MINORITY MIND: RECONSTRUCTING CHARLES
IVES IN THE POSTMODERN AGE
—
Philip Rice
A
mong the many and varied approaches to music composition appearing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, none exhibit more incongruity than those employed by Charles Ives.1 Out of an abundance of theoretical
models to explain the fragmentation of 20th century cultural paradigms, none is
as internally inconsistent as postmodernism.2 Indeed, the name of the theory is
oxymoronic:3 how can something be “modern” (i.e. contemporary) and also be
“post”? he theory is, as its name implies, predicated on a lack of solutions: de-centering and de-valuing the austere, intolerant formalist models of high modernism in favor of an acknowledgment of multiplicity, diference, and eclecticism.
Revisionist Ives biography and widespread postmodern attitudes in the
American popular imagination appeared concurrently in the mid-1970s. Also
concurrent with these emergences was universal acceptance of Ives’s music in
strongly American contexts, notably in nationalistic programming by Leonard
Bernstein and more recently Michael Tilson homas. he coincidence of these
events can be explained by examining an array of forces afecting the popular understanding, positioning, and ultimately canonization of Ives. However, to imply
a fateful relationship—that is to say Ives helped to cause postmodernism—is to
belie the post-civil rights era American taste for agency in the form of otherness,
especially in an art world supposedly reacting against a fossilized canon irmly
rooted in the mainstream. To be sure, in the dichotomous popular imagining
of American cultural politics, the performing arts are ot-stereotyped as realms
of extreme letist “progressivism.” Stereotypical implications aside, it is problematic to call the contemporary art world “progressive” when its subculture is so
1 Burkholder identiies at least four distinct traditions apparent in Ives’s music: American
popular music, Protestant church music, European classical music, and “experimental” music. For
more detail on this conluence/synthesis, see J. Peter Burkholder, ed. Charles Ives and His World,
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 3-34.
2 “[P]ostmodernism is a maddeningly imprecise musical concept. Does the term refer to
a period or an aesthetic, a listening attitude or a compositional practice? Is postmodern music
still seeking to deine itself, or has its time already passed? Does postmodernism react against or
continue the project of modernist music? Is it a positive or a negative force?” Jonathan D. Kramer,
“he Nature and Origins of Musical Postmodernism,” Current Musicology 66 (Spring 1999): 7.
3 Kathleen Higgins, “Nietzsche and Postmodern Subjectivity” in Nietzsche as Postmodernist: Essays Pro and Contra, ed. Clayton Koelb (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990),
189.
deined (or let undeined, as it were) by rejection of a totalizing model, and, it
follows, a grand narrative. Similarly, the most well-established artistic institutions (major orchestras, art houses, concert halls, etc.) are essentially archives of
aged works, and thus can even be seen as retrogressive. Bernstein and homas,
despite letist leanings, have done little to reverse this trend; indeed the fact remains that Ives’s music is now well over a century old. Why would a community
ostensibly motivated by “progress” and “diference” perpetuate the acceptance of
an antiquated canon? here is contradiction here: the word “progressive” turns
out to be as oxymoronic in popular implication as “postmodern.” By denoting
widespread and public tolerance as a feature of a utopian future, it attempts to
place the “other” in the mainstream. What does this all have to do with Ives? In
light of progress and contradiction, the question becomes clear: is Ives part of a
conservative canon, or is he an outsider? His association with nostalgic American sentiment seems to indicate the former, while his very presence in the art
world calls into question potential for a fully conservative identity. he historical Ives, however, is not understood to be a member of the art world: on the
contrary, he sought tirelessly to remain an outsider. He was deeply nostalgic and
suspicious of progress, longing for a simpler America.4 he fact that his music
emerged amid the chaotic and ever-shiting profusion of change in the latter half
of the 20th century is entirely inconsistent with his personal and compositional
goals, yet entirely consistent with the eclectic aesthetic he ultimately pioneered.
hus, a non-causal relationship predicated on contradiction and re-appropriation is observed: and what could be more postmodern?
———
To evaluate why widespread appreciation for Ives coincides with the advent of
postmodern thought, it is helpful to explore the diferences between postmodern and other types of analysis as well as the boundary between postmodernism
as an attitude and postmodernism as an event. Two questions will lead the way:
(1) What are the goals of a postmodern analysis? At the risk of overgeneralizing,
we may simply say that postmodernism denies hierarchies and narratives. his is
essential to its nature as post, or always already occurring in the wake of a disintegration. (2) When did postmodernism happen? Umberto Eco argues it is always
happening; that it is an attitude, not a period in history.5 Because it rejects the
4 “Ives had an acute interest in the past as remembered [...] but driving Ives’s politics and
artistic creations is more than remembrance of things past. he second and more powerful force
Ives wished to recover was the values of the past. Later in life, Ives saw modern civilization as
degenerating, and he responded with self-imposed isolation. [...] Ives yearned for a simpler, preindustrial time,” Michael Broyles, “Charles Ives and the American Democratic Tradition” in Burkholder, ed.,134.
5 Umberto Eco, Postscript to the Name of the Rose, (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
1984), 67.
2
very notion of progress, it is pointless to identify causation. he deinition of
postmodernism relies on the rejection of historical ideals while embracing the
past to categorically thwart the notion of progress; to talk about it as a historical
phenomenon at all is problematic because it implies causality, and therefore narrative. Postmodernism “simultaneously embrace[es] and repudiate[s] history.”6
Jonathan D. Kramer explicates the implications on music of the late Romantic/
early Modern7 with following contradiction:
he best place to search for the origins of musical postmodernism is not, therefore, in the history of music. [...] Postmodernism is a recent phenomenon. It is
only now—once it exists, has been experienced, and is to some degree assimilated and understood—that it makes sense to listen to music like Ives’s [...] in a
postmodern manner.8
What sense does it make to deny historical placement and in the next breath position the phenomenon as “recent,” a word which denotes historical placement?
Kramer is right in reminding that the term has not always existed, and therefore
must have temporal location, at least as a type of historicism. Today we are far
enough away from the inception of postmodern theory—a distance of at least
30 years—that we earn the right to position it in some sense historically (to be
fair, Kramer grappled with these issues in 1999 without some of the temporal
distance we enjoy). Indeed, post-postmodernism is now gaining some respect
despite its pleonasticity. In this discussion, postmodernism will appear not only
as an attitude occurring contemporaneously at several historical moments, but
also, and more usefully, as a particular cultural paradigm shit closely connected
with American political and social identity in the wake of the civil rights movement, and being currently carried out internationally as inclusivity and tolerance
accrue cultural currency throughout the world.
If Ives is a bona ide postmodernist, he needs to be reacting against a previous
modernism or acting to prevent an impending one (although in the case of the
latter he would more accurately be an antimodernist). Lyotard believes that “a
work can become modern only if it is irst postmodern”;9 he sees the postmodern attitude as a kind of bufer zone between two modernisms; a new modernism can only be ushered in once postmodernism has ushered out the previous
one. Can we say that Ives rejected the Romanticism of Wagner and Mahler and
6 Kramer, 7.
7 Not to be confused with “early modern period.” Here, “early Modern” means the beginning of the era deined by Modernism, not the period following the Middle Ages.
8 Kramer, 11.
9 Jean-François Lyotard, he Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geof
Bennington and Brian Massumi, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 79.
3
ushered in the Modernism of Carter and Cage? Maybe. Postmodernism in music as deined by Kramer makes easy work of identifying it in Ives. His music its
all the criteria: it is eclectic, ironic, challenges class distinctions, utilizes fragmentation, and engages multiple temporalities.10 Indeed, by this rubric, Ives’s may be
the most postmodern music of all. Surely this is the explanation for the dizzying
incongruence within Ives’s work: he acted as a bufer between two eras—a Romantic postmodernist. But there is one glaring problem: if Ives were a harbinger
of Modernism, shouldn’t his music have enjoyed universal acceptance amid the
high Modernism in the 1940s-50s? It didn’t; instead, his music only became popular as Modernism began to crumble in the late 1960s, coming to prominence
only as the era it supposedly induced came to a close. So Ives must be a Modern
postmodernist—a major player in the postmodernism of the 1970s from which
the theory of postmodernism draws its inspiration. Only he wrote no music ater
1927 and died in 1954.
Recent scholarship on Ives is largely a response to the concurrent spike in
his music’s popularity. here was very little biographical work on Ives predating about 1975.11 Prior writing on the topic of his work tends to deal with it in
technical terms, comparing it (oten unfavorably) with music of contemporaries. Conversely, the advancement of New Musicology ater the 1970s produced
exclusively discussions of his work in biographical terms, explaining away seemingly inexplicable music by examining “Ives” and “his world,” namely his personality traits, education, political leanings, and philosophical goals. Two signiicant
Ives texts currently in publication are by J. Peter Burkholder12 and Stuart Feder.13
10 “[Postmodernism in music] (1) is not simply a repudiation of modernism or its continuation, but has aspects of both a break and an extension (2) is, on some level and in some way,
ironic (3) does not respect boundaries between sonorities and procedures of the past and of the
present (4) challenges barriers between “high” and “low” styles (5) shows disdain for the oten
unquestioned value of structural unity (6) questions the mutual exclusivity of elitist and populist
values (7) avoids totalizing forms (e.g., does not want entire pieces to be tonal or serial or cast in a
prescribed formal mold) (8) considers music not as autonomous but as relevant to cultural, social,
and political context (9) includes quotations of or references to music of many traditions and cultures (10) considers technology not only as a way to preserve and transmit music but also as deeply implicated in the production and essence of music (11) embraces contradictions (12) distrusts
binary oppositions (13) includes fragmentations and discontinuities (14) encompasses pluralism
and eclecticism (15) presents multiple meanings and multiple temporalities (16) locates meaning
and even structure in listeners, more than in scores, performances, or composers,” Kramer, 10-11.
11 he Cowells’ 1955 biography is the irst biography of Ives, and there are no other books
devoted entirely to his music prior to 1969 except the so-called “Temporary Mimeographed Catalogue” of John Kirkpatrick (Yale, 1960). Geofrey Block, Charles Ives: A Bio-Bibliography, (New
York: Greenwood Press, 1988), 367-369.
12 Burkholder, ed.
13 Stuart Feder, Charles Ives: “My Father’s Song”: A Psychoanalytic Biography, (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1992).
4
he former is a comprehensive collection of essays mostly concerned with defending the work as the musically coherent product of an intelligent, reasonable,
and honest, albeit misunderstood man. he latter is a “psychoanalytic biography”
that does posthumous Freudian analysis on Ives, explaining his idiosyncratic music as an outgrowth of a damaged relationship with his father. Feder’s biography
stands in a lineage started by Frank R. Rossiter whose 1975 book14 broke a 20year silence in Ives scholarship by presenting a luminous, though less-than-comprehensive picture of Ives’s music as closely connected with a conlicted personality and environment. In general, looking at Ives “the man” seems to consistently
reveal three generalities: (1) that he was either a transcendentalist or a modernist,
(2) that he pined for an older America, and (3) that he probably had psychological “issues” that potentially elucidate his iconoclastic personal convictions.
his kind of critical biography may seem the only means to legitimize the
canonization of a body of work that has been so long under-appreciated. But this
mode of inquiry is misstep in discovering why his music suddenly made sense to
audiences at the end of the last century, and continues to do so in the current one.
Getting “inside the composer’s head” 100 years ago is of little value when posthumous reception was Ives’s saving grace. Beardsley/Wimsatt’s inluential essay, he
Intentional Fallacy, addresses the problem of using “author intent” as a point of
analytic departure. Beardsley/Wimsatt argue that a work must irst be successful
at communicating meaning to an audience apart from “outside knowledge” before a personal inquiry of the author’s motives and creative process can be useful.
An investigation solely of those motives and processes cannot be the crux of a
legitimizing interpretation. he kind of “author psychology” employed by Feder
and Burkholder results in what Beardsley/Wimsatt call “inspirational promotion,”15 which reveals the critic’s desire for more widespread appreciation of the
author’s work, but does nothing to directly illuminate that very work. Although
Feder’s agenda is not conspicuous because his analysis tends toward clinicality,
it is precisely Burkholder’s aim to “promote” Ives by discouraging pathologization of him—supplying generous amounts of excusatory commentary alongside
argument for Ives’s relative normality—legitimizing the work by legitimizing
the man. In 2013, David C. Paul published a brilliant reception history of Ives.16
Although I largely disagree with Paul’s conclusions (which still position Ives as
either a transcendentalist or a modernist), his approach to how Ives’s music was
received (or not received), especially during and ater the Cold War, is insightful
and far more illuminating than Burkholder’s biographical apologetics.
14 Frank R. Rossiter, Charles Ives and His America, (New York: Norton, 1975).
15 W.K. Wimsatt, Jr. and Monroe C. Beardsley, “he Intentional Fallacy,” in he Verbal
Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, (London: Methuen & Co., 1954), 10.
16 David C. Paul, Charles Ives in the Mirror, (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2013).
5
However, calling Ives a postmodernist does no more to legitimize him, and
thus is not the point of this paper. Eco playfully warns against the tendency to
apply the term “postmodern” to “anything the user happens to like.”17 Nevertheless, the intentional fallacy is a fallacy of poetry criticism, not historical analysis.
In the case of pure biographies, it can be excused as a necessary evil. But it has a
special stink in a postmodern inquiry because it reinforces the composer as agent
of a passive work—it airms a hierarchy with the composer at the top of the artistic food chain and it necessitates a causal lineage of composer ↔ inluences →
work. Popularizing analytical approaches that make lagrant use of the intentional fallacy is also generally problematic for music because musical performance requires collective agreement on interpretation. It is this focus on the “composer’s
intent” that catalyzed self-congratulatory “performance practice” movements
that pervaded the early-music scene of the early postmodern, which, ironically,
earned popularity not as a sonic restoration (ater all, who could remember what
music sounded like in 1750?) but a newness of sound that refreshed antiquated works. A further irony is that this desire for “authentic” and “historically informed” musical performance grew out of the postmodern attitude itself—that
is, a rejection of the normative way of performing older music in favor of solutions from a time and place “other” than one’s own.18 It is harmless enough to
conlate authenticity and cultural relativity when dealing with four-century-old
German cantatas for which we actually have relatively little historical data.19 To
apply liberal amounts of composer’s intention on Ives’s music runs the risk of
limiting any popular relevance his work may have to contemporary American
culture, and is one very good reason why his music was not popular until ater
17 Eco, 65.
18 “[T]he rise of period instrument performances ma[de] old music seem new (and arguably a replacement for the new),” Derek B. Scott, “Postmodernism and Music,” in he Routledge
Companion to Postmodernism, 3rd ed. (London and New York: Routledge, 2011), 183.
19 On the other hand, it might not be harmless. he view of artist as omnipotent genius is
a romantic notion, and is in some ways out of phase with the way music of the Renaissance or the
Baroque functioned. In the former, a classicist model demanded that form take precedence and
communicate beauty and truth on its own: the highly restrictive polyphonic technique of the
15th and 16th centuries virtually expunged unique personal style in all but the most rebellious of
composers. In the latter, a focus on rhetorical musical persuasion meant that a work needed to
immediately communicate meaning with clarity (what Beardsley/Wimsatt call “efectiveness”).
In this sense, to perform works from any period other than the Romantic with a primary focus on
composers’ intent is actually historically uninformed. he high speciicity of modern musical notation made composers’ intent a less quarrelsome issue. For Ives, a composer whose extant works
are in some cases as fragmented and in need of “reconstruction” (both in print and in practice) as
early music, the question of “what he intended” becomes a search for informed performance. But
unless we are prepared to call Ives a romantic, this urge must be quelled. Make no mistake: “the
intentional fallacy is a romantic one,” Beardsley/Wimsatt, 6.
6
1954, when his personality exited the scene. To be sure, if Ives had his way, no
one would listen to his music. I will argue that champions of Ives—both Bernstein and homas—not only downplayed the composer’s intent, but disregarded it in order to appropriate the work to contemporary American relevance. To
disassociate both composer and audience from the work frees it from the fetters
of fallacy and clears the air for three alternative modes of consumption: (1) the
work itself as a free agent, (2) the composer, or rather the conception of him in
the popular imagination, as a free agent, and (3) the public as a free agent, fully
permitted to make “wrong” assumptions about and “mis”appropriations of (1)
and (2). Beardsley/Wimsatt assert that poems should belong neither to critics
nor poets, but instead “belong to the public.”20 I will take this a step further and
argue that Ives’s music not only belongs to the public in social terms, but also is
“temporally public,” that is, it also belongs to time. It is the traditional “historical
eras” approach that has led historians to mistakenly associate Ives with Transcendentalism or Modernism. In the rare case that a composer does not it the model
(e.g. Monteverdi or Beethoven), such historicism may suggest that he was “ahead
of his time” and/or that he was in some way responsible for triggering chain reactions that occurred in his atermath. But Ives neither belongs to his own time
nor was he “ahead” of it. he gap of silent years where his music was neither performed nor appreciated testiies to the fact that Ives was not to be moved by the
inluence of his own culture, nor was he to be deined by a past or impending one,
nor was he to initiate a paradigm shit. His music is united with another time
(ours) in a non-linear entanglement. While Beardsley and Wimsatt, as modernists, focus on the absolute autonomy of the work itself, this discussion will autonomize not the work as self-suicient, but its reception as self-deining.21 To
fully appreciate the asynchronous relationship between Ives and America, the
following is an investigation of his music in three periods: post-Reconstruction
era, the high Modern, and the postmodern.
II
Ives was actively composing and studying music from early childhood until the
middle of the 1920s when he suddenly stopped composing. By his own account,
he “gave up music” in 1902,22 though much of his work is dated ater this time
20 Beardsley/Wimsatt, 5.
21 Beardsley/Wimsatt would probably take issue with this analysis, citing their companion
essay, he Afective Fallacy. However, this is an analysis of culture and identity, not of musical
form. Here the intentional fallacy is unwelcome only because it inhibits the audience. he afective fallacy, on the other hand, is most welcome.
22 J. Peter Burkholder, et al., “Ives, Charles.” Grove Music Online, (Oxford University Press,
accessed December 30, 2013), http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/
music/14000.
7
(1902 seems to be the time when Ives gave up on the idea of music as a career).
America at the turn of the century was amid the throes of two great projects:
rebuilding ater the Civil War, and exploring and industrializing the remainder
of the continent. Music was a strong unifying force in America during this era;
indeed, he Star Spangled Banner was inducted as the national anthem in 1889.
he marching/military band came to symbolize American sentiment during this
time: it embodied unity and common purpose through choreographed step and
strict musical form, heralding the homestead through utility of materials and
practice. he band members march together, playing in strict tempo; there is no
schism here, no chance of secession. he instruments are constructed out of industrial metals—they are sturdy, weathered, and brawny like the American men
who played them. John Philip Sousa’s 1896 Stars and Stripes Forever is surely the
most famous march from this era, and is still widely recognized as the anthem
of American strength and dignity. Stars and Stripes is not only American for its
subtext, however. Sousa himself penned lyrics to many of his marches, and published them in piano/vocal arrangements in an 1898 edition. In the second strain
of Stars and Stripes, the lyrics expressly address both reconstruction and frontier:
Other nations may deem their lag the best
And cheer them with fervid elation
But the lag of the North and South and West
Is the lag of lags, the lag of freedom’s nation.23
Ives was no stranger to the march, his father having been a marching band
leader in the Civil War.24 Unlike Sousa, however, Ives’s marches lack the clarity
and poise that aforded the march cultural utility. In fact, it may seem as though
Ives went to great lengths to avoid such an agenda, instead favoring an ad hoc
sarcastic, satirical, at times downright slapstick treatment. To say that Ives didn’t
have enough distance from the dearly-held tradition to parody it is an understatement; he composed the bizarre Overture and March 1776 in 1904, just eight
years ater Sousa’s Stars and Stripes and notably just two years ater he “gave up
music.” Overture and March is a wild ride through composed “mistakes” amid a
sea of disparate textures and tonal areas all of which thwart the dauntless nature
of the march. Scored for orchestra rather than marching band (though surviving
more famously in an arrangement for band), the instrumentation already belies
the function of the form itself—there is no such thing as a marching orchestra. In igure 2, the trio section of the march, there are at least four distinct and
23 John Philip Sousa, Sousa’s Great Marches in Piano Transcription: Original Sheet Music of
23 Works, (1898; repr., Mineola: Dover, 1975), 74.
24 Burkholder, et al.
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somewhat conlicting layers in a complex texture. In the topmost voice (lutes),
a descant wheels above the main tune25 which is played by two trumpets in parallel minor seconds. his supposedly “parodies the disastrous yet amusing error
of two trumpets getting their A and B-lat crooks mixed up”26 Accompanying
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ield drums and piano strike aperiodic rhythmic chords which may have been inspired by Ives’s habit of “piano drumming”27 Syncopation and lack of consistent
downbeat accents make marching to this music nothing more than a humorous
thought experiment, though Ives’s association of this piece with American topics
is intentional. He used the middle “march” section later in his orchestra work,
he Fourth of July, and the outer, slower, “overture” music for “Putnam Camp” in
hree Places in New England. To say that music in two (or three, or four?) keys
does little to promote an agenda of reconstruction is perhaps to state the obvious. he music is still at war with itself.
Unsurprisingly, Overture and March was not premiered until 1976, though
the aforementioned works which borrowed from it were premiered earlier. Ives
wrote other marches which adhere more strictly to march form (Overture and
March is in a large ternary rather than the typical AABBCC march form), the
most beloved of which is he Circus Band, composed in 1894. Ives’s more conservative approach could be chalked up to the earlier date of composition, but he
25 According to James B. Sinclair’s 1976 preface to the score for Overture and March, Ives
made mention in 1932 (ostensibly published in Memos, though no citation is given) to this being
a quote of “he Red, White and Blue.” I have thus far had no luck inding the source of any sonamed tune that Ives could have borrowed.
26 Charles Ives, Overture & March “1776” for heater Orchestra, ed. James B. Sinclair, (Bryn
Mawr: Merion Music, Inc., 1976), 3.
27 Ives, Overture, 3.
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Figure 2: Ives, Overture and March “1776,” (trio section, mm. 42-49).
Circus Band is in some ways actually more subversive than Overture and March.
Although the harmonies and textures are relatively stable compared to Overture
and March, there is still too much syncopation to facilitate marching, and the
accompaniment lacks a consistent ostinato bass that is so typical of the military
march. Like Sousa, Ives penned lyrics to he Circus Band and published it in
song format in his monumental 114 Songs. Unlike Sousa’s, Ives’s lyrics do not address American impulses, but are rather the crazed ramblings of a starry-eyed circus-going adolescent. he circus, unlike the lag, is of little symbolic signiicance
in rebuilding a nation—on the contrary, the circus is itself a hodgepodge—an
exhibition exotic by deinition. he circus is home to outcasts, foreigners, and
freaks; a menagerie of disassociated sideshows meant to entertain with shock
and horror. One can argue that he Circus Band is not meant to be a patriotic
10
piece and only serves to evoke the memory of the titular reference. But why, then,
would Ives choose to compose the piece as a strict military march? Furthermore,
why embedded in the melody at the opening are fragments of Ives’s beloved tune,
America (see igure 3)? It seems that Ives sees the circus not as outside or even
beside the American experience, but rather as essentially or even quintessentially a part of it—an assortment of misits, a melting pot of otherness—an image
of America that would neither become a reality nor be fully embraced as a core
value for over 50 years. Ives was not a social visionary a la Martin Luther King Jr.,
however. In fact, his views on minority rights were downright antediluvian even
for his own time. he marches tell only one story: Ives’s vision of America was divorced from contemporary musical needs. he marches doubtlessly thwart Burkholder’s assertion that Ives was writing carefully with a particular audience in
mind.28 How can music that deies even a premiere be mindful of its audience?
It is rather precisely evident what Ives was not doing, but in exactly what kind of
America Ives hoped or believed cannot be surmised from the music alone. hat
knowledge requires an exploration of extra-musical sources.
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III
God is on the side of the Majority (the People) [;] He is not particularly enthusiastic about the Minority (the Non-People). […] he Majority should have the
opportunity of not being over-inluenced. […] here isn’t such a thing as the
proletariat until it registers its consciousness. One group has no moral right to
expression, or at least no social value in its expression, unless it is a part of the
Universal Consciousness and acts with the consent of the Majority.29
How long before the few, the group, the hog-mind, the lower value, the Minority, will see the stupidity, the futility, of opposing this God-given power, and
learn in accepting it to do a man’s share in the world, the Majority, the People,
nearer a truer inheritance?! he world’s greater minds have always been of the
Majority—not in the Majority, but always of it.30
It should come as no surprise that Ives and Copland were not friends. Copland,
in many ways, can be seen as the perfect anti-Ives: a minority in race, sexual orientation, and politics. A great irony is that even amid McCarthyism, America
favorited Copland as the “good ol’ boy” while forgetting Ives, the actual “good
ol’ boy” (a Yale-educated big-businessman, and unlike Copland, very white, very
straight, and very Christian). It is here where the irony of Ives reception truly
begins: amid high Modernism.
Modernism can be thought of as an ultimate apotheosis of the industrial revolution: function trumps form, and in doing so form is elevated to the Platonic.
Utility as common denominator equalizes art and industry in an unprecedented
concord. Musical trends relect this, with American composers at the fore: Carter, Cowell, Cage, Crumb, Copland (the great C’s) all foster styles dictated largely by functional processes—matrix, math, operators, equations, etc. Carter and
Cowell both were intimately familiar with Ives’s music, Cowell and his wife coauthoring the irst biography of Ives in 1955, and promoting his music throughout
the duration of his career. Carter was also friends with Ives and wrote extensively
about the him, though not without some reservation. His long life permitted
tremendous breadth of perspective, looking back on Ives’s life and career from a
half-century’s distance. He ventured to explain both why Ives’s music deserved
attention and why it ultimately had failed to succeed.
I have always been [...] perplexed at times by the disturbing lack of musical and
stylistic continuity, caused largely by the constant use of musical quotations in
many works. To me a composer develops his own personal language, suitable
29 Charles Ives, “he Majority” (1920), in Essays Before a Sonata, he Majority and Other
Writings, ed. Howard Boatwright, (New York: Norton, 1970), 144, 147.
30 Ives, Essays, 156
12
to express his ield of experience and thought. When he borrows music from
another style and thought than his own, he is admitting that he did not really
experience what he is presenting but has to borrow from someone else who did.
[...] It is, to me, disappointing that Ives too frequently was unable or unwilling
to invent musical material that expressed his own vision authentically, instead
of relying on the material of others.31
While the above quote is perhaps more telling of Carter’s position as a modernist than illuminating of Ives’s diicult position, it reveals that Ives’s work was
perplexing even to those closest to him and most qualiied to decipher it. Carter
indicated in other writings that he believed Ives to be “typical of an earlier time”
owing to his “religious convictions [and] fervent patriotism,”32 also addressing
the possibility that Ives’s was an “early precursor of ‘modern’ music,” though he
discounts this option, concluding that Ives rightly “belonged to the 1890-1920
period with a strong retrospective view of the transcendental-Civil War period.”33
his assertion is problematic for two reasons. First, it is redundant to state that
Ives belonged to the period during which he was actively composing. Second,
and as illustrated above, Ives’s sentiments are entirely maligned with a Civil Warera America; unless Carter is suggesting that Ives’s music was meant to promote
the war (a solution I seriously doubt), this attempt to historically pigeonhole
Ives falls short.
Copland’s musical style is the least “functional” of the American modernists,
though it’s no secret that he also experimented with serialism and other enumerative forms. Nevertheless, Copland’s more aesthetically concerned style upholds
the tenets of modernism in other ways. Its function arises not from a theoretical
model (as in trigonometric “functions”) but is functional in a colloquial sense:
it was popular. It had a cultural agenda that was all-American—a sophisticated
industriousness. It functioned so well in this capacity that it remains known today as denotative of the so-called American Dream.34 Its structure, though not
mathematical, coheres with a unity and clarity that marks it as modernist—it is
not eclectic. Fittingly, Copland said of Ives’s 114 Songs,
he irst impression, on turning to the one hundred and fourteen songs themselves, is bound to be one of confusion. For there is no order here—either of
31 Elliott Carter, “Charles Ives Remembered (1974),” in Collected Essays and Lectures, 19371995, ed. Jonathan W. Bernard, (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1997), 107.
32 Carter, “An American Destiny (1946),” in Collected Essays, 94.
33 Carter, “Charles Ives Remembered,” 103.
34 hough in recent years the Coplandian “dream” has been ironically commandeered by
right-wing conservatives who have used the music to symbolize an older America; to postmodern ends this could be interpreted as looking back to the patriarchal modernist days of steel and
13
chronology, style, or quality. [...] Songs of every character and description,
songs bristling with dissonances, tone clusters and “elbow chords” next to songs
of the most elementary harmonic simplicity. All thrown together helter-skelter,
[...] without the slightest key or guide for the beneit of the unsuspecting recipient. [...] Ives apparently not only had no public in mind when printing this
book, but he hardly had even the “few friends” of whom he speaks in mind. he
truth is that he had only himself in mind.35
It is clear that Copland did not appreciate Ives for his eclecticism, though his
remarks are not all derisive. Copland felt solidarity with Ives, calling his quandary uniquely American, “this small drama [...] is by no means the drama of Ives
alone, but in a larger sense is that of every American composer.”36 he crux of
Copland’s qualm with Ives lies in how he viewed Ives aesthetically, in spite of
his perceived social or economic (as in economy of reception, not inance) ignorance. “Although the above-named songs are ‘modern’ for their time, they are by
no means revolutionary,”37 he says midway through the review. Known for his
progressive political leanings, Copland couldn’t have chosen a more biting insult.
He twists the knife with the clever turn of phrase, “‘modern’ for their time.” He
implies that Ives’s works have an expiration date; that while one might take them
to be modern at irst glance, make no mistake; like Carter, Copland saw Ives as
conined to a historical moment. Perhaps a later moment than Carter thought,
but a moment nonetheless. For a modernist composer concerned with clarity
and audience to call the works discontinuous and confusing is practically to call
them worthless; to call them dated is to devalue them explicitly.
And yet, Copland’s and Ives’s musical choices were oten similar, sometimes
only difering in subtle, novel ways. Take, for example, Ives’s setting of At the
River, appearing in the 114 Songs (so Copland surely saw it). he source tune,
a hymn of the same name, is pure Americana—words and music composed by
a Baptist minister in Brooklyn at the end of the Civil War. Ives’s setting is typical of his songs, he treats the tune rather freely but not beyond recognition.
skyscrapers. Alex Ross comments on the recent presidential election, and the irony of using Coplandian music in right-wing campaigning, “[w]hile [Rick] Perry bemoans the fact that openly
gay men and women are now allowed to serve in the American armed forces, the soundtrack
gestures toward the “Americana” style of Aaron Copland.” Alex Ross, “Copland and the Republicans,” Alex Ross: he Rest Is Noise: Books, articles, and a blog by the music critic of he New
Yorker (blog), December 10, 2011, http://www.therestisnoise.com/2011/12/copland-and-therepublicans.html. For a more detailed analysis of conservative appropriation of Copland, see
Sarah Tomlinson, “Beef, Cowboys, and Republicans: he Rugged Aaron Copland?” (Michigan
State University: unpublished, 2013).
35 Aaron Copland, “114 Songs retrospective review, 1934,” in Burkholder, 309.
36 Ibid., 312.
37 Ibid., 310.
14
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rapidly de-centering tonalities. It is itting for the text, which describes an otherworldly river where departed souls gather around; the overall efect is not particularly jarring, but it’s not exactly church music either. he sounds are puzzling,
dreamlike, stirring, and most of all especial to Ives. Copland also composed a
setting of At the River, years later, in his second set of Old American Songs, completed in 1950, just four years before Ives’s death. Copland uses the same overall
key center (E-lat), the same tessitura for the singer, and almost the same measuration. he similarity ends in that Copland mostly forgoes accidentals, keeping
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here is nothing any more “revolutionary” about Copland’s setting than
Ives’s, in fact by many estimates it is less so. But it is “modern” for all time, and
can never be understood as anything but modern—it is plain, almost featureless, instantly recognizable yet unplaceable. Much like Marcel Breuer, who took
already featureless steel rods and shaped them into equally featureless chairs to
create timeless designs, Copland took an already timeless song and shaped it
only very slightly to create a timeless (albeit almost featureless) music. Copland
stands in ideological opposition to Ives, who while leaving his source materials
fundamentally intact, melted, mixed, chiseled, and churned them judiciously to
greatly idiosyncratic efect.
———
Despite incongruence with modernist aesthetic goals, Ives’s status as a household
name in the art music world was conceived in the 1950s, and born in the 1970s.
16
David C. Paul identiies social and political forces at work in the Cold War that
re-framed Ives’s isolationism and nonconformity as anti-communist. Paul posits that Ives was not only seen literally as individual (indeed he was a successful
businessman, and opposed to communism38) but also metaphorically as a “maverick” who asserted his individuality through innovation and disregard for the
mainstream.39 Paul shows that this conception of Ives persists to the current day,
citing marketing and programming devices used by Michael Tilson homas at
the turn of the 21st century that depict Ives as a kind of American hero. But this
conception of Ives is anecdotal in that it ignores the obvious, more typical depiction of him in the popular and colloquial imagination. Indeed, Paul illustrates
this less shiny version of Ives in the opening of his book, “[Ives’s name] is likely
to conjure up images of a man in old age, bearded, clutching a cane, perhaps his
bald pate exposed, but more likely hidden beneath a dilapidated old hat [...] typically [...] star[ing] of into some middle-distance, lost in thought.”40 his hardly
seems like the swashbuckling steed-mounted gunslinger that Paul would have
us believe is the Ives of today’s America. On the contrary, the “maverick” image
would more appropriately be assigned (albeit also falsely) to Copland,41 who is
already understood to be antithetical to Ives. So what, then makes Ives so American? How can the inherent contradiction in the fact that he is oten classiied
with Copland be reconciled? he answer lies not with a hearty, old-fashioned
“Ives as cowboy,” but with the another gay Jew—one largely responsible for the
popularization of Ives at the end of the Cold War.
IV
Bernstein’s interest in Ives’s music dates at least as early as his student years at Yale,
where in 1939 he completed his thesis on the role of race in forming an American
musical style.42 he very topic shows that even in the early stages of his career,
Bernstein was focused on the appropriation of minority music as an important
American stylistic practice. Indeed, Bernstein’s own compositions show a range
of ethnic inluences and use race as an emulsiier for depicting a diverse American
experience (e.g. West Side Story). Bernstein would later become known as a great
38 To be fair, Ives’s views on capitalism vs. communism are murky. His essay, he Majority
explicates this somewhat, though it tends toward denouncing both. As Henry & Sidney Cowell
put it, “[h]e rejected socialism, syndicalism, communism, and anarchism as urgently as he did
capitalism, for he felt they represented ‘minority thought’.” Henry Cowell and Sidnew Cowell,
Charles Ives and His Music, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955), 95.
39 Paul, 207-220.
40 Ibid., 1.
41 For more on Copland’s ersatz “cowboy” image, see Tomlinson.
42 Leonard Bernstein, “he Absorption of Race Elements into American Music (1939),” in
Findings, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 36-99.
17
eclecticist, helping to usher in the postmodern age; furthermore, his philosophy
as it relates to Ives marks his conception of Ives as irrefutably postmodern.
Bernstein’s thesis provided an analysis of the Concord Sonata in which supposed “Negro” elements were identiied, leading him to conclude that the sonata was “practically a piece of jazz”43 Although Bernstein conceded that “if any
racial style can be called predominant, it is German,” he was utterly convinced
that the Hawthorne movement employed “American syncopative rhythms” that
must have been “arising from Ives’s conscious efort to suggest certain Negro episodes from Hawthorne.”44 Bernstein admitted that in the end, the music doesn’t
“sound like jazz,” but that it ultimately “feels American,”45 owing in large part to
the racial elements he believed acted as signiiers in the music. he objective validity of these claims is tenuous; Ives was reluctant to admit incorporating even
ragtime into his music, especially in speciic to the Concord. More problematic is
his denial of the possibility of its connection with any racial, much less American
identity—this revelation comes into direct conlict with Bernstein’s assertions
when it appears in Essays Before a Sonata.
Someone is quoted as saying that “ragtime is the true American music.” Anyone
will admit that it is one of the many true, natural, and, nowadays, conventional
means of expression. [...] Ragtime has its possibilities. But it does not “represent
the American nation” any more than some ine old senators represent it.46
Bernstein was not as much concerned with Ives’s intentions47 as he was with
the “absorption” of syncopated rhythms as a distinctly American musical marker,
one which he believed Ives (and other composers) had consciously or unconsciously appropriated from African American traditions. But Ives did not see
musical borrowing as a kind of appropriation as Bernstein saw it, and as we typically see it today. Ives was operating within a much earlier Transcendental (perhaps cosmopolitan) conception of things where objects belonged to the world or
the “Over-Soul,” and could not possess ethnic ownership or signiication in the
sense that Bernstein understood. For Bernstein, race elements were connected
to a race—belonging to a particular population and thus able to be semantically
connected to a particular facet of American identity. Philosophical incompatibility aside, Ives published the Concord in 1919, so it is unlikely that jazz, still in
43 Bernstein, 97.
44 Bernstein, 93-94.
45 Ibid., 97.
46 Ives, Essays, 95.
47 “But it matters very little in the end whether or not Ives was moved to these rhythms by
programmatic impulses. he fact is that in the second movement there are frequent and extended
passages [of syncopation].” Bernstein, 94.
18
Figure 6: Leonard Bernstein, chart of chordal voices showing syncopations
in the Concord, third movement, second page, third system.
its infancy, was truly exerting an inluence. Of course, one can argue that there
is precedent for Ives’s music containing modern elements that foreshadow their
own widespread appeal, but to say that he was involved in the artistic meteorology leading to the explosion of popular jazz is probably far fetched. Whether or
not he was passively inluenced by it is anyone’s guess, but Geofry Block aptly
remarks that “Bernstein was the irst (and perhaps also the last) to conclude [that
the Concord contains jazz elements].”48
Faults in Bernstein’s analysis notwithstanding, the fact that he chose to include Ives in a discussion of American music and race is telling. It reveals undeniably that Bernstein saw Ives’s work—at the meristem of his understanding—as
expressive of America not in spite of, but because he believed it was connected
with eclectic minorities. hroughout his career, Bernstein would also give special
attention to Copland as an American voice (despite similar lack of race elements
in his music), though it goes without saying that their esprit de corps ran deeper
than simply shared citizenship. Bernstein’s championing of Copland, in light of
his interest in an eclectic America, cannot be seen as isolated from Copland’s
multifarious minority identities. In this way, Bernstein’s conceptions of Copland
and Ives could be linked in an ersatz correlation.49
Bernstein was responsible for major milestones in Ives’s journey to canonization including the world premiere of Symphony No. 2 in 1951, and his interest in Ives ran deeper than simply musical innovation—he was engaged with the
48 Geofry Block, “Bernstein’s Senior hesis at Harvard: he Roots of a Lifelong Search to
Discover an American Identity,” College Music Symposium 48 (2008): 59.
49 A search of the New York Philharmonic’s digital archive returns seven concert programs
featuring the music of both Copland and Ives. Four were conducted by Bernstein, including the
only tour program. Two more were conducted by Lucas Foss, and one, surprisingly, was conducted by Copland, featuring Ives’s New England Holidays Symphony alongside Copland’s own works.
http://archives.nyphil.org/.
19
concept of Ives’s identity as contributing to the singularity of American musical
style and the future of classical music in general. His famous Norton Lectures,
given at Harvard in 1973, which explore the nature of music and language, and,
among other things, the future of art music, were dedicated to Ives his titular
choice: he Unanswered Question, ater Ives’s orchestral work of the same name.
In his closing remarks, Bernstein recites a “credo” which heralds impending postmodernism with stark veracity.
I believe that a great new era of eclecticism is at hand—eclecticism in the highest sense—and I believe that it has been made possible by the rediscovery—the
re-acceptance—of tonality, that universal earth out of which such diversity can
spring.50
In one sentence, Bernstein marks himself and his conception of Ives as irrevocably postmodern in three important ways. (1) He believes “eclecticism” is nigh—
indeed, in 1973, it was—and (2) that a “rediscovery” or “re-acceptance”—a retrogression of sorts—will (3) lead to an outgrowth of “diversity.” Ives’s music is
nothing if not eclectic, but it was this very eclecticism that had undermined its
acceptance by Modernist culture. he second point is also patently Ives: we know
that he identiied with a pre-industrial America, and that modernist composers
like Carter incriminated him by positioning him as temporally backward. Lastly,
the idea that diversity could be connected with Ives is largely unfounded from an
intentional perspective, but it is clear that Bernstein nevertheless saw him in this
light, as evidenced not only by his thesis topic, but also his decision to—even as
a minority himself—program Ives’s music throughout the 1960s and 70s while
America was in the thick of cultural revolution for minority rights.
In the decades that followed, as American civil rights expanded to address
issues of gender and sexuality in addition to race, New Musicology generated revisionist biographies that used Ives’s prejudices as a point of departure, depicting
him as personally conlicted and sexually repressed. Rossiter began the trend in
1975 with a biography that broke new ground both for Ives studies and musicology in general by locating gendered connotations as indicative of a cultural climate that efeminized music. Ater Rossiter’s untimely suicide in 1989 (due in no
small part to social and professional pressures on him as a gay man), Judith Tick
took up the mantle by further discussing the music0-cultural implications of
Ives’s homophobic and misogynist tendencies,51 and later Nadine Hubb, whose
50 Leonard Bernstein, he Unanswered Question (1973), YouTube, http://youtu.be/
OWeQXTnv_xU?t=2h53m7s (accessed 27 December 2013).
51 Judith Tick, “Charles Ives and Gender Ideology” in Musicology and Diference: Gender
and Sexuality in Music Scholarship, ed. Ruth A. Solie, (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1993), 83-106.
20
book takes a similar approach in addressing Ives, showing how he viewed music
as inherently crippled by carrying feminine implications.52 David C. Paul problematizes the sphere of inluence of these new biographical approaches, suggesting that they were responsible for fragmenting the cultural perception of Ives.53
By dispelling certain myths about him (the transcendentalist interpretation, for
example) and creating new ones fueled by interest in “gender, sexuality, race, and
class,”54 they placed him in a “middle ground between academia [...] and the
broader, more public arena.”55 his is only pejorative if the preferred vision of
him is as the strong, stalwart, stern “maverick”; if, on the other hand, our understanding of Ives is postmodern, seeing him as haphazardly “other” becomes
preferable—and the weirder the better. In a post-civil rights (or at the very least
mid-civil rights) America, a sexist, homophobic Ives becomes a circus freakshow
to which audiences lock, with his music in centre ring.
Feder’s earlier psychobiography and Burkholder’s recent taxonomic work are
also distinctly postmodern; the former for the same reasons cited above, albeit
in a more clinical sense (othering Ives by pathologizing him) and the latter for
praising the ad hoc nature of the music. In Made of All Tunes: Charles Ives and
the Uses of Musical Borrowing,56 and similarly in Charles Ives and His World, Burkholder highlighted Ivesian eclecticism not as a shortcoming as Carter and Copland did, but as the singular redeeming and enduring quality of the music.
———
he endgame of this new cultural perception—whether better or worse for Ives—
is in the framing of him not only as non-normative within the art world, but as
a true outsider to it. “Outsider art,” as it came to be called in 1972 with the publication of Roger Cardinal’s book of the same name,57 is art created by persons
who for one reason or another exist outside public cognizance, yet create works
of artistic merit. Historically, there has been interest in the work of the insane,58
particularly drawings or paintings, and even poetry.59 Such works require a “discovery” to extricate them from the limiting forces of the artist’s isolation, placing
52 Nadine Hubb, he Queer Composition of America’s Sound: Gay Modernists, American
Music, and National Identity, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).
53 Paul, 107-227.
54 Ibid., 197.
55 Ibid., 207.
56 J. Peter Burkholder, Made of All Tunes: Charles Ives and the Uses of Musical Borrowing,
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).
57 Roger Cardinal, Outsider Art, (London: Studio Vista, 1972).
58 Ibid., 16-23.
59 Christopher Smart (1722-1771) is one popular example, whose poetry was written while
he was in the notorious “Bedlam” madhouse, and has been set to music notably by Benjamin
Britten.
21
Figure 7: Henry Darger, illustration from he Story of the Vivian Girls.
them into public arenas such as art galleries or print publications. Ironically, Cardinal’s survey neglects the most celebrated of American outsider artists because
the work was discovered a year ater Outsider Art was published. Henry Darger,
a janitor from Chicago, secretly produced hundreds of paintings and a “novel”
exceeding 15,000 pages. he illustrated book, called he Story of the Vivian Girls,
in What is Known as the Realms of the Unreal, of the Glandeco-Angelinian War
Storm, Caused by the Child Slave Rebellion, hardly needs any explanation apart
from the title—the story is centered around battles between children and malevolent adults/aliens/creatures embroiled in a religious conlict of epic proportions. he accompanying drawings frequently contain depictions of young girls
(or androgens or hermaphrodites) in the nude with primitive weaponry and
quasi-American lags, ighting against armored adults wielding guns and bombs
(see igure 6). he work is eclectic in toto, brimming with conlict and violence,
depictions of religious wars and mythical creatures, all rendered in splendid, colorful array: elaborate collages of multimedia construction including newspaper
cutouts, xerographed photographs, watercolors, and ink. he subjects are oten
gender-confused, depicted with mismatched genitalia or apparent androgyny,
leading posthumous biographers to conclude that Darger himself had only a rudimentary knowledge of sex, or was sufering from sociopathological conditions
that afected his understanding of it. Like Ives, scholarship attempting to explain
the richness of Darger’s work tends toward psychobiography; the index to John
22
MacGregor’s lavish tome, Henry Darger: In the Realms of the Unreal, contains
137 references to words beginning with “psych-” (“psychoanalysis,” “psychological conlict,” “psychopathology,” etc.).60 Like Feder’s psychoanalysis of Ives, MacGregor’s of Darger suggests a Freudian complex related to paternal relationship,
“so many aspects of his day-to-day existence as an adult were modeled on the experience of life with his father.”61 In the years that followed Darger’s death and
discovery, he became a poster-child for postmodernism—proof that the work of
mainstream, forward-thinking modernist artists was insuicient as the only denizen of gallery walls, and serving as the embodiment of the eclectic, explosive
aesthetic that became the norm in the 1980s and 90s.
he novel similarity between the work of Darger and Ives is multifarious.
Both are depictive of a perceived destructive hazard of industrialization, and
both respond to this threat with American and religious themes. Both used blatant borrowing and “collage” as the medium of choice, and both are assembled
using methods that by art-world standards were considered experimental. he
similarities only intensify in the popular understanding of the two artists’ personalities—both have been the subject of extensive posthumous psychoanalysis, having had their treatment of gender selected as a topic of critical import.
Paramount in sealing this bond is a portrayal of kinship as outsiders. A simple
Google search of “charles ives” and “henry darger” yields about 23,000 instances
of the two names mentioned in close proximity. A 2011 article from he Wire
expressly groups Ives with “the American ‘outsider artists’ who crept out of obscurity in the last decades of the twentieth century.”62 To be sure, Ives was not an
outsider in a Dargerian sense; he was awarded a Pulitzer Prize for Music in 1947,
though he shunned the recognition and dispersed the prize money, saying that
“prizes are badges of mediocrity.”63 Despite his general disdain for popular acclaim, including his deliberate decision to rarely publish (and almost exclusively
self-publish), he was very much in the public eye. he fact that Copland, Carter,
Cowell, and others were writing about his music means that he cannot be seen
historically as a true outsider. He may have been stubborn and ungrateful, but in
relief against Darger, he was an insider in every sense that matters. In order to legitimize—dare I say excuse—the peculiarities of his work and the ofensiveness
of his personality, the postmodern art world has retroactively ostracized him in
60 John M. MacGregor, Henry Darger: In the Realms of the Unreal, (New York: Delano
Greenidge Editions, 2002), 718.
61 MacGregor, 34.
62 Adam Harper, “Exclusive Extract: Heaven Is Real: John Maus and the Truth of Pop,”
he Wire, (online, July 2011): accessed December 30, 2013, http://thewire.co.uk/archive/artists/
john-maus/exclusive-extract_heaven-is-real_john-maus-and-the-truth-of-pop_by-adam-harper.
63 Harold C. Schoenberg, he Lives of the Great Composers, 3rd ed., (New York: Norton,
1997), 562.
23
order to more fully accept his work as canonical. he ironies are practically a matryoshka: to make Ives popular, he must irst be absolved. To cleanse his reputation, he must be seen as misunderstood or under-appreciated—wronged in some
way by society, rather than the other way around, as New Musicology would
have it. Pointing out his unpopularity, no matter how self-inlicted, becomes the
only way to generate empathy, and with it appreciation. By placing him historically outside the public consciousness, his memory becomes by deinition inside
it. his attitudinal reversal, combined with the fortuitous alignment of his eclectic aesthetic with recent trends makes the postmodern the only environment in
which his music can be unreservedly valued. Indulgence in and romanticization
of a guilty past is the favorite pastime of post-civil rights America.
———
In the end, we ind ourselves in a tangled web of interpretation. How much of
our understanding of Ives’s music must be informed by our understanding of
Ives? Can his music, as Beardsley/Wimsatt would have it, be understood per sola
virtus, solely on its aesthetic and/or content, wholly unsullied by the intentional
fallacy? Or inversely, is Ives’s music entirely unacceptable and incomprehensible
without a clear picture of the man? What has made Ives’s music so beloved by
America today when it was regarded as so insuicient in the past? Is it the illuminating presence of new critical biography, or are changes in American taste
responsible? he answer lies in an ironic, postmodern twist of Beardsley/Wimsatt’s advice. To care about Ives’s music we must irst be informed of his true intentions, and then categorically reject those intentions in favor of mythological
ones. Ives as patriotic progressive (despite his pre-Civil War vision), Ives as champion of minorities (despite his clearly articulated prejudices), Ives as maverick
(despite his “dilapidated old hat”), and inally Ives as outsider (despite his Pulitzer).
If Copland is the anti-Ives, then Walt Whitman is the ironic anti-Ives. Whitman was a true transcendentalist, living in the pre-industrial age for which Ives
yearned, yet he was gay and called for a remade world free of prejudice toward
race, gender, and sexuality. Parts of his poem, “he Sleepers” seem to instruct us
how to be postmodern, and how to deal with Ives.
He who has been famous and he who shall be famous ater to-day, [...]
he great already known and the great any time ater to-day, [...]
I swear they are averaged now—one is no better than the other64
64 Walt Whitman, “he Sleepers,” in Leaves of Grass, (Philadelphia: David McKay, 1892),
326-330
24
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———. Charles Ives: A Bio-Bibliography. New York: Greenwood Press, 1988.
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ABSTRACT
Positive reception of Charles Ives as an ideal American composer appeared concurrently in the
1970s with the onset of New Musicology, revisionist biographies, and postmodern attitudes.
While Ives’s essay, he Majority (1920) postured him as a self-professed member of a privileged
hegemony, more popular contemporaries Elliot Carter and Aaron Copland were critical of his
music. Recent scholarship suggests that Ives’s later canonization was generated by anti-communist preference for iercely individualistic “maverick” personalities, exempliied in his experimental eclecticism and disregard for popular taste. However, this interpretation is inconsistent with
the prevailing vision of Ives as reclusive and sexually repressed. I argue that Ives’s music captured
the attention of the American public in the early stages of the Civil Rights Movement as popular
opinion found social merit in the art of outsiders. Leonard Bernstein (a minority in race and sexual orientation) identiied in Ives’s Concord Sonata what he heard as “negro” syncopated rhythms,
a characteristic he thought marked the music as American. Later promoters of Ives were also gay,
such as Michael Tilson homas. Recent comparison with extreme outsider artists such as Henry
Darger, who also focused on conservative religious/patriotic subjects and destructive efects of
industrialization, indicates that post-industrial audiences appreciate Ives not for the “progressiveness” of his work, but for its “otherness.” I will show that a postmodern canonization of Ives does
not frame him as representative of the cultural majority, rather as the ironic champion of the
marginal, the outsider, indeed very “Minority” he sought to resist.
27