The data analysis was approached with a combination of inductive and deductive approaches as certain aspects related to SDL were explicitly looked for in terms of the publications’ aims, geographical location and discipline. However, as the analysis commenced, other foci were added, such as the nature of the sample, sample level, thematic focus, discipline and main findings. The researchers used a Google Sheets document to systematise the findings and allow for interevaluator checks to ensure the trustworthiness of the analysis as well as the accuracy in which the research was conducted as reflected in the correctness of the research findings (Jane & Jane 2003:273), of the analysis. 20 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa Figure 2. PRISMA study flow diagram for this study Records identified through the database search (n = 566) Records after duplicates removed (n = 564) Records screened (n = 74) Records excluded (n = 490) Full-text articles assessed for eligibility (n =54) 4. DISCUSSION 4.1 Geographical and publication date spread From the analysis, it was evident that most of the SDL research in Africa is based or focused on South Africa. However, there were some exceptions, such as Ethiopia (Shishigu, Michael & Atnafu, 2019), Ghana (Aheto, Ng’ambi & Cronjé, 2017), Namibia (Iiyambo & Geduld, 2019) and Nigeria (Abubakar & Arshad, 2015; Fakolade & Adeniyi, 2010; Mbagwu, Chukwuedo & Ogbuanya, 2020; Nottidge & Louw, 2017; Ottu, 2017). The majority of the publications in this corpus was published between 2014 and 2020. It seems that there is a steady growth in publications, as is evident from Figure 2. The low number for 2020 could be because data was collected only up to October 2020. The next section deals with the disciplines in which the SDL research was conducted. 21 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa Figure 2. Publication date spread 4.2 Disciplines The majority of research done on SDL in this corpus was situated within the educational context. However, there were also sources focusing on SDL within the workplace (De Bruin & De Bruin, 2011; De Klerk & Fourie, 2017; Van Rensburg & Botma, 2015; Visser, 2018; Wittmann & Olivier, 2019). The broad disciplines covered in the corpus are summarised in Table 1. In some cases, the publications met the criteria to fall into more than one discipline and were then repeated in the table. Table 1. Disciplines represented in the corpus Disciplines Subdisciplines Sources Arts and humanities General De Bruin and Cornelius (2011) Languages Sujee, Engelbrecht and Nagel (2015) Communication science Terblanché (2010) Accounting Stegmann and Malan (2016) Business Aheto et al. (2017) Economic and management sciences 22 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa General education Teacher education Health sciences Fakolade and Adeniyi (2010) Iiyambo and Geduld (2019) Jacobs and Van Loggerenberg(1996) Shishigu et al. (2019) General Du Toit-Brits (2018a, 2018b, 2019) Du Toit-Brits & Blignaut, 2019 Du Toit-Brits and Van Zyl (2017) Greyling, Geyser and Fourie (2002) Mthethwa (2018) Setlhodi (2019) Chemistry Abubakar and Arshad (2015) Computer Applications Technology Breed and Bailey (2018) Lubbe (2017) Consumer studies Du Toit, Van der Walt and Havenga (2016) Economics Maistry (2009) Van Wyk (2017) Foundation phase Kruger, Van Rensburg & De Witt (2015) Information Technology Breed (2016) Language Olivier (2016) Olivier (2018) Vos and Van Oort (2018) Life Sciences Petersen (2018) Life and Natural Sciences De Beer (2016) De Beer and Mentz (2017) Mathematics Van der Walt (2014) Mathematics and Physical Science Malan, Ndlovu and Engelbrecht (2014) Clinical medical practice Hugo et al. (2012) Medicine Nottidge and Louw (2017) 23 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa Information Sciences Nursing Lekalakala-Mokgele and Caka (2015) Mulube and Jooste (2014) Orton and Nokes (2012) Van Rensburg and Botma (2015) Physiotherapy Statham, Inglis-Jassiem and Hanekom (2014) cataloguing De Klerk and Fourie (2017) Law Natural Sciences Lumina (2005) Consumer Sciences Havenga and De Beer (2016) No specific discipline De Bruin, De Bruin, Jacobs & Schoeman (2001) De Bruin (2007) Vocational training Mbagwu et al. (2020) Workplace or professional development Professional cataloguers De Klerk and Fourie (2017) Teachers Ajani (2019) De Beer (2019b) Wittmann and Olivier (2019) Various contexts De Bruin and De Bruin (2011) Visser (2018) A wide variety of disciplines were covered within the corpus. However, various fields within teacher education as well as health sciences, were the most prominent. Furthermore, the research also probed the thematic focus and aims present in the corpus. 4.3 Thematic focus and aims In addition to the sources in the corpus relating to SDL, they had different thematic foci and aims. In Table 2, the discernible foci of the items from the corpus are summarised. Table 2. Foci and aims represented in the corpus Foci Sources Applied competence Kruger et al. (2015) Assessment Aheto et al. (2017) Lumina (2005) 24 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa Stegmann and Malan (2016) Terblanché (2010) Van Wyk (2017) Blended learning Orton and Nokes (2012) Cooperative learning Breed (2016) Breed and Bailey (2018) Petersen (2018) Computer-based tutoring Mthethwa (2018) Career decision-making De Bruin and Cornelius (2011) Developing SDL instruments De Bruin et al. (2001) Educators’ expectations Du Toit-Brits (2019) Facilitative and obstructive factors in the learning environment Lekalakala-Mokgele and Caka (2015) Gifted students Fakolade and Adeniyi (2010) Indigenous knowledge and sciences De Beer (2016) De Beer and Mentz (2017) Information literacy self-efficacy Mbagwu et al. (2020) Learner agility Visser (2018) Life-long learning De Klerk and Fourie (2017) Materials Greyling et al. (2016) Metacognition Breed and Bailey (2018) Van der Walt (2014) Motivation Du Toit-Brits and Van Zyl (2017) Mulube and Jooste (2014) Open Distance Learning Aheto et al. (2017) Greyling et al. (2016) Iiyambo and Geduld (2019) Maistry (2009) Setlhodi (2019) Shishigu et al. (2019) Terblanché (2010) Van Wyk (2017) Pacing Setlhodi (2019) 25 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa Personality traits De Bruin (2007) Problem-based learning (PBL) Abubakar and Arshad (2015) Maistry (2009) Malan et al. (2014) Orton and Nokes (2012) Statham et al. (2014) Project-based learning De Beer (2019b) Du Toit et al. (2016) Havenga and De Beer (2016) SDL readiness Lubbe (2017) SDL status Nottidge and Louw (2017) Self-directed reading Vos and Van Oort (2018) Self-directed writing Olivier (2016) Sujee et al. (2015) Self-study Jacobs and Van Loggerenberg (1996) SRL Iiyambo and Geduld (2019) Shishigu et al. (2019) Student support Van Rensburg and Botma (2015) The majority of studies in the corpus approached SDL in terms of specific contexts or variables. These variables are evident from the summary of foci and aims. Assessment as a focus and open distance learning as a context was quite prominent and as expected strategies such as cooperative learning, PBL and project-based learning were also represented. 4.4 Methodology and instruments 4.4.1 Research approaches and designs This section provides an overview of the trends regarding the research approaches, whether quantitative, qualitative or mixed method, as well as the various designs (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2018) employed in the corpus. Most of the research was empirical in nature; however, some exceptions were noted. One editorial article was observed (Visser, 2018) focussing on agile learners in terms of SDL within the workforce context. Furthermore, some conceptual articles were also identified (Ajani, 2019; Du Toit-Brits, 2015, 2018a, 2018b, 2020; Du Toit-Brits & Blignaut, 2019; Hugo et al., 2012; Olivier, 2018; Ottu, 2017; Wittmann & Olivier, 2019). One source in the corpus also provided a new view on previously collected empirical data (De Beer, 2016). In some cases, these conceptual works related to SDL in a generic sense and not necessarily specifically on SDL in the African context. The identified research approaches and designs from the corpus are summarised in Table 3. 26 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa Table 3. Research approaches and designs represented in the corpus Research approaches Research designs Sources Qualitative Action research De Beer (2019b) Basic qualitative study Aheto et al. (2017) De Beer and Mentz (2017) Du Toit-Brits (2019) Iiyambo and Geduld (2019) Jacobs and Van Loggerenberg (1996) Kruger et al. (2015) Lekalakala-Mokgele and Caka (2015) Lumina (2005) Sujee et al. (2015) Bricolage Setlhodi (2019) Van Wyk (2017) Case study Du Toit et al. (2016) Maistry (2009) Malan et al. (2014) Orton and Nokes (2012) Terblanché (2010) Design-based research De Beer (2019b) Explanatory design Abubakar and Arshad (2015) Instrumental case study Du Toit-Brits and Van Zyl (2017) Van Rensburg and Botma (2015) Text analysis Vos and Van Oort (2018) Cross-sectional survey De Bruin and Cornelius (2011) Exploratory descriptive design Mulube and Jooste (2014) Quasi-experimental Fakolade and Adeniyi (2010) Mbagwu et al. (2020) Shishigu et al. (2019) Quantitative 27 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa Mixed method Survey De Bruin et al. (2001) De Bruin (2007) Van der Walt (2014) Nonexperimental psychometric study De Bruin and De Bruin (2011) Within-participants design Lubbe (2017) Concurrent triangulation approach Stegmann and Malan (2016) One-group pre-test post-test experiment Basic qualitative approach Breed (2016) Breed and Bailey (2018) Survey De Klerk and Fourie (2017) Petersen (2018) Survey Document analysis Greyling et al. (2016) Survey, test and project content Havenga and De Beer (2016) Survey Basic qualitative approach Mthethwa (2018) Nottidge and Louw (2017) Olivier (2016) Theory-based evaluation Statham et al. (2014) Most of the research done on SDL in Africa, within this corpus, was qualitative in nature, this was followed by mixed-method research and then quantitative studies. Despite, a good spread, there seems to be a need for more quantitative work being done in this field. In Table 3, the research designs were listed as they were named in the sources themselves. Alternatively, it was described in terms of what was done; hence, not all descriptions relate necessarily to a recognised research design. A trend was observed that in some studies the third-generation culturalhistorical activity theory (Engeström, 1987) is used as an analytic lens (De Beer, 2016; De Beer & Mentz, 2017; Petersen, 2018). 28 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa 4.4.2 Sampling and level Although not all the published research in the corpus related to research participants, this section provides an overview of the nature of the different samples used in cases where participants were involved. In Table 4, an overview is provided of the type of samples involved in SDL research within this corpus. Table 4. Overview of the samples Sample types Level College tutors Number of participants Sources 6 Iiyambo and Geduld (2019) Indigenous knowledge holders Various individuals aged between 9 and 66 16 De Beer and Mentz (2017) Nurse educators Professional 9 Van Rensburg and Botma (2015) Pupil enrolled nurses Second years 19 Lekalakala-Mokgele and Caka (2015) School/college learners Grade 10 15 Iiyambo and Geduld (2019) Grade 11 19 Sujee et al. (2015) No grade indicated 15 Abubakar and Arshad (2015) Various grades 75 Fakolade and Adeniyi (2010) 18 (portfolios) 5 (interviews) De Beer (2019b) 1 Abubakar and Arshad (2015) Preparatory bridging programme 35 Malan et al. (2014) Final year 40 Nottidge and Louw (2017) First year 10 Breed (2016) First year 267 De Bruin and Cornelius (2011) First year1 1 585 De Bruin et al. (2001) De Bruin (2007) First year 12 Du Toit-Brits (2019) School teachers University students 1 The same group of research participants were used for both studies noted here. 29 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa First year 17 Du Toit-Brits and Van Zyl (2017) First year 104 Havenga and De Beer (2016) First year 43 Lubbe (2017) First year 480 Mthethwa (2018) First year 168 Mulube and Jooste (2014) Second year 6 Aheto et al. (2017) Second year 33 Breed and Bailey (2018) Second year Not stated Lumina (2005) Second year 85 Petersen (2018) Second year 257 Stegmann and Malan (2016) Second and third 77 year Van der Walt (2014) Third year 87 (surveys) 23 (interviews) Maistry (2009) Third year 16 Olivier (2016) Third year 37 Statham et al. (2014) Unnamed postgraduate qualification Not indicated Greyling et al. (2016) Postgraduate Certificate in Education 5 Du Toit et al. (2016) Postgraduate Certificate in Education 367 Van Wyk (2017) Not stated 3 800 (Feedback) 11 000 (Surveys) Jacobs and Van Loggerenberg(1996) Not stated Not stated Orton and Nokes (2012) Not stated 57 Setlhodi (2019) 30 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa University lecturers Vocational training Fourth years Working adults 4 Du Toit-Brits and Van Zyl (2017) 3 Malan et al. (2014) 2 Mthethwa (2018) 9 Nottidge and Louw (2017) 11 Statham et al. (2014) 153 Mbagwu et al. (2020) 519 De Bruin and De Bruin (2011) 59 (Questionnaires) 17 (Focus group interviews) De Klerk and Fourie (2017) From the overview of the sampling in the corpus, it is clear that most research is done with university students and lecturers with samples of varying sizes. However, it is evident that more research is necessary on SDL at school and vocational education level as well as how it functions within the work environment in terms of professional development, for example. 4.4.3 Instruments A number of standardised instruments are used to gauge different aspects of stay away from the malls please SDL. Most notably the SDLRS by Lucy Guglielmino (1977), the Self-Directed Learning Perception Scale (SDLP) by Pilling-Cormick(1996), the Self-Rating Scale of Self-Directed Learning (SRSSDL) from Williamson (2007), the Self-Directed Learning Instrument (SDLI) by Cheng, Kuo, Lin and Lee-Hsieh (2010) as well as the Self-directed learning skill scale (Ayyildiz & Tarhan, 2015). In some cases, the researchers from the studies in the corpus made use of questionnaires developed by themselves (De Bruin & Cornelius, 2011; De Bruin & De Bruin, 2011; Petersen, 2018; Stegmann & Malan, 2016). A summary of the instruments used in the data is provided in Table 5, despite additional other instruments being used in some research. This chapter reports on the instruments specifically relating to SDL. Table 5. Overview of instruments used Instruments Sources Learner Self-Directedness in the Workplace Scale De Bruin and De Bruin (2011) Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) De Bruin (2007) 31 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa De Bruin et al. (2001) Greyling et al. (2016) Self-directed learning skill scale Mbagwu et al. (2020) Self-Rating Scale of Self-Directed Learning (SRSSDL) Breed (2014) Breed (2016) Breed and Bailey (2018) Havenga and De Beer (2016) Lubbe (2017) Nottidge and Louw (2017) Olivier (2016) Van der Walt (2014) Student Self-Directed Learning Questionnaire (SSDLQ) De Bruin and Cornelius (2011) Unnamed self-generated questionnaire Mulube and Jooste (2014) Petersen (2018) Stegmann & Malan (2016) In the qualitative research, other techniques were also employed to generate data, and this included: ● document analysis (De Beer, 2019b; Du Toit et al., 2016; Greyling et al., 2016; Havenga & De Beer, 2016; Olivier, 2016; Setlhodi, 2019; Terblanché, 2010; Vos & Van Oort, 2018); ● focus-group interviews (Abubakar & Arshad, 2015; De Klerk & Fourie, 2017; Lekalakala-Mokgele & Caka, 2015; Maistry, 2009; Malan et al., 2014; Nottidge & Louw, 2017; Statham et al., 2014); ● individual interviews (Breed & Bailey, 2018; De Beer, 2019b; De Beer & Mentz, 2017; Du Toit et al., 2016; Du Toit-Brits, 2019; Du Toit-Brits & Van Zyl, 2017; Iiyambo & Geduld, 2019; Jacobs and Van Loggerenberg, 1996; Maistry, 2009); ● interactive interviews (Setlhodi, 2019); ● netnography (Sujee et al., 2015); ● observations (Abubakar & Arshad, 2015; Lumina, 2005; Malan et al., 2014); ● open-ended questionnaires (Aheto et al., 2017; Breed, 2016; Du Toit et al., 2016; Jacobs & Van Loggerenberg, 1996; Maistry, 2009; Mthethwa, 2018; Olivier, 2016; Petersen, 2018; Stegmann & Malan, 2016); ● researcher reflections (Lumina, 2005); ● a bricolage of different artefacts and documents (Van Wyk, 2017); and ● the critical incident technique (Van Rensburg & Botma, 2015); In terms of quantitative data, the SRSSDL by Williamson (2007) seems to be the most common instrument used. Interestingly, neither the SDLP nor the SDLI was used at all. Despite some work towards creating context-specific instruments and some being translated into local languages, there seems to be a need for the development of instruments to gauge SDL in the varied African contexts. Within the qualitative context, many strategies were followed with document analyses, different types of interviews and open-ended questionnaires being the most common. However, it is evident that more observation research might be necessary to understand the SDL context in African classrooms. 32 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa 4.5 Main trends from the corpus In terms of broad trends from the corpus, the relevance of SDL is evident from all the sources part of this corpus used in this chapter. SDL is also considered an essential twenty-first-century skill (Du Toit-Brits & Blignaut, 2019). However, it is clear that in many cases, formal education in schools and even in higher education is teacher-centred (De Beer & Mentz, 2017; Iiyambo & Geduld, 2019). Furthermore, there is a need for teachers to be empowered to use strategies such as collaborative learning and others to foster SDL (De Beer, 2016; De Beer & Mentz, 2017). Some of the sources relate to the role or impact of SDL on other constructs. In this regard, it was found that students measuring a high SDL would find career decision-making easier as there are correlations between SDL and career decision-making self-efficacy (De Bruin & Cornelius, 2011). Lubbe (2017) established that keyboarding skills of students increased for students with an average or high level of SDL readiness. Moreover, existing scholarship on SDL informed several interventions (Fakolade & Adeniyi, 2010; Mbagwu et al., 2020). Limited studies explicitly focussed on the SDL instruments alone, and the overall trend was on research in exploring or measuring SDL. A unique case was the study by De Bruin et al. (2001) in which the psychometric properties Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) were explored. They empirically determined the following factors “Openness to learning opportunities, Love of learning, Positive self-concept as an effective and independent learner, and Acceptance of responsibility for own learning” (De Bruin et al., 2001, p. 128). On the side of teachers, despite the focus on the learner within SDL, specific actions can contribute to fostering SDL among students (Du Toit-Brits, 2018b). Du Toit-Brits (2019) found that educators’ positive expectations can support SDL. The importance of motivation was also evident in terms of supporting SDL (Du Toit et al., 2016; Du Toit-Brits & Van Zyl, 2017; Mulube & Jooste, 2014). The need for teacher support for SRL and ultimately also SDL is evident (Iiyambo & Geduld, 2019; Shishigu et al., 2019). Interestingly, Greyling et al. (2016) explored how learning materials could be structured to create opportunities for the development of SDL. Some studies showed how specific strategies such as cooperative learning, project-based learning and problem-based learning could be supportive of SDL. In this regard, cooperative learning can be supportive of SDL. Breed (2016) notes how incorporating “positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive face-to-face interaction, appropriate social skills, and group processing” (p. 1) in group work can influence SDL. Petersen (2018) also concurs that cooperative learning can foster SDL. Malan et al. (2014) also agree that problem-based learning promotes significant learning patterns that positively contribute to the development of SDL skills. In the study by Mbagwu et al. (2020), an intervention was constructed around the nine factors identified by Ayyildiz and Tarhan (2015) and this increased SDL skills: ● attitude towards learning, ● learning responsibility, ● motivation and self-confidence, ● ability to plan learning, ● ability to use learning opportunities, ● ability to manage information, ● ability to apply learning strategies, 33 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa ● ● assessment of learning process, and evaluation of learning success/results. Furthermore, metacognition is also regarded as an important factor in terms of SDL (Mariano & Batchelor, 2018). In the corpus, this was also evident, and Breed and Bailey (2018) found “that the use of the metacognitive self-questions during cooperative pair problem-solving, positively influenced the students’ levels of self-directed learning” (p. 1). Van der Walt (2014) found correlations between dimensions of questionnaires for SDL and metacognition. Other sources in the corpus also indicated the advantages of cooperative learning (De Beer & Mentz, 2017), project-based learning (De Beer, 2019b; Du Toit et al., 2016; Havenga & De Beer, 2016), problem-based learning (Abubakar & Arshad, 2015; De Beer & Mentz, 2017; Malan, Ndlovu & Engelbrecht, 2014; Statham et al., 2014) for SDL. Abubakar and Arshad (2015) noted the affordances of introducing real-life problems towards supporting SDL and Hugo et al. (2012) associate SDL with authentic learning. While Setlhodi (2019) advocated the use of a self-paced learning framework. Malan et al. (2014) indicated that the introduction of problem-based learning promotes significant learning patterns, encourages SDL skills in students and ignites a “process of growth towards lifelong learning”. This finding is echoed by Kidane, Roebertsen and Van der Vleuten (2020) that SDL is “an appropriate and preferred learning process to prepare students for lifelong learning”. Mbagwu, Chukwuedo and Ogbuanya (2020) in their study to promote lifelong learning (LLL) in VET students, also found that SDL positively increases students’ LLL tendencies. It was found that certain personality traits are related to SDL readiness (De Bruin, 2007). In this regard, it was found that “students who are emotionally stable, trusting, well-controlled and relatively relaxed have good potential to be self-directed learners” and that in terms of the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF), “Independence, Superego Strength and Sensitivity also seem to act as codeterminants of self-directedness” (De Bruin, 2007, p. 236). Extrinsic motivation and positive influence contribute to students developing SDL. Du Toit-Brits (2019), found that educators’ expectations in an SDL learning environment influence students to apply their SDL skills to direct their learning in class. The findings further showed that teachers who are confident in the delivery positively influence students and enhance their SDL readiness. In another study, Mulube and Jooste (2014) explored first-year learner nurses’ perceptions of SDL. It was found that students had a positive perception of their learning which revealed that they are driven to learn. Although their selfconfidence lacked, SDL enhanced their clinical skills and better prepared them for assessment. On the other hand, Nottidge and Louw (2017) evaluated the perceptions of faculty leadership towards SDL in a Nigerian medical school. They found that this leadership believe that students need to be guided by teachers towards SDL. Some studies focus on SDL and assessment. Aheto et al. (2017) described how the WikiEducator E-quiz platform could be used to support the self-assessment of students. Lumina (2005) found that the use of portfolios and peer marking supported student SDL according to the Law students in that research. Similarly, Van Wyk (2017) also observed that ePortfolios could be useful in fostering SDL. While with an overview of different studies on portfolios, De Beer (2019b), Kruger et al. (2015) and Terblanché (2010) found that portfolios can be used effectively to support SDL. Stegmann and Malan (2016) explored the role of detailed feedback and peer-assessment, and they found despite some negativity towards peer-assessment among students, changes in the way feedback were approached supported self-assessment and SDL. 34 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa There were also studies in the corpus exploring the role of technology in the process of promoting SDL. In this regard, there was research related to the use of Turnitin for writing instruction (Sujee et al., 2015) as well as the use of online assessment tools (Aheto et al., 2017). Orton and Nokes (2012) also reported on SDL within a blended learning context for an occupational health nursing course. The affordances of SDL for professional development and within the workplace is evident. In this regard, Van Rensburg and Botma (2015) found that SDL can have a positive effect on forming life-long learners and on quality in practice within the professional environment. Similarly, Wittmann and Olivier (2019) also note the importance of SDL for the professional development of language teachers and De Klerk and Fourie (2017) for professional cataloguers. The study by De Bruin and De Bruin (2011) aimed to create an instrument to be used to gauge SDL in the work environment and found it to be a reliable measure for their research sample. In the African context and recently specifically in the South African milieu (Le Grange, 2019), the issue of decolonisation of the curriculum is highly relevant. To this end, including indigenous knowledge (Ezeanya-Esiobu, 2019) in the curriculum is regarded as a suitable vehicle (Breidlid & Botha, 2015; De Beer & Mentz, 2019). In this regard, from the corpus, the work of De Beer (2016) and De Beer and Mentz (2017) is in support of this movement while considering the implications of SDL. 5. FINDINGS The overview of research from the created corpus of publications on SDL in Africa presented in this chapter has shown various trends as well as opportunities for future research. Steady growth in research on SDL is evident. Various disciplines and themes have been researched in terms of SDL; however, the majority of the works have focussed on education and specifically teacher education as well as health sciences. Strategies that are in support of SDL have also been considered especially also in terms of open distance contexts. Methodologically most of the research is qualitative in nature and is, in most cases done with university students and to an extent, lecturers. Consequently, there is a need for increased school-based and vocational education level research. Certain instruments are commonly used, and this may provide opportunities for comparison; however, there is a need for additional instruments to be developed in and for African contexts. In terms of the findings from the studies, overall, the need for SDL is clear. In many studies, the interaction between SDL and various variables was explored. The role of the teacher in terms of facilitating SDL, was identified as significant in many studies. Cooperative learning, project-based learning and problem-based learning as strategies to foster SDL were also prominent. The role of metacognition, authentic real-life problems and motivation were also highlighted. Interestingly quite a number of studies focussed on assessment, and here, the role of portfolios was quite significant. Yet, the role of assessment with regards to SDL needs to be explored further. Finally, in terms of context, the increased importance of technology and situating learning as part of the decolonisation of the curriculum, were also noted. 35 Self-directed learning at school and in higher education in Africa 6. CONCLUSION At the start of the chapter, it was noted that this research aimed to determine the nature of SDL research on the African continent between 1990 and 2020 and this was done employing a systematic literature review. This chapter explored the nature of SDL research within the context of Africa for the past 20 years. In this chapter, SDL was understood as both a learning process and learner characteristic. The 54 publications identified for analysis covered many disciplines and fields; however, most of the work was done within education and specifically teacher education and health sciences. The majority of research is done in and on South Africa, but there was also some research from Ethiopia, Ghana, Namibia and Nigeria. In terms of research methodologies, a lot of variety was observed, yet, most of the work is the research is qualitative and is done within university contexts. Consequently, more research is needed at school, vocational education and professional development levels. Various standard SDL measuring instruments are used, but there is a need for the development of more instruments for the varied African contexts. Broadly the findings of the various SDL studies show how strategies like cooperative learning, project-based learning and problem-based learning can foster SDL. 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Per Linguam 35(3):125-142 http://dx.doi.org/10.5785/35-3-870. Jako Olivier is the holder of the UNESCO Chair in Multimodal Learning and Open Educational Resources and is a professor of Multimodal Learning in the Faculty of Education at North-West University. His research, within the Research Unit Self-Directed Learning, focuses on self-directed multimodal learning, open educational resources, multiliteracies, blended and e-learning in language classrooms as well as multilingualism in education. He currently holds a Y rating from the National Research Foundation and was awarded the Education Association of South Africa’s Emerging Researcher Medal in 2018. In addition to recently editing a book on self-directed multimodal learning, he has published numerous articles and book chapters at the national and international levels, and he also acts as a supervisor for postgraduate students. Antoinette Wentworth holds a Master’s Degree in Educational Technology: Instructional Design and is currently the Manager of instructional material development, print and online, for Open and Distance Learning at the Namibia University of Science and Technology. She serves on the eLearning Standing Committee under the umbrella of the Namibia Open Learning Network Trust with a keen focus on the development of Open Education Resources. Her research interest involves re-thinking instructional design models to convert traditional face-to-face course material to a Technology Enhanced Learning Environment. Her newly found interest is in self-directed learning, specifically on what role self-directed learning play in online teaching and learning. 39