Bituh T, et al. Phosphogypsum and its potential use in Croatia: challenges and opportunities
Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2021;72:93-100
Review
93
DOI: 10.2478/aiht-2021-72-3504
Phosphogypsum and its potential use in Croatia: challenges
and opportunities
Tomislav Bituh, Branko Petrinec, Božena Skoko, Dinko Babić, and Davor Rašeta
Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
[Received in November 2020; Similarity Check in November 2020; Accepted in May 2021]
Phosphogypsum (PG) is a waste by-product (residue) originating from the production of phosphoric acid and phosphate
fertilisers. PG contains chemical and radioactive impurities, which is why it is mostly stockpiled in controlled areas.
Worldwide, only about 15 % of PG is recycled or reused. Today, policies and business strategies prioritise sustainable
development through circular economy, which certainly includes PG. This provides new opportunities for Croatia to
manage its PG and make an effort to use it as an additive in different industries, such as agriculture and construction. Due
to its chemical and radiological properties, PG can potentially cause problems for the environment and human health.
Hence, before using PG, detailed knowledge of potential hazards is necessary to protect people and the environment. The
aim of this review is to summarise available data on Croatian PG, compare them with other countries, and to identify
knowledge gaps and the lack of data on potential hazardous substances in PG in order to assess the opportunities of using
PG in Croatia.
KEY WORDS: circular economy; heavy metals; NORM; radioactivity; radionuclides; reuse
Minerals and ores exploited from the Earth’s crust
contain naturally occurring radionuclides. In industrial
processing, these radionuclides can become concentrated
in by-products. Depending on the level of activity
concentrations of radionuclides, some of these by-products
can be considered as naturally occurring radioactive
materials (NORM). The International Atom Energy Agency
(IAEA) defines NORM as “radioactive material containing
no significant amounts of radionuclides other than naturally
occurring radionuclides (including materials in which
activity concentrations have been changed by a process)”
(1). Some examples of NORM include fly ash from coal
burning, slags from different recycling industries, and red
mud from aluminium processing. The subject of this review
is a by-product (residue) of phosphoric acid production
known as phosphogypsum (PG), mostly composed of
CaSO4 x 2H2O (95 %).
Due to its high activity concentration of natural
radionuclides PG is classified as NORM (2, 3) or
technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive
material (TENORM), according to the US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). “Technologically enhanced”,
according to EPA, “means that the radiological, physical,
and chemical properties of the radioactive material have
been concentrated or further altered by having been
processed, or beneficiated, or disturbed in a way that
Corresponding author: Tomislav Bituh, Institute for Medical Research
and Occupational Health, Radiation Protection Unit, Ksaverska cesta 2,
HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia, E-mail: tbituh@imi.hr
increases the potential for human and/or environmental
exposures” (4).
Potential issues of concern resulting from
phosphogypsum disposal are its environmental impacts, i.e.
possible increases in radionuclide concentrations in soil or
groundwater and consequent ingestion by humans through
drinking water and food (3). Once deposited in the bone
tissue, 226Ra (which is the dominant radionuclide in PG)
can cause biological damage through continuous irradiation
of human skeleton over many years and may induce bone
sarcoma (3, 5). Of additional concern is the inhalation of
222
Rn (daughter radionuclide of 226Ra), especially in
occupational setting, which increases the internal dose.
Phosphate products are manufactured by either wet or
thermal processing. Wet dihydrate processing involves the
treatment of a phosphate rock with concentrated sulphuric
acid at 75–80 °C to obtain phosphoric acid and PG as a
by-product (6). Wet processing produces around 4–6 tonnes
of PG per tonne of P2O5 (3, 7–9). The chemical reaction for
the process is given in Eq. 1, as follows:
Ca10(PO2)6F2 + 10H2SO4 + 20H2O → 6H3PO4 + 10(CaSO4 × 2H2O) + 2HF
(Eq. 1)
In Croatia, phosphoric acid had been produced by a
fertiliser company Petrokemija from 1983 to 2009. During
that period, around 8.5 Mt of PG was produced. (10). PG
was transported to a disposal site as slurry by pipelines
some 4 km to the south of the factory. The disposal site
borders the Lonjsko Polje Nature Park, an ornithological
reserve and floodplain area covering 50.650 ha (Figure 1).
94
Bituh T, et al. Phosphogypsum and its potential use in Croatia: challenges and opportunities
Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2021;72:93-100
Figure 1 Location of the phosphogypsum disposal site in relation to the fertiliser factory and the city of Kutina, Croatia
The disposal site consists of five ponds and has a surface
of 1.7 km2 and average depth of 4 m. The embankment
dams (clay) surrounding the disposal site are constructed
in such a way as to protect the surrounding environment.
The potential impact of PG on the environment has already
been investigated (7, 8, 11, 12), and the company in charge
of maintenance of the site is monitoring groundwater levels
on a regular basis.
The objective of this review is to summarise the
available data on PG properties, compare Croatian PG with
worldwide reports, and provide an integrated,
multidisciplinary knowledge base that could help assess the
opportunities of using Croatian PG in building and
construction industry or agriculture in the near future. The
potential use of PG includes detailed analysis from
chemical, radiological, and structural perspective. In this
sense, our review should inform future management of
Croatian PG and potential users (agriculture and construction
industry).
Our literature search includes up-to-date knowledge
about PG use over the last 15 years, with a few exceptions
published in the 1990s and before. Additionally, several
books published by the IAEA were used as a source of
summarised data.
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF PHOSPHOGYPSUM
Phosphogypsum is a grey, damp, fine-grained material
(silty or silty-sandy) with a maximum grain size between
0.5 and 1.0 mm and 50–75 % of particles finer than
0.075 mm (6). The moisture content usually ranges between
8 % and 30 % (3, 6). Its density, strength, compressibility,
and permeability (hydraulic conductivity) are influenced
by disposal method and depth within a stack. Because of
the homogeneity of PG particles, the process of stacking
causes the material to become compacted over time. This
is the reason why its density and strength increase over
time, while permeability and compressibility decrease (3).
Its chemical composition depends on the origin and
chemical treatment of the phosphate rock. PG obtained by
wet processing is mostly composed of CaSO4 × 2H2O
(95 %) or CaSO4 × 1/2H2O (in the hemihydrate process).
Multiple authors list impurities such as H 3 PO 4 ,
Ca(H2PO4)2 × H2O, CaHPO4 × 2H2O and Ca3(PO4)2, residual
acids, fluorides (NaF, Na2SiF6, Na3AlF6, Na3FeF6 and CaF2),
sulphate ions, trace metals (Cr, Cu, Zn, and Cd), and organic
matter such as aliphatic compounds of carbonic acids,
amines, and ketones, all of which adhere to the surface of
the gypsum crystals (2, 3, 13, 14).
The propagation of radionuclides in fertiliser production
depends on the chemical properties of U, Ra, and Th. Most
of 238U and 232Th enter the fertiliser, and most of 226Ra is
incorporated into PG (2, 8, 9). During wet processing, about
80 % of 226Ra, 30 % of 232Th, and 14 % of 238U is concentrated
in PG, while the rest ends up in phosphoric acid in fertilisers
(13, 15, 16), which is why the radiological risk of PG is
mainly associated with exposure to 226Ra (t1/2=1600 years)
and its decay products.
According to Rutherford et. al (2), 226Ra probably does
not occupy regular lattice positions within U-bearing
materials. Whereas U4+ (IR=0.097 nm) often replaces Ca2+
(IR=0.099 nm) in apatite due to the similarity of ionic radii,
the ionic radius of Ra2+ (~0.152 nm) is too large for the
isomorphous replacement of Ca2+. It is therefore likely that
Ra from phosphorite is co-precipitated with Ba and/or Sr
as a sulphate compound. PG formation is a dynamic process,
in which foreign ions enter the calcium sulphate phase
during crystal growth. Since this growth never takes place
in equilibrium conditions in an industrial process,
radionuclide incorporation into phosphogypsum is a
complex mechanism affected by many factors (17).
The fact that 226Ra is more closely associated with the
finer hemihydrate particles than the large dihydrate particles
in PG is the basis for procedures designed to lower the
radioactivity of PG (2, 18).
RADIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
PHOSPHOGYPSUM
The concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides
in phosphate rock depend on the origin of the rock. The
Bituh T, et al. Phosphogypsum and its potential use in Croatia: challenges and opportunities
Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2021;72:93-100
95
radon release and, consequently, inhalation from air,
especially in occupational settings.
Because radon is an inert gas, it can move rather freely
through porous media such as building materials, although
usually only a fraction of 222Rn reaches the surface of the
material and enters indoor air (24), whereas the other two
Rn isotopes decay before they reach the surface of the
material. Due to the long half-life of 226Ra, 222Rn is released
constantly and can accumulate in poorly ventilated spaces,
increasing the risk of exposure to higher doses.
largest world deposits of phosphate rock are in Morocco,
South Africa, Florida, China, India, and Egypt (8). Total
global phosphate deposits are estimated to 163 billion
tonnes. Most of these deposits are of sedimentary origin,
with as little as 4 % being of igneous origin (e.g. on the
Kola Peninsula, Russia). In Croatian petrochemical
industry, most of the phosphate rock used was of
sedimentary origin and came from Morocco (8).
A detailed radionuclide measurement at the PG disposal
site in 2015 (11) including in-depth samples showed that
the activity concentrations of 226Ra ranged from 473 to
1626 Bq/kg, with average values of 811 Bq/kg. These
findings are in accordance with the worldwide data. Table
1 shows that activity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K
found in PG from Croatia are different from most countries.
In some cases, 226Ra activity concentrations are even twice
as high (except in comparison with the UK), whereas those
of 232Th and 40K are much lower (except in comparison with
Romania and the UK). The reason for this could be different
origin of the phosphate rock as well as different chemical
process.
In Croatia, the main radiological concerns about PG are
its storage (disposal) and potential use in construction
industry and agriculture. At high activity concentrations of
226
Ra, both involve the risk of exposure to gamma radiation
and inhalation of its gaseous daughter radionuclide 222Rn
and its decay products (19). Namely, of the three radon (Rn)
isotopes naturally present in the environment, 222Rn with
its half-life (t1/2) of 3.82 days (as opposed to 55.6 s of 220Rn
and 3.98 s of 219Rn) and much higher activity concentrations,
is the most important from the radiological point of view.
Namely, 222Rn accounts for about 50 % of the total effective
dose from all natural and man-made sources received by
the general population (23, 24). Higher concentrations of
226
Ra as the parent radionuclide of 222Rn in PG increase
HEAVY METALS IN PHOSPHOGYPSUM
Heavy metal and rare earth element (REE) concentrations
in PG depend on the composition and the origin of the
phosphate rock. Detailed investigations of Moroccan
phosphate rock and PG in Huelva, Spain (25) showed that
only 2–12 % of trace elements from phosphate rock are
transferred into PG, with the exception for Sr (66 %), Ce
(56 %), Y (41 %) and Pb (27 %) (25). Relying on their
research of Tunisian phosphate rock, Zmemla et al. (26)
suggested three levels of metal mobility: high (Sr and Zn),
moderate mobility (As, Ba, Cd, and Cr), and low (Cu, Ni,
Pb, Se, V, Y, and Zr).
Table 2 compares typical ranges of metal concentrations
in Croatian PG reported by Franković Mihelj et al. (27) and
Leaković et al. (28) with concentrations reported for other
countries by the IAEA (3). Data on most of the heavy metals
and REEs in Croatian PG are lacking and remain to be
established by future investigations. Other elements show
lower levels compared to other countries, which makes
Croatian PG more eligible for use in agriculture.
Table 1 Comparison of average activity concentrations of natural radionuclides (226Ra, 232Th, 40K) in phosphogypsum between Croatia
and other countries (ranges in parentheses)
Country
226
Ra (Bq/kg)
232
Th (Bq/kg)
Croatia
811 (473–1626)
8 (3–15)
Belgium
431 (420–442)
11 (10–11)
Bulgaria
209 (18–400)
17 (9–25)
Czech Republic
Finland
40
K (Bq/kg)
Reference
13 (7–23)
(12)
3 (1–5)
115
31
95
306 (24–830)
23 (3–118)
17 (9–30)
Germany
305 (60–550)
20 (20–20)
110
Greece
606 (547–642)
10 (2–19)
22 (0–41)
The Netherlands
223 (28–450)
24 (9–48)
50 (16–120)
Poland
267 (61–381)
17 (7–28)
72 (41–109)
Romania
497 (155–702)
40 (9–89)
242 (44–569)
Slovenia
500
10
41
600 (488–737)
3 (2–5)
47 (5–117)
United Kingdom
1018 (629–1406)
33 (19–48)
130 (41–218)
USA
750 (270–1353)
1
14
Serbia
(10, 19, 20)
(10, 21, 22)
Bituh T, et al. Phosphogypsum and its potential use in Croatia: challenges and opportunities
Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2021;72:93-100
96
THE USE OF PHOSPHOGYPSUM
Considering that the annual rate of PG stacking
worldwide is around 130 million tonnes (40 mil. in the USA
and 90 mil. elsewhere) (3), numerous investigations are
focused on new uses for this low-cost waste (25). The main
focus is on its use as an additive to agricultural soils, as an
additive in ettringite-based binders, and as raw material in
plaster bricks, masonry walls, road base binders, sodium
sulphate, soil limestone, and ammonium sulphate. However,
these uses are limited by the high content of toxic impurities,
and only 15 % of the worldwide production is recycled.
The remaining 85 % requires large disposal areas and may
cause huge environmental problems. Other potential
applications of PG include mine reclamation or sulphur
recovery. However, we will not address them here, as they
have no potential in Croatia.
Hilton (29) proposes four main critical success factors
for using PG: technical feasibility, regulatory acceptability,
commercial sustainability, and political will. Only if all four
conditions are met, the PG “problem” will be solved. In
terms of technical feasibility, PG can replace natural
gypsum in different products and applications. The
sustainability factor is met through much lower cost of PG
in relation to natural gypsum. However, regulatory aspects
are yet to be solved, as radiation protection remains one of
the main concerns about PG use.
Phosphogypsum in construction industry
There are numerous ways and technologies to reuse
by-products/residues in construction industry, most notably
in Portland cement (both as cement and concrete), alkaliactivated cement and concrete (geopolymers), ceramics and
glass-ceramics, and gypsum, phosphogypsum in particular.
Gypsum (hydrous calcium sulphate) is a common raw
material used in the production of plasters, drywalls, ceiling
tiles, and building blocks. As a raw material, gypsum comes
in two forms: as natural gypsum stone and as synthetic
gypsum (by-product of some industrial processes). The
latter has largely replaced natural gypsum to reduce
exploitation and damage to the environment (9). Since PG
is very similar to natural gypsum, it can replace it in building
products. The main challenge, however, is high radon
release and higher concentrations of 226Ra. In Portland
cement PG is used as a setting time retarder in amounts
below 4–5 % (30). Once diluted in the concrete 226Ra activity
concentration does not present an issue, but radon release
is increased, as exposure to 222Rn depends on material
thickness and density besides 226Ra concentration (31). The
reason of high 222 Rn release (around 50 %) is its
microstructure and porosity of the building material.
Gypsum crystals are usually longitudinal (fibroid) in shape
with large surface area, while overall density of gypsum
products is usually low, 800–1200 kg/m3, which is why
radon is easily released (9, 31).
Croatian regulation for all NORM materials that can be
used in construction relies on the activity concentration
index as a conservative screening tool for identifying
materials that exceed reference levels (32). This index
relates to indoor gamma radiation dose in a building
constructed from a specified building material in excess of
typical outdoor exposure. It applies to the building material
Table 2 Typical element concentration ranges in PG from different countries compared to Croatian PG
Concentration range (mg/kg)
Trace element
Ag
Worldwide data
(3)
Croatian PG
0.4–5
Al
Concentration range (mg/kg)
Trace element
Worldwide data
(3)
Na
0.008–0.010
0.04–0.1
Nd
30–67
<0.05
Ni
1.7–250
20–236
5
Pb
0.5–16
0.8–40
0.002
Sb
As
1–42
Ba
Cd
Ce
21–143
Se
0.5–75
0.05–2.3
Sm
5–13
Cr
1.6–75
<0.5
Sr
10–1118
Cu
2–195
<0.5
Th
0.4–4
Eu
1.1–3
Ti
26–470
90–450
U
0.5–13.8
0.02
V
2–40
Fe
0.005–10
<1
<1
<0.05
Co
Hg
Croatian PG
La
42–90
Y
2–156
Lu
0.3–0.4
Yb
2.1–3.2
Mn
3.5–20
Zn
4–315
Mo
1–16
Zr
10–110
<0.05
3.23
Bituh T, et al. Phosphogypsum and its potential use in Croatia: challenges and opportunities
Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2021;72:93-100
and not to its constituents, except when those constituents
are building materials themselves and are separately
assessed as such.
Considerations to use PG as building material in
construction industry should therefore rely on the activity
concentration index as calculated with Equation 2:
I=
CRa
300 Bq/kg
+
CTh
200 Bq/kg
+
CK
3000 Bq/kg
(Eq. 2)
where CRa, CTh, CK are activity concentrations (Bq/kg)
of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in a building material. The index
serves to determine whether gamma radiation in a building
exceeds 1 mSv (18, 33). Additionally, depending on the
dose criterion and the amount of material to be used, the
activity concentration index should not exceed the values
given in Table 3.
If we entered the average 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K activity
concentrations measured in Croatian PG (Table 1) into Eq.
2, this index would be 2.748, and maximum permitted
percentage of PG in construction material would be 36 %.
In the worst-case scenario (with the highest activity
concentrations) only 18 % of PG could be incorporated into
building material.
In its Radiological Protection Principles concerning the
Natural Radioactivity of Building Materials of 1999 (33),
the European Commission recommends that the activity
concentration index should be used only as a screening tool
for identifying materials of concern. Any actual decision to
restrict the use of a material should, however, rely on a
separate dose assessment based on scenarios in which the
material is used in a typical way. Scenarios resulting in
unlikely maximum doses should be avoided.
Purification of PG in materials that exceed acceptable
radiation levels is too expensive to justify the production
cost, and is therefore not an option. Such PGs are simply
not considered for use in construction.
Phosphogypsum in agriculture
PG has been used on agricultural land since the 1980s
to replace limestone in improving saline and alkali soils
(34, 35). More specifically, it has been used in highly
weathered nutrient-poor soils, in alkali soils with dense
subsoil horizons or those prone to dispersion and crusting
at the surface, in acid soils with high aluminium levels, and
in calcareous soils (2).
However, this kind of use raises concerns about natural
radioactivity, heavy metal contamination, effects on soil
nutrients, and leaching of pollutants into groundwater. A
97
review article by Mesić et al. (36) gives a comprehensive
insight into the benefits and environmental risks associated
with the application of PG in agriculture, which
acknowledges the complexity of the issue but also suggests
that the benefits can prevail, provided that every country
should conduct their own research to address the specifics
of their agroecosystems.
A study by Elloumi et al. (37) on the effects of PG on
sunflower seeds also addresses the benefits and risks in a
comprehensive way and suggests that co-application with
various other organic and inorganic materials, such as lime,
gypsum, animal manure, sewage sludge, composts, biochar,
or bioinoculants could improve nutrient availability, reduce
salinity, buffer pH, and improve the general health of the
soil. At the same time, it points out the risks of toxicity in
plants posed by heavy metals present in PG, Cd in particular,
as it generates oxidative stress.
In addition, an investigation by Abril et al. (34) showed
that there is a positive correlation between Cd and 226Ra
levels in PG accumulated over the years of application. The
increase in Cd levels was confirmed by Enamorado et al.
(38), who concluded that each kg of PG adds 2.1 mg of Cd
to the soil.
All this suggests that before PG is used in agriculture,
it should be analysed for trace elements to avoid transfer
of harmful elements to food and consequently exceed their
regulatory limits in food products.
REGULATORY ASPECTS AND
OPORTUNITIES FOR PHOSPHOGYSUM
USE IN CROATIA
Gradual changes in the EU regulatory approach to
natural radioactivity in building materials are described in
detail in Schroeyers (9). Annex XIII of the EU Council
Directive 2013/59/EURATOM (39) provides an indicative
list of building materials of concern, divided into natural
materials and materials incorporating residues from NORM
processing industries. In article 75, the Directive sets the
reference limit for indoor external exposure to gamma
radiation from building materials to 1 mSv per year above
outdoor external exposure. In Croatia, the use of NORM
as part of building material is regulated by article 41 of the
Ordinance on environmental monitoring of radioactivity
(32), based on activity concentration index. As explained
above, this index relates to indoor gamma radiation dose
in a building constructed from a specified building material
which exceeds typical outdoor exposure. However, the use
of PG in agriculture has not been regulated yet.
Table 3 Dose criterion for activity concentration index for different products
Dose criterion
Materials used in bulk: concrete
Superficial and other materials with restricted use: tiles,
boards etc.
0.3 mSv/year
1 mSv/year
I≤0.5
I≤1
I≤2
I≤6
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Bituh T, et al. Phosphogypsum and its potential use in Croatia: challenges and opportunities
Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2021;72:93-100
In addition, the Ordinance on the conditions and
measures of ionising radiation protection for performing
activities involving ionising radiation sources (40) sets the
activity concentration limits for materials, including PG,
that are exempt from its regulatory supervision. The activity
concentrations for the exemption of 226Ra (and its progenies)
and 40K are 10 kBq/kg and 100 kBq/kg, respectively. In line
with these regulatory exemptions the Radioactive Waste,
Disused Sources and Spent Nuclear Fuel Disposal Strategy
(41) encourages management of by-products with activity
concentrations below regulatory limits and their reuse,
including PG generated from the production of mineral
fertilisers, which could be used for the production of
building materials.
However, the Waste Management Plan of the Republic
of Croatia for 2007–2015 (42) and 2017–2022 (43) does
not foresee PG reuse in any form, as it only speaks of
remediation and closing of the disposal site in Kutina.
Hilton (29), in turn, provides an interesting view on
regulatory approach to PG (re)use, which should be
transparent, consistent globally across regulatory and safety
standards for evidence-based decision-making, and involve
cooperation between local/regional governments, centres
of excellence, local and international industry, customers,
and local communities. Croatia can accommodate most of
the principles proposed by Hilton (29) and work more on
cooperation between the government, centres of excellence,
industry, and community.
The PG disposal site in Kutina changed the owner in
2019. The new company faces new management challenges
to be profitable but it also has the opportunity to offer PG
as a low-cost material for various producers. The main target
groups are national and international construction
companies that use PG as additive for different materials.
In addition, the company has received inquiries from
the agricultural sector to provide PG as an additive to
compost for mushroom growth. Mushrooms are usually
grown on compost mixed with natural gypsum, which
provides optimal pH and Ca. There are some indications
that natural gypsum could be replaced by PG, which would
lower production costs. To the best of our knowledge, such
use has not been covered by scientific research, which raises
a number of concerns, including those about PG use in food
production. Namely, it is considered justifiable in some
countries and restricted in others (3). Croatia has not
regulated this issue explicitly but relies on the dose limit of
1 mSv/year above outdoor external exposure defined by the
EU Council Directive 2013/59/EURATOM (39), the EU
Council Directive 2006/52/EURATOM (44) which lays
down the maximum permitted levels of radioactive
contamination of food, and the Ordinance on notification,
registration, approval and placing on the market of sources
of ionising radiation (45), which includes even such
activities with ionising radiation sources such as NORM
that are otherwise exempt if they may raise concern about
the presence of natural radionuclides in drinking water and
food. In this sense, a positive public opinion survey could
be an advantage in obtaining a license for using PG in food
production. Additionally, concerning heavy metals, food
production is also monitored by the other competent
authority – the Ministry of Health.
CONCLUSION
With its PG stacked at a disposal site near Lonjsko Polje
Nature Park, Croatia has yet to carefully weigh the risks
and benefits of its reuse. Parties interested in its reuse
include the managing company, users (construction industry
and agriculture), and local inhabitants. In fact, the use of
Croatian PG in construction industry is the most promising
option for PG management at the moment, as agricultural
use has not been nearly as investigated and regulated, and
detailed studies are needed for each specific scenario.
Further research should also focus on heavy metals and
REEs in PG.
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Fosfogips i njegovo potencijalno korištenje u Republici Hrvatskoj ‒ izazovi i prilike
Fosfogips (FG) otpadni je nusproizvod (rezidua) koji potječe iz proizvodnje fosforne kiseline i fosfatnih mineralnih
gnojiva. FG je kontaminiran kemijskim i radioaktivnim tvarima, stoga se uglavnom odlaže na kontroliranim odlagalištima.
U svijetu se samo oko 15 % FG-a reciklira i ponovno koristi. U današnje vrijeme, političke i poslovne strategije stavljaju
na prvo mjesto održivi razvoj kroz kružno gospodarstvo, a tu svoje mjesto može pronaći i FG. Time se stvaraju nove
prilike u Republici Hrvatskoj za korištenje FG-a kao aditiva u različitim industrijama, od poljoprivrede do građevinske
industrije. Zbog svojih kemijskih i radioloških svojstava, korištenje FG-a može potencijalno prouzročiti probleme za
okoliš i ljudsko zdravlje. Stoga je prije korištenja nužno detaljno znanje o potencijalnim opasnostima FG-a kako bismo
zaštitili ljude i okoliš. Cilj je ovoga preglednog rada sažeti dostupne podatke o FG-u u Republici Hrvatskoj, usporediti
ih sa svjetskim podatcima i prepoznati nedostatke i manjak podataka o riziku koji nose potencijalno opasne tvari u FG-u.
KLJUČNE RIJEČI: kružno gospodarstvo; NORM; oporaba; radioaktivnost; radionuklidi; teški metali