Quaternary International 267 (2012) 56e61
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint
Evidence of an Early Pleistocene hominin presence at Pirro Nord (Apricena,
Foggia, southern Italy): P13 site
Marta Arzarello a, *, Giulio Pavia b, Carlo Peretto a, Carmelo Petronio c, Raffaele Sardella c
a
Dipartimento di Biologia ed Evoluzione, Università degli Studi di Ferrara, C.so Ercole I d’Este 32, 44100 Ferrara, Italy
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi di Torino, via Valperga Caluso 35, 10100 Torino, Italy
c
Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università Sapienza di Roma, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Roma, Italy
b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Available online 12 February 2011
The Pirro 13 karst fissure (Cava dell’Erba, Apricena, Foggia, Italy) shows a significant vertebrate assemblage (Pirro Nord Faunal Unit) associated with lithic artifacts attributable to mode 1. The Faunal Unit,
corresponding to the latest Villafranchian, is dated on biochronological basis between 1.3 and 1.6 Ma and
accordingly the artifacts represent among the earliest evidence of human presence in Europe. The
vertebrate assemblage includes many species of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, and attests
the earliest occurrence of many taxa in Italy such as Bison degiulii, Capreolus sp., Equus altidens, and Meles
meles. The lithic assemblage is characterized by a high degree of opportunism and by the exclusive
presence of debitage reduction sequences.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
1. Pirro 13 fissure
Pirro 13 fissure (Fig. 1) was excavated in 2007 and 2008 by an
interdisciplinary team composed by researchers from the Universities of Ferrara, Torino and Roma “Sapienza”. The karst fissure is
located on the stratigraphic boundary between the Mesozoic
limestone and the Pleistocene calcarenite (at the top). It is filled, to
more than 4 m thickness, by sandy-clayey sediments alternating
with large and small blocks of Pleistocenic calcarenite (Arzarello
et al., 2009; Pavia et al., 2010, 2012). Filling is due to an initial
mass fall phenomenon emplacing the large blocks of calcarenite,
and subsequent fillings with clay-sandy sediments.
During the 2007 excavation, three surveys were made in order
to verify the stratigraphic position of the lithic artifacts and their
association with the paleontological record. During the second year
of activity (2008), an extensive excavation was completed over 4 m2
in the middle part of the karst deposit, and two stratigraphic units
were excavated (Fig. 2). Units A and B (corresponding to a and b in
the previous excavation) are characterized by a clay-sandy matrix
with rare calcareous stones (A) and by a clay-sandy matrix containing many stones with sharp edges and no preferential orientation (B). In both units, sandy lenses are present. The excavations
continued in JulyeAugust 2010 in the same area.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: marta.arzarello@unife.it (M. Arzarello).
1040-6182/$ e see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.01.042
Both systematic excavations have shown that the recovered
lithic artifacts are very homogeneous, from the technological point
of view, all along the stratigraphic sequence. and that they seem to
be the result of a synchronous event of accumulation. The
systematic excavation has also confirmed the clear association
between the Pirro Nord Faunal Unit vertebrate taxa and the lithic
artifacts for all the levels in the karst fissure filling.
From a chronological point of view, in accordance with the
paleontological data, Pirro 13 lithic artifacts represent one of the
oldest occupations of Western Europe, dated between 1.3 and
1.6 Ma (Arzarello et al., 2007, 2009). Radiometric dating (U/Th ESR
combined) is still in progress at the Dating Laboratory, Muséum
National d’Histoire Naturelle. Paris.
2. Paleontological assemblage
The Pirro Nord vertebrate assemblage includes 20 species of
amphibians and reptiles (Delfino and Bailon, 2000), 47 species of
birds (Bedetti, 2003) and over 40 mammal species (Arzarello et al.,
2009 and references therein; Pavia et al., 2012). Mammals are
characterized by a large number of carnivores (Petrucci, 2008;
Petrucci et al., in press), ungulates, the large porcupine Hystrix
refossa (Rook and Sardella, 2005), and possibly the large sized
gelada baboon (Theropithecus sp.) (Rook et al., 2004).
The Pirro Nord faunal assemblage has great biochronological
value, with the earliest occurrence of many taxa in Italy such as
Bison degiulii, Capreolus sp., Equus altidens, Meles meles. Among
rodents, the occurrence of Microtus (Allophaiomys) ruffoi can be
M. Arzarello et al. / Quaternary International 267 (2012) 56e61
57
Fig. 1. A) position of Pirro 13 fissure inside Cava dell’Erba (Apricena (FG), Puglia, Southern Italy); B) site location: 1 e Pirro Nord site (Cave dell’Erba), 2 e Gargano promontory, 3 e
Foggia; C) Pirro 13 fissure during 200 excavation; D) zoom on the upper layers stratigraphy in Pirro 13.
noted (Arzarello et al., 2009). Pirro Nord Faunal Unit (FU) corresponds to the latest Villafranchian Large Mammal Age (Gliozzi et al.,
1997) and can be related to other European faunal assemblages
such as Venta Micena (Spain) and Apollonia 1 (Greece) (Rook and
Martínez-Navarro, 2010).
The Pirro Nord vertebrates have been collected in different karst
filling deposits. Recently, detailed analysis have been carried on the
fossils recorded from Pirro 13 (P13) and especially from Pirro 10
(P10) where the most complete sample of vertebrate fossils have
been collected (Pavia et al., 2010, 2012). Both of the sites belong to
Fig. 2. Pirro 13, 2008 excavation: longitudinal section on the band A/B, squares B3, B4 and B5. Lithic artifacts, as faunal remains, were distributed without a preferential direction or
inclination in all the stratigraphic units.
58
M. Arzarello et al. / Quaternary International 267 (2012) 56e61
Table 1
Number of flint lithic artifacts (flakes and cores) from the excavation
(2007 and 2008). 28 other flakes were found in the reworked sediments near P13 fissure.
Stratigraphic unit
N lithic industries
aþA
bþB
g
d
e
z
h
q
i
m
25
26
1
5
6
2
3
4
14
1
1
Total
88
US C
Fig. 3. Pirro 13, Axis eurygonos mandible, occlusal view (photo C. Bagnus).
a complex karst system whose continuity has been shown by
geological surveys (Pavia et al., 2012).
P13 represents a sinkhole, where a large part of the fauna was
transported inside the cave system together with very large blocks
resulting from rock falls. The P13 filling is due to running waters
that carried and deposited coarse gravels, much coarser than those
in P10.
The field work on P13 was carried out in 2007 and 2008,
although some fossils were discovered in preliminary field surveys
in 2004 and 2005. The fossils include long, more or less fragmented
bones, and isolated teeth. No articulated (even partially) bones have
been recorded. In some cases, fossils are clearly displaced. Bones
are characterized by dendritic to extensive FeeMn black coatings,
as can be observed in fossils from P10. The analysis of the
taphonomy for the vertebrate remains in this deposit is still in
progress (Zunino et al., and Bagnus, both unpublished data).
From P13, the following materials have been collected:
- isolated teeth (well preserved) and bone fragments referable to
B. degiulii, Axis eurygonos (Fig. 3), Capreolus sp. and E. altidens;
- part of jugal teeth of Stephanorhinus sp.;
- isolated teeth and bones of M. meles, Pachycrocuta brevirostris,
Homotherium latidens; canids possibly Canis mosbachensis, H.
refossa;
- fragments of a molar referable to a proboscidean.
After sieving the sediment, lagomorphs, rodents, insectivores,
reptiles (turtles in particular) were also collected, together with
cervid and proboscidean teeth fragments. In addition, shark teeth,
echinoids, ostreids and pectinid shells (well preserved), and esacorals, all taphonomically reworked from the Early Pleistocene
(Gelasian) encasing calcarenite of the Calcari a Briozoi Fm. (Pavia
et al., 2010), have been detected.
The mammal bones frequency in P13 is lower than in P10, but
the taxa represented in P13 suggest a complete analogue to the P10
assemblage. In some cases, the scantiness of the fossil record
cannot support a more detailed systematic attribution.
3. Technological characterization of the lithic assemblage
The Pirro 13 lithic assemblage is composed of a total of 116
artifacts, 88 from the excavation and a clear stratigraphic unit, and
28 from the reworked sediments near the P13 fissure (Table 1). All
concentrations were observed in a specific stratigraphic unit and
the lithic artifacts were always associated with the Pirro Nord
typical fauna (De Giuli et al., 1987; Abbazzi et al., 1996; Arzarello
et al., 2007, 2009; Pavia et al., 2008).
The only exploited raw material is flint from the Gargano
Cretaceous successions. It was always collected in secondary positions (river beds), not more than 7 km from the Pirro 13 site. Three
different types of flint were exploited, two brown and grey very
good quality flints (without internal fractures), and a black flint
with numerous fractures. The collected pebble dimensions range
between 4 and 8 cm in diameter. The pebble sizes are the main
factor that influences the débitage organization and the blanks
morphology.
From a taphonomical point of view (Table 2), all the lithic artifacts show the same status of preservation. Most of the material
(78%) is characterized by FeeMn coatings (the same features are
evident also on the paleontological remains). Some flakes (9%),
made on grey flint, show a white superficial patina. The edges are
well preserved, even if it was not possible at the present state of
research to recognize usewear traces (G. Berruti personal
communication). No rounded edges are present. The lithic artifacts
seem to have been reworked over a short distance. The
Table 2
Main technological characteristics of the Pirro Nord lithic assemblage. The effects are inherent in the materials found through 2008. During the excavation of 2010, 62 more
products were found.
Cores
Opportunistic/unipolar débitage
10
Centripetal debitage
6
Flakes
Complete flakes
71
Cortical flakes
51
Centripetals scars
16
Fragmented flakes
27
non cortical flakes
47
Unipolar scars
42
Core fragments
2
TOT.
18
98
Bipolar scars
4
Crossed scars
24
Orthigonal scars
6
“Kombewa”
6
TOT.
116
M. Arzarello et al. / Quaternary International 267 (2012) 56e61
59
Fig. 4. Dimensional analysis of lithic artifacts from P13 excavation. Reworked materials
and incomplete artifacts are not included. The two dimensional groups are related to
the initial dimensions of collected raw material.
characteristics indicate that the original position of the prehistoric
site was not far from the actual discovery location.
All steps of the reduction sequence appear to be represented,
even if the artifact number is too small to suppose that the
reduction sequence is complete. Cortical flakes are plentiful and
coherent with the exploitation methods, as plain débitage products.
No refittings were found, as it is normal for material coming from
a non-primary position.
3.1. Dimensional analysis
Artifact dimensions are variable, but they are always bigger than
the small flint fragments/pebbles found in the sediments that do
not result from anthropic activity. Two size groups are observable
(Fig. 4), related to the dimensional characteristics of exploited raw
material. Considering the length/width, the median value is 1.19;
the minimum is 0.44 and the maximum is 2.6 (variance 0.10 and
Fig. 5. More probable/frequent flakes from Pirro 13 fissure calculated using Principal
Component Analysis.
standard deviation 0.433). Generally, oriented flakes are slightly
longer than wide, but numerous wider than long flakes are also
attested, probably due to the significant use of centripetal débitage
on small pebbles. The more common flakes from centripetal débitage are shown in Fig. 5.
Cores and flakes relative percentages are coherent because cores
represent 7% and flakes 93% of the lithic assemblage. From a technological point of view, there is a strong relation between the
knapping methods observed on flakes and cores.
3.2. Reduction sequences
Two main different reduction sequences are present in the Pirro
Nord site (fissure 13): opportunistic/unipolar débitage (c.f. S.S.D.A.:
Forestier, 1993) and centripetal débitage. They are all strictly related
to the raw material morphology.
Fig. 6. Scheme of centripetal débitage made on small/medium size pebbles (Drawing: D. Aureli).
60
M. Arzarello et al. / Quaternary International 267 (2012) 56e61
For the centripetal débitage (Fig. 6), small-medium pebbles were
chosen. Their dimensions are between 3 and 5 cm diameter and they
are generally spherical or sub-spherical. Pebbles were initiated with
a bipolar débitage (this technique only is used in Pirro Nord for
these) and the two resulting parts (one twice the size of the other)
were exploited with a centripetal débitage. From the core flake, only
a few “Kombewa flakes” were obtained with a quadrangular profile,
while from the other part of raw material (with the concave surface)
a more extended knapping sequence was applied. No preparation of
striking platform was made, but sometimes an orthogonal (to the
débitage surface) flake was detached and the negative was used as
an initial striking platform to start the centripetal production. The
débitage direction was centripetal or semi/centripetal (cordal),
alternating lateral debordant with non-debordant flakes. The most
common morphology of those products was triangular flakes with
a natural debordant side. This reduction sequence step was always
made by direct percussion with a hard hammer. Cores were always
discarded before total exploitation, probably in relation to minimal
product dimensions.
The opportunistic débitage, the rarest in the lithic assemblage,
was usually used to exploit quadrangular pebbles (more in black
flint with several tectonic fractures) and to exploit large pebbles
(rare in raw material sites). In the first situation, one to three
knapping surfaces and débitage surfaces were developed using
a direct percussion technique (Fig. 7). The general scheme was: 1)
exploitation of a first natural angle between 90 and 80 to obtain
2e4 flakes with no predetermined form; 2) utilization of the first
débitage surface as a striking platform in order to obtain 2e4 flakes
from a second débitage surface, orthogonal to the first one; 3)
utilization of a third striking platform, either a natural surface or
the second débitage surface. This third stage is not always present
and normally allowed production of only one or two flakes. In this
phase, cores were abandoned before total exploitation, and most
products are completely cortical or have a lateral cortex.
Large pebbles were exploited using several striking platforms
(from 4 to 6). Each débitage surface was employed to obtain 3 or 4
large flakes, using a unipolar or centripetal knapping direction
Fig. 7. Scheme of opportunistic débitage made on quadrangular pebbles.
(Fig. 8). Those cores types are quite unusual in the lithic assemblage, probably because the raw material workable size was smaller
in most situations. Even here, cores were discarded before total
exploitation.
No façonnage evidence was recorded in Pirro Nord. At this state
of research, the employment of limestone cannot be rejected, but
all the “knapped-like” limestone pieces (7) that were found during
excavation are too much eroded to be sure about their anthropical
origin. All those pieces are characterized by a distal cutting edge
made by 2 or 3 removals, and they show a “chopping-tool
morphology”.
One hammer in limestone was also found (65 47 43 mm). It
shows 2 specific areas of utilization (in the two apical parts) characterized by several small and concentrated cupules. No retouched
Fig. 8. Scheme of opportunistic débitage made on large pebbles.
M. Arzarello et al. / Quaternary International 267 (2012) 56e61
pieces were found in the lithic assemblage, but one flake with
a short, inverse, discontinuous retouch (probably due to utilization,
according with the microscopical analysis) was found in the
reworked sediments under the fissure.
3.3. General considerations about lithic materials
The lithic assemblage allows some general considerations about
the knapping strategies, even if the number of recovered pieces is, at
this state of research, quite poor. From a general point of view, the
raw material supply area is restricted, in terms of distance, as it is
usual for Lower Palaeolithic sites. The knapping strategies are
strongly influenced by the exploited pebble morphology and they
are finalized to obtain flakes with, at least, one cutting edge and
sometimes two convergent cutting edges (centripetal débitage on
small/medium rounded pebbles). Cores were almost never exploited to the end, probably because the raw material was copious and
because the blanks needed to have a minimal dimension. The
different knapping strategies have not produced characteristic
flakes, and only some flakes from the centripetal débitage seem to be
more predeterminated in terms of knapping direction organization.
4. Discussion and conclusions
Pirro Nord site, and especially the Pirro 13 fissure, represents an
important attestation of the first European peopling. The lithic
assemblage can be attributed to Mode 1 and shows most of the
characteristics of the oldest European sites (de Lumley et al., 1988;
Peretto et al., 1998; Carbonell et al., 2001, 2008; Peretto, 2005; Parés
et al., 2006; Crochet et al., 2009; Toro-Moyano et al., 2009; Despriée
et al., 2010). Moreover, some features seem to be very interesting as
compared to other European sites dated between 1.0 and 1.7 Ma. The
first is the employment of a centripetal method that is not always
evident for this period in Europe, but is the predominant one at Pirro.
This peculiarity can be obviously related to raw material morphology
but also to possible choice by knappers. The second is the apparent
absence of façonnage, normally associated with débitage production,
and the total absence of retouched pieces.
Pirro 13 lithic assemblage shows, as do the other oldest sites,
a large opportunism component in terms of the shortest and best
way to reach a purpose. This feature has deeply influenced the
blank morphology and the production strategies.
Acknowledgments
Our work in Pirro Nord has been possible thanks to the collaboration and kindness of the quarry owners L. Gervasio and A. Erni
and of the licences Franco and Gaetano Dell’Erba, of the municipality of Apricena and the collaboration with the Sopraintendenza
per i Beni Archeologici della Puglia. This research was supported by
the PRIN project (Contesto paleoambientale e paleobiogeografico
della prima diffusione del genere Homo in Europa: evidenze dal
Pleistocene inferiore italiano) and by the Compagnia di San Paolo,
in collaboration between the Università degli Studi di Ferrara,
Università degli Studi di Torino e Università “Sapienza” di Roma. We
also wish to thank all those who participated in the excavation.
References
Abbazzi, L., Benvenuti, M., Boschian, G., Dominici, S., Masini, F., Mezzabotta, C.,
Rook, L., Valleri, G., Torre, D., 1996. The Neogene and Pleistocene succession, and
the mammal faunal assemblages of an area between Apricena and Poggio
Imperiale (Foggia, Italy). Memoir Società Geologica Italiana 51, 383e402.
Arzarello, M., Marcolini, F., Pavia, G., Pavia, M., Petronio, C., Petrucci, M., Rook, L.,
Sardella, R., 2007. Evidence of earliest human occurrence in Europe: the site of
Pirro Nord (Southern Italy). Naturwissenschaften 94, 107e112.
61
Arzarello, M., Marcolini, F., Pavia, G., Pavia, M., Petronio, C., Petrucci, M., Rook, L.,
Sardella, R., 2009. L’industrie lithique du site Pléistocène inferieur de Pirro Nord
(Apricena, Italie du sud):une occupation humaine entre 1,3 et 1,7 Ma. L’anthropologie 113, 47e58.
Bedetti, C., 2003. Le avifaune fossili del Plio-Pleistocene italiano: sistematica,
paleoecologia ed elementi di biocronologia, Università “La Sapienza” di Roma,
246 p., Doctoral dissertation
Carbonell, E., Bermudez de Castro, J., Pares, J., Perez-Gonzalez, A., Cuenca-Bescos, G.,
Olle, A., Mosquera, M., Huguet, R., van der Made, J., Rosas, A., Sala, R.,
Vallverdu, J., Garcýa, N., Granger, D., Martinon-Torres, M., Rodrýguez, X.,
Stock, G., Verges, J., Allue, E., Burjachs, F., Caceres, I., Canals, A., Benito, A.,
Dýez, C., Lozano, C., Mateos, A., Navazo, M., Rodrýguez, J., Rosell, J., Arsuaga, J.L.,
2008. The first hominin of Europe. Nature 452, 456e470.
Carbonell, E., Mosquera, M., Ollé, A., Rodriguez, J., Sahnouni, M., Sala, R., Vergés, J.M.,
2001. Structure morphotechnique de industrie lithique du Pleistocene inférieur
et moyen d’Atapuerca (Burgos, Espagne). L’anthropologie 105, 259e280.
Crochet, J.-Y., Welcommeb, J.-L., Ivorra, J., Ruffet, G., Boulbes, N., Capdevila, R.,
Claude, J., Firmat, C., Metais, G., Michaux, J., Pickford, M., 2009. Une nouvelle
faune de vertébrés continentaux, associée à des artefacts dans le Pléistocène
inférieur de l’Hérault (Sud de la France), vers 1,57 Ma. Comptes Rendu Palevol.
doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2009.06.004.
De Giuli, C., Masini, F., Torre, D., 1987. The latest Villafranchian faunas of Italy. The
Pirro Nord local fauna (Gargano). Palaeontografica Italiana 74, 52e62.
Delfino, M., Bailon, S., 2000. Early Pleistocene herpetofauna from Cava Dell’Erba and
Cava Pirro (Apulia, southern Italy). Herpetological Journal 10, 95e110.
de Lumley, H., Fournier, A., Krzepkowska, J., Echassoux, A., 1988. L’industrie du
Pléistocène inférieur de la grotte du Vallonnet, Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, AlpesMaritimes. L’Anthropologie 92, 465e495.
Despriée, J., Voinchet, P., Tissoux, H., Moncel, M.-H., Arzarello, M., Robin, S.,
Bahain, J.-J., Falguères, C., Courcimault, G., Dépont, J., Gageonnet, R., Marquer, L.,
Messager, E., Abdessadok, S., Puaud, S., 2010. Lower and middle Pleistocene
human settlements in the middle Loire River Basin, Centre Region, France.
Quaternary International 223-224, 345e359.
Forestier, H., 1993. Le Clactonien: Mise en application d’une nouvelle méthode de
débitage s’inscrivant dans la variabilité des systèmes de production lithique du
Paléolithique ancien. Paleo 5, 53e82.
Gliozzi, E., Abbazzi, L., Azzaroli, A., Caloi, L., Capasso Barbato, L., Di Stefano, G.,
Esu, D., Ficcarelli, G., Girotti, O., Kotsakis, T., Masini, F., Mazza, P., Mezzabotta, C.,
Palombo, M.R., Petronio, C., Rook, L., Sala, B., Sardella, R., Zanalda, E., Torre, D.,
1997. Biochronology of selected mammals, molluscs and ostracods from the
Middle Pliocene to the Late Pleistocene in Italy. The state of the art. Rivista
Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia 90, 369e388.
Parés, J.M., Pérez-Gonzàlez, A., Rosas, A., Benito, A., Bermùdez de Castro, J.M.,
Carbonell, E., Huguet, R., 2006. Matuyama-age lithic tools from the Sima del Elefante site, Atapuerca (northern Spain). Journal of Human Evolution 50, 163e169.
Pavia, G., Arzarello, M., Marcolini, F., Pavia, M., Petronio, C., Petrucci, M., Rook, L.,
Sardella, R., 2008. Ricerche antropologiche, paleontologiche e stratigrafiche sul
sito pleistocenico di Pirro Nord, Foggia: evidenze della più antica occupazione
umana in Europa. Geoingegneria Ambientale e Mineraria 2008, 149e153.
Pavia, G., Bertok, C., Ciampo, G., Di Donato, V., Martire, L., Masini, F., Pavia, M.,
Santangelo, N., Taddei Ruggiero, E., Zunino, M., 2010. Tectono-sedimentary
evolution of the Pliocene to lower Pleistoceine succession of the ApricenaLesina-Poggio Imperiale quarrying district (western Gargano, southern Italy).
Bollettino Della Società Geologica Italiana 129, 132e155.
Pavia, M., Zunino, M., Coltorti, M., Angelone, C., Arzarello, M., Bagnus, C.,
Bellucci, L., Colombero, S., Marcolini, F., Peretto, C., Petronio, C., Petrucci, M.,
Pieruccini, P., Sardella, R., Tema, E., Villier, B., Pavia, G., 2012. Stratigraphical
and palaeontological data from the Early Pleistocene Pirro 10 site of Pirro Nord
(Puglia, south eastern Italy). Quaternary International 267, 40e55.
Peretto, C., 2005. The first peopling of Southern Europe: the Italian case. Palevol 5.
Peretto, C., Amore, O., Antoniazzi, A., Bahain, J.J., Cattani, L., Cavallini, E., Esposito, P.,
Falguères, C., Hedley, C., Laurent, I., Le Breton, V., Longo, L., Milliken, S.,
Monegatti, P., Ollé, A., Pugliese, A., Renault-Miskosky, J., Sozzi, M., Ungaro, S.,
Vannucci, S., Vergés, J.M., Wagner, J.J., Yokoyama, Y., 1998. L’industrie lithique de
Cà Belvdere i Monte Poggiolo: stratigraphie, matière première, typologie,
remontage et traces d’utilisation. L’anthropologie 102, 343e466.
Petrucci M., 2008. Analisi sistematica dei Macromammiferi di Pirro Nord (Apricena,
Foggia, Puglia). Torino University, 201pp, PhD dissertation in Earth Science
Petrucci M., Cipullo A., Martínez-Navarro B., Rook L. and Sardella R., in press. The
late Villafranchian (Early Pleistocene) carnivores (Carnivora, Mammalia) from
Pirro Nord (Italy). Palaeontographica.
Rook, L., Martínez-Navarro, B., Howell, F.C., 2004. Occurrence of Theropithecus sp. in
the Late Villafranchian of southern Italy and implication for Early Pleistocene
“out of Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 47, 267e277.
Rook, L., Sardella, R., 2005. Hystrix refossa Gervais 1852, from Pirro Nord, Early
Pleistocene, southern Italy. Rivista Italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia 111,
485e492.
Rook, L., Martínez-Navarro, B., 2010. Villafranchian: the long story of a Plio-Pleistocene European large mammal biochronologic unit. Quaternary International
219, 134e144.
Toro-Moyano, I., de Lumley, H., Fajardo, B., Barsky, D., Cauche, D., Celiberti, V.,
Grégoire, S., Martinez-Navarro, B., Patrocinio Espigares, M., Ros-Montoya, S.,
2009. L’industrie lithique des gisements du Pléistocène inférieur de Barranco
León et Fuente Nueva 3 à Orce, Grenade, Espagne. L’anthropologie 113, 111e124.