Heaven & Earth
EDITED BY
ANASTASIA DRANDAKI
DEMETRA PAPANIKOLA-BAKIRTZI
ANASTASIA TOURTA
HELLENIC REPUBLIC
MINISTRY OF CULTURE AND SPORTS
ATHENS 2013
BENAKI
MUSEUM
The catalogue is issued in conjunction with the exhibition Heaven and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections,
held at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, from October 6, 2013, through March 2, 2014,
and at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, from April 9 through August 25, 2014.
The exhibition was organized by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports, Athens, with the collaboration of the Benaki Museum, Athens,
and in association with the National Gallery of Art, Washington, and the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
EXHIBITION
CATALOGUE
GREECE
Editors ANASTASIA DRANDAKI, DEMETRA PAPANIKOLA-BAKIRTZI,
ANASTASIA TOURTA
Benaki Museum research team PANOREA BENATOU, ELENI CHARCHARE,
MANDY KOLIOU, MARA VERYKOKOU
Bibliography CONSTANTINA KYRIAZI
Translators from Greek Entries: MARIA XANTHOPOULOU
Essays: DEBORAH KAZAZI, VALERIE NUNN
Translator from French ELISABETH WILLIAMS
Text Editor RUSSELL STOCKMAN
Photographs of the exhibits VELISSARIOS VOUTSAS, ELPIDA BOUBALOU
Photographs of Mount Athos exhibits GEORGE POUPIS
Designer FOTINI SAKELLARI
Map PENELOPE MATSOUKA
Color separations PANAYOTIS VOUVELIS, STRATOS VEROPOULOS
Printing ADAM EDITIONS-PERGAMOS
Printed on Fedrigony 150 gsm
General Coordination MARIA ANDREADAKI-VLAZAKI
Exhibition concept–Curators JENNY ALBANI, EUGENIA CHALKIA, ANASTASIA DRANDAKI,
DEMETRA PAPANIKOLA-BAKIRTZI, ANASTASIA TOURTA
Supervision JENNY ALBANI, ANASTASIA DRANDAKI
Research assistant MANDY KOLIOU
Packaging and Trasportation MOVEART SA
Coordination BYZANTINE AND CHRISTIAN MUSEUM, ATHENS
Financial Management DIMITRIS DROUNGAS
USA
NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART
Curator SUSAN MACMILLAN ARENSBERG
Exhibitions D. DODGE THOMPSON, NAOMI REMES, DAVID HAMMER
Design and Installation MARK LEITHAUSER, JAME ANDERSON, BARBARA KEYES
Registrar MICHELLE FONDAS
Conservation BETHANN HEINBAUGH, KIMBERLY SCHENCK
Education FAYA CAUSEY, HEIDI HINISH
J. PAUL GETTY MUSEUM
Curator MARY LOUISE HART
Exhibitions QUINCY HOUGHTON, ROBIN MCCARTHY
Design MERRITT PRICE, ROBERT CHECCHI
Registrars SALLY HIBBARD, AMY LINKER, KANOKO SASAO
Antiquities Conservation and Mount-Makers JERRY PODANY, MARIE SVOBODA,
MCKENZIE LOWRY, BJ FARRAR, DAVID ARMENDARIZ
Education TOBY TANNENBAUM, SHELBY BROWN, CATHY CARPENTER,
AUDREY CHAN, LISA GUZZETTA
SPONSOR
The exhibition is supported by an indemnity from the Federal Council on the Arts and the Humanities
Published by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports and the Benaki Museum, Athens
© 2013 Benaki Museum, Athens
© 2013 Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or information retrieval system, without permission from the publishers.
ISBN 978-960-476-130-2 (HC)
ISBN 978-960-476-131-9 (PBC)
Jacket / Cover illustration Icon with Archangel Michael (cat. no. 59) • Frontispiece The Evangelist Matthew from the Four Gospels (cat. no. 83)
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FOREWORDS
| 007 | PANOS PANAGIOTOPOULOS
Minister of Culture and Sports
| 008 | LINA MENDONI
General Secretary, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
| 010 | MARIA ANDREADAKI-VLAZAKI
Director General of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage,
Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
[CHAPTER 3] Intellectual
Life
| 166 | BYZANTIUM AND THE ART OF ANTIQUITY
ANTHONY CUTLER
| 176 | Education and Social Identity
CHRISTINE ANGELIDI
| 179 | Reading, Writing, and Books in Byzantium
ANNEMARIE WEYL CARR
| 012 | NIKOLAOS ZIAS
President of the Organizing Committee
| 183 | CATALOGUE ENTRIES 81–96
| 013 | ANGELOS DELIVORRIAS
Director of the Benaki Museum, Athens
[CHAPTER 4] The
| 014 | EARL A. POWELL III
Director of the National Gallery of Art, Washington
TIMOTHY POTTS
Director of the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles
| 202 | THE PLEASURES OF LIFE
EUNICE DAUTERMAN MAGUIRE AND HENRY MAGUIRE
| 016 | ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
| 019 | CONTRIBUTORS TO THE CATALOGUE
| 020 | INTRODUCTION
ANGELOS DELIVORRIAS
| 024 | Map
[CHAPTER 1]
From the Ancient to the
Byzantine World
| 028 | FROM MAN TO GOD, OR THE MUTATION OF
A CULTURE (300 B.C.–A.D. 762)
POLYMNIA ATHANASSIADI
| 044 | The Christianization of the Past
ANTHONY KALDELLIS
| 048 | Eternity
EFTERPI MARKI
| 051 | CATALOGUE ENTRIES 1–17
[CHAPTER 2]
Spiritual Life
| 074 | IMPERIAL POWER AND THE CHURCH IN BYZANTIUM
MARIE-FRANCE AUZÉPY
| 084 | CATALOGUE ENTRIES 18–37
| 094 | The Early Christian Church, 4th–7th Centuries
CHARALAMBOS BAKIRTZIS
| 098 | Iconoclasm
MARIA PANAYOTIDI
| 102 | The Church as a Symbol of the Cosmos
in Byzantine Architecture and Art
´ URČIC´
SLOBODAN C
| 109 | Icons in the Devotional Practices of Byzantium
ANASTASIA DRANDAKI
| 115 | Mount Athos. The Monastic Commonwealth of
the Middle Ages
KRITON CHRYSSOCHOIDIS
| 118 | CATALOGUE ENTRIES 38–80
Pleasures of Life
| 211 | Houses, Markets, and Baths:
Secular Architecture in Byzantium
ROBERT OUSTERHOUT
| 214 | Natural Environment and Climate, Diet, Food, and Drink
JOHANNES KODER
| 218 | Household Furnishings
DEMETRA PAPANIKOLA-BAKIRTZI
| 223 | Clothing and Personal Adornment: The Semantics of Attire
PARI KALAMARA
| 228 | CATALOGUE ENTRIES 97–157
[CHAPTER 5]
Byzantium between East and West
| 278 | BYZANTIUM BETWEEN EAST AND WEST:
OPPONENTS AND ALLIES
EVANGELOS CHRYSOS
| 289 | Byzantium and the Integration of the Slavs in
the Orthodox Oikoumene
ANTHONY-EMIL N. TACHIAOS
| 292 | Exchanges between Byzantium and the Islamic World:
Courtly Art and Material Culture
ANNA BALLIAN
| 297 | Byzantium between Ottomans and Latins
in the Palaiologan Age
TONIA KIOUSOPOULOU
| 300 | The Morea
SHARON E. J. GERSTEL
| 304 | Crete under Venetian Rule: Between Byzantine Past
and Venetian Reality
CHRYSSA MALTEZOU
| 309 | CATALOGUE ENTRIES 158–172
| 326 | BYZANTINE ART IN THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE
ROBERT S. NELSON
| 336 | Abbreviations
| 337 | Bibliography
| 359 | Glossary
| 360 | Index
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ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
NIKOLAOS ZIAS, President
Professor emeritus, University of Athens and Chairman of the European Center for Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monuments
MARIA ANDREADAKI-VLAZAKI
Director General of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
AIMILIA YEROULANOU
President of the Board of Trustees, Benaki Museum
ANGELOS DELIVORRIAS
Director of the Benaki Museum
EUGENIA GEROUSI
Director of Byzantine and Post-μyzantine Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
MARIA LAGOGIANNI
Director of Museums, Exhibitions and Educational Programs, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
SOUSANNA CHOULIA-KAPELONI
Director for Documentation and the Protection of Cultural Goods,
Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports
ANASTASIA LAZARIDOU
Director of the Byzantine and Christian Museum, Athens
DEMETRA PAPANIKOLA-BAKIRTZI
Honorary Curator of the Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki and
Director of Δhe Leventis Municipal Museum of Nicosia
ANASTASIA TOURTA
Honorary Director of the Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki and
Director of the European Center for Byzantine and Post-μyzantine Monuments
EUGENIA CHALKIA
Honorary Director of the Byzantine and Christian Museum, Athens
ANASTASIA DRANDAKI
Curator of the Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Collection, Benaki Museum, Athens
JENNY ALBANI
Architect and Art Historian, Directorate of Museums, Exhibitions and Educational Programs,
Hellenic Ministry Culture and Sports
LENDING INSTITUTIONS
BARON MICHAEL TOSSIZZA FOUNDATION – MUSEUM OF FOLK ART, Tossizza
Mansion, Metsovo • BENAKI MUSEUM, Athens • BYZANTINE AND CHRISTIAN
MUSEUM, Athens • FOUNDATION OF COMMUNICATIONS AND EDUCATION OF THE
ARCHDIOCESE OF CRETE–MUSEUM OF HOLY ICONS AND RELICS, Heraklion
• EPIGRAPHICAL MUSEUM, Athens • HELLENIC INSTITUTE OF BYZANTINE AND
POST-BYZANTINE STUDIES, Venice-Italy • HISTORICAL MUSEUM OF CRETE,
Heraklion • MUSEUM OF BYZANTINE CULTURE, Thessaloniki • MUSEUM OF
CYCLADIC ART, Athens • NATIONAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF GREECE,
Athens • NATIONAL GALLERY–ALEXANDROS SOUTZOS MUSEUM–EVRIPIDIS
KOUTLIDIS FOUNDATION, Athens • NATIONAL LIBRARY OF GREECE, Athens
• NEW ACROPOLIS MUSEUM, Athens • NUMISMATIC MUSEUM, Athens • PUBLIC
LIBRARY OF LEFKADA • THE HOLY AND GREAT MONASTERY OF VATOPEDI, Mount
Athos (Loans still uncertain at press time) • THE HOLY MONASTERY OF VLATADON,
Thessaloniki • THE HOLY MONASTERY OF OBLOU, Patras • THE HOLY, ROYAL,
PATRIARCHAL, STAVROPEGIC AND COENOBIAC MONASTERY OF SAINT JOHN THE
THEOLOGIAN AND EVANGELIST, Patmos (Loans still uncertain at press time)
EPHORATES OF ANTIQUITIES
2nd EPHORATE OF BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Athens • 4th EPHORATE OF BYZANTINE
ANTIQUITIES, Rhodes • 5th EPHORATE OF BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Sparta–Mistra
Museum • 6th EPHORATE OF BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Patras–THE CHLOUMOUTSI
CASTLE MUSEUM • 7th EPHORATE OF BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Larissa • 10th
EPHORATE OF BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Polygyros, Chalkidiki • 12th EPHORATE OF
BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Kavala–ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF SERRES • 16th
EPHORATE OF BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Kastoria – BYZANTINE MUSEUM OF
KASTORIA • 23rd EPHORATE OF BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Chalkis • 24th EPHORATE
OF BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Lamia–BYZANTINE MUSEUM OF PHTHIOTIS • 25th
EPHORATE OF BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Ancient Corinth • 28th EPHORATE OF
BYZANTINE ANTIQUITIES, Chania–BYZANTINE AND POSTBYZANTINE COLLECTION
• 1st EPHORATE OF PREHISTORIC AND CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES, Athens–THE PAUL
AND ALEXANDRA CANELLOPOULOS MUSEUM • 5th EPHORATE OF PREHISTORIC AND
CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES, Sparta–ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM OF SPARTA • 6th
EPHORATE OF PREHISTORIC AND CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES, Patras–ARCHAEOLOGICAL
MUSEUM OF PATRAS • 25th EPHORATE OF PREHISTORIC AND CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES,
Chania–ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM • 37th EPHORATE OF PREHISTORIC AND
CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES, Corinth–ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM
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Foreword
PANOS PANAGIOTOPOULOS
Minister
Hellenic Republic
Ministry of Culture and Sports
he past twenty years have been a new and exceptionally creative era for Byzantine
studies and Byzantine museums in Greece. New Byzantine museums have been
established, presenting finds from long-term systematic archaeological excavations by
the Archaeological Service of the Ministry of Culture and Sports, and older museums have
redesigned the exhibits of their collections. New interpretative methods, innovative
approaches, and the use of advanced technologies have created a contemporary museum
environment that is both attractive and accessible to the wider public.
Interest in Byzantine civilization has been further strengthened by the flourishing of
Byzantine studies in major European and American universities, and has manifested itself
over the past twenty years in the presentation of important exhibitions on Byzantium both in
Greece and abroad.
Within this climate of creativity, new pursuits, and extroversion, the Hellenic Ministry of
Culture and Sports in collaboration with the Benaki Museum is offering its own
contribution to international exhibition activity with the traveling exhibition Heaven and
Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections. The exhibition, to be shown in two leading U.S.
museums, presents aspects of Byzantine civilization through featured works of high historical
and artistic value in addition to recent excavation finds from public, private, and ecclesiastical
collections.
The exhibition is accompanied by the present volume and the companion study Heaven
and Earth: Cities and Countryside in Byzantine Greece, in which prominent Greek and foreign
scholars contribute to the enrichment of contemporary research on Byzantium, providing the
international scientific community as well as the wider public with stimuli for new scholarly
interpretations and research.
Two of the exhibition’s main goals are to familiarize visitors with Byzantine civilization,
which is an integral part of Greece’s cultural heritage, and to highlight the important role
played by the Greek region within the broader context of the Byzantine Empire. Above and
beyond this, however, we believe that this multifaceted exhibition will form another link in
the chain of acquaintance, friendship, and cooperation between the Greek and American
peoples, and further the climate of dialogue and exchange of ideas at the international level.
I wish to congratulate and extend my thanks to all the exhibition’s contributors, both
Americans and Greeks, who collaborated harmoniously and with noteworthy zeal toward its
realization and exceptional attractive and scholarly presentation.
T
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Foreword
DR. LINA MENDONI
General Secretary
Hellenic Republic
Ministry of Culture and Sports
e knew not whether we were in heaven or on earth. For on earth there is no
such splendor or beauty.” These were the words used by a number of foreign
ambassadors in describing the impression the church of Hagia Sophia made on
them during their visit to the “Queen of Cities” in the tenth century. Indeed, the fame of
what later scholars named “Byzantium”—i.e. the empire that ruled in the eastern part of the
Mediterranean for eleven consecutive centuries, which at its apogee embraced three continents
(Europe, Asia, and Africa)—was enormous, and of decisive influence during the Middle Ages.
At that time Byzantium was a model, a benchmark, and a standard of comparison for the
entire then-known world. This also explains the successive attempts to besiege Constantinople,
which the Byzantines managed to repulse for a long time until the first fall to the Franks in
1204 and the city’s final fall to the Turks in 1453. In the eyes of people that lived in those
times, Byzantium never ceased to be compared to an earthly paradise, against which many
measured themselves and strove to compete, and which others fought to conquer.
Most of the envious or contemptuous stereotypes linked with Byzantium in the past,
which for a long time dominated scholarly literature and affected collective perceptions and
ideologies, have today been largely left behind. Now we tend to find Byzantine history and art
ever more impressive and charming, and at the same time we realize that there is a wealth of
knowledge to be drawn from them. We are thus discovering anew a powerful state with an
elaborate administration, robust legislation, a well-developed taxation and financial system, an
effective army, and flourishing education. We are further astonished as we get to know the
material remains of an exceptionally high level of culture, both with respect to the urban
arrangement of Byzantine cities, their churches, palaces, civic buildings, private residences, and
infrastructure, as well as the multitude of monasteries and monastic communities scattered
throughout the countryside. Not to mention the glorious examples of wall painting, unique
portable icons and illuminated manuscripts, masterpieces of sculpture and silver- and
goldsmithing, and works in the other minor arts.
All these artworks and artifacts are abundant sources of information about institutions,
mores, customs, and practices that have survived down to our own time, and constitute a
sizeable part of our living intangible heritage. In the same spirit, the poet Constantine Cavafy
refers to the memories awakened every time he entered a Greek church: “its aroma of incense,
its liturgical chanting and harmony,” as well as “the majestic presence of the priests.” He
concludes by recalling what he calls “the great glories of our race, the splendor of our
Byzantine heritage” (C. Cavafy, “In Church,” trans. John Cavafy). For Byzantium was a
“W
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multinational state distinguished by the Orthodox Christian faith and Greek education.
The language substrate of the Hellenistic koine, accompanied by the study and preservation of
ancient Greek literature and the growth of a literate society, functioned as a unifying
component par excellence within a multicultural reality. Through a process of assimilation,
mediation, and transformation, the secular heritages of Greece and Rome eventually became
constituents of the cultural distinctiveness of Byzantium, to the point that the last emperor,
Constantine XI Palaiologos, thought it appropriate to describe himself as a descendent of the
Greeks and the Romans.
The third major contributor to Byzantium’s long-lasting power and prestige was
undoubtedly the adoption of the Orthodox faith, which for a long period made it the sole
model of a Christian kingdom. The concurrence of secular and religious power, the formation of
an official ideology according to which imperial power emanated from divine power, the
osmosis between the Christian ideal and civic agendas, played a decisive role in the creation of
an idiosyncratic but exceptionally coherent system of sovereignty. A system with both the
emperor and the patriarch at its core. While the imperial court appeared as the reflection of the
heavenly one, at the level of the common man earthly obligations and pleasures, in concert with
the expectation of eternal life and the consequent care for the soul, defined the axes of life in the
present. In this life, the “here” and “now” were directly linked with the hereafter and eternity.
A new and fuller picture of the various aspects of Byzantine private and social life, as well as of
the venues and artifacts associated with it, continues to emerge from ongoing research.
The secular and the religious, the earthly and the heavenly, earth, paradise, and hell, the
Greco-Roman heritage in conjunction with Christian theology and Orthodox dogma, all
permeate the objects displayed in this exhibition, whose goal is to shed new light on the many
facets of Byzantium by suggesting a new way of “reading” and interpretation. The more than
170 exhibits from museums and collections around Greece presented to the American public
on this occasion are in the lead in what has become a fascinating journey. This exhibition
could not have been mounted without the active participation and arduous efforts of almost
every archaeological department of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports, which has
been committed, together with the staff of the Benaki Museum, to the necessary preparations
since 2010. Collaboration between Greek museums, academic institutions, and individual
scholars and researchers and their counterparts in the United States has also been exemplary.
I therefore wish to congratulate them and express my deep appreciation and gratitude to all
involved for their dedication and contributions to the success of this major endeavor.
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Foreword
MARIA ANDREADAKI-VLAZAKI
Director General of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage
Hellenic Republic
Ministry of Culture and Sports
xactly twenty years have passed since the Hellenic Ministry of Culture participated in the
organization of an exhibition of Classical Greek sculptures titled “The Greek Miracle:
Classical Sculpture from the Dawn of Democracy, the Fifth Century B.C.,” presented at
the National Gallery of Art in Washington and then at New York’s Metropolitan Museum.
Today the same central cultural institution of the Hellenic Republic in collaboration with the
Benaki Museum is organizing the exhibition Heaven and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek
Collections at the National Gallery of Art and the J. Paul Getty Museum, presenting Byzantine
works of high aesthetic and historical value within their historical and social context.
This cultural endeavor is of particular importance for us. Preparations began in 2010 when
more general issues of cultural cooperation with the United States were advancing, the major
achievement being the 2011 signing of the Memorandum of Understanding between the two
countries for the imposition of restrictions on the importation to the U. S. of cultural goods having
a Greek provenance. The present exhibition gives us the opportunity to promote for the first time
the intellectual and artistic achievements of Byzantine Greece at the National Gallery of Art, an
important and prominent museum in the U.S. capital, which is an internationally renowned
center for the promotion of Byzantine studies. We will also be presenting Byzantine Greece for the
first time at the J. Paul Getty Museum, another important U. S. museum with which Greece has
recently signed a Framework of Cooperation on cultural and scientific subjects.
To the question of why the Hellenic Ministry of Culture is today organizing a major
exhibition devoted to Byzantium, for us the answer practically goes without saying. It is
because Byzantine culture is a major, substantive, and above all still-living part of Greece’s
tangible and intangible cultural heritage. It is the continuation of ancient Greek civilization
into the medieval period; it gave us power and ideas during challenging periods of our modern
history, and it continues down to the present to nurture Greek intellectual and artistic life as
well as scientific thought. Through this exhibition, Greece, as the cradle of European
civilization—and despite the difficult times through which it is passing—is sending invaluable
gifts consisting of ideas and steadfast values to the global community, while renewing and
strengthening the latter’s interest in Byzantine culture.
We also wish to show with Heaven and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections the
efforts and interest on the part of the Greek state to preserve and study its Byzantine cultural
heritage through ongoing and systematic research by Greece’s Archaeological Service to make
Byzantium both internationally accessible and comprehensible, and to highlight its ecumenical
cultural dimension. Thus apart from the most-featured Byzantine exhibits in Greek museums,
the exhibition includes new and sometimes sensational finds of great historical and artistic
value that have recently enriched our museum collections, and which are being presented for
the first time outside Greece. These come from ongoing excavation activity by the Greek
Archaeological Service throughout the country, thus resulting in the publication of a second
companion volume to the exhibition that further links the exhibits with the geographic regions
from which they come. New interpretations and approaches have been taken into
E
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consideration in the museological thinking and catalogue texts in an effort to foster scholarly
dialogue and interest in Byzantine studies.
Our exhibition unravels the skein of time from A.D. 330, when Constantinople was
“inaugurated” as the capital of the Roman Empire, thus transferring the political center of gravity
to the Hellenistic East, down to 1453, when the Ottomans did away with the Byzantine Empire.
Initially we follow the transition from the ancient pagan to the Christian world, where under the
influence of Stoicism and later Neo-Platonism the historical-eschatological faith of the Christian
community became Hellenized. This is followed by a presentation of the fully formed character
and institutions of the Byzantine-Christian Empire. Another section of the exhibition is devoted
to the deep spirituality, the continuous cultivation of Ancient Greek culture by Greek scholars,
and so-called “Byzantine humanism.” The pleasures and luxury of everyday life among the
Byzantines, presented in another section, reveal the secular aspect of Byzantium to visitors. The
exhibition concludes with a section tracing the influence Byzantine culture was subjected to by
neighboring peoples during the more than a thousand years of the empire’s history.
Implementing the exhibition concept would not have been possible without the participation
and support of a large number of institutions and individuals. As General Director of Antiquities,
I would like to thank OPAP SA, the exhibition’s gold sponsor, and The A. G. Leventis Foundation,
its major sponsor. Their sponsorship was crucial and invaluable for the exhibition’s realization.
I would also like to extend my thanks to the political leadership of the Ministry of Culture,
which provided steady support for the exhibition, thanks to which it is today being realized.
Thanks also go to all the ecclesiastical, public, and private bodies that contributed to our effort by
loaning works for the exhibition: the Holy Metropolis of Patras, the Museum of Holy Icons and
Relics of the Holy Archdiocese of Crete, the Holy Monastery of Vlatadon, the National Library
of Greece, the National Gallery of Art – Alexandros Soutzos Museum – Evripidis Koutlidis
Foundation, the Museum of Cycladic Art, the Historical Museum of Crete, the Municipal Art
Gallery of Lefkada, the Baron Michael Tossizza Foundation, and the Hellenic Institute of
Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Studies in Venice.
The exhibition owes much to my collaborators, the members of its Organizing Committee
and the personnel in the Directorate of Museums, Exhibitions, and Educational Programs, as well
as the entire General Directorate of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage and the Benaki Museum,
who supported its organization with their knowledge, experience, and enthusiasm. Members of
the Greek Embassy staff (Washington, D.C.) and the Greek Consulate General (Los Angeles)
were of great assistance to us in matters involving the organization and promotion of the
exhibition, and I once more extend to them my particular thanks.
In closing, I would like to thank our transatlantic partners, the officers and staffs of the
National Gallery of Art and the J. Paul Getty Museum, the exhibition’s co-organizers and hosts.
They heard our ideas with interest, enriched them through their invaluable know-how, and
worked in exemplary fashion toward the exhibition’s reception in the U.S. I would very much
like to hope that this fruitful collaboration will continue.
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Foreword
NIKOLAOS ZIAS
President of the Organizing Committee
B
yzantium, the Greco-Roman Christian empire that survived for more than a millennium, has
since the 20th century aroused the interest of the broader European public, as one can see from
the success that marked the related exhibitions presented in Greece—“Byzantine Art: An
European Art,” the 9th Exhibition of the Council of Europe, Athens, 1964—and abroad—”The Age of
Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century” (1977); “The Glory of
Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era” (1997), and “Byzantium: Faith and Power
(1261–1557)” (2004), both at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The exhibition Heaven
and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections, at the National Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C.)
and the J. Paul Getty Museum (Los Angeles), jointly organized by the Greek Ministry of Culture
and Sports and the Benaki Museum, also forms part of the effort to help the public become better
acquainted with the Byzantine world.
This exhibition is distinct from its predecessors inasmuch as its exhibits originate exclusively from
Greece, including public and private collections, the Church of Greece, and excavations in Greece itself.
Greece maintained close ties with Byzantium, focused on Orthodox worship, the Greek language, and
education. Mount Athos is the most obvious element in this living tradition, while many cities such
as Thessaloniki, Kastoria, and Mistra carry visible imprints of these ties.
The members of the exhibition’s Organizing Committee from the Ministry of Culture and Sports
as well as the Benaki worked zealously in order that this exhibition might convey through the visual
arts as authentically as possible Byzantium’s timeless spiritual message across the Atlantic.
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Foreword
ANGELOS DELIVORRIAS
Director
Benaki Museum
he exhibition Heaven and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections, was launched
in Washington, D.C. in 2010 by then-Minister of Culture Pavlos Àeroulanos and
National Gallery of Art Director Earl A. Powell III. At that time it was also decided
that the J. Paul Getty Museum would participate, and that the exhibition would
subsequently move to Los Angeles. Discussions regarding the timely coordination of requisite
actions resulted in the co-organization of the exhibition with the collaboration of the Benaki
Museum and in the formation of the Organizing Committee. By November 2010, the
collaborating museums in the U.S. had a fully-formed general concept and an indicative
choice of works to propose for exhibiting.
Through related arrangements, continuous exchanges of views, and mutual contacts
throughout 2011, the exhibition material was finalized and the production of the catalogue to
accompany the exhibition was agreed. In 2012, despite the dramatic impact of the severe
financial crisis, particularly for Greece, preparatory work continued uninterrupted. Indeed, the
new Deputy Minister of Culture, Konstantinos Tzavaras, expressed his active interest in the
exhibition’s realization and success. This guaranteed concern facilitated in-person meetings in
Athens (May 2012) between representatives of the National Gallery of Art and the J. Paul
Getty Museum with representatives from the Greek side. Following organized visits to
Byzantine collections in local Ephorates of Byzantine Antiquities and Museums, the
catalogue of exhibits assumed final form and the exhibition’s inauguration was scheduled, as
scholarly work on the content of the exhibition proceeded at an intensified pace.
Heaven and Earth reveals more fully the historical and cultural importance of Byzantium,
and for Greece in particular. However, it should be noted that the appropriate presentation
and comprehensible rendering of a subject whose narration is no easy matter would not have
been possible without the support of all those who believe in and serve the idea of Byzantium,
and whose names receive honorable mention in the foregoing pages. Here we should
commend with especially warm thanks the exhibition’s debt to the Ministry of Culture, to
Lina Mendoni and Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki, to the members of the Organizing
Committee, and above all to the private and religious foundations from which the material
gathered for the exhibition has come. Equally warm thanks go to all the key collaborators on
this exhibition, to the conservators and photographers, to the authors of the introductory texts
and the catalogue entries. The important contributions of the National Gallery of Art, with
active participation by D. Dodge Thompson, Susan MacMillan Arensberg, and Mark
Leithauser, as well as of the J. Paul Getty Museum with Claire Lyons and Mary Louise
Hart, should also be emphasized. Above all, thanks are due to Anastasia Drandaki, who as
the individual responsible for the Benaki Museum’s Byzantine collections assumed the lion’s
share of the work. And this was thanks to the close collaboration of Anastasia Tourta,
Demetra Papanikola-Bakirtzi, Eugenia Chalkia, and Jenny Albani, to the valuable assistance
of Mandy Koliou, Panorea Benatou, and Mara Verykokou, and to the beneficial presence of
Aimilia Yeroulanou.
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Foreword
EARL A. POWELL III
Director
National Gallery of Art
TIMOTHY POTTS
Director
J. Paul Getty Museum
he courts and churches of the Byzantine empire (AD 330–1453) have long been
admired for their rich artistic traditions. To these early champions of Christianity the
opulent decoration of sacred spaces was a fitting expression of a deeply spiritual
worldview, celebrating God’s dominion on earth with a splendor that matched the greatness of his
glory in heaven. The spectacular legacy of that celebration—the glittering mosaics and luminous
icons, ritual vessels, textiles of spun gold, precious codices, and other lavish creations of
Byzantium—is the subject of this exhibition, which traces the emergence of Byzantine art out of
the late Roman empire and into its millennium-long flourishing in the eastern Mediterranean.
The National Gallery of Art and the J. Paul Getty Museum are proud to host this
extraordinary exhibition in the United States, marking the first time many of these treasures of
Byzantine art will have traveled outside Greece. Organized by the Hellenic Ministry of Culture
and Sports in cooperation with the Benaki Museum in Athens, Heaven and Earth: Art of
Byzantium from Greek Collections comprises about 180 objects. Drawn exclusively from museums
throughout Greece, these works have been chosen by their curators and archaeologists to represent
the major artistic holdings from the early Christian and Byzantine eras. The Hellenic Ministry
has generously supported the conservation of many of the most important works.
We extend sincere thanks to the following for their critical assistance in realizing this
exhibition: Mr. Panos Panagiotopoulos, Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports; Dr. Lina
Mendoni, Secretary General, and Dr. Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki, Director General of Antiquities
and Cultural Heritage; and journalist Anna Panagiotarea. This exhibition was first brought to the
attention of the National Gallery of Art in 2010 by Pavlos Yeroulanos, former Minister of
Culture, and developed by Professor Angelos Delivorrias, Director of the Benaki Museum,
working with Dr. Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki. The J. Paul Getty Museum received the proposal
with enthusiasm, given its strong commitment to the art and culture of the broader Hellenic
world.
One aim of Heaven and Earth is to elucidate the aspects of Byzantine art and tradition that
have roots in its Graeco-Roman past. Architectural fragments from the Christianized Parthenon
manifest the intersection of paganism and Christianity in the period when ancient Greek temples
were turned into churches and thus formed architectural settings for early Christian art.
Prosperous monasteries preserved monuments of Greek literature in manuscript form, and the
educated elite learned to read and reflect through the study of Homer, Sophocles, and Euclid.
Senior clergy and wealthy courtiers surrounded themselves with precious vessels and jewels,
combining Roman technology and craftsmanship with Byzantine imagery and innovation.
Iconography that blends pagan and Christian motifs on luxurious objects manifests the twin poles
of Hellenism and Christianity that underpinned Byzantine culture.
The exhibition further illuminates the nature of Byzantine society through works of art
representing various aspects of life, both spiritual and secular, public and private. Mosaics, wall
paintings, and carved reliefs that once adorned churches are shown with processional icons, Gospel
books, and liturgical vessels to convey the ecclesiastical setting of public worship. Portable
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altarpieces, small icons in various media, and pendant reliquaries worn by the pious suggest the
nature of private worship at home. Secular works of art intended for the domestic sphere—floor
mosaics, silver and ceramic dinnerware, bronze furnishings, and jewelry—offer a glimpse of the
accoutrements of daily life. Heaven and Earth concludes with works of art illustrating the
interactions between Byzantine and Western European artists during the final flowering of
Byzantine art under the emperors of the Palaiologan dynasty (1261–1453).
The National Gallery of Art has been exceptionally fortunate to have had several opportunities
to present the art of Greece to its visitors. Never before, however, has the Gallery exhibited the art
of Byzantium—surprisingly, given its importance for the Gallery’s collection of Italian painting.
The first of its galleries contains works reflecting Byzantine precedents that inspired the demand
for paintings in the style called the maniera greca. Two of the highlights in that gallery, known as
the Kahn and Mellon Madonnas, may even have been created by Byzantine artists or by painters
under their strong influence. Whereas panel painting waned in Western Europe after the late
antique period, knowledge of how to mix and blend pigments to model figures lived on in
Byzantium. The importation of Byzantine icons spurred the revival of panel painting in Europe,
ultimately resulting in the masterpieces that fill the galleries of European art.
This exhibition is also a landmark for the J. Paul Getty Museum, as it is the first collaboration
to result from the signing of a memorandum of understanding between the Getty Trust and the
Ministry of Culture in Greece in September 2011, which created a Framework for Cultural
Cooperation to support the promotion of the cultural heritage of Greece. A special debt of
gratitude for help in reaching that agreement and realizing this exhibition is due to the able
facilitation of the Greek consul general in Los Angeles, Elisabeth Fotiadou. Presented at the Getty
Villa in Malibu, Heaven and Earth will be seen in the very appropriate context of the GraecoRoman cultures from which Byzantine art emerged.
At the Getty Center, the exhibition is complemented by a display of manuscripts drawn from
its collection together with a number of superb examples from Greece. East Meets West: Byzantine
Illumination at the Cultural Crossroads (March 25–June 22, 2014) features many illuminated
manuscripts from select monasteries and collections in Greece shown in this catalogue. This
focused exhibition highlights the main characteristics of Byzantine illumination and shows its
influence on manuscripts produced in other Christian locales, including Western Europe,
Armenia, and Ethiopia.
We owe the conception and careful planning of this exhibition to the curators, conservators,
and archaeologists working in the Byzantine Ephorates of Antiquities throughout Greece and
especially to the members of the Organizing Committee (listed on p. 6). Heaven and Earth has
been curated at the National Gallery by Susan M. Arensberg, head of exhibition programs, and at
the Getty Villa by associate curator Mary Louise Hart. It is the hope of all those involved with
the development and realization of this project that it will provide an opportunity for visitors in
Washington and Los Angeles to gain an enriched appreciation of the art and culture of the
Byzantine Empire.
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Acknowledgments
or the exhibition and indeed its accompanying catalogue we
have to thank a whole host of people, whose strenuous
efforts have contributed to this collaborative project in many
different ways. First of all our thanks go to the staffs of Greek
museums, the archaeological service, and the various associations
that have put a wealth of material from their collections at our
disposal. The essence of their knowledge about these objects is
distilled in the catalogue entries, which have, as usual, been written
for the most part by the curators charged with their care.
But the backbone of the catalogue—and of the exhibition—is
formed by the introductory texts, which develop important aspects of
Byzantine culture, giving both context and substance to the individual
exhibits. We are deeply indebted to the internationally acknowledged
scholars who so readily agreed to add to their already growing
workload in order to bring their expertise to bear on this project.
The collaboration with our fellow curators at the National
Gallery of Art and the J. Paul Getty Museum, Drs. Susan
MacMillan Arensberg and Mary Louise Hart respectively, and all
their colleagues who were responsible for particular stages of the
exhibition, was especially positive and productive. Their absolute
professionalism, their sensitivity, their well-judged suggestions and
friendly interpersonal contact all contributed immensely to
improving every aspect of the exhibition and ensuring the smooth
implementation of an admittedly challenging project.
Eugenia Chalkia, our comrade-in-arms through all the
scholarly work in preparation for the exhibition, also made a
crucial contribution to the editing of the catalogue entries and for
it we are deeply indebted to her. The Benaki Museum working
group was an unsung hero behind the making of the catalogue.
Under the experienced coordination of Mandy Koliou, Mara
Verykokou, and Panorea Benatou they did all the jobs that have
to be done to produce such a publication: absolutely everything
from finding comparisons, cross-checking facts, and clerical
support to providing photographic material and much more.
Konstantina Kyriazi bravely tackled the horribly laborious task of
compiling the bibliography. Special thanks to our intern Campbell
E. Garland, who helped us with the glossary and the index. We
are immensely grateful to all of them for their professionalism,
their dedication, and their unfailing creativity.
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We have been very fortunate in the colleagues who have
worked with us on the catalogue, the sort of people on whom
ultimately the quality of any publication relies. To the translators
Deborah Kazazi and Maria Xanthopoulou, who took on the
greater part of the entries and the introductory articles,
respectively, but also to Valerie Nunn and Elisabeth Williams,
who translated other texts, we express our warmest thanks for
their diligence and meticulous work. Russell Stockman, a
sometime collaborator on National Gallery of Art publications,
took on the daunting task of proofreading the exhibition
catalogue. His hard work, speed, and professionalism guaranteed
the quality of the end product.
In any art book the relationship between text and image is
central to its success and usefulness. Velisarios Voutsas and his
colleague Elpida Boubalou were responsible for photographing all
the exhibits. Their long experience of archaeological photography
and above all their artistic sensibilities and their insistence on
perfect results have made it possible to present the works in the
best possible light.
The attention to detail in the catalogue is due to the hard
work of all our colleagues at Adam-Pergamos Editions and
especially Fotini Sakellari, who was responsible for the design. The
Adam-Pergamos team worked under the often intolerable pressure
that is the preserve of exhibition catalogues and their assistance at
every stage of the process has been crucial.
The creation of this exhibition and its catalogue would not
have been possible without the constant support and tireless labor
of the Accounts Department of the Benaki Museum, which
under the direction of Dimitris Droungas assumed responsibility
for all the financial arrangements. Likewise the contribution made
by the Museum’s Legal Department under Maria Venieri, which
has supervised the multiplicity of different agreements involved in
such a project. Our heartfelt thanks to all of them.
ANASTASIA DRANDAKI
DEMETRA PAPANIKOLA-BAKIRTZI
ANASTASIA TOURTA
The Catalogue Editors
Acknowledgments
he selection of national treasures from every corner of
Greece for Heaven and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek
Collections required the cooperation of a network of curators,
archaeologists, and conservators from the offices of the Hellenic
Ministry of Culture and Sports in Athens and from museums
throughout the country. During our research in Greece, we had
the honor of working with dedicated and generous scholars whose
enthusiasm and erudition form the foundation of this exhibition.
From our early communications with the Greek organizers and
throughout the process of bringing the exhibition to fruition, Dr.
Anastasia Drandaki, archaeologist and curator of the Byzantine
collection at the Benaki Museum, and Dr. Jenny Albani, architect
and art historian in the Directorate of Museums, Exhibitions, and
Educational Programs within the Hellenic Ministry of Culture
and Sports, have been our most valuable advisors, facilitators, and
friends.
The realization of this exhibition at the National Gallery of
Art and the J. Paul Getty Museum at the Getty Villa is due to
the impressive intellectual acumen of Byzantine scholars working
in Greece today. We extend profound thanks to colleagues in
Athens: Dr. Maria Andreadaki-Vlazaki, Director General of
Antiquities and Cultural Heritage at the Hellenic Ministry of
Culture and Sports, whose support has been invaluable from the
outset, Dr. Maria Lagogianni, director of Museums, Exhibitions,
and Educational Programs, and Sotiris Fotakidis, assistant curator
of antiquities; Professor Angelos Delivorrias, director of the
Benaki Museum, with president of the board Ms. Aimilia
Yeroulanou, archaeologist and museologist Dr. Mandy Koliou,
and archaeologist Eleni Charchare; Dr. Anastasia Lazaridou,
director of the Byzantine and Christian Museum, and deputy
director Dr. Kalliopi-Phaedra Kalafati, for their extraordinary
generosity in lending many of their greatest treasures; Dr.
Nikolaos Kaltsas, honorary director of the National
Archaeological Museum, with curator of sculpture Dr. Evridiki
Leka, and curator of vases and minor arts Eleni Zosi; Antonia
Arahova, deputy general director of the National Library, and
reference librarian Gregory Chrysostomidis; Dr. George Kakavas,
director of the Numismatic Museum and deputy director of the
National Archaeological Museum, and curator Yorka Nikolaou.
T
For facilitating our work in Argos and Corinth, we thank Dr.
Demetrios Athanasoulis, director of the 25th Ephorate of
Byzantine Antiquities, with curator Dr. Eleni Manolessou,
assistant curator Antonis Georgiou, and archaeologist Dr. Suzanne
Metaxas; as well as Dr. Ioulia Tzonou-Herbst, assistant director of
the Corinth excavations at the Archaeological Museum in
Corinth, American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
In the 16th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Kastoria, we
are especially grateful to Angeliki Strati, director of the
Archaeological Institute of Macedonian and Thracian Studies and
deputy director of the Ephorate, curator Andromachi Skreka, and
conservator Amalia Gkimourtzina, for the generous loan of major
icons from the Byzantine Museum. We also thank director
Stavroula Dadaki and archaeologist Sophia Doukata of the 12th
Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities in Kavala, for sharing their
expertise in the Archaeological Museum and Hagioi Theodoroi in
Serres. For their hospitality and illuminating tour of archaeological
sites and museums on Lesbos, we are grateful to Athina-Christina
Loupou, director of the 14th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities
and deputy director of the 20th Ephorate of Prehistoric and
Classical Antiquities, Mytilini, and archaeologist Anthi
Fratzoglou. In Sparta, we extend appreciation to Dr. Alkestis
Papadimitriou, director of the 4th Ephorate of Prehistoric and
Classical Antiquities and deputy director of the 5th Ephorate of
Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, and to assistant curator
Chara Giannakaki. At Mistra, deputy director of the 5th
Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities Evangelia Pantou, curator Dr.
Angeliki Mexia, archaeologists Panagiotis Perdikoulias and
Giannoula Katsougkraki all provided invaluable assistance. We
also thank Dr. Pari Kalamara, director, and Dr. Andromachi
Katselaki, curator at the 23rd Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities,
for their help at the monastery of Hosios Loukas.
We extend a special note of gratitude to our colleagues in
Thessaloniki: Dr. Agathoniki Tsilipakou, director of the Museum
of Byzantine Culture, with curator Dr. Anastassios Sinakos, and
head conservator Dimitra Lazidou, for their willingness to
contribute so many works from their extraordinary collection to
this exhibition; and Dr. Despina Makropoulou, director of the 9th
Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, with art historian Dr. Maria
| 17 |
Kagiadaki, and archaeologists Konstantinos Raptis and Stavroula
Tzevreni.
At the National Gallery of Art, we acknowledge with
gratitude the support of the director, Earl A. Powell III, and the
essential contributions of our colleagues in the departments of
exhibitions, D. Dodge Thompson, Naomi Remes, and Olivia
Wood; exhibition programs, Carroll Moore, David Hammer,
Elizabeth Laitman, and Julia Mullenger; design and installation,
Mark Leithauser, Jame Anderson, and Barbara Keyes; publishing,
Judy Metro, Chris Vogel, Tam Curry Bryfogle, and Caroline
Weaver; conservation, Bethann Heinbaugh and Kimberly
Schenck; registrar, Michelle Fondas; education, Faya Causey and
Heidi Hinish, press and public information, Deborah Ziska and
Anabeth Guthrie; general counsel’s office, Isabelle Raval; special
events, Carol Kelley and Maria Tousimis; development, Christine
Myers, Cristina Del Sesto, Patricia Donovan, and Kelsey
Horowitz; treasurer’s office, Nancy Hoffman; retail operations,
David Krol; website, John Gordy; and imaging and visual services,
Peter Dueker and John Schwartz. In addition, we acknowledge
the welcome advice of Christine Kondoleon, Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston; Robert Ousterhout, University of Pennsylvania; and
Gudrun Buehl and Stephen Zwirn, Dumbarton Oaks Research
Library and Collection. We also thank Velissarios Voutsas,
Elpida Boubalou, and Patrick Duval for their splendid
photographs of Byzantine churches in Greece. In particular, we
are grateful for the advice and assistance of Sophia Philippidou,
deputy chief of mission, Embassy of Greece, and Zoe Kosmidou,
minister councelor, Cultural Affairs and Director USA Office,
Hellenic Foundation for Culture. Finally, we thank Laurie
Weitzenkorn, counselor for public affairs, and Eleni Alexaki,
cultural affairs specialist at the United States Embassy, Athens, for
their support.
| 18 |
At the J. Paul Getty Museum we are grateful to director
Timothy Potts; Claire Lyons, acting senior curator of antiquities;
Karol Wight, former senior curator of antiquities; and the team
responsible for realizing this exhibition: from the department of
exhibitions and design, Quincy Houghton, Robin McCarthy,
Merritt Price, Robert Checchi, and Susan McGinty; registrars,
Sally Hibbard, Amy Linker, and Kanoko Sasao; education, Toby
Tannenbaum, Shelby Brown, Cathy Carpenter, Audrey Chan,
and Lisa Guzzetta; antiquities conservation, Jerry Podany and
Marie Svoboda, as well as mount-makers McKenzie Lowry, BJ
Farrar, and David Armendariz; preparations, Kevin Marshall, Al
Aguilar, Marcus Adams, and Dan Manns; collections information
and access, Maria Gilbert, Sahar Tchaitchian, Erik Bertellotti, and
Karen Voss; communications and public affairs, John Giurini and
Desiree Zenowich; retail and merchandising, Thomas Stewart; and
the antiquities department interns who worked on this project
across the two years of its development, Niki Stellings-Hertzberg
and Aurora Raimondi-Cominesi. A special note of thanks goes to
Sharon Gerstel, professor of Byzantine art history and archaeology
at the University of California, Los Angeles, for her insightful
observations. The concurrent display at the Getty Center, East
Meets West: Byzantine Illumination at the Cultural Crossroads, has
been co-curated by Elizabeth Morrison, senior curator of
manuscripts, and Justine M. Andrews, associate professor in the
department of art and art history at the University of New
Mexico in Albuquerque.
SUSAN MACMILLAN ARENSBERG
National Gallery of Art
MARY LOUISE HART
J. Paul Getty Museum
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE CATALOGUE
JENNY ALBANI
Architect and Art Historian, Directorate of
Museums, Exhibitions and Educational Programs,
Hellenic Ministry Culture and Sports
CHRISTINE ANGELIDI
Research Director Emerita, Institute of Historical
Research, National Hellenic Research Foundation,
Athens
EVANGELIA ANGELKOU
Curator of Antiquities, Museum of Byzantine
Culture, Thessaloniki
STAMATIA ELEFTHERATOU
Curator of Antiquities, Head of the Documentation,
Recording and Publication Department, 1st Ephorate
of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities / Temporary
Head of the Department of the Permanent
Collection, New Acropolis Museum, Athens
FR. PERIANDROS I. EPITROPAKIS
Archaeologist, Directorate of Byzantine and PostByzantine Antiquities, Hellenic Ministry of Culture
and Sports
VICKY FOSKOLOU
HENRY MAGUIRE
Professor Emeritus, History of Art, Byzantine and
Medieval Art, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore
APHRODITE MALTEZOU
Curator of Antiquities, 5th Ephorate of Prehistoric
and Classical Antiquities, Sparta
CHRYSSA MALTEZOU
Member of the Academy of Athens
ELENI G. MANOLESSOU
Curator of Antiquities, 25th Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Ancient Corinth
ANASTASSIOS C. ANTONARAS
Assistant Professor of Byzantine Archaeology,
University of Crete
ANTONIA N. ARAHOVA
ANASTASIA GADOLOU
Curator of Antiquities, National Archaeological
Museum of Greece, Athens
Researcher, Institute of Historical Research,
Department of Byzantine Research, National
Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens
PENNY GANI
IOANNIS MOTSIANOS
Professor of Ancient History, University of Athens
Curator of Antiquities, 23rd Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Chalkis
Curator of Antiquities, Museum of Byzantine
Culture, Thessaloniki
DEMETRIOS ATHANASOULIS
ANTONIS GEORGIOU
ROBERT S. NELSON
Curator of Antiquities, Museum of Byzantine
Culture, Thessaloniki
Deputy Director, National Library of Greece, Athens
POLYMNIA ATHANASSIADI
ZISIS MELISSAKIS
Robert Lehman Professor, History of Art, Medieval
Art and Architecture, Yale University
ANTHONY-EMIL N. TACHIAOS
Professor Emeritus, Aristotle University of
Thessaloniki. Foreign member, Serbian Academy of
Sciences and Arts and Bulgarian Academy of
Sciences
ANASTASIOS TANOULAS
Honorary Architect in Charge, Propylaia Restoration
Project, Service for the Restoration of the Acropolis
Monuments (YSMA), Hellenic Ministry of Culture
and Sports
IOANNIS TAVLAKIS
Honorary Director, 10th Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Polygyros, Chalkidiki
EVA TEGOU
Curator of Antiquities, Head of the Department of
Documentation, Recording and Publication, 25th
Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities –
Archaeological Museum of Rethymnon
IRENE THEOCHAROPOULOU
Curator of Antiquities, Head of the Department of
Public Relations, Documentation and Publications,
Byzantine and Christian Museum, Athens
Director, 25th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities,
Ancient Corinth
Curator of Antiquities, 25th Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Ancient Corinth
MARIE-FRANCE AUZÉPY
SOPHIA GEROGIORGI
DIMITRIS NALPANTIS
∏onorary Head of the Department of Public
Relations, Documentation and Publications,
Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki
ANASTASIA TOURTA
SHARON E. J. GERSTEL
YORKA NIKOLAOU
Curator of Antiquities, Numismatic Museum,
Athens
ANTONIS TSAKALOS
Curator of Antiquities, Byzantine and Christian
Museum, Athens
KALLIOPI-PHAEDRA KALAFATI
ROBERT OUSTERHOUT
Professor of Byzantine Art and Architecture,
Director, Center for Ancient Studies, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
CHRISTINA TSIGONAKI
Professor Emerita, University of Paris VIII
CHRISTINA AVRONIDAKI
Curator of Antiquities, National Archaelogical
Museum of Greece, Athens
CHARALAMBOS BAKIRTZIS
Honorary Director, 9th Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Thessaloniki and Director of the
Foundation “Anastasios G. Leventis.” Nicosia,
Cyprus
AIMILIA BAKOUROU
Honorary Director, 5th Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Sparta
Curator of Antiquities, Byzantine and Christian
Museum, Athens
Professor of Byzantine Art History and Archaeology,
University of California, Los Angeles
Curator of Antiquities, Head of the Department of
the Archaeological Collections of icons, wall
paintings, mosaics, copies, manuscripts, sketches,
engravings, drawings, early printed books, and
the Loverdos Collection, Byzantine and Christian
Museum, Athens
ANNA BALLIAN
Curator Emerita of Islamic Art, Benaki Museum,
Athens
PARI KALAMARA
Director of the 23rd Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities and 11th Ephorate of Prehistoric and
Classical Antiquities, Chalkis
NIKOLAOS BONOVAS
ANTHONY KALDELLIS
Curator of Antiquities, Museum of Byzantine
Culture, Thessaloniki
Professor of Greek and Latin, The Ohio State
University, Columbus
GUDRUN BUEHL
GEORGE KAKAVAS
Curator, Byzantine Art, and Museum Director,
Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C.
EUGENIA CHALKIA
Honorary Director of the Byzantine and Christian
Museum, Athens
MARIA CHIDIROGLOU
Curator of Antiquities, National Archaeological
Museum of Greece, Athens
EVANGELOS CHRYSOS
Professor Emeritus, University of Athens
KRITON CHRYSSOCHOIDIS
Director, Institute of Historical Research, National
Hellenic Research Foundation, Athens
´ URČIC´
SLOBODAN C
Professor Emeritus, Princeton University and SANU
Hon Academician
ANTHONY CUTLER
Evan Pugh Professor of Art History, Pennsylvania
State University, University Park
STAVROULA DADAKI
Director, 12th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities,
Kavala
AIKATERINI DELLAPORTA
Director of the Numismatic Museum, Athens, and
Acting Director of the National Archaeological
Museum of Greece, Athens
PANAGIOTIS KAMBANIS
Curator of Antiquities, Museum of Byzantine
Culture, Thessaloniki
Professor Emerita of Byzantine Art and
Archaeology, University of Athens
Director, Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki
CHRYSANTHI TSOULI
Curator of Antiquities, National Archaeological
Museum of Greece, Athens
MARIA TSOULI
IOAKEIM PAPANGELOS
Curator of Antiquities, 5th Ephorate of Prehistoric
and Classical Antiquities, Sparta
DEMETRA PAPANIKOLA-BAKIRTZI
KATERINA TZANAKAKI
Curator of Antiquities, 25th Ephorate of Prehistoric
and Classical Antiquities, Chania
Former Curator of Antiquities, 10th Ephorate of
Byzantine Antiquities, Polygyros, Chalkidiki
Honorary Curator of Antiquities, Museum of
Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki and Director of the
Leventis Municipal Museum of Nicosia, Cyprus
MICHALIS PETROPOULOS
Honorary Director, 39th Ephorate of Prehistoric and
Classical Antiquities, Tripolis
ANTIGONI TZITZIBASSI
Curator of Antiquities, Museum of Byzantine
Culture, Thessaloniki
NIKI VASILIKOU
Curator, National Gallery – Alexandros Soutzos
Museum– Evripidis Koutlidis Foundation, Athens
Curator of Antiquities, Byzantine and Christian
Museum, Athens
EVI KATSARA
Curator of Antiquities, 5th Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Sparta
BRIGITTE PITARAKIS
Researcher, Centre d’histoire et civilisation de
Byzance, CNRS, Paris
MARIA VASSILAKI
Professor of the History of Byzantine Art, University
of Thessaly
ANGELIKI KATSIOTI
MARIA SALTA
EVANGELOS VIVLIODETIS
Curator of Antiquities, National Archaeological
Museum of Greece, Athens
GUY D. R. SANDERS
ELENA VLACHOGIANNI
Curator of Antiquities, National Archaeological
Museum of Greece, Athens
Curator of Antiquities, Head of the Department of
Museums, Exhibitions and Educational Programs,
4th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Rhodes
GEORGE KAVVADIAS
Curator of Antiquities, National Archaeological
Museum of Greece, Athens
Curator of Antiquities, National Archaeological
Museum of Greece, Athens
Director of Corinth Excavations, American School
of Classical Studies at Athens
KLEANTHIS SIDIROPOULOS
TONIA KIOUSOPOULOU
Professor of Byzantine History, University of Crete
Curator of Antiquities, 38th Ephorate of Prehistoric
and Classical Antiquities, Kalamata
JOHANNES KODER
MARIA Z. SIGALA
Professor Emeritus, University of Vienna and
Member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences
ANASTASIA LAZARIDOU
MARIA DHOGA-TOLI
EVRIDIKI LEKA
Curator of Antiquities, National Archaeological
Museum of Greece, Athens
Honorary Director, 7th Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Larissa
EFTERPI MARKI
Honorary Director, 9th Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Thessaloniki
ANASTASIA DRANDAKI
EUNICE DAUTERMAN MAGUIRE
Curator of the Byzantine and Post-Byzantine
Collection, Benaki Museum, Athens
MARIA PANAYOTIDI
AGATHONIKI TSILIPAKOU
Curator of Antiquities, Head of the Department of
Museums, Exhibitions and Educational Programs,
2nd Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Athens
Director, Byzantine and Christian Museum, Athens
ASPASIA DINA
Lecturer in Byzantine and Postbyzantine
Archaeology, University of Athens
Lecturer in Byzantine Archaeology, University of
Crete
ANNA PIANALTO
MARIA KATSANAKI
Director, 2nd Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities,
Athens
Curator of Antiquities, Museum of Cycladic Art,
Athens
GEORGIOS PALLIS
Honorary Director, Museum of Byzantine Culture,
Thessaloniki, and Director of the European Centre
for Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Monuments
Visiting Scholar, History of Art, Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore
Curator of Antiquities, Head of the Department of
Documentation, Recording and Publication, 2nd
Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Athens
NIKOLAOS SIOMKOS
Curator of Antiquities, 25th Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Ancient Corinth
TERPSICHORI-PATRICIA SKOTTI
Curator of Antiquities, Byzantine and Christian
Museum, Athens
ANGELIKI STRATI
Director of the Archaeological Institute of
Macedonian and Thracian Studies and Acting
Director of the 16th Ephorate of Byzantine
Antiquities, Kastoria
ANNEMARIE WEYL CARR
Professor Emerita of Art History, Southern Methodist
University, Dallas
MARIA XANTHOPOULOU
Lecturer in Byzantine Archaeology, University of
Peloponnese
AIMILIA YEROULANOU
Art Historian, President of the Board of Trustees,
Benaki Museum
ANGELOS ZARKADAS
Curator of Antiquities, Paul and Alexandra
Canellopoulos Museum, Athens
ELENI ZAVVOU
Curator of Antiquities, Head of the Collections
Department, Epigraphic Museum, Athens
ELENI ZOSI
Curator of Antiquities, National Archaeological
Museum of Greece, Athens
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INTRODUCTION
ANGELOS DELIVORRIAS
he importance of Byzantium went unappreciated for many
centuries, lacking wide-scale recognition. This may be due
to the fact that until around the end of the nineteenth
century it was viewed negatively and seen as representing a
decline from the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. In other
words it was viewed in a way that either circumvented the facts
of its historical context or played them down. However, if the
evidence had been considered from a somewhat different angle, it
would have been recognized earlier that the Byzantine period did
not debase the values of the two great civilizations that had
flourished in the same geographical area. In fact, it ensured their
natural continuation, because it could combine some of the
essential characteristics of the Greco-Roman past in a new,
dynamic arrangement.
T
The dynamism of the Byzantine Empire is reflected above all
in the genuinely impressive fact that it was the only empire in the
Western world that managed to survive for more than a
thousand years: to be specific from 330, when Constantinople
became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, until 1453,
when it was finally conquered by the Ottomans. This generous
allocation of historical time was determined by Byzantium’s
advantageous geopolitical situation at the point where Europe
meets Asia and where the Mediterranean connects with the Black
Sea. And this made it possible for many of the reminders of
ancient Greece that had survived along the Asia Minor coastline
to be assimilated and exploited right up to the time of Julian the
Apostate and the ecumenical councils of the fourth, fifth, and
sixth centuries. And, while those same echoes of ancient Greece
came up against what was left of the Hellenistic heritage and
experiences of Roman tradition, other processes were at the same
time legitimizing and establishing Christianity as an official
religion. Meanwhile the Greek language, the so-called koine that
had been the lingua franca in the area for centuries and in which
the Gospels themselves were written, quickly took the place of
Latin throughout the empire. Horizons were widened thanks to
the new cultural experiences and new technical expertise with
which Byzantium, that indisputably spectacular cultural
phenomenon, was now generously endowed.
The dynamism of the Byzantine Empire is confirmed above all
by the fact that for a thousand years it repulsed successive waves
of hostile invaders with almighty strength and at the same time
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defended the states of central Europe. However, the constant
military engagements with powerful adversaries (e.g. Persians,
Vandals and Goths, Slavs, Avars and Arabs, Bulgarians, Russians,
and Seljuks) inevitably resulted in a gradual shrinking of territory.
After the definitive loss of Italy, all the Empire’s possessions in the
Eastern and Western Mediterranean were lost along with the
whole of North Africa in the triumphal onward progression of
the Arabs. Yet the Byzantine Empire suffered a deeper blow from
the famous Fourth Crusade, which, instead of liberating Jerusalem
in accordance with its announced aim, attacked, conquered, and
plundered Constantinople in 1204. Though the Byzantines
quickly retook the capital in 1261, they could not avert the final
overthrow of what had become in the meantime a shrunken and
fragmented state in the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in
1453. Yet it is worth noting that despite the inauspicious
circumstances, Byzantine art experienced an unexpected revival in
that late period, the dazzling proofs of which are still to be seen in
the Chora Monastery (or Kariye Camii) in Constantinople, on
Mount Athos, in Mistra, and elsewhere.
Though throughout the thousand years of its existence
Byzantium had to contend with the constant to and fro of a
fluctuating history and the unpredictable vicissitudes of
circumstance, it never ceased to protect the values of the GrecoRoman spirit. By this I mean, with the celebrated “Imperial City”
at its heart, with its splendid university—the first in Europe—from
as early as 425, and with the Greek language as its unshakeable
linch-pin, it went on systematically cultivating its traditions and
subsequently handed down many of its fundamental ideas with
added value. And within these parameters the ethical framework
was created that ensured social cohesion. In the meantime, by
enacting new rules the administrative machinery was reorganized,
the theory behind case law in the justice system was revised,
welfare and education services were adjusted, as were the demands
on agricultural production and small-scale industry, on trade and
economic life in general. At the same time art works of
outstanding quality fashioned the traits of a distinctive identity in
architecture and painting, mosaics, and the decorative and minor
arts. Then again, the contribution Byzantium made to humanity
in terms of the systematic copying and dissemination of extant
works of ancient Greek literature is considered equally important.
Finally, among the character traits of the Byzantine identity, along
with some exemplary refinements in living conditions, there are
imaginative appropriations of many lessons from foreign cultural
models and an incipient and pleasing cosmopolitanism. The
vibrant life that I am attempting to describe as succinctly as
possible was not dulled even in exceptionally traumatic times,
such as in the long Venetian and Turkish occupations of the Late
Byzantine and early Post-Byzantine periods, when the empire had
been choked back to an area not much larger than that of
modern-day Greece.
Light began to be shed on the historic importance of
Byzantium around the middle of the nineteenth, but more
particularly from the twentieth century onward, when systematic
in-depth studies were undertaken in a conscientious manner. The
reconstruction and recovery of many previously obscure aspects,
overriding earlier distorted interpretations and counteracting
academic indifference, are undoubtedly largely the product of a
much more thorough investigation of knowledge. Study of the
textual sources and information from surviving evidence,
reviewing the research field and radically revising received
opinions, the reliable collection and methodical documentation of
the available data were all undertaken more seriously in every
respect. A more thorough review of all the ins and outs of what
has since become a globally developed screening process would
show more clearly how fortunate it was that so many extremely
important contributions and a host of independent but
interrelated initiatives came together. This was the only way, but
it is also how those who assembled the fragmented concept of the
Byzantine past should be honored for their share in this process.
Nevertheless, since the settlement of this outstanding debt is likely
to be of interest mainly to those who are specialists in academic
matters, I shall avoid long-winded digressions. Yet I am honor
bound to summarize, albeit in shorthand fashion, some of the
building blocks in this process, which in my opinion should not
be overlooked.
As regards the flourishing of Byzantine studies and the
production of scholarly publications which underwrote it, we have
to acknowledge the enormous contribution of the French School.
In other words to stress, at least in a general way, the leading role
in terms of important teaching and ground-breaking publications
played by such scholars as Charles Diehl, Gabriel Millet, André
Grabar, Paul Lemerle, and Hélène Glykatzi-Ahrweiler. Equally,
the praises must be sung of the research of Karl Krumbacher,
August Heisenberg, Franz Dölger and Hans Belting in Germany;
of Josef Strzygowski in Austria; and of Nikodim Kondakov,
Alexander Vasiliev, Georg Ostrogorsky, and Alexander Kazhdan
in Russia and the Balkans. The English contribution to this
collaborative endeavour is marked by the invaluable academic
work of Sir Steven Runciman, David Talbot Rice, and Cyril
Mango. While for the spread of Byzantine Studies to the United
States the migration of Kurt Weitzmann and Ernst Kitzinger
from Nazi Germany in the period just before World War Two
and that of Ihor Ševčenko in the early fifties had a beneficial
effect. Greek interest had been aroused as far back as the midnineteenth century with the studies of Spyridon Zambelios and
Spyridon Lambros, as well as the highly controversial publication
History of the Greek Nation by Constantine Paparrigopoulos.
However, in the twentieth century interest was rekindled thanks
to the grandiose reconstructions of architectural monuments
effected by Anastasios Orlandos, to large-scale excavations by
distinguished archaeologists, and to in-depth research by such
eminent scholars as George Sotiriou, Andreas Xyngopoulos,
Dionysios Zakynthinos, and Manolis Chatzidakis.
These brief references to research centers and scholars,
mentioned above by way of example, in no way undervalue the
importance of the scholarship of many others, equally well known
for their contributions. An ever more global approach to
Byzantium has been encouraged by the similarly well-recognized
phenomenon of specialization by discipline, which systematically
and increasingly accompanies the growth of Byzantine studies in
most institutions of higher education throughout the world. The
individual university departments, the related research bodies, and
the corresponding teaching institutions that have been set up are
naturally imbued with common objectives. These objectives are
reinforced by the regular publication of journals of a specialized
nature, such as Byzantinische Zeitschrift, the Dumbarton Oaks Papers,
or Byzantion, and they in turn are backed up by a variety of
additional collaborative activities. This type of well-coordinated
endeavour includes the international congresses that have been
convened—apart from the war years—every five years since 1924.
They also include the exhibitions celebrating the Byzantine
collections of world-class museums. For the very seductive
individuality of their material and for the way they continue to
add to their collections museums such as the State Hermitage
Museum in St. Petersburg and the Pushkin in Moscow, the Bode
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Museum in Berlin, the Louvre in Paris, the British Museum in
London, and the Metropolitan Museum in New York have
received recognition. Some collections belonging to the
monasteries on Mount Athos, Patmos, or Sinai or the
Foundation set up by Archbishop Makarios in Nicosia in
Cyprus can be considered their equals in quality. We should also
add the displays of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine painting in
other places such as Sofia, for example, and the Recklinghausen
Icon Museum, the Dr. Schmidt-Voigt Foundation in Frankfurt,
the Icon Museum in Kampen in the Netherlands, and
Dumbarton Oaks in Washington. Finally a constantly growing
number of private collections must also be taken into account.
Greek concern for Byzantium was demonstrated as early as
1884, when the Christian Archaeological Society was founded, one
of the earliest Greek academic bodies. However, the de facto
interest of the state was first expressed in 1914 with the
establishment of the Byzantine and Christian Museum in Athens,
the celebrations for its official opening in 1930, and more recently
with the extension and radical remodeling of its premises in 2004.
It should be noted that the International Congress of Byzantine
Studies has been held twice in Athens, in 1930 and 1976 and
once in Thessaloniki in 1953. It should also be noted that in 1955
the Hellenic Institute of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Studies
began its work in Venice, while in 1994 a new museum, devoted
exclusively to Byzantine culture, opened its doors in Thessaloniki,
subsequently winning an award from the Council of Europe in
2005 for its original approach to display. Many similar museums
have become independent in other Greek towns and cities such as
Alexandroupolis, Veroia and Kastoria, Ioannina, Arta, Mistra,
Corfu, Zakynthos, and in Chania, Heraklion, Rhodes, and Chios.
The excavated or other material that has become available and
contributed to their construction is proliferating on an almost
daily basis with the accumulation of finds from historical sites of
outstanding importance, and the collecting, cleaning, conservation,
and reconstruction of rare works of art. As regards the assembly
and care of exhibits, just how much is owed to the laborious and
strenuous efforts of each of the 28 Byzantine Ephorates of
Antiquities must be emphasized. Their well-trained academic and
technical staffs not only supervise archaeological sites and
museums, but at the same time carry out rescue digs, look after
objects and remains from excavations, and restore architectural
monuments.
However, there is absolutely no doubt that the wider acclaim
enjoyed nowadays by Byzantine civilization is also due to some
extent to a constantly increasing number of special exhibitions.
These events, typically associated with museums, are by definition
of an educational nature, and are provided with past finds, both
well known and little known, as well as more recent ones
belonging to public and private collections and some sudden
chance discoveries. In other words, they offer exceptionally
appealing material, which rewards the efforts of (for the most part)
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international scholars in analyzing it and putting it to good use.
Generally speaking, these exhibitions represent the collective efforts
of organizations that have been deliberately introducing the not
always well-informed general public to the mysteries of
Byzantium’s cultural makeup since the middle of the twentieth
century. Let me just remind you that one of the first of these
exhibitions, and one of the most important from every point of
view, was held in Athens in 1964 under the auspices of the
Council of Europe with the eloquent title “Byzantine Art. An
European Art.” Indeed, the study of its conceptual content, i.e.
dovetailing Byzantine achievements with the cultural capital of
European self-discovery, blazed a trail that all the corresponding
organizations would then follow.
Out of the much larger number of equally important
exhibitions I shall mention only a selected few: e.g. “Age of
Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to
Seventh Century” (1977) at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
This exhibition, which confirmed the direct evolution of the
Byzantine era from the Late Roman one, contributed to a revision
of some hotly debated relations in historicity. The museum’s
decidedly original contribution went on to be displayed in two
additional complementary exhibitions of an exemplary nature:
“The Glory of Byzantium, Art and Culture of the Middle
Byzantine Era (843–1261),” which in 1997 revealed the dazzling
light Byzantium shone on other crucially important chapters in
history, and “Byzantium: Faith and Power (1261–1557)” from
2004, which completed this remarkable triadic scholarly offering.
Yet with its monumental 2012 exhibition “Byzantium and Islam:
Age of Transition” the Metropolitan Museum continued to
identify still more unexplored aspects of history.
French museological policy was worthily represented in 1992
in the Louvre’s exhibition “Byzance. L’art byzantin dans les
collections publiques françaises,” which assembled outstanding
examples of Byzantine art from various sources all over France.
In 2007, 2010, and 2012 the same museum followed up with
“Armenia Sacra,” “Sainte Russie,” and “Chypre entre Byzance et
l’Occident, IVe–XVIe siècle” respectively, exhibitions with related
content. In Paris in 2009 the Petit Palais hosted an exhibition
from Greece, “Le Mont Athos et l’Empire Byzantin: Trésors de la
Sainte Montagne,” at the same year that the exhibition titled “De
Byzance à Istanbul: Un port pour deux continents” was on view
at the Grand Palais.
To illustrate, albeit in broad outlines, the engagement of
international interest, it is necessary to note some other exhibitions
of great importance: “Splendeur de Byzance” (1982) in the Musées
Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire in Brussels; “Byzantium: Treasures of
Byzantine Art and Culture from British Collections” (1994) in
the British Museum in London; “Byzanz–Das Licht aus dem
Osten. Kult und Alltag im Byzantinischen Reich vom
4. bis 15. Jahrhundert” (2001) in the Diözesanmuseum in
Paderborn; “Die Welt von Byzanz – Europas östliches Erbe.
Glanz, Krisen und Fortleben einer tausendjährigen Kultur”
(2004) in the Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Munich;
“Holy Image, Hallowed Ground: Icons from Sinai” (2006) at the
J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles; “Byzanz. Pracht und
Alltag” (2010) in the Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle in Bonn; and
“Das Goldene Byzanz und der Orient” (2012) in the Renaissance
castle of Schallaburg .
Greece did not remain immune to the general atmosphere of
exhibition euphoria. In particular, the Byzantine Museum can
boast of its exhibition “Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Art,”
which—with some changes of exhibits and adaptations to the
title—traveled from 1985 to 1990 to the Palazzo Strozzi in
Florence, the Royal Academy in London, the Walters Art
Gallery in Baltimore, the Center for the Fine Arts in Miami,
Florida, the Kimbell Art Museum in Forth Worth, Texas, the
Fine Art Museum of San Francisco, the Cleveland Museum of
Art, and the Detroit Institute of Art. Mention must also be made
of exhibitions such as “Conversation with God: Icons from the
Byzantine Museum of Athens (9th–15th Centuries),” mounted in
1998 at the Hellenic Centre in London, the multi-venue
exhibition “Byzantine Hours. Works and Days in Byzantium”
from 2002 held in Athens, Thessaloniki, and Mistra, and the
“Transition to Christianity: Art of Late Antiquity, 3rd–7th
Century” of 2011 at the Onassis Cultural Center in New York.
In this context, of course, we cannot fail to mention the not
inconsequential contribution of the Benaki Museum. I need only
mention the exhibition “Byzantine Icons of Cyprus,” which in
1976, not long after the tragic events of 1974 in Cyprus, made
some masterpieces of Byzantine painting known to the general
public for the first time. In 1983 the exhibition “Icons of the
Cretan School” identified connections between the artistic
creations of the Late Byzantine/early Post-Byzantine period and
the contemporary achievements of Renaissance Italy. Then again,
since 1992 the “Icons of the Velimezi Collection” have become a
standard bearer for Byzantine civilization in various institutions
throughout the world. The following exhibitions have also left
their mark: “The Glory of Byzantium at Mount Sinai” (1997);
“Mother of God. Representations of the Virgin in Byzantine Art”
(2000); “Greek Icons: 14th–18th c. From the Rena Andreadis
Collection” (2002); “Pilgrimage to Sinai: Treasures from the Holy
Monastery of Saint Catherine” (2004); and “From Byzantium to
Modern Greece, Hellenic Art in Adversity 1453–1830” at the
Onassis Cultural Center in New York (2005). Mention must
also be made of the extremely ambitious exhibition “Byzantium:
330–1453,” which opened at the Royal Academy of Arts in
London in 2008, and the exhibitions “The Origins of El Greco.
Icon Painting in Venetian Crete” from 2009 at the Onassis
Cultural Center in New York, “Hand of Angelos. An Icon
Painter in Venetian Crete” of 2010 in Athens, and “Relics of the
Past: Treasures of the Greek Orthodox Church and the
Population Exchange” from 2011 at the Orthodox Centre of the
Ecumenical Patriarchate in Chambésy, near Geneva.
Potential gaps, probable omissions and incomplete references to
the thematic content of all the above individual events may
undermine my line of argument. Yet from the general drift of my
somewhat itemized narrative, I am sure that both the alert reader
and anyone who sees the exhibition “Heaven and Earth” will be
able to summon up some highlights of Byzantine culture. Like
the Early Christian basilicas of northern Italy with their
architectural and mosaic decoration, for example, or the Byzantine
mosaics from the mosque of Cordoba in Spain and the Norman
monuments in Sicily, all of which are glittering testimony to a
centuries-old tradition. This same powerful radiance issues from
many marvellous monuments in the Middle East, Serbia, Bulgaria,
and Russia, not to mention the momentous invention of the
Cyrillic alphabet by Greek monks. Finally, the beneficial effects of
Byzantine civilization are scattered throughout central Europe, but
above all in Early Renaissance Italy.
In addition to the obvious Greek dimension of Byzantium, all
the above references illustrate Greece’s active participation in most
of the activities that I have tried to summarize on the occasion of
this exhibition at the National Gallery of Art and the J. Paul
Getty Museum. Because in Greece, moreover, the dazzling
splendor of Byzantine civilization remains alive, not just in what
has been preserved of the architecture, the panel and wall
paintings, mosaics, minor arts, goldsmithing, and embroidery, or
simply in the tenets of the Orthodox faith, but also in the
extraordinarily enduring continuation of many traditions in the
Post-Byzantine period. In other words, in the transformation of a
flourishing civilization, which despite the dramatic effects of
centuries of foreign rule, was borne up by the internal cohesion of
Hellenism and the historical continuity of the Greek language.
Based on the detailed, though not exhaustive enumeration of
the information I have marshaled as evidence, some conclusions
spring unbidden to mind. First, the decisive importance of
international collaboration for the ongoing examination of
Byzantium, a fitting counterpoise to the cosmopolitan tendencies
that characterized the empire. And the universal adoption of
geographical and chronological boundaries, from East to West and
from the Late Roman to the early Post-Byzantine period. And
finally the decisive part played by Greece in the making of the
Byzantine idiom. To be more specific, it was the latter that
originally encouraged me to suggest an alternative title for the
exhibition. Rather than “Heaven and Earth,” I proposed the
equally pithy, but perhaps semantically more literal “Byzantium’s
Greece,” or with inverted symmetry, “Greece’s Byzantium,” for, as I
still believe, that might well describe the conceptual counterweight
of the exhibition’s content even more clearly.
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162. Groin Vault Keystone
with Face Composed of
Leaves
Circa 1225–36
Sedimentary rock, possibly sandstone
14 ⅝ x 20 ⅛ x 17 ¾ in. (37 x 51 x 45 cm)
Condition: minor damage and losses on part
of a leaf, the nose, and upper lip
161
Provenance: Cistercian Abbey of Zarakas
(Stymphalia), Corinthia
6th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities,
Chloumoutsi (Clermont) Castle Museum,
inv. no. ∏§ 585 [ª™ 3606]
his keystone depicts a male face
composed of leaves in relief within a
disk. The leaves sprout from the nose and
chin and spread radially. The integral ends
of the groin vault’s four converging
cylindrical ribs are preserved behind the
disk. Guide lines and the mason’s mark
“+” are visible on the mating surfaces.
The keystone comes from the church
of the Cistercian abbey at Zarakas
(Stymphalia) in Corinthia.1 It probably
decorated one of the groin vaults of the
three-nave Gothic basilica’s porch. The
abbey was founded between 1225 and
1236 and functioned until 1275–80 as part
of the organized infiltration of the Latin
Church into the territory of the Orthodox
empire of Romania, or Eastern Roman
Empire, following the fall of Constantinople
to the Crusaders in 1204 and the
establishment in the Peloponnese of the
Crusader principality of Achaia, which
reached its apogee in the mid-thirteenth
century under the rule of William II
Villehardouin and survived until 1430.
The mask of leaves (green man,2 tête de
feuilles or masque feuillu3) was a popular
motif in Western medieval art and in
particular in the so-called “art marginal” of
Gothic architectural sculpture.4 It is
thought to reflect two important referents
of thirteenth-century Gothic art, namely
antiquity and nature. The mask recalls
similar pagan representations from the
imperial Roman tradition,5 which survived
into the Early Christian period, for
T
The Benaki Museum bracelet and an
example in the Virginia Museum of Fine
Arts5 feature square panels with griffins, a
motif that occurs in the architectural
decoration of Middle Byzantine churches
and on luxurious Byzantine and Islamic
textiles.6 Framed by scrollwork, the griffins
(three on each semicylindrical section) are
shown striding, the central griffin lifting its
front paw as in earlier Sasanian examples
and in contemporary luster painted
Fatimid ceramics.7 The griffin, a winged
lion with the head of a bird of prey, is one
of the East’s benevolent imaginary
creatures; it is often depicted fighting other
animals, as the guardian of shrines, in
heroization scenes such as the Ascension
of Alexander (cat. nos. 96, 156), and,
consequently, as a symbol of power. It is
one of the exotic motifs shared by
Christian and Muslim courts from
Central Asia to Spain, widely accepted and
highly adaptable, as demonstrated by the
Islamic griffin that adorned the cathedral
at Pisa for centuries.8
ANNA BALLIAN
| 312 |
Literature: L. Bouras 1983, 48, no. 53; Athens 1986,
190, no. 199 (L. Bouras).
1
London 2008, 412–13, nos. 135–36 (A. Ballian).
The group includes four bracelets in the Benaki
Museum while several others are in the Kanellopoulos
Museum, Athens (the only gold example); the
Dumbarton Oaks Collection, Washington D.C.; the
Walters Art Museum, Baltimore; the Boston Museum
of Fine Arts; the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts in
Richmond; the Louvre; and a private collection; all are
now published in Bosselmann-Ruickbie 2011, 114–17,
400–402, figs. 149–63.
3
Allan 1986, 12, fig. 40; Marschak 1986, fig. 147.
4
Ballian and Drandaki 2003, 58–65.
5
Gonosova’ and Kondoleon 1994, no. 18.
6
New York 1997, 36, no. 2 (Δh. Pazaras), 319, no. 219
(O. Z. Pevny), 412, no. 269B (D. Walker); Bonn 2010,
172–73, no. 61 (A. Stauffer); Thessaloniki 2011b, 164–
65, no. 80 (A. Tzitzibassi). See also the tile revetment
with the animal frieze in the Louvre; Gerstel and
Lauffenburger 2001, 283, B5.
7
Paris 2006, 111, no. 50; Paris 1998, 115–16, nos. 39–
43.
8
Hoffman 2007, 318–25; Contadini et. al. 2002.
2
163. Proskynetarion with
Christ Pantokrator
Enthroned
Mistra, second half of the 14th century
Marble inlaid with wax mastic, color, and
gold
H. 38 ⅛ x 29 ⅛ x 5 ⅛ in. (97 x 74 x 13 cm)
Condition: damage to the semicircular arch,
on Christ’s face, and in the inlay
Provenance: reused in the later south
narthex of the Peribleptos
5th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities,
Mistra Museum, inv. no. 1166
he castle of Mistra was founded by the
Franks in the foothills of Mount
Taygetos in the mid-thirteenth century. In
1262, after the Franks’ defeat at the battle
of Pelagonia, Mistra was ceded to the
Byzantines and quickly developed into a
dynamic urban center with intense
intellectual and artistic activity. Under the
rule of the imperial families of
Constantinople, the Kantakouzenoi and
the Palaiologoi, Mistra became the capital
of the despotate of Morea, which
embraced the entire Peloponnese in the
fifteenth century until it fell to the
Ottomans on May 30, 1460 (see Sh. E. J.
Gerstel above, 300–303).1
This relief of the enthroned Christ on a
marble proskynetarion, executed in
champlevé and engraving, is a unique
representation of a holy figure among the
sculptures of Mistra. By removing the
background and adding wax mastic, gold,
and the colors blue and red, the relief was
combined with painting, an eclectic mix
characteristic of the art of the Palaiologan
period.
Christ sits beneath an arch on an
elaborate throne, holding a closed book
and making a gesture of blessing with his
raised right hand in a rare iconographic
particular deriving from the Ascension.
The local artist obviously followed
models from monumental painting such as
Christ Polyeleos from the wall paintings in
the diakonikon of the Metropolis (c. 1270–
85)2 and Christ of the Ascension in the
T
162
example on Constantinopolitan capitals
and imposts.6 The motif has been
variously interpreted as a symbol of
fertility and nature’s perpetual rebirth.
Secondarily, leaf masks are considered to
have apotropaic properties.
The repertoire and style of the
architectural sculpture of the Cistercian
abbey of Zarakas were entirely foreign to
the local Byzantine tradition and should
be attributed to a Western workshop,
possibly from Burgundy or Campania.7 It
is also possible that the monks themselves
carved the sculptures, since the Cistercians
were known as the mason-monks.8 At the
building site the Franks collaborated with
Greek crews, as indicated by the abbey’s
masonry.
The Crusaders’ Gothic “implants” in
the Byzantine cultural territory of the
Peloponnese, of which the Zarakas abbey
with its sculptures is a typical example,
acted as a catalyst in shaping the
architectural idiom of the Crusader
principality of Achaia in the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries.9 Within this
context, the artistic interplay that resulted
from the collaboration of Frankish and
local masons contributed to the renewal of
Late Byzantine art and architecture in
southern Greece.10
DEMETRIOS ATHANASOULIS
Literature: Nicosia 2004, 68–69, no. 2 (D. Athanasoulis).
1
Orlandos 1957; Bon 1969; Kitsiki-Panagopoulos 1979,
27-42; Salzer 1991; Campbell 1997.
2
Raglan 1939.
3
Dectot 2010.
4
Le Pogam 2007.
5
See for example Mouriki 1980–81, 313–14.
6
FÈratlÈ 1990, 118–20 (nos. 218–20, 223–25).
7
Grossman 2005, 67, 69.
8
Dimier 1964, 108–11.
9
Athanasoulis 2013a, 142–51.
10
On the origin of the mask motif in Late Byzantine
painting, see Mouriki 1980–81, 329–30, 334–38.
| 313 |
Abbreviations
AAA
Archaiologika Analekta ex Athenon
AASS
Acta Sanctorum
ABME
Archeion ton Byzantinon Mnemeion tes Hellados
ADelt
Archaiologikon Deltion
AE
Archaiologike Ephemeris
AJA
American Journal of Archaeology
AntTard
Antiquité tardive
ArtB
Art Bulletin
BCH
Bulletin de correspondance hellénique
BICS
Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, University of London
BMGS
Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies
BZ
Byzantinische Zeitschrift
CahArch
Cahiers archéologiques
CEMyR
Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas
CIETA
Centre International d’Etudes des Textiles Anciens
Corinth
Results of Excavations Conducted by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens
DACL
Dictionnaire d’Archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie
DChAE
Deltion tes Christianikes Archaiologikes Hetaireias
DIEE
Deltion tes Historikes kai Ethnologikes Hetaireias tes Hellados
DOC
Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore
Collection, I–V. Washington, D.C., 1966–99
DOP
Dumbarton Oaks Papers
EEBS
Epeteris Hetaireias Byzantinon Spoudon
EEPhSPA
Epistemonike Epeteris tes Philosophikes Scholes tou Panepistemiou Athenon
EEPhSPTh
Epistemonike Epeteris tes Philosophikes Scholes tou Panepistemiou Thessalonikes
FD
Fouilles de Delphes, III. Épigraphie. Paris, 1929
IG
Inscriptiones graecae
JbAC
Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum
JDAI
Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts
JÖB
Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik
JRA
Journal of Roman Archaeology
JRS
Journal of Roman Studies
LCI
Lexikon der christlichen Ikonographie
LIMC
Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae
LRC
Catalogue of Late Roman Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore
Collection: from Arcadius and Honorius to the Accession of Anastasius. Washington, D.C., 1992
MIB
Moneta Imperii Byzantini
MonPiot
Monuments et mémoires publiés par l’Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres: Fondation Eugène Piot
ODB
Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
PAA
Praktika tes Akademias Athenon
PAE
Praktika tes en Athenais Archaeologikes Hetaireias
PraktikaChAE
Praktika tes Christianikes Archaiologikes Hetaireias
PG
Migne, Patrologiae cursus completus, Series Graeca
RAC
Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum
RbK
Reallexikon zur byzantinischen Kunst
REB
Revue des études byzantines
Römische Quartalschrift
Römische Quartalschrift für Christliche Alterthumskunde und für Kirchengeschichte
Saggi e Memorie
Saggi e Memorie di Storia dell’Arte
TIB
Tabula Imperii Byzantini
| 336 |
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Glossary
Acheiropoietos (Gr., “Not made by hands”):
miraculous icons attributed to an
apparition of Christ, the Virgin Mary, or a
saint and the self-transfer of their own
image onto a material object.
Acroteria: architectural ornaments affixed to
the upper corners of a roof or lid.
Arcosolium: arched recess usually for a
tomb, carved out of or built in front of a
wall.
Basse-taille: an application of transparent
enamel to a metal surface with carved
designs.
Bullion: pure precious metal melted into bars
or ingots for reuse, such as in currency or
jewelry.
Cameo: carved precious or semiprecious
stone, on which the representation is in
relief.
Chiton: tunic in various materials and length,
worn by men and women in Byzantium.
Chrysobull: an imperial document sealed by
a gold bulla with the Emperor’s label or
monogram.
Clavus (-i): vertical stripe decorating tunics.
Cloisonné: enamel technique in which the
colors are separated by thin strips of metal.
Colobium: a tunic, with or without sleeves,
ampler than the chiton.
Cornucopia: a horn-shaped container with
an abundance of fruits, grains, and
vegetables.
Cross-in-square church: the most popular
church plan type from the Middle
Byzantine period onward.
Despot (Gr., “Master, Lord”): a court title
used for the highest-ranking imperial
officials, the emperor, and the family of
the emperor.
Diatreta: pierced openwork technique. The
term applies to jewelry and glass vessels.
Dodekaorton: the Twelve Great Feasts of
the Orthodox liturgical cycle.
Enkomion: a speech written in praise of a
person’s attributes or accomplishments.
Epistyle: beam of the Byzantine templon
screen.
Escutcheon: a shield embellished with a coat
of arms.
Eucharist: the portion of the liturgy involving
the consecration of bread and wine into
the body and blood of Christ.
Eulogia (Gr. “Blessing”): blessed objects
distributed to pilgrims.
Filigree: an ornamental design, usually in
wires of precious metal, attached to an
object’s surface.
Gesso grosso: a coarse gypsum paste applied
as the first layer of a painting surface.
Gesso sottile: a fine gypsum paste applied as
the final gesso layer of a painting surface.
Great Entrance: part of the Divine Liturgy
during which the prepared Eucharistic
elements are brought to the alter in a
ritual procession.
Great Taxiarch or Taxiarch: a title for the
archangel Michael, referring to his role as a
commander of angels.
Groin vault: two intersecting barrel vaults.
Heater shield: a small combat shield with a
flat top and sides curving into a single
point, so called because its shape
resembles that of the device used for
pressing cloth.
Heraldic: an adjective for heraldry, a design
with symbols signifying the identity of a
nobleperson. The term is also applied to
the symbolic and stylized depiction of
animals in various art forms.
Hermaic stele: a stele with a bust of the god
Hermes placed in a public space.
Himation: outer garment worn by men and
women in Classical and Late Antiquity.
Histamenon: a term applied in the eleventh
century to the full-weight, standard gold
coin, with concave faces in contrast to the
tetarteron.
Hypatos: a title for a consul in Classical and
Late Roman imperial contexts.
Hyperpyron: a standard gold coin of 4.55g
but only 20.5 carats issued by Alexios I in
1092 and continued by his successors.
Impluvium: a basin for collecting rainwater
in an atrium.
Kantharos: a drinking vessel with a stemmed
round base and two large handles.
Katholikon: the primary church of a
monastery.
Keystone: the final stone placed into the
center of an arch.
Kymation (Gr., “Wave”): architectural
molding.
Lozenge: a diamond shape used in
ornament.
Lyre: a handheld, U-shaped string instrument
played like a harp.
Megas Logothetis (Gr., “Great Administrator”):
a high official supervising primarily but not
exclusively those working in fiscal offices.
Menologion: a text containing the lives of
Christian saints organized according to
their feast days in the church calendar.
Myrrophores (Gr., “Myrrh-bearers”): the
holy women bearing perfumed oils who
came to Christ’s tomb after his Crucifixion.
Narthex: the entrance room of a church,
originally for baptisms and catechumens
hearing the liturgy.
Niello: a metallic sulfide mixture used for
decorating metals.
Nilotic iconography: scenes or motifs
inspired by Nile‘s landscape.
Nimbus cruciger: a halo containing a cross
extending from Christ’s head.
Officina (Lat., “workshop”): a mint’s
individual sections of currency production.
Orans: a gesture of prayer in which the arms
are held up at an angle with outstretched
hands.
Panagia Gorgoepikoos (Gr., “Quick Hearing
All Holy Lady”): an appellation of the
Virgin Mary and name for churches as well.
Pantokrator (Gr., “All-ruler”): an
iconographic type depicting Christ,
bearded, frontal, holding a book in his left
hand and his right raised in a gesture of
blessing.
Parakletike: a liturgical book containing
variable hymns for all seven days of the
week.
Parekklesion: a small chapel adjacent to a
larger church.
Patriarchal cross: a form of the cross with
two horizontal arms. The short upper one
signifies the name card hung above
Christ’s head.
Peplos: a long feminine Greek garment,
folded and attached at the shoulders.
Polyeleos (Gr.”All-merciful”): an epithet for
Jesus Christ.
Prependulia (or pendulia): ornaments
suspended from crowns on either side.
Presanctified gifts: the Eucharist,
consecrated during the Sunday liturgy and
set aside for services during the weekdays
of Great Lent.
Propylon: a columned, monumental
entryway.
Proskynetarion: a cult image displayed either
on a church’s walls or within a templon.
Prothesis: the space, north of the sanctuary,
containing the preparation table for the
bread and wine offered for Eucharistic
consecration.
Protospatharios: first sword-bearer; a title
used for high military commanders, also
conferred on other imperial dignitaries and
officers.
Protonotarios tou Dromou: chief of
notaries, who acted as a representative for
the imperial post’s supervisor.
Psychopomp: a supernatural spirit
associating with the dead soon after
death.
Repoussé: the technique of hammering lowrelief designs from the back side of a metal
sheet.
Sella curulis: a portable Roman folding chair
with a cushion and two curved legs.
Solidus: the standard Byzantine gold coin,
weighting 24 carats or 4,55g, also called
nomisma. In the late tenth century it
began to split in two separate
denominations, histamenon and
tetarteron. From 1092 onward the coin is
generally called hyperpyron.
Suppedaneum: a footrest.
Thebaid: a Greek term for Upper Egypt,
which became a monastic center in Late
Antiquity.
Thorakion: type of garment; a finely
trimmed cloak, possibly with openings for
the arms, dyed in imperial colors.
Titulus: 1. a Roman sign or inscription posted
on a public structure; 2. a label included in
a work of art.
Tourkopouloi: Turkish Byzantine cavalrymen.
Triclinium (-a): dining room.
Trisagion (Gr., “Thrice-Holy”): a short hymn
recited in the liturgy and prayers: “Holy
God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, have
mercy on us.”
Virgin Atheniotissa: an appellation of the
Virgin Mary as the patron of the Christian
church established in the Parthenon in
Athens.
Virgin Blachernitissa: an appellation of the
Virgin Mary deriving from her cult images
held at the Blachernae Monastery in
Constantinople.
Virgin Eleousa (Gr., “of compassion”): an
appellation accompanying different
iconographic types of the Virgin often
showing her holding the Christ Child in a
tender embrace.
Virgin Glykofilousa (Gr. “who kisses
sweetly”): also Virgin of Tenderness; an
iconographic type depicting the Virgin
Mary holding and kissing the Christ Child.
Virgin Portaitissa (Gr., “Gate Keeper”): a
name given to a miraculous icon of the
Virgin Hodegetria housed at the Iveron
monastery’s gate on Mount Athos.
Virgin Hodegetria: an iconographic type
depicting the Virgin Mary holding the
Christ Child on her left arm while she
gestures toward him with her right hand.
Named after the miraculous icon housed in
the Hodegon Monastery in
Constantinople.
Zeuxippos Ware: a category of sgraffito
pottery named after the place where it
was first found, the Zeuxippos Baths in
Constantinople, characterized by a
distinguished quality and fine ornamental
or figural designs.
Templon: a barrier erected between the nave
and sanctuary, developing from a low
fence in Late Antiquity into a large
iconostasis.
Tetarteron: the gold nomisma about 2 carats
lighter than the standard, in circulation
from about 965 to 1092, or a copper coin
in circulation from 1092 to the second half
of the thirteenth century.
| 359 |
Index
Abbey of Saint-Denis, 279
Abd al-Malik, 32
Abdera (see Polystylon)
Abegg Stiftung, 154
Abgar, King, 109–10
Academy of Plato, 30, 43, 58,
Acciajuoli, Franco/Francesco, duke of
Athens, 315
Achaia, 51, 251
Acheiropoietos, 109
Achilles, 68–69
Adam, 206, 323
Adonis, 208–9
Adoration of the Magi, 331
Adrianople (Edirne, Turkey), 152, 297
Adriatic Sea, 214
Aegean Sea, 100, 214
Aeschylus, 181, 193, 232
Aetios, 188
Agamemnon, 170
Agathias, 223
Aigina, 61–62
Akova, Arcadia, 302
Akrini, Kozani, triconch martyrion, 96
Akrites, 237
Akronauplion, 301
Alcaeus, 66
Alcibiades, 66
Alcman, 66
Alexander of Aphrodisias, 34–35
Alexander the Great, 29–30, 40, 198;
Ascension of, 199, 274–75, 312
Alexandra, Queen, 317
Alexandria, 77, 80, 142, 253, 295, 305
Alexios I Komnenos, 79, 89, 90, 219, 275
Alexios III Angelos, 272
Alexios III Komnenos of Trebizond, 198
Alexios, megas stratopedarches, 116
Algeria hoard, 258
al-Ma’mun, caliph, 292
Alonnisos, Sporades, 205, 236, 295
al-Radi, Abbasid caliph, 285
Alyki, Thasos, 96
Alypius, 193–94
Amalfi, 115
Amazons, 172; shield of, 257
Ammonios, 234
Amphipolis, 96–97, 121; church (possibly
of Saint Mokios), 97
Anacreon, 66
Anakeion, 67
Anastasios I, Emperor, 231
Anastasios the Persian, Saint, 107–8
Anastasioupolis (see Peritheorion)
Anastasis, 147, 152, 156, 161–62, 323
Andravida (Andreville), 301; Saint Sophia,
301; Saint James, 301
Andrew, Apostle, 126–27, 129, 131
Andrew of Constantinople, Saint (Andreas
Salos), 292
Andronikos I Komnenos, 87
Andronikos II Palaiologos, 92, 297–98
Andronikos III Palaiologos, 92, 297–98
Andros, 310
Angelos, painter, 162, 320
Anicius Faustus Albinus, Basilius, consul, 92
Anna Komnene Doukaina (Madame
Agnes), 300–301
Anna, prophetess, 160
Anna of Savoy, 92, 298
Annunciation, 106–7, 161–62, 181
Antakya, Turkey (see Antioch)
Anthemios of Tralles, 97
Anthony, Saint, 35, 162–63, 176, 301
| 360 |
Antinoë, Egypt, 256
Antioch (Antakya), 29, 30, 36–41, 49, 77,
80, 109, 203, 206, 228, 232, 258
Antiochos the Monk 235
Apamea, 36, 39–42, Cardo Maximus, 42
Aphrodisias, 34, 53, 57
Aphrodite, 60, 173–75, 208–9, 231; of
Knidos 45, 46; of AspremontLynden/Arles, 60
Apocalypse, 49, 188
Apokaukos, Alexios, 298
Apolausis, 38, 203
Apollo, 47, 70, 317
Apollonius of Tyana, 35
Aquinas, Thomas, 280
Ararat, Mount 214
Ares, 173, 209
Arethas of Caesarea, 177
Argolid, 300
Argos, 228, 240
Aristophanes, 181
Aristotle, 30, 172, 181, 194–96, 284,
286, 302
Aristoxenus, 193–94
Arius, 76
Ark of the Covenant, 171
Arkadios, 59, 84, 168
Armenia, 305
Arta, 317–18
Artabasdos, 98
Artemis, 51, 54, 173–75
Ascension of Christ, 107, 130, 161–62,
313
Asia, 191; diocese, 77
Asia Minor, 45, 56–57, 63–65, 81, 100,
182, 214, 260, 272, 295, 297–98
Asklepieia, 95
Asklepios, 51–52, 55
Atalanta, 174
Athanasios of Alexandria Saint 76, 116,
142, 150
Athanasios the Athonite, Saint 115, 117,
176
Athaulf, King, 286
Athena, 45, 61, 70, 173; Parthenos, 53
Athens, 46, 59, 65, 68, 70, 97, 212–13,
240, 311, 315; Academy of, 96;
Acropolis, 58, 60, 61, 67–68, 97;
Agora, 94; Areopagus, 58, 212;
Asklepieion, 95; Basilica of Leonides, 94;
Church of Hagioi Theodoroi, 293;
Church of Hagios Ioannis Mangoutis,
123; Erechtheion, 97; Library of
Hadrian, 59–60; Megale Panagia,
church, 60; Monastiraki, 59; Panagia
Gorgoepikoos, church, 172–73, 310;
Parthenon, 47, 61, 94, 97; Prophet
Elijah, Staropazaro (?), church, 314–15;
Sanctuary of Aphrodite and Eros, 60;
tetraconch church, 94; Virgin
Atheniotissa, church, 61
Athos (see Mount Athos)
Atman (Osman), Turkish ruler, 298
Attis, 34
Augustus, 31, 40, 76
Aurispa, Giovanni, 331–32
Azariah (see Three Youths in the Furnace)
Azov Sea, 283
Babiotis Monastery, Dormition of the
Virgin, 251
Babylon, 198
Bačkovo, Bulgaria, Petritzos Monastery, 245
Bagaš, Anthony, 116
Baghdad, 30, 41, 281, 285–86, 292;
House of Wisdom, 286
Bakchos, Saint, 173
Balkans, 81, 99, 116–17, 130, 214,
297, 311
Balli kilise, Soǧ anli, 235
Balsamon, Theodore, 209
Baptism of Christ, 106, 161–62
Basil I, 82, 88, 153, 176
Basil II, 82, 89–90, 185, 214, 283
Basil, Saint, 141, 147, 150, 152
Basra, Iraq, 293
Bel, Temple of, 40
Bellerophon, 62, 64–65, 174
Benjamin of Tudela, 204–5
Bernardino of Siena, Saint, 323
Beroea, Syria, 40
Beryozovo, Russia, 206
Bessarion, Cardinal, 331–35
Bet She’an, Israel, 243
Beth Misona Hoard, Syria, 149
Bethlehem, 107
Betrayal of Christ, 137
Birth of Saint John the Baptist, 219
Bithynia, Asia Minor, 289, 298
Black Sea, 84, 214
Boethius, 196
Boniface of Montferrat, 272
Bordone, Paris, painter, 329–30, 334
Boreas, Leo 153
Boris, Saint, 291
Bosporos, 214, 279
Bryas, Bosporus Coast, palace of, 292
Bubastis, Egypt, 232–34
Bucephalus, Alexander’s horse, 198
Bulgaria, 81, 243, 287, 290, 311
Buondelmonti, Cristoforo, 305
Burgundy, 313
Byzantion (see Constantinople)
Caesarea (Kayseri, Turkey), 177, 183–84
Cairo, 292–93, 295
Calandrice (or Chalandritsa), Achaia, 302
Callistratus, 232
Calvary cross, 84, 87
Campania, 313
Camposanto, Pisa, 322
Candia (see Heraklion)
Capranica, Angelo, 333
Caričin Grad (see Justiniana Prima)
Cassander, King, 30
Castell’Arquato, 157
Castelseprio, Santa Maria foris Portas, 101
Castor (see Dioskouroi)
Catherine, Saint, 128, 317
Caucasus, 116
Celestial Liturgy, 150
Cephalonia, 194, 251
Chaldia, 115
Chalkis, 199
Chandax (see Heraklion)
Chania, 56–57, 305
Charlemagne, 280, 284
Chazars, 283
Cherubim, 156
Chimera, 64–65
Chios, 195, 217, 305
Chiragan, France, 56
Chiron, 68
Choniates, Niketas, 168, 170
Chosroes, 41, 282
Cimabue, 328
Chlemoutsi (Chloumoutsi), Clermont
Castle, 301, 312
Christ, 32–33, 35, 46, 62, 76–77, 80–84,
88–90, 92–93, 98, 100, 105, 109–10,
147, 157, 159, 268, 269, 289, 317,
321, 331; the Amnos, 156; Emmanuel,
140; enthroned, 88–91, 150, 159, 314,
328; as Good Shepherd, 62–64; as High
Priest, 150; Jesus Hominum Salvator,
322–23; as Just Judge, 139; in Majesty,
49; Last Judgment, 329; Man of Sorrows,
131–32; Pantokrator, 86, 88–91, 106,
110, 134, 152, 270–71, 313, 331;
Passion of, 137; Polyeleos, 313;
Presenting the Law, 118; Second
Coming, 48, 50; Wisdom of God, 110,
134–35;
Christogram, 221
Christopher, Saint, 301
Chrysoloras, Manuel, 168, 331–32
Chrysopolis (see Üsküdar, Turkey)
Cilicia, 77
Cilician Armenia, 150
Circe, 166
Cleitophon, 46
Clement of Alexandria, 258
Cleonides, 194
Codex Purpureus, 183–84
Commodus, 36
Communion of the Apostles and
Transmission, 127, 156, 157
Constans II , 86, 87
Constantine I, 31, 45, 59, 75–77, 79, 81,
87, 88, 95, 103, 126, 153, 170, 282
Constantine III Leichoudis, 178
Constantine IV, 87, 282
Constantine V, 79, 81, 87, 98, 100, 284
Constantine VI, 88, 98, 100
Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, 82,
87–89, 177, 195, 264, 283, 288
Constantine VIII, 90
Constantine IX Monomachos, 90, 178,
207
Constantine, bishop of Preslav, 291
Constantine the Philosopher (see Cyril,
Saint)
Constantine Palaiologos, sebastokrator, 302
Constantinople, 45, 77–79, 103;
Augustaion, 168, 211; Baths of
Zeuxippos, 45, 211; Blachernae, Church
of the Theotokos, 78; Blachernae
imperial bath, 269; Blachernae palace,
78; Chalke Gate, 98; Chora Monastery
(Kariye Camii), 140–41, 188, 299, 314;
Constantine Lips Monastery, 244;
Church of the Pharos, 109; Great
Palace, 78, 82, 169, 212, 245; Hagia
Irene, 99–100, 155; Hagia Sophia, 78–79,
82–83, 89, 90–92, 96–97, 100, 103–4,
107–8, 126, 211, 245, 286;
Hippodrome, 45, 168, 170, 204, 207,
212, 252; Hodegon Monastery, 137,
155, 190; Holy Apostles, church of, 76,
137; Kalenderhane Camii, 329;
Magnaura, 78, 177, 285; Mese, 211,
213; Milion, marker, 211; Obelisk of
Theodosios I, 59; Palace of Antiochos,
212; Pammakaristos, 314; Pantokrator
Monastery, 91; Pera, church of St.
Dominic (Arab Camii), 329; Petriou
Monastery, 92; Prodromos Petras
Monastery, 187–88, 197; Scutari,
Monastery of the Theotokos, 185;
Stoudios Monastery, 115, 126, 176;
Synaxarion of, 76; Virgin Therapiotissa,
church of, 155
Contarini, Andrea, 251
Cordova, Spain, 292
Corfu, 162
Corinth, 51, 212–13, 293–96;
Forum/Agora, 51; Julian basilica, 94;
Kraneion basilica, 119–20; Lechaion
basilica, 61, 97; Panagia Field, 51,
212–13; South basilica, 94, 240; South
Stoa, 212; Temple E, 53
Coronation of David, 169–70
Cosmas, Saint, 152–53
Councils, ecumenical, 77, 79, 80–83,
98–99, 119, 142; of Ferrara and
Florence, 331; of Lyons, 116, 117, 299
Crete, 51, 57, 68, 100, 116, 121, 162,
191, 196, 198, 217, 264–66, 296,
304–9, 320, 322–24, 331
Crimea, 170, 289
Croatia, 287
Crucifixion of Christ, 100, 132, 136–37,
147, 161–62, 323–24, 333
Ctesiphon, 41
Cybele, 34
Cynegius Maternus, 40
Cyprus, 100, 150, 296, 305, 316; Basilica
A at Saint George (Pegeia), 96; Church
of Saint Neophytos, 132; Church of
Timios Stavros (Pelendri), 221; Cyprus
hoard, 256–58; Kykkos Monastery, 112;
Lamboussa, 233, 234; Lampsakos
hoard, 232, 234, 235; Virgin (Panagia)
tou Arakos, 133, 179
Cyrenaica, 121, 191
Cyril, Saint, 150, 289–91
Damascus, Syria, 31, 292
Damaskinos, Michael, 307
Damaskios, 58
Damian, Saint, 152–53
Dandolo, Andrea, Doge, 329
Daniel, prophet, 71, 118
Danube Bulgaria, 99
Danube River, 214
Daphne, Antioch, 29, 36–37, 39
Daphni Monastery, 106, 168
Dar al-Amn, 286
Dar al-Harb, 286
Dar al-Hudna, 286
Dar al-Islam, 286
Darius, king, 198
David, biblical king, 169, 170, 181, 225
Death of Hezekiah, 170
Decius, 46
Deesis, 126, 138, 152–53, Great 140
Delphi, 45, 170
Demetrios, Saint, 97, 154, 162, 332–33
Demetrios Triclinios, 197
Demosthenes, 181
Descent from the Cross, 151
Diana (see Artemis)
Didymoteichon, 97, 248, 297
Digenes Akritas, 174, 209, 240
Dinaric Alps, 214
Diocletian, Emperor, 317
Diodorus Siculus, 195
Dionysos, 54–55, 172, 174, 207, 232
Dionysios, Master, 189
Dionysios the Areopagite, 104, 279, 290
Dioskouroi, 67–68
Dodekaorton, 162, 318
Dodoni, Epiros, 96
Dome of the Rock, 32
Domitian Temple (Ephesus), 46
Doukas, Georgios, 197
Dousikou Monastery, 185
Dubrovnik, Croatia (see Ragusa)
Duccio, 328
Dura-Europos, Syria, 243
Dušan, Stefan, 298
East Anglia, 246
Edessa (see Urfa, Turkey)
Egypt, 30–31, 35, 45, 77, 80, 172, 191,
198, 243, 254, 248, 250, 254, 258,
283, 293–96, 311
Eleutherna, Crete, 68–69
Elijah, prophet, 132–33, 144
Elis, 300–301; Church of Panagia
Katholike, 303
Elkomenos (see Road to Calvary)
Elysian Fields, 48
Entombment of Christ, 132, 156
Entry into Jerusalem, 161–62
Ephesus, 80, 213, 243
Ephraim the Syrian, monk, 185; Dormition
of 322
Epicurus, 33
Epidaurus, 52–53
Epiphany, 49
Epiros, 142, 298, Despotate of, 301, 318
Episkopi, Evrytania, 100
Episkopi, Kissamos, Church of the
Archangel Michael, 97
Episteme, 46
Eros, 173, 175, 209, 233–34
Erythron, Cyrenaica (see El Atrun)
Ethiopia, 77, 191
Euclid, 193–94, 286
Eudokia Doukaina, 240
Eudokia, Empress 159
Euhemeros of Messene, 30
Eunapios of Sardis, 40
Euphrasian basilica, Poreč, Croatia, 121
Euphrates River, 122
Euripides, 181, 197, 232
Europa, 51
Europe, 191, 279
Eusebios of Caesarea, 31, 39, 45, 76,
185, 187
Eustathios of Thessaloniki, 192–93
Eustratios, monk, 112
Eutropios of Ephesus, 58
Eutychides, 36
Evangelists, 26, 100, 146, 156, 169, 180,
185, 187–89, 190
Eve (biblical), 206
Flagellation of Christ, 137
Flanders, 114, 305
Florence, 328, 330–32
Fra Angelico, workshop of, 322
France, 258, 284, 300–301, 328
Frederick II, 281
Fustat, Egypt, 293
Gabriel, Archangel, 107, 136, 138, 152,
158, 161–62
Galaction, 46
Galatia, Monastery of Saint Nicholas, 189
Galla Placidia, 49, 286 (see also Ravenna)
Gallunianu Treasure, 149
Ganos, 217
Ganymede, 37
Gaudentius the Philosopher, 194
Genizah, Cairo, 295
Genoa, 295; Cathedral of San Lorenzo,
328–29
Geon River, 122
George, Saint, 65, 87, 112, 140, 152–53,
162, 301, 315–17
George the Polivariotis, Saint, 315
Georgios, icon painter, 116
Geraki, Laconia, 212, 302; Church of
Saint George, 303
Germanos I, patriarch, 105, 171
Germanos Sporgitis, 124
Gerontas, Georgios Antoniou, 187
Geza I, King, 284
Ghirlandaio, Domenico, 331
Giotto, 328
Gironde, France, Saint-Georges-deMontagne, 54
Gkoritsa, Church of the Archangels, 303
Glarentza (Killini) 300–301; Blachernai
Monastery, 301–2, Church of Saint
Francis, 301–2
Gleb, Saint, 291
Golden Gate, 168
Gonzaga, Francesco, 333–34
Good Shepherd, 62–64
Göreme, Cappadocia, Tokali kilise, 235
Gortyna, Saint Titus, 96
Goudeles, 271
Gousidis, Ioannis, 146
Granicus River, 198
Greece, 45, 122, 135, 152, 162, 168,
182, 191, 214, 232, 237–38, 240,
293–95, 296, 309, 311, 313, 328, 335
Gregoras, Nikephoros, 127, 299
Gregorios of Chios, monk, 195
Gregory of Nazianzos, Saint, 141;
Homilies, 75, 80, 145, 173, 175, 180,
205–6, 216
Gregory of Sinai, Saint, 117
Gregory Thaumaturgos, Saint, 153
Guidubaldo, 331
Hades, 118
Halberstadt, 157
Halicarnassus, Turkey, 243
Hama, 294
Hananiah (see Three Youths in the
Furnace)
Heavenly Ladder of Saint John Klimax,
181–82
Hector, 68
Helen, sister of Castor and Pollux, 67
Helena, Saint, 40, 75, 152–53
Heliodoros, 46
Helios, 35
Hell, 48, 50
Hellespont, 214
Helloteia, 51
Hera, 232, 256
Herakleia, Thrace, 78
Herakleios Constantine, 31
Herakleios, Emperor (610–41), 30–31, 78,
79, 80, 87, 89, 230–32, 234, 281
Herakles, 69, 168, 174
Heraklion, Crete, 114, 144, 162–63, 259,
265, 304–5, 320, 323–24; Hodegetria
Monastery, 320
Hermes (mythological), 166, 172–74
Hermes Kriophoros, 64
Herodotus, 302
Hesychios, 196
Hezekiah, 169–70
Hinton St. Mary, Dorset, 33
Hippolytus, prince, 204
Hohenstaufen, Frederick II, 204
Holy Land, 95, 260, 283, 290, 330
Holy Mountain (see Mount Athos)
Holy Trinity, 143
Homer, 45, 170, 181, 192, 333–34
Honorius, 173, 286
Hosios Dionysios of Trebizond, 116
Hosios Loukas Monastery, 106, 309–10
Hosios Pavlos of Xeropotamou, 116
Hosios Petros the Athonite, 115
Hospitality of Abraham, 143
House of Flanders, 93
Humbert, Cardinal, 83
Hungary, 284–85, 290
Hypapante (see Presentation of Christ)
Iamblichos, 33, 35, 40–41
Icaria, 47
Ignatios, patriarch, 82
Ilium, 45
Illyricum, 57, 77–78
Incredulity of Thomas, 138
Indian Ocean, 84
Indikopleustes, Kosmas, 76, 104–5, 281
Ino, 232–33
Ioannes Rhosos, 332–34
Ioannidis, Artemios, 146
Ioannina, 150–51, 152
Ionian Sea, 214
Iran, 36, 292–94
Iraq, 293
Irene, Saint, 317–18
Irene of Athens, 81, 88, 98, 100, 148
Irene, wife of John II Komnenos, 91
Irene Doukaina Angelina Komnene, 318
Irene Komnene, wife of John III Vatatzes,
91, 93
Isaac I Komnenos, 87
Isaac II Angelos, 272
Isaiah, prophet, 49
Isidore of Miletus, 97
Isis, 32
Isocrates, 302
Isova, Our Lady of, 301
Istanbul (see Constantinople)
Isvardia, 56
Italy, 78, 100–101, 114, 116, 145, 149,
184, 195–96, 204, 243, 247, 258, 289,
303, 318, 319, 322, 331–32, 335
Iustinianus, Flavius Petrus Sabbatius (see
Justinian I)
Jacopo Sansovino, 335
James, Apostle, 189
James of Compostela, Saint, 301
Jason and the Argonauts, 47
Jerusalem, 32, 77, 94, 107, 136, 161–62;
Heavenly 49
Johannes Teutonicus, 281
John II Asen, Bulgarian ruler, 318
John II Komnenos, Kaloioannis, 91, 178
John III Doukas Vatatzes, 91, 93, 272, 281
John V Palaiologos, 92, 298–99
John VI Kantakouzenos, 83, 92, 138,
143–44, 150, 297–99, 314
John VIII Palaiologos, 168
John XIV Kalekas, 298
John, megas primikerios, 116
John, monk and synkellos, 185
John Chrysostom, Saint, 38–39, 109, 133,
141, 147, 150, 152, 171, 207–8, 223
John Geometres, 126
John Klimax, Saint, 181–82, 206, 321
John Malalas, 46
John Scholastikos, 79
John Synkellos, 292
John Tzetzes, 192–93
| 361 |
John Tzimiskes, 115
John Uglješa, 116
John Uro Doukas Palaiologos (Joasaph,
monk), 152
John of Antioch, 148
John of Damascus, 81, 87
John of Jerusalem, Saint, 303
John the Baptist, 100, 124, 140, 152–53,
171, 323
John the Evangelist, 49, 146, 155, 187–90,
324, 334
John the Theologian, 161–63
Joseph Kalothetos, 116
Joseph, patriarch, 190
Joseph, Saint, 160
Judas, 324
Judas, Saint, 189
Julian, Emperor, 31, 38–40, 59
Justin II, 100, 230
Justinian I, Emperor, 30, 41, 46, 78–79,
85–86, 103, 126, 168, 211, 286–87
Justinian II, Emperor, 31–32, 89, 282
Justiniana Prima, 78
Kallegopoulos brothers, 303
Kallergis, Alexios, 307
Kallion baths, Phokis, 229
Kallimanos, 318
Kallisthenes of Olynthos, 198
Kalopanagiotis, Cyprus, Church of Saints
Sergios and Bakchos, 316
Kalyvia Kouvara, Church of Hagios Petros,
128
Kantakouzenos, family, 313
Kaper Koraon Treasure, 149
Kaphiona, Mani, Church of Hagioi
Theodoroi, 302
Karanis, Egypt, 218
Karneios, 51
Karpianos, 185, 187
Karyes, 116
Kastoria, 110, 131–32, 142, 298, 318;
Church of Hagioi Anargyroi, 132–33;
Church of Hagioi Treis, 142; Church of
Hagios Stephanos, 133; Church of
Panagia Eleousa, 132; Church of Saint
Nicholas Kasnitzes, 133; Hagios
Athanasios, Mouzakes, 142; Saint John
the Baptist, 142
Katapoliani, Paros, basilica, 96
Kato Paphos, Cyprus, 241
Kayseri, Turkey, Saint Nicholas, 183
Kerch, Crimea, 170
Kerkeme (Gergeme), Monastery of the
Dormition of the Virgin, 184
Khirbet el-Mukhayyat, Jordan, Church of
the Priest John, 206
Kibyrraioton, province, 214
Kiev, 272, 274, 290–91; Hagia Sophia,
291
Kievan Rus’, 81, 272, 283, 311
Killini, see Glarentza
Klausi, Evrytania, Basilica of Martyr
Leonides, 229
Klimis, monk, 116
Knidos, 45
Knossos, basilica, 96
Komnene, Anna, 192
Komnenos Family, 199, 270
Kore, 240
Kornaros, Andreas (Cornaro Andrea), 324
Kos, 229; Church of Saint John, 97
Kozani, ∏agia Paraskevi, 96
Kraneion, 51
Krategos (see Mytilene, Lesvos)
Kumluca, Lycia, 244
Kurbinovo, Church of Saint George, 106
Kydonia (see Chania)
Kyros, monk, 187
Kythera, 320
Kyzicos, 47
Lagoudera, Cyprus, Panagia tou Arakos,
179
Lamentation, 132, 150
Laodicea, 36
Larisa, 237
Last Judgment, 49
| 362 |
Last Supper, 131, 137, 206, 215
Lausos, 45
Lazarus, 131
Leda, 67–68
Lefkada, Church of the Pantokrator, 321–22
Leo III, Emperor, 78, 81, 87, 98
Leo IV, Emperor, 88,
Leo V, Emperor, 99
Leo VI, Emperor, 82, 86–87, 89, 177
Leo X, Pope, 328
Leo the calligrapher, 176
Leo the Mathematician, 177, 292
Leo the protospatharios, 172
Leontios, 87
Leucippe, 46
Libanios, 36–41
Libya, 191
Licinius, 75
Lindos, 45
Louloudies Kitrous, Episcopal complex, 50
Loutra Ypatis, Phthiotis, 229
Luke the Evangelist, 112, 146, 155, 160,
185, 187, 189, 318
de Lusignan, Guy, 150; Isabel, 150, 275;
Peter I, 150
Lysimachos, 168
Lysippos (sculptor), 168
Macedonia, 97, 100, 116–17, 121, 142,
298
Macedonius, 39
Madaba, Jordan, 204
Madinat al-Salam (see Baghdad)
Madonna Nicopea (see Virgin Nikopoios)
Magi, 319
Magnesia, 91
Malalas, John, 46
Malea, cape, 214, 300
Malesina, Phthiotis, Monastery of Saint
George, 189
Maltese cross, 262
Man of Sorrows, 110, 131–32, 151
Manasses, Constantine, 204, 291
Mandylion of Edessa, 82, 109–10
Mani, 100, 214, 300; Church of Hagios
Prokopios, 100
Manoussis, Theodore, 168
Mantua, 333
Manuel I Komnenos, 178, 204
Manuel II Palaiologos, 279, 285
Manuel Kantakouzenos, despot, 275, 314
Manuel Kantakouzenos Palaiologos, 149–50
Manuel Philes, 271
Marcellus, bishop, 40
Maria Angelina Doukaina Palaiologina,
despot of Thessaly, 151–52
Maria Palaiologina, 143
Marina, Saint, 317
Mark the Evangelist, 77, 146, 155, 183,
185, 187–90
Mark, master painter, 329
Marmara Adasi, 61, 63, 121
Marmara Sea, 48, 63, 65, 214
Maroneia, Synaxis, 96
Maroutsi family, 198
Marriage at Cana, 166, 169, 217
Mars Gravidus, 170
Martha, sister of Lazarus, 131
Mary, sister of Lazarus, 131
Mary Magdalene, 320
Marys at the Tomb, 162
Mastichari, Chios, baptistery 96
Matagrifon (see Akova)
Matakis, Panagiotis, priest from
Cephalonia, 194
Matthew, monk, 190
Matthew the Evangelist, 146, 155, 180,
185, 187, 318
Mauritania, 191
Mavdis, Konstantinos 250
Maximian, Archbishop, 218
Maximo, Amazon, 209, 240
Maximos the Confessor, 80–81
Maximus, 40
de’ Medici, Lorenzo, 330; Piero di Cosimo,
330; Palace, Florence, 330-331
Megalopsychia, 39
Meletios, Saint, 109, 111
Melikertes, 232–33
Mellon Madonna, 327–28
Mesonisi, Crete, 265–67
Mesopotamia, 77, 246
Messenia, 213, 300, 303
Meteora, 152, 154; Monastery of the
Transfiguration, 138; Great Meteoron
Monastery, 152
Methodios, Saint, 289–91
Methone, 300, 302
Metochites, Theodoros, 299
Michael I Keroularios, patriarch, 83
Michael II, 88, 264, 284
Michael III, 89, 92, 289
Michael VI Stratiotikos, 92–93
Michael VII Doukas, 166, 284
Michael VIII Palaiologos, 92, 111, 116,
297, 299
Michael IX, 92
Michael, Archangel, 136, 138–40, 159–60,
162, 223
Michael, son of Irene Komnene, 318
Michael Apostolis, scribe 331
Middle East, 216, 219, 221, 281–83
Milan, 170–71, 196
Military Saints (see Demetrios, George,
Theodore), 271
Milvius, bridge, 75–76
Mishael (see Three Youths in the Furnace)
Mistra, 150, 155, 275, 302–3, 313–14,
331; Brontocheion Monastery, 226,
302; Church of Peribleptos Monastery,
144, 150, 275, 313–14, 320; Church of
the Virgin Hodegetria (Aphendiko),
Monastery of Christ Zoodotes, 314;
Hagia Sophia, 314; Metropolis, 313;
Pantanassa, 320
Mithras, 34
Modon (see Methone)
Monastery of Nossiai, 187–88
Monemvasia, 275, 300, 302
Monopoli, Apulia, San Stefano, 162
da Montefeltro, Federigo, Duke of Urbino,
331
Moravia, 81, 287; Great, 289-290
Morea, 300–303; Despotate of, 250, 275,
313
Morimond Abbey, Burgundy, France, 301
Moschopoulos, Manuel, 193, 197
Moses, 118, 133, 144, 171
Mother and Child (see Virgin)
Mother of God (see Virgin)
Mount Athos, 93, 115–17, 131, 154, 156;
Amalfitan Monastery, 115; Docheiariou
Monastery, 199; Esphigmenou
Monastery, 116; Great Lavra, 115, 120,
151, 153, 176, 188; Hagiou Pavlou
Monastery, 116; Hilandar Monastery,
116, 129, 156, 290; Hosiou Gregoriou
Monastery, 116; Iviron Monastery, 115;
Kastamonitou Monastery, 116;
Koutloumousiou Monastery, 116;
Panteleimon Monastery, 146;
Pantokrator Monastery, 116; Philotheou
Monastery, 319; Simonopetra
Monastery, 116; Vatopedi Monastery,
115, 120, 136, 138, 149–50, 152,
160–61, 191, 215, 319; Xenophontos
Monastery, 116, 129; Zographou
Monastery, 116
Mount Nysa, 172
Mount of Olives, 130
Mount Tabor, 117, 144
Mount Taygetos, 313
Muhammad, Prophet, 36, 286
Muses, 66
Myrrophores meeting Christ, 320
Mytilene, Lesvos, 219–20, 230–32, 256,
260–62
Nafpaktos, 264
Nativity of Christ, 106, 152, 161–62, 171,
319–20
Naukratios, 100
Naxos, 100, 195; Angidia, Hagios
Stephanos Basilica, 119
Nea Chora, Chania, 57
Nea Heraklia, Chalkidike, 118
Nea Paphos, Cyprus, 172, 174
Nereid, 254
Nestorius, 80
Nicaea, Church of the Dormition of the
Virgin, 100
Nicholas II, Tsar, 184
Nicholas V, Pope, 332
Nicholas, Saint, 152–53, 162, 179
Nicholas Mystikos, patriarch, 82, 282
Nicomachus of Gerasa the Pythagorean,
194
Nike, 84
Nikephoros, 177
Nikephoros, monk, 116
Nikephoros III Botaneiatis, 223
Nikephoros Phokas, 87, 89, 90, 115,
266, 284
Nikomedeia, 62–63
Nikopolis, 53, 96
Nile River, 122
Nîmes, France, 243
Nishapur, 293
North Africa, 120, 208, 228; Carthage
Treasure, 256
Novgorod, 154
Novo Brdo, Serbia, 116
Nubia, 77
Oblou Monastery, 251–52
Oceanus, 231
Odysseus, 44, 46, 166; and the Cyclops,
168
Ohrid, 156; Saint Sophia, 158
Olympia, 45
Olympias, king, 198
Orontes, 30
Orpheus, 61–62, 174
Osman (see Atman)
Otto I, 284
Otto II, 285
Otto III, 284
Ovaakçe, 244
Pachymeres, George, 298
da Padova, Gaspare, 333–34
Padua, Italy, 176, 333; inkwell 170, 174;
University of, 307
Pakourianos, Gregory, 245
Palace of Hieria, 98
Palaiologoi, 313
Palamas, Gregory, 117, 129
Palermo, Sicily, 292
Palestine, 77, 80, 246, 283, 296
Pamenios, 234
Pamphili, Eusebios (see Eusebios of
Caesarea)
Pan, 52, 70, 207
Panagia Hodegetria (see Virgin
Hodegetria)
Pannonia, 286, 290
Papathomas, Ioannis, 146
Paphlagonia, 116
Paphos, Cyprus, 241, 316
Parabiago plate, Italy, 34, 170
Paradise, 48, 50
Paramythia, Epiros, 96
Parapotamos, Thesprotia, Greece, 267
Paris Psalter, 169–70, 172
Paroukianos, Gregory, 245
Patmos, Monastery of Saint John the
Theologian, 145, 163, 181, 183–84,
188, 195, 196, 197
Patras, 250–51; siege of, 97
Paul, Apostle, 48, 95, 118, 147, 158, 162,
171, 189
Paul II, Pope, 330, 333
Paul Silentarios, 245
Paulinus, Decius, consul, 86
Pausanias, 52, 55, 232
Pavias, Andreas, 324
Pegasus, 64–65, 121
Pelagonnisos, Sporades, 236
Peloponnese, 100, 150, 191, 214, 298,
300, 302, 312–13
Pentecost, 129, 161–62, 328
Penteli Cave, Attica, 128
Pepin, King, 284
Pergamon, 212–13
Peripatos, the, 30
Peristeronas, 316
Peritheorion, 97
Pero Tafur, traveler, 137
Perotti, Niccolò, 332
Persia, 45, 272, 292
Personification of: Autumn, 228;
Constantinople, 85, 253; Day, 66;
Earth, 206, 208, 228; Moon, 66; Night,
66; River Styx, 68; Rome (Roma), 51,
53, 85, 253; Sun, 66–67; Twelve
Months, 206; Victoria, 84–87
Peter, Apostle, 77, 118, 131, 147, 159,
162, 189
Peter, Tsar, 283
Petit-Corbin, Roman villa, 54
Petrus Damianus, Saint, 235
Phanes-Aion, 33
Phanourios, Saint, 320
Pheidias, 45, 168
Philip, King, 198
Philippi, 94–97, 213; Basilica A, 94, 96;
Basilica B, 94–96, 213; Basilica C, 96;
Octagon, 94–95
Philippopolis, 298
Philotheos, 245
Philotimos, 234
Phokas, Emperor, 87, 230, 256
Photios, 82–83, 177, 282–83
Phrasikleia, stele of, 60
Phryne, 60
Physon River, 122
Pindar, 173
Pindos Mountains, 214
Pisa, 295, 312
Planoudes, Maximos 191, 197, 280, 332
Plato, 30, 33, 35, 40, 58
Plotinos, 32, 58, 109
Plutarch, 302
Poganovo, 136
Polis Chrysochous (ancient Marion),
Paphos, Cyprus, 254
Pollux (see Dioskouroi)
Polystylon, 97
Pontic Mountains, 214
Pontis, diocese, 77
Porphyry, 181, 196
Portugal, 305
Prayer at Gethsemane, 137
Praxilla of Sikyon, lyric poet, 51
Praxiteles, 45–46
Preparation of the Throne, 49
Presentation of Christ in the Temple, 126,
160–62
Preslav, Bulgaria, 213; hoard of 264, 275
Priscus, 40
Prizren, 154
Prochoros, 188–90
Prodromos Theodore, 178
Proklos, 35, 58, 70
Prokonnesos (see Marmara Adasi)
Prokopios, historian, 104
Prokopios, Saint, 152–53, 316
Prometheus, 35
Propontis (see Marmara Sea)
Psellos, Michael, 90, 166–68, 171, 178,
208, 215
Pseudo-Kallisthenes, 198–99, 275
Pseudo-Kodinos, 85
Ptochoprodromos, 215
Ptolemy, 191, 280, 331–33
Pythagoras, 35, 40, 194
Radič, grand čelnik, 116
Radonja, Gerasim, monk, 116
Ragusa, 151–52
Raising of Lazarus, 131
Ramfin Muntaner, 301
Rape of Europa, 170–71, 209
Raphael, painter, 328
Rastislav, ruler of Great Moravia, 289
Ravenna, 84, 218; Mausoleum of Galla
Placidia, 95, 104; San Vitale, 86,
255–56, 258; sarcofagi 122
Reggio, Calabria, Italy, 145
Rethymno, Crete, 68–69, 265–67
Rhodes, 207, 213, 248, 305; Archangelos,
Church of Hagioi Theodoroi, 249–50
Rhodopi Mountains, 214
Ritzos, Andreas, 162, 322–23
Ritzos, Nikolaos, 162
Rivers of Paradise, 122
Road to Calvary, 137
Roma (see personification of Rome)
Romania, 282
Romania, Fortress of Dinogetia, 107
Romanos, 234
Romanos I Lekapenos, 82, 89, 153, 285
Romanos II, 89, 159
Romanos III Argyros, 91, 185
Rome, 34, 45, 77, 79, 80, 81–82, 95, 118,
245, 256, 282, 332–34; Arch of
Constantine, 328; Aventine, Sanctuary
of Jupiter Doliochenus, 54; Catacombs
of 62, 64; Crypt of San Clemente, 289;
Esquiline, 56; Saint Peter’s basilica,
332–33; Santa Maria Antiqua, 101
Rus’ (see Kievan Rus’)
Russia, 117, 198, 283, 287, 290–91
Saba, Saint, 116, 162–63, Dormition of,
321–22
Sahara, 279
Saint Petersburg, Russia, 183–84
Sakha, Egypt, 247
Salutati, Coluccio, 331
Samarkand, 293
San Vito, Bartolomeo, 333
Sappho, 66
Sarapeia, 95
Saravaris, Georgios, 112–14
Sardis, 213
Sarimsakli, Asia Minor (see Kayseri, Turkey)
Sava river, 214
Sava Nemanja, 290–91
Sayram Su, Kazakhstan, 311
Scandinavia, 287
Scutari, (see Üsküdar, Turkey)
Scythia, 279
Second Coming of Christ, 48–50, 108,
118, 130, 139–40
Seleuceia, 36
Seleucus Nicator, 36
Seraphim, 157
Serbia, 116, 287, 290
Serçe Limani, 295
Sergios, Saint, 173
Serres, 126–27, 190, 298; Metropolitan
Church of Hagioi Theodoroi, 126–27;
Prodromos Monastery, 190
Servia, 97
Seven Sages of Antiquity (Seven Wise
Men), 234
Sicily, 116, 145, 191, 272, 286
Sidi Ghrib, Tunisia, 208
Simeon Nemanja, Serbian monk-king, 116
Simeon Uroš Palaiologos, despot of
Thessaly, 151
Simmias of Rhodes, 173
Sinai, Egypt, Monastery of Saint
Catherine, 35, 105, 110–11, 136–37,
154, 316; Mount, 118, 290
Sirkeci, Istanbul, 240
Sisinnios, Saint, 152–53
Sixtus IV, Pope, 333
Skripou (Orchomenos), 172
Skylitzes, John, 178
Smyrna, 56
Socrates, 41
Sol Invictus, 31
Sophocles, 181, 193, 197, 232
Sougia, Crete, 120; capital, 120–21
Spain, 246, 286, 312
Sparta, 66–67, 238–40, 267; bath 213;
Saint Nikon, 96
Spinola, Lorenzo/Leonardo, 315
Star of Bethlehem, 152
Starnina, Gherardo, 322
Staro Nagoričino, 112
Statius, 69
Stephen of Hungary, crown of, 284–85
Stephen of Novgorod, pilgrim, 155
Strabo, geographer, 191, 280
Strozzi, Palla, 331
Strymon, theme of, 127
Susanna and the Elders, 71
Svjatopolk, 291
Sylvester, Pope, 81
Symeon, priest, 160
Symeon the New Theologian, 177
Symeon the Stylite, 35, 39
Synaxis, Maroneia, 96
Syrgiannes Palaiologos Philanthropenos,
297–98
Syria, 30, 31, 36, 40–42, 45, 77, 80, 82,
119, 149, 172, 183, 204, 232, 243,
248–49, 258, 283, 293–95, 305
Taormina, Sicily, 195
Tarasios, patriarch, 81
Tatius, Achilles, 46
Taurus Mountains, 214, 282
Tegea, Arkadia, 206; Basilica of Thyrsos,
122
Telesphoros, 55
Ten Commandments, 118, 144
Tetrapolis, the, 36
Thasos, 94, 96, 213
Thaumakos, Phthiotis, 121–22
Thaumasios, 70
Thebes, 94, 96, 148, 212, 295
Theodora, Empress (wife of Justinian I),
255–56, 258
Theodora, Empress (wife of Theophilos),
99
Theodora Porphyrogennete, 90, 208
Theodore I Laskaris, 79, 168
Theodore, Saint, 87, 112, 152–54, 162;
Bathysryax, 154
Theodore Angelos Komnenos of Epiros,
318
Theodore Komnenos Doukas, 272
Theodore Synadenos, 297
Theodore of Stoudios, 126, 176
Theodoret of Cyrrhus, 39–40
Theodosios I, 40, 59, 75, 77, 80, 95, 118,
168, 207
Theodosios II, 57, 85–86, 286
Theogonia, 172
Theokritos, 173
Theoktistos, scribe, 180
Theophanes the Cretan, 144
Theophano, 285, 287
Theophilos, bishop, 100
Theophilos, Emperor, 99, 292
Theotokos (see Virgin)
Theoupolis, 36, 41
Theseus, King of Athens, 67
Thessaloniki, 94–97, 152, 212–13, 221,
249, 263; Acheiropoietos, 96, 124–25;
Agora, 94; Basilica of Saint Demetrios,
94–95, 97, 121, 123, 125; bath, 213;
Hagia Sophia, 95, 100, 110, 134; Hagioi
Apostoloi, 141; Hagios Athanasios, 146;
Hoard 272–73; Hosios David, Monastery
of Latomou, 48–50, 95, 122, 125, 133;
Kassandreotike Gate, 213; Panagia ton
Chalkeon, 50, 269; Rotunda/Saint
George, 48–49, 95, 125, 257; Saint
Nicholas Orphanos, 141, 129, 177;
Vlatadon Monastery, 113, 129, 137–38,
248
Thetis, 68
Thomas Komnenos Preloumbos
(Preljubovic’), 143, 150–52
Thomas Magistros, 197
Thrace, 78, 97, 116, 214, 240, 283, 297–98;
diocese of, 77
Thrakesion, province, 214
Thrasymedes of Paros, 52
Three Hierarchs, 141
Three Youths in the Furnace, 118
Thucydides, 181, 288
Tiberios II, 86
Tigris River, 122
Timander of Corinth, King, 51
Timarion, 213
Titus, Emperor, 46
Titus, Saint, 308
Tornikios family of Georgia, 115
Touna el-Gebel, Egypt, 234
Transfiguration of Christ, 106, 131, 144,
147, 161–62, 328
Trebizond, 116, 176, 197–98, 213, 331
Trigleia, Bithynia, 135; Church of Panagia
Pantobasilissa, 135
Triton, 254
Triumph of Orthodoxy, 143
Trojan War, 195, 211
Troy, 45, 68
True Cross, 75, 82, 152–53, 269–70, 284
Tryphe, 38
Tryphon, patriarch, 176
Tunisia, 258
Tyana, Cappadocia, 140
Tyche (Fortune) of Antioch, 36
Tzafouris, Nikolaos 162–63
Tzykandeles, Manuel 303
Ugium, France, 243
Urfa, Turkey, 109; Hagia Sophia, 104
Üsküdar, Turkey, 185
Valentinian II, 57
Valentinian III, 49
Valsamonero Monastery, Crete, 320
Varangopoulos, Georgios, 270
Vasari, Giorgio, 327–31
Vatican, 334; Library, 280, 291, 331–34
Veneziano, Paolo, 319
Venice, 150, 197, 235, 249, 295–96, 300,
302–8, 319, 324, 328–32, 334; Basilica
of San Marco, 113, 199, 328, 335;
Church of Saint George of the Greeks,
198; Treasury of San Marco, 104, 170–71
Venier, Antonio, 250
Venus (see Aphrodite)
Vermion, Theotokos Dovras Monastery,
147, 148.
Veroia, 130, 135, 298; Church of Saint
Photeine (Photida), 130
Veroli Casket, 170–72, 174, 209–10
Villehardouin, Geoffrey I, 301
Villehardouin, William II, 301, 312
Virgin, 60, 84, 91–93, 100, 126, 147,
150, 179, 257, 333; Birth of, 218;
Blachernitissa, 89, 269; “of the
Catalans,” 315; Coronation of, 329;
Dormition of, 155, 161–62, 297;
Eleousa, 134, 136, 318; enthroned,
106–7, 111, 150, 162; the Episkepsis
(tes Episkepseos), 89, 135; in Glory,
329; Glykophiloussa, 112, 135, 316;
Hodegetria, 89, 111, 131–32, 136–37,
141, 155, 302, 307; Iphianassa, 172; He
Kataphyge, 136; Kykkotissa, 112, 316;
Mesopantitissa, 307–8; Mother and
Child, 99, 106, 110, 112, 114, 136,
160, 162, 314, 318–19; Nikopoios
(Nikopea), 89, 113, 335; Orans, 152,
269; He Portaitisa, 136; of Tenderness,
110; Therapiotissa, 155
Vladimir, prince of Kiev , 290-291
Vlates, Dorotheos, 129
Vodena, Edessa, Greece, Church of the
Virgin Gavaliotissa, 151
Wallachia, 116
Washing of the Feet, 129, 137
William of Champlitte, 301
Xenophon, 302
Yaroslav (1019–54), 290
Zadar, 151
Zakynthos, 162
Zarakas Monastery (Cistercian Abbey),
301, 312–13
Zeno, 33
Zeus, 37, 45–46, 67–68, 168, 170,
173, 232
Zeus-Bel complex 40
Zoe, empress, 92, 208
Zygou Monastery, 251
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Marco Palacios
El Colegio de México
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Molnár Antal
Institute of History of Hungarian Academy of Sciences
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Universidad de Cantabria
