127
J. Crop Sci. Biotech. 2010 (September) 13 (3) : 127 ~ 137
DOI No. 10.1007/s12892-010-0064-1
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Development of Pongamia pinnata as an Alternative Biofuel
Crop - Current Status and Scope of Plantations in India
Vigya Kesari, Latha Rangan*
Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, India 781 039
Received: June 9, 2010 / Revised: August 10, 2010 / Accepted: September 10, 2010
Ⓒ Korean Society of Crop Science and Springer 2010
Abstract
Pongamia pinnata is a leguminous tree known for its multipurpose benefits and as a potential source of biodiesel crop. Its added
benefits to grow on marginal lands make it a suitable candidate in agro-forestry. These properties support the suitability of this plant
for large-scale production required by a sustainable biodiesel industry. While utilizing these species as a source of biodiesel, there is
a further need for research and extensive knowledge generation into various areas of production and utilization. The future success of
P. pinnata as a sustainable source of biodiesel will heavily depend on an unlimited feed stock supply. This will call for large-scale
plantations of clonal stocks of elite genotypes to encourage afforestation programs coordinated both at the central and state levels to
cater to the needs of the biodiesel industry. The success rate will rely on the elite planting stock, propagation techniques, and plantation practices and models in making Pongamia cultivation an economically viable proposition.
Key words: biodiesel crop, intercropping, mass multiplication, Pongamia
Abbreviations: IAA, indole acetic acid; IBA, indole butyric acid; CPT, candidate plus tree; HSD, high species diesel; NAA, napthalene acetic acid; SHGs, self help groups; TBOs, tree-borne oil seeds
Introduction
The increasing price of petroleum products and concerns
about oil production are likely to have serious implications for
the automobile industry in the future. The answer to the above
requirement is to search for an alternative to the fast-depleting
reserves of fossil fuel from renewable natural resources (Martini
and Shell 1998; Srivastava and Prasad 2000). The current manufacturing cost of ethanol and biodiesel in India is about US $
0.45 L -1, roughly the same as petrol and diesel (Nigam and
Agrawal 2004). This puts biofuels in a favorable position for
meeting India's energy needs, especially, as the cost of petroleum is expected to continue its upward trend. India is the fourth
largest ethanol producer only next to Brazil, USA, and China
having its average annual ethanol output amounting to 1,900
Latha Rangan (
)
Tel: +91 (361) 2582214
Fax: +91 (361) 2582249
E-mail: latha_rangan@yahoo.com/ lrangan@iitg.ernet.in
The Korean Society of Crop Science
million liters with a distillation capacity of 2,900 million liters
per year (Mittelbach and Remschmidt 2004). The biodiesel
industry is still in its infancy in India (Mandal 2004) and currently biodiesel is being produced largely by transesterification
of vegetable oil. The government has formulated an ambitious
National Biodiesel Mission to meet 20% of the country's diesel
requirements by 2011-2012. Since the demand for edible vegetable oil exceeds supply, the Government of India (GoI) has
given a top priority for promotion and use of non-edible oils
such as Jatropha curcas, Pongamia pinnata, etc., for production
of biodiesel (Source: Report of the committee on development
of biofuel by Planning Commission, Government of India 2003).
Further, emphasis is on the use of forest and non-forest wastelands for plantation of non-edible, oil seed-bearing plants.
Improper land use and population pressure over several years
has resulted in extensive degradation of agricultural land that
has resulted in large tracts of wasteland in India (approximately
55 million ha). On the other hand, population explosion, greater
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Pongamia as an alternative biofuel crop in India
urbanization, and land reforms have resulted in the depletion of
coal and natural resources. The problem is further compounded
by the fact that the demand for energy and oil is on the rise and
there is a greater need to explore alternative sources of oil. This
has resulted in strengthening the research and development in
the areas of biodiesel. Nearly 20% of land in India can be considered largely as wasteland where little agriculture is practiced.
Some of this land could be used for growing Pongamia.
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Synonyms Derris indica
Lam., Bennet, Pongamia glabra Vent., & Cytisus pinnaus L.)
tree belonging to the family Fabaceae, sub-family,
Papilionaceae, popularly known as 'Karanj' or 'Karanja' in Hindi
is known for its multipurpose benefits and as a potential source
of biodiesel (Meera et al. 2003; Kesari et al. 2008; Sharma and
Singh 2008; Kesari et al. 2009a). It can be propagated either by
seeds or by root suckers (Duke 1983) and the yield of kernels
per tree is between 8 to 24 kg (Bringi and Mukerjee 1987;
Kesari et al. 2008). The seeds contain about 28 - 34% oil with a
high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (Sarma et al.
2005; Kesari et al. 2009a). The tree can grow on unproductive
land and is adaptable to wide agro-climatic conditions. Besides
the oil yielding capacity, its multipurpose benefits as a provider
of green manure and medicine, and its role in agro-forestry make
it a potential candidate for large-scale plantation on marginal
lands (Srinivasa 1997; Scott et al. 2008; Kesari et al. 2010).
Historically, Pongamia has been used as folk medicinal plant,
particularly in Ayurvedha and Siddha systems of Indian medicine (Meera et al. 2003). All parts of the plant have been used as
a crude drug for the treatment of tumours, piles, skin diseases,
itches, abscess, painful rheumatic joints, wounds, ulcers, diarrhea, etc. (Shoba and Thomas 2001; Meera et al. 2003), and is
well known for its application as animal fodder, timber and fish
poison (Cribb and Cribb 1981; Bottoms 2000). It has also been
recognized to possess applications in agriculture and environmental management, with antimicrobial, insecticidal, and
nematicidal activity (Chopade et al. 2008; Kesari et al. 2009a).
The tree itself is nitrogen fixing and so it will improve the soil
where it grows (Scott et al. 2008; Uddin et al. 2009). The seeds
or nuts of the tree are its most useful product. The non-edible oil
extracted from seeds has traditionally been used as fuel and
lubricant and in soap making. More recently, the effectiveness
of Pongamia as a source of biomedicines has been reported,
specifically as antimicrobial and therapeutic agents targeting
host pathways and processes (Brijesh et al. 2006). It can also
play a role in the rural economy by generating huge manpower
employment during various stages of its cultivation as well as
during downstream processing (Shrinivasa 2001). Although
these species are well adapted to harsh weather conditions, there
is a need to domesticate them for cultivation under different production systems on degraded lands and community wastelands
(Kesari et al. 2010).
Scientific information on P. pinnata has been generated by
various researchers affiliated with diverse organizations in India
and elsewhere even when the commercial value of this species
was not recognized. While utilizing these species as a source of
biodiesel, there is a further need for research into various areas
Fig. 1. Pongamia plantations in India. Green shade indicates the states where
Pongamia grows naturally and plantations are being carried out. Also indicated (▲)
are the prominent research organizations engaged in plus tree identification and
cultivation of Pongamia germplasm (Sources: NOVOD report).
http://www.novodboard.com/Publications.htm
http://biodiesel.nedfi.com/pages/introduction/objectives.php
of production and utilization (Kesari et al. 2008; Scott et al.
2008; Mukta and Sreevalli 2010). Assessment of these resources
for seed yield and oil content has not yet been done. Since the
species has always been treated as an avenue tree, efforts
towards domestication through identification of elite genotypes
have been very limited. Selection for economically important
traits such as high seed yield, high oil content, and desirable
fatty acid composition is the prerequisite to make this species as
an economically viable biodiesel crop (Kesari et al. 2009a). To
increase the biodiesel production it's important to have unlimited
feed stocks of Pongamia bearing, high oil-yielding seeds. Thus,
large-scale plantation of clonal stocks of elite genotype needs to
be done to encourage afforestation programs. The Indian
Government has adopted a program based on biodiesel production from oil-bearing seeds of Pongamia as a high-speed diesel
(HSD) substitute in India.
The overall objectives of this review paper is to examine
these issues involved in the raising of large-scale Pongamia
plantations on various categories of land. The article also
describes the various aspects of the use of an elite planting stock
and appropriate propagation techniques including nursery and
plantation practices and models. Such efforts are essential in
making Pongamia cultivation an economically viable proposition.
JCSB 2010 (September) 13 (3) : 127 ~ 137
Pongamia pinnata - Habit and habitat
Species distribution and ecology
The natural distribution of Pongamia is along coasts and river
banks in India and Burma. It is native to humid and subtropical
environments including the Asian subcontinent and lowlands in
the Philippines, Malaysia, Australia, the Seychelles, the United
States, and Indonesia. Natural reproduction is by seed and is
common by root suckers (Duke 1983). Pongamia tree is cultivated throughout India except temperate regions (Fig. 1). A
large number of trees have been planted on roadsides, railway
tracks, canal banks, and open farm lands during last two
decades. Pongamia can grow on most soil types ranging from
stony to sandy to clayey and grows to an elevation of ca. 1,200
m (Daniel and Hegde 2007). The plant thrives well in areas having an annual rainfall from 500 - 2,500 mm, with the maximum
temperature ranging from 27 to 38 ℃ and the minimum from 1
to 16 ℃. Mature trees can also withstand water logging, are
resistant to high winds, drought, and salinity but are susceptible
to freezing temperatures (Tomar and Gupta 1985; Misra and
Singh 1987; Gilman and Watson 1994). The tree does not grow
well on dry sands. Pongamia is common along waterways or
seashores, with its roots in fresh or salt water and grows well in
full sun or partial shade. However, maximum growth rates are
observed on well-drained soils with assured moisture (Tomar
and Gupta 1985; Sharma et al. 1994).
Botany
Pongamia is a medium-sized, hardy tree that generally attains
a height of ca. 8 - 10 m and a trunk diameter of more than 50 cm
(Fig. 2A). The trunk is generally short with thick branches
spreading into a dense hemispherical crown of dark green
leaves. The bark is thin gray to grayish-brown, and yellow on
the inside (Daniel and Hegde 2007). The taproot is thick and
long extending 10 m into the ground to extract water from far
beneath the ground surface for its need without competing with
other crops. The plant flourishes in dry areas where agriculture
is unproductive and in poor or saline soils (Tomar and Gupta
1985). The alternate, compound pinnate leaves consist of five or
seven leaflets which are arranged in two or three pairs, and a
single terminal leaflet. Leaflets are 5 - 10 cm long, 4 - 6 cm
wide, and pointed at the tip. The structure and biochemical features of the flower and the mechanism of pollination have been
already described (Jain and Dhingra 1991; Raju and Rao 2006).
Flowers, borne on racemes, are pink, light purple, or white (Fig.
2B). Pods are elliptical, 3 - 6 cm long and 2 - 3 cm wide, thick
walled, and usually contain a single seed rarely two, elliptical, or
reniform 1.7 - 2.0 cm long and 1.2 - 1.8 cm broad, wrinkled,
with reddish brown leathery testa (Fig. 2C). Seeds are 10 - 20
cm long, fig oblong, and light brown in color (Fig. 2D). The tree
starts yielding at the age of 4 - 7 years (ICRISAT 2007) and
seed yield varies from 10 - 250 kg per tree. Regarding yield,
there are varying estimates: 6 t ha-1 and the oil production up to
1.5 - 2.4 t ha-1, depending upon the soil and climatic conditions.
Seeds contain 28 - 34% oil. The cake is non-edible; it can be
used as an organic fertilizer and is rich in nitrogen and micronutrients (NOVOD 2009). The oil from the seed has provided an
affordable fuel source for generators (Source: Power Pods India
Feb 2004, ITDG).
Propagation techniques in Pongamia
The successful introduction and subsequent expansion of
plantings of any new crop species is reliant on the ability to
develop simple and reliable methods for the propagation of large
number of plants. Propagation in Pongamia is desired from
many angles. The planting season of Pongamia does not coincide with the reproductive phase (consisting of flowering and
fruiting) in different eco-geographic locations and in such situations, vegetative propagation would be an ideal step towards
supply of planting material round the year. Further, vast areas of
wastelands could be covered with Pongamia vegetation for
domestic and commercial utility. Pongamia can be successfully
propagated through seeds and cuttings (Handa et al. 2005; Singh
et al. 2005; Kesari et al. 2010) and the viability of the seeds is up
to one year.
Fig. 2. Pongamia pinnata;
A. Candidate plus tree NGPP 46 occurring in North Guwahati, Assam, India
(26°14'6” N, 91°41'28” E),
B. Characteristic raceme inflorescence having standard petal, two identical wings and
two identical keel petals. Flowering in Pongamia in Assam occur in April - May.
C. Ripened pods; each pod weighs about 3 - 5 g.
D. Matured seeds. Seed maturation takes roughly 9 months. Each seed weighs about
1.5 - 2.5 g.
Plus tree identification
Pongamia pinnata has been documented to include variable
forms with a wide range of pod as well as seed size and shape
(WOI 1969; Kesari et al. 2008). Characterization and selection
of candidate plus trees (CPTs) is essential for the improvement
of this species in addition to experiments on controlled crossing
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Pongamia as an alternative biofuel crop in India
among selected genotypes (Kesari et al. 2008, 2009a, b). Tree
breeding consists of selection of superior germplasm followed
by large-scale propagation of true-to-type plus trees in the seed
orchard for the production of improved seeds, which can be used
for high quality plantations (Rao et al. 2001). A plus tree is an
individual tree of a species possessing superior morphological
and reproductive characters than other individuals of the same
species. In our early report, 10 locations with five random trees
from each locations were scored for various morphological and
reproductive characters viz; girth; height; number of leaves per g
weight; seed germination (%); number of buds/inflorescence;
number of flowers per inflorescence and number of seeds per
inflorescence for two consecutive seasons in the month of April
- June (2006 - 2007) from North Guwahati. Trees grown in one
location are considered to be a population. To predict the performance of the candidate trees with respect to the traits studied,
a combined analysis across populations (locations) was conducted using CROPSTAT. A critical minimum value (mean performance) for various vegetative and reproductive traits from
different populations of Pongamia tagged from the study site
was done and the tree performing above this average value for
75% of the characteristics for two seasons were designated as
CPTs (Kesari et al. 2008). The data comprised of morphological
(vegetative and reproductive) traits measured on 50 trees and
each of the 50 trees is a different genotype (Kesari et al. 2008).
Ten CPTs were identified based on the morphological markers
which can be progressed further for large-scale vegetative propagation and mass multiplication.
Fig. 3. Vegetative propagation of P. pinnata and the effect of IBA on the rooting of
cuttings of CPT NGPP 46. IBA at a concentration of 4.92 mM induced maximum rooting. IBA at this concentration level found to enhance the number of roots by threefold, root length by two-fold as compared to control. T = Treated; C = Control
A. Initial IBA treated semi-hard wood cuttings of CPT in poly bags containing sand
and clay (1:4);
B. Effect of IBA on the sprouting of cuttings of CPT, 7 weeks after insertion.
C. Effect of IBA on the rooting of cuttings of CPT, 11 weeks after insertion.
Vegetative propagation
Vegetative propagation is a method of producing plants identical in genotype with the mother plant and forms an integral part
of tree improvement programs. In this approach, the best planting
stock with highest genetic quality can be obtained, which is not
always possible with the sexually propagated progenies. Another
advantage is that by this technique plants can be raised almost
throughout the year and the plantable stock can be obtained in
shorter time than those raised by seeds (Surendran et al. 2003;
Kesari et al. 2009b; 2010). Thus single stock can provide large
number of plants having same genetic uniformity. This technique
has additional benefits in cross pollinated species like P. pinnata
in producing true to type plants with shorter juvenile period leading to early productivity (Raju and Rao 2006).
Propagation through cuttings
Branch cuttings form the most widely used propagules for vegetative propagation through the application of synthetic and natural auxins to induce adventitious rooting. Indole-3-butyric acid
(IBA) has been recommended as the best agent among different
synthetic and natural auxins for root induction in cuttings of P.
pinnata (Kesari et al. 2009b). However, considerable difference
exists among different studies (Mishra et al. 2001; Karoshi and
Hedge 2002; Kesari et al. 2009b) which may be due to the differences in experimental conditions as well as genotypic variability.
Pongamia can be propagated through semi-hard wood (inter-
mediate of soft wood and hard wood) and by hard wood (tertiary
or secondary branches) cuttings (15 - 25 cm long and 0.5 - 1 cm
diameter) comprising 3 - 4 nodes (Fig. 3A). The root initiation
and sprouting of cuttings can be induced by treating the cuttings
first with a fungicide and subsequently treating with auxins (IBA,
IAA, and NAA) at different concentration ranging from 1.23 to
7.38 mM, respectively, for a maximum of 1 h duration. In our
own studies, the performance of the cuttings was evaluated using
SAS GLM software and the data were analyzed as a one-way
classified data with and without sub-sampling for inferring auxin
concentration that can be included in programs aimed at genetic
improvement of the tree species (Kesari et al. 2009b). All auxin
treatments promoted sprouting at lower concentrations (Fig. 3B)
and enhanced rooting of cuttings (Kesari et al. 2009b). The effectiveness was in the order of IBA > NAA > IAA when applied
singly. IBA at 4.92 mM was found to be the most effective where
rooting percentage and number of roots were significantly higher
(P < 0.01) than in control (Fig. 3C). However, higher concentrations of auxins above 7 mM in general inhibited the rooting of
cuttings. The interaction among auxins was found to be effective
in root induction and differentiation and the most stimulating
effects were observed in three-component mixture. Cuttings from
2-month-old seedlings of the same mother plant, raised in nursery bed were also used as a source material for studying the
effect of adventitious rooting and effect of juvenility with the
JCSB 2010 (September) 13 (3) : 127 ~ 137
the scion made on root stock and kept under polyhouse for 2
months. The grafts can be then taken and placed in hardening
chamber. Wedge grafting has been found to be most successful
using a 3-month-old seedling raised in polybags as the stocks
and semi-hardwood scions of 12 - 15 cm length (Karoshi and
Hedge 2002). Direct planting of seeds in the field and in situ
grafting with a scion from high yielding trees after 9 months has
also been recommended (Wani and Sreedevi 2007).
Multiplication of elite P. pinnata by grafting has been found to
be easier than propagation by cuttings.
Air layering, also called as “Chinese Layering”, is another
effective method of vegetative propagation in P. pinnata, where
roots are produced in small branches by applying root producing
hormones and rooting media. The method can be employed to
tertiary branches of Pongamia without much damage to the
mother plant.
Seed propagation and nursery practices
Fig. 4. Propagation and plantation of P. pinnata.
A & B. Seed propagation in polybags in forest nursery in April, 2007 & 2009;
C. In-situ seed raising in plantation sites in June-July;
D. Plantation in marginal lands in June-July.
best responding concentration of auxin (Kesari et al. 2009b). The
top (apical) cut ends of the treated cuttings were sealed with
paraffin wax to reduce the water loss. Subsequently the cuttings
were planted in poly-bags containing sand and clay at the ratio of
1:4 and kept in the mist chamber at 28 ± 2 ºC and 70 - 80% relative humidity. Light intensity was reduced to 22% of ambient
sunlight and day-length was 12 ± 1 h throughout. Intermittent
mist was supplied for 30 s at 15 min intervals. The results indicate that the cuttings obtained from young seedlings in nursery
bed had a high rate of rooting (almost 80%) in comparison with
cuttings raised from the field (66.67%). Thus rooting was more
pronounced in the seedling derived material than mature cuttings
(Kesari et al. 2009b). In a previous experiment (Kesari et al.
2010), it was noted that the month of collection was also found to
be significant on root induction and differentiation in Pongamia.
Stem cuttings collected during the month of January rooted better
in terms of percentage response, average root number, and average root length than those collected during October. This variation in seasonal rooting response may be attributed to the physiological condition of the plant cuttings.
Air layering and grafting
Grafting is an effective technique to overcome the problem of
long juvenile period as well as assurance of good productivity
owing to elite scions. In grafting, one-year-old seedlings of
Pongamia can be used as root stock. The scions can be collected
from an elite genotype with the same dimensions as that of the
root stock. A wedge-shaped cutting can be made and inserted in
Plant propagation by seed is the most commonly known
method for producing new plants in large numbers and in less
time. Though seed propagation is not difficult, it involves careful management of germinating conditions as well as knowledge
of seed requirements of the species (Hartmann and Kester 1986).
Maintenance of seed quality requires concerted effort when
seeds are required in bulk as in the case of tree nurseries.
Pongamia is easily propagated through seeds either by direct
sowing in the nursery bed/ polybags during July-August or in
situ sowing of seeds in the plantation field (Figs. 4A and B).
Potting mixtures consisting of sand, soil, and manure in the ratio
of 1:1:1 have been found to yield good results for large scale
production of quality planting material of P. pinnata (Arjunan et
al. 1994; Handa et al. 2005). Sowing of fresh seeds is recommended as germination rate decreases on storage. The germination of Pongamia is hypogeal i.e. in normal seedling; the cotyledons remain beneath the germination medium while the plumule
pushes upwards and emerges above. Seedlings attain a height of
25 - 30 cm in their first growing season and transplanting to the
field occurs at the onset of rainy season when seedlings are 60
cm in height (Daniel and Hegde 2007). Bold and cleaned seeds
are sown in advanced, well-prepared seedbeds. The seeds are
dibbled in the nursery beds at the spacing of 7.5 x 15 cm during
the onset of hot weather. Mulching of beds is also found helpful for moisture conservation. Germination takes almost a
week and up to 85% seed germinates in properly managed
nursery (author personal communication). However, the
knowledge of germination and pre-treatment is essential for
reproducibility of uniform results. The most commonly used
pre-treatment are soaking of seeds in hot water, growth regulators, or salt solutions (Ramamoorthy et al. 1989; Kumar et al.
2007). Soaking of seeds in IBA (0.15 mM) or GA3 (0.06 mM)
for 24 h enhances germination (NOVOD 2008) and seedlings
develop large root systems.
P. pinnata produces root suckers profusely. This characteristic makes it unsuitable for agro-forestery. It has the potential
to become a weed if not managed properly. Therefore, this
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Pongamia as an alternative biofuel crop in India
species can be regenerated by coppice management (Misra and
Singh 1989).
Plantation practices and models
Scientific literature and case-studies have suggested various
plantation models for large-scale Pongamia plantations (Misra
and Singh 1987; Naidu and Swamy 1993). These range from
blocks of monoculture plantations in community lands and less
productive wastelands, with intercropping in agro-forestry models on productive lands to boundary, row plantations along the
agricultural fields, and strip plantations along rail, road, and
canals. Whatever be the model adopted, a large array of spacing
between plants is recommended apart from considering locale
specific factors to maximize the yield output (Bhojvaid 2008).
While selecting the site, it is important to ensure that the land
is available for a relatively long duration. Each site can be
spread over an area of 1.5 ha out of which 1 ha can be brought
under plantation (500 plants ha-1 at a spacing of 5 x 4 m). This
will cover on average at least 25 genotypes collected from various locations. The remaining 0.5 ha can be used to develop a
small nursery for multiplication of plants by conventional methods. Pits of 60 x 60 x 60 cm3 are dug for planting, with rows
spaced 5 m apart and plants spaced 4 m apart within row for a
total of 500 plants ha-1. Each pit is then filled with soil + 5 kg
farm yard manure. One-year-old healthy seedlings (height ca. 60
cm), are selected and uprooted with the ball of earth for transplanting in the field (Fig. 4). The onset of the monsoon in JuneJuly is the appropriate time for plantation. Three irrigations may
be given in a year when required for better growth and development of the plants. The spacing adopted in avenue plantings is
about 8 m between plants. In block plantings, the spacing can
range from 2 x 2 to 5 x 5 m. Pongamia seedlings withstand
shade very well and can be interplanted in existing tree stands.
Information on management practices to maximize seed or biomass production is not available and should be investigated.
Because it tolerates moderate levels of salinity, Pongamia is an
ideal candidate for saline soil reclamation (Singh 1990).
Existing plantations and initiatives on Pongamia in India
Many State Governments, NGOs, and multinationals have
shown great interest in Pongamia plantations in the last decade.
However, there is no systematic study to record the extent of
Pongamia plantations in India. The President of India's address
at the Banker's Conference 2004 (New Delhi) stated the significance of biodiesel plantations especially in wastelands that
accounts for nearly 55 million hectares in India. A significant
portion of wasteland (approximately 11 million hectares) can be
used for raising biodiesel producing plants that can yield a revenue of approximately Rs 20,000 crore (approx US$ 5 billion)
per year and also provide employment to over 12 million people
both for plantation and for running the extraction plants. The
mission on biodiesel plantations to sustain energy security in
India has triggered many initiatives both at the central and state
levels. The Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) has provided financial support to nine States in 2005-06 for raising 18
crore seedlings of Pongamia and to 18 States in 2006-07 for
raising of approximately another 18 crore seedlings of this plant.
The Ministry of Agriculture through National oil seeds and vegetable oils development board (NOVOD) is promoting
Pongamia under the scheme of Integrated Development of treeborne oil seeds (TBOs). The NOVOD Board has undertaken the
plantation model of Pongamia in an area of approximately 1,400
hectares for producing parent material for large-scale plantation.
The board has also identified elite planting material of
Pongamia under their R&D program and has preserved the
germplasm.
The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics (ICRISAT), Patencheru, Andhra Pradesh, India is supporting innovative research on the Pongamia 'Journey from
Forest to Micro-enterprise' for improving rural livelihoods and
empowerment. The objectives of the organization are to rehabilitate the degraded lands and protect the environment, to asses
and develop sustainable crop management practices, and to
assess the enhancement of income of self-help groups (SHGs)
by planting Pongamia. The program also aims at value addition
of its byproducts after oil extraction. Two National Networks
working under the aegis of NOVOD Board are promoting
research on TBOs mainly on Jatropha and Pongamia in close
liaison with state agricultural universities, institutions of Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Indian Council of
Forestry Research and Organization (ICFRE), Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), Central Food Technological
Research Institute (CFTRI), The Energy and Research Institute
Institute (TERI), and the Indian Institute of Technology, New
Delhi (IIT). About 28 institutions are involved in this Network
for undertaking joint research on issues such as the identification
of elite planting material, seed resource assessment, collection
and storage, phenological and chemical evaluation for characterization, tree improvement to get quality and reliable seed source,
multilocation trials of elite planting material, techniques for
mass multiplication of quality planting material, and model
plantation including agro-forestry models for evolving good
intercropping system of TBOs.
Plantations costs and economics
Quick economics of seed production to demand for diesel
requirement for India is shown in Table 1 (Source: NOVOD
Table 1. Quick economics for biodiesel production from P. pinnata (Source:
ICRISAT 2007; NOVOD Report 2009)
Parameters
Value
Seed production
Seeds produced per plant
No. of plants ha-1
Total yield of seeds ha-1
14 - 18 kg per year
500 (5 x 4m)
5000-8000 kg ha-1 (Average ~ 6000 kg ha-1)
Oil production
100 tonnes of seeds
Oil production ha-1
Demand for diesel
Land required to produce 36 million tonnes oil
30 tonnes of oil
1800 kg ha-1
36 million tonnes per year
20 million ha
JCSB 2010 (September) 13 (3) : 127 ~ 137
Table 2. Cost of plantation model (US$) of P. pinnata in one hectare land in Indian condition (Source: NOVOD Report, 2009)
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Particulars
Site preparation (cleaning and levelling of field) - 10 FW
Alignment and staking - 2 FW
Digging of pits (500 Numbers) of 60 cm3 size @ 25 pits
per FW - 20 FW
Cost of FYM (including carriage) 10 kg per pits digging 1st
year (5 MT) 2 kg. per plant from second year onward
up to 5th year @ US$ 8.9 per MT
Cost of fertilizers @US$ 0.13 per kg (500 g per plant
during 1st year and 250 g per plant from 2nd year onward
and 2 FW for each application.
Mixing of FYM, insecticides fertilizers and refilling of pits
@ 40 pits per FW 13 FW
Cost of plants (including carriage) 500 Numbers during
first year and 50 Numbers of plants during second year for
replanting @ US$ 0.12 per plant.
Planting and replanting cost 100 plants per FW - 5 FW
and 1 FW, respectively.
Irrigation - 3 irrigation 1st and 2nd year and 1 irrigation during 3rd year onward @ US$ 11.11 per irrigation.
Weeding and soil working 4 FW x 2 times
Plant protection measures
Harvesting of fruits per seeds FW per 100 kg
Sub total :
Contingency (10% of the above)
Grand Total :
1
2
Year
7th 8th
Total
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th
13.3
2.7
26.7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
13.3
2.7
26.7
44.4
8.9
8.9
8.9
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
71.1
33.8 19.3
19.3
19.3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
91.8
17.3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
17.3
61.1
6.1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
67.2
6.7
1.3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
8.0
33.3 33.3
11.1
11.1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
88.9
10.7 10.7
4.4 8.9
-
10.7
8.9
-
10.7
8.9
-
53.3
85.3
42.7
31.1
128.0 170.7 213.3 234.7 256.0 256.0 256.0 256.0 1909.3
254.4 88.6
25.4 8.9
279.8 97.5
58.9
5.9
64.8
58.9
5.9
64.8
53.3
5.3
58.6
85.3
8.5
93.8
128.0 170.7 213.3 234.7 256.0 256.0 256.0 256.0 2370.1
12.8 17.1 21.3 23.5 25.6 25.6 25.6 25.6 237.0
140.8 187.8 234.6 258.2 281.6 281.6 281.6 281.6 2607.1
Mortality/casuality replacement: 10%; Survival percentage: 90%; Wage rate per field worker (FW): US$ 1.33; Gestation periods
(Years): 4; US$ 1= INR Rs. 45; 1 MT = 1000 kg
Report, 2009). The planting density (number of plants per
hectare) in different models, soil type, and intensity of postplanting operations such as irrigation will determine planting
costs. Resultantly, the reported/published plantation cost is
approximately US$ 555.55 per ha on a yearly basis (NOVOD
2009) (http://www.tn.gov.in/policynotes/agriculture). A wide
array of subsidies on plants, plantations, and other related activities has been announced by NOVOD and many state governments (Table 2). The table shows that total money spent in the
plantation of P. pinnata in 1 ha land was ca. US$ 2607.13. Once
the harvesting of fruits starts from the 5th year, the money spent
was ca. US$ 53.33, and in the successive years i.e. 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th,
10th, 11th, it increases to 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, and 10%, respectively,
of the previous year.
Management and future aspects
Intercropping
Pongamia is widely used as an intercrop particularly with
legumes and pulses (Chaukiyal et al. 2000). The dwarf and short
duration oilseed and pulse crops such as mustard, groundnut,
chickpea, cowpea, horse-gram, and millets like bajra, etc., can
be grown successfully as intercrops up to 4 - 5 years after planting without affecting the growth of Pongamia plants. This practice increases the economic feasibility of Pongamia plantation
and generates avenues during gestation period from the same
land (Pokhriyal et al. 1996). The intercrops selected by various
institutions in India for agri-silvicultural trial in Pongamia suggests that there are no significant differences between pure cropping and intercropping on plant height, collar diameter, number
of branches, and grain yield. From the results of intercropping
plantation of Pongamia with other crops, it is evident that all
morphological parameters are not significant within the tree
species and survival rate is about 80 - 100%.
Cultivation/silvicultural research issues
Pongamia can be grown as block plantations, row fences, or
in combination with the agricultural crops, fodder, and medicinal plants. Such plantation models have to be tested in field to
optimize yields for adaptation by the farmers and entrepreneurs.
Standardization of spacing between plants is essential to avoid
competition to facilitate higher yield. Irrigation schedule is vital
to maximize yields under agro-forestry models and pruning
schedules to optimize seed production. Standardization of mass
production of clonal material and selection of species for intercropping to increase financial viability of Pongamia plantations
has been suggested by Bhojvaid (2008).
Extension activities-training of trainers and farmers
Unless the value of plant genetic resources is known among
133
134
Pongamia as an alternative biofuel crop in India
local communities, there may not be much interest in management. Therefore, value addition to a plant, thereby strengthening
the livelihoods of the local communities, would be an effective
mode for propagation and management in Pongamia. Field-level
workers involved in extension activities of Pongamia cultivation
within the project area should be trained on the various aspects
of Pongamia plant cultivations such as importance of elite planting materials, its procurement, nursery raising, plantation establishment, and post-planting care. These trained persons can act
as a potential source of imparting training to farmers that
includes extension activities. Besides, farmers can be given literature/booklets in local languages on various aspects of management of Pongamia plantations. Our own experience where the
results of the lab-based experiments were consolidated and made
available to the local people through an awareness program by
display of charts and posters prepared in the local language
(Assamesse) brought interesting facts to our understanding. The
response of this program and the uses of these plants by the local
people were also recorded. As an added extension of this activity,
field demonstrations can be done to show the economic viability
and feasibility of cultivation as an alternative option on degraded
lands and community wastelands with the help of forest officials.
Clonal cuttings of the superior or CPT materials can be supplied
to forest officials to replicate the process on larger scales and to
promote cultivation of Pongamia on more marginal and wastelands. State forest departments can also be approached for the
allocation of marginal lands and better management.
Plant breeding methods of enhancing production potential in
Pongamia could be targeted towards development of early-bearing Pongamia varieties to reduce the gestation period from 7 to
4 years, higher oil content (74%) with desirable oil quality characteristics especially monounsaturated fatty acid from the point
of view of using it as biofuel. Selection of day-neutral varieties
so that seed production takes place throughout the year leading
to the development of high yield Pongamia varieties that are
produced in the “off season” could also be attempted for strategies towards development of dwarf high-yielding varieties that
can reduce collection as well as management cost could be
developed. Further, development of site-specific genotypes
those are tolerant to adverse growing conditions such as salinity,
drought, alkalinity, and water logging can be taken as future
research so as to increase the range of growth/cultivation of
Pongamia.
Biodiesel production system for Pongamia
The most important trait influencing the overall commercial
success of P. pinnata as a promising energy crop is its high seed
yield coupled with high oil content. In addition to these parameters, the oil quality aspect should receive due attention with
more efficient values for biodiesel standards adding to the overall efficacy of the biofuels. Importantly, the successful adoption
of biodiesel is reliant on the supply of feedstock from non-food
crops with the capacity to grow on marginal land and not destined to be used for the cultivation of food crops (Hill et al.
2006). P. pinnata is a strong candidate to contribute significant
amounts of fuel feedstock, meeting both of these criteria. The
seeds of P. pinnata contain 30 - 40% oil, which can be converted to biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters; FAMEs) by transesterification with methanol in the presence of KOH. The role of
Pongamia as a feed stock for biodiesel production was well
defined and confirmed. The naturally occurring Pongamia oils
are tri-esters of the tri-alcohol and glycerol known as triglycerides. However, the direct use of Pongamia oils and/or blends is
generally considered to be unsatisfactory for diesel engines. The
reason is high viscosity; free fatty acids content as well as gum
formation due to oxidation and polymerization during storage
and combustion. Carbon deposits and lubricating oil thickening
are some other obvious problems (Srivastava and Prasad 2000).
To overcome these drawbacks, considerable effort has gone into
developing vegetable oil derivatives that approximate the properties and performance of petroleum-based diesel fuels. Some of
the processes that have been investigated are pyrolysis,
microemulsification, and transesterification. Attempts have been
made for the conversion of Karanja oil to fatty acid methyl
esters (De and Bhattacharyya 1999; Vivek and Gupta 2004;
Karmee and Chadha 2005). Meher et al. (2006) investigated the
optimal reaction conditions to increase the yield of methyl esters
by transesterification of Karanja oil with methanol. The reaction
parameters such as catalyst concentration, alcohol/oil molar
ratio, temperature, and rate of mixing were optimized for production of Karanja oil methyl ester (KOME). Azam et al. (2005)
reported that fatty acid methyl ester (FAMEs) of oil of P. pinnata
was found most suitable for use as a biodiesel since it meets the
major specification of biodiesel standards of the USA, Germany,
and European Standard Organization. Extensive studies have
shown that Pongamia triglycerides hold promise as alternative
diesel engine fuels (Shrinivasa 2001; Sarma et al. 2005; Scott et
al. 2008; Sharma and Singh 2008; Mukta et al. 2009; Kesari et
al. 2009a).
The studies by Vivek and Gupta (2004) revealed the maximum yield of FAMEs up to 89% with molar ratio of MeOH per
oil 8 - 10, KOH 1.5% w/w of oil as catalyst when the reaction
was conducted for 40 min at 68 - 70 °C. Karmee and Chadha
(2005) reported that conversion of crude Pongamia oil to
biodiesel is 92% at 60 °C with 1:10 molar ratio (oil:methanol)
for KOH (1% w/w) catalyzed transesterification. Whereas
Meher et al. (2006) demonstrated that the yield of FAMEs from
Karanja oil is 97 - 98% under the optimal condition of 1% KOH
as catalyst, MeOH/oil molar ratio 6:1, reaction temperature 65
°C, and rate of mixing 360 rpm for a period of 3 h.
Conclusions
It has been opined that Pongamia cultivation will add vegetative cover, control soil erosion, and generate biodiesel, thus
helping reducing carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels.
The proposed biodiesel production system also has the potential
to address several other important national priorities, the most
important being rural development and poverty alleviation. A
JCSB 2010 (September) 13 (3) : 127 ~ 137
biodiesel program will open up a large number of employment
opportunities by way of plantations, collection of oil seeds, and
production of biodiesel. It is estimated that raising a plantation
of Pongamia over one hectare of land will generate employment
for 300 - 320 persons-days (NOVOD 2008). Furthermore,
wasteland can be effectively used for cultivation and subsequent
rehabilitation under agronomic/silvicultural aspects (Shrinivasa
2001). Appropriate planting models for different agro-climatic
zones and land-uses, and post-planting care and interventions to
enhance yields, leading to economic viability are of prime
importance in Pongamia plantations
In view of the limited supply of natural fossil fuel, Pongamia
is undoubtedly one of the key source-species and a potential
source of viable biodiesel. Standardization of the vegetative
propagation techniques and establishment of PGRC (Pongamia
Genetic Resources Center) can be a timely step in this direction
for large-scale production of genetically superior saplings
throughout the year. The results of our current study on adventitious rooting from CPT varying different natural and synthetic
auxins could also encourage tree breeding and its commercialization in areas suitable for its growth. It also has important
implications for germplasm utilization and may establish a case
study of genetic enhancement of biodiesel species (Rangan, personal communication). With an overall rooting success of 40 60% and with a reasonably good growth rate, production of planting material from stem-cuttings of P. pinnata through vegetative
means offers opportunities for a cheaper, practically feasible, and
technically less-demanding, alternative means of propagation.
Acknowledgement
VK thanks Council of Industrial Research (CSIR),
Government of India for the award of Senior Research
Fellowship (SRF). Thanks to the Forest Department officials of
Sila Forest, North Guwahati for kind supply of study material.
LR acknowledges funding by the Department of Science and
Technology-Science and Engineering Research Council (DSTSERC), Government of India for supporting the research.
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