International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Workplace Sedentary Behavior and Productivity:
A Cross-Sectional Study
Sara K. Rosenkranz 1, * , Emily L. Mailey 2 , Emily Umansky 3 , Richard R. Rosenkranz 1
and Elizabeth Ablah 3
1
2
3
*
Department of Food, Nutrition, Dietetics and Health, Kansas State University, 1105 Sunset Ave, Rm 322,
Manhattan, KS 66502, USA; Ricardo@ksu.edu
Department of Kinesiology, Kansas State University, 8 Natatorium, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA;
Emailey@ksu.edu
Department of Population Health, University of Kansas School of Medicine–Wichita, 1010 N Kansas,
Wichita, KS 67214, USA; Emily.Umansky@gmail.com (E.U.); Eablah@kumc.edu (E.A.)
Correspondence: SaraRose@ksu.edu; Tel.: +1-785-341-6690
Received: 6 August 2020; Accepted: 3 September 2020; Published: 8 September 2020
Abstract: Reducing sedentary behavior in the workplace has become an important public health
priority; however, some employers have expressed concerns regarding the potential for reduced
productivity if employees are not seated while at work. Therefore, the aim of this study was to
determine the relationship between workplace sedentary behavior (sitting time) and work productivity
among full-time office-based employees, and further to investigate other potential factors associated
with productivity. A 19-item online self-report survey was completed by 2068 government employees
in Kansas. The survey assessed workplace sedentary behavior, work productivity, job satisfaction,
and fatigue. Overall, office workers reported high levels of sedentary time (mean > 78%). The primary
results indicated that sitting time was not significantly associated with productivity (β = 0.013,
p = 0.519), but job satisfaction and fatigue were positively (β = 0.473, p < 0.001) and negatively
(β = −0.047, p = 0.023) associated with productivity, respectively. Furthermore, participants with the
highest level of sitting time (>91% of the time) reported lower job satisfaction and greater fatigue
as compared with the lowest level of sitting time (<75% of the time). Taken together, these results
offer promising support that less sitting time is associated with positive outcomes that do not seem to
come at the expense of productivity.
Keywords: sitting; fatigue; job satisfaction; worksite; office-based; government; employees; employers
1. Introduction
High levels of sedentary behavior are commonplace in the United States. Researchers estimate
that adults are sedentary for approximately 7.7 h each day [1]. Desk jobs, television watching,
and commuting to work each increase the amount of sedentary time for adults [2,3]. Sedentary
behavior is especially common in the workplace; office workers sit for about 70% of the time spent at
work [4–6].
There is now a wealth of evidence that demonstrates a relationship between increased sedentary
behavior and a higher risk of a host of negative health outcomes, including cardiovascular disease, type
II diabetes, obesity, several types of cancer, musculoskeletal conditions, and all-cause mortality [7–9].
In addition to physical health outcomes, increased sedentary behavior is also associated with an
increased risk of depression [10]. In light of the detrimental health effects of high levels of sedentary
behavior, public health researchers have committed considerable efforts toward interventions designed
to reduce sedentary behavior, particularly among office workers. However, ensuring that reductions
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www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
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in sedentary behavior will not damage productivity is likely to be important for employer buy-in,
particularly given that employees in focus groups have voiced concerns about the potential for decreased
productivity in the wake of interventions targeting sedentary behavior in the workplace [11,12].
Workplace health practitioners have also indicated productivity concerns as the key barrier to making
changes in the workplace [13]. These concerns seem logical, given that reductions in sedentary behavior
may take employees away from their workstations, or conceivably could replace work time with
physical activity time.
Productivity measures are relatively common in worksite-based, sedentary behavior
studies; reviews have identified 20 studies that include some measure of productivity [14–16].
Some worksite-based intervention studies that addressed sedentary behavior have shown no effect
on productivity [17,18], while others suggest an increase or perceived increase in productivity [19,20].
Reviews of this body of evidence suggest that, overall, interventions to reduce sedentary behavior do
not significantly impact productivity. However, this body of research also suggests that additional
investigation of the relationship between workplace sedentary behavior and productivity is warranted
as the association between these two variables has not been consistent [14–16].
The results from a cross-sectional study conducted by Munir and colleagues (2015) suggested
that greater sitting time is associated with lower work engagement [21]. Two additional
cross-sectional studies have examined the relationship between workplace sitting time and productivity,
with contrasting results. Puig-Ribera and colleagues (2015) determined that there was not a significant
association between workplace sitting time and productivity among a sample of approximately 550
office employees at a Spanish university [22]. In contrast, a study of approximately 2500 Japanese
adults by Ishii et al. (2018) suggested that employees aged 20 to 39 y who had higher job-related
sedentary behavior were more likely to report being less efficient than those with low job-related
sedentary behavior [23]. Given these seemingly contradictory results, further research that incorporates
additional factors that may be associated with sedentary behavior and/or productivity—such as job
satisfaction and fatigue—is warranted.
The connection between job satisfaction and productivity is one that researchers have examined
for more than 60 years [24]. A review from 1985 estimated that the overall correlation between
job satisfaction and productivity is small (r = 0.17), whereas a later review suggested a stronger
overall association (r = 0.3) [25,26]. As compared with the association with productivity, there is little
research on the topic of the association between sedentary behavior and job satisfaction. Gorman and
colleagues’ intervention to reduce sedentary behavior showed a small, non-significant improvement in
job satisfaction [27]. Outside of this particular study, thus far, job satisfaction has not been an outcome
of interest in investigations of sitting time. Additional research that examines sedentary behavior and
job satisfaction could elucidate a potential relationship between these two variables.
High levels of fatigue appear to be associated with low productivity, and this relationship has
been shown across various measures of productivity. One study that used a national cross-sectional
telephone survey indicated that workers who report fatigue are more likely to report health-related
“lost productive time” in comparison with those who do not report fatigue [28]. Others report
that increased fatigue is also correlated with reduced perceived performance and reduced work
productivity [29,30]. Furthermore, some research shows that interventions for reducing sitting time
also reduce fatigue [31,32]. Altogether, previous studies indicate that job satisfaction and fatigue might
be important factors that could help to explain a potential relationship between workplace sedentary
behavior and productivity.
Though researchers have previously included productivity measures in intervention studies
designed to reduce workplace sedentary behavior, the relationship between these two factors is not
fully understood. Further, analysis of this relationship with statistical adjustment for important factors,
such as job satisfaction and fatigue, which also may be associated with productivity, is necessary.
Previous research indicates significant employer concern regarding loss of productivity with decreased
sedentary time. In order to address the concern of employers in a sector of the workforce likely
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to encounter barriers to changes in workplace policies, the primary purpose of this study was to
investigate the relationship between workplace sedentary behavior and productivity among a large,
representative sample of full-time government office workers in the State of Kansas.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
The Human Subjects Research Institutional Review Board at Kansas State University (IRB# 8886)
approved this cross-sectional study. Eligible participants for this study were full-time, adult employees
of 12 of the largest state government agencies in Kansas. These individuals were identified as potentially
eligible participants for a longitudinal intervention study on sedentary behavior in the workplace.
A Kansas State government human resources official sent an invitation to complete an interest survey
to the work emails of all employees. The study consisted of a single electronic survey that could be
completed at any computer with internet access. The study occurred over a fifteen-day period in
March 2018. Participants did not receive compensation for their participation in the study.
2.2. Methods
The 19 survey items (see Appendix A for the full survey) for the current study were designed to
measure five variables, using self-report responses: demographics (eight items), sedentary behavior
(one item), productivity (three items), job satisfaction (four items), and fatigue (three items).
Basic demographic data on gender, age, ethnicity, race, marital status, and education level were
collected from participants, as were data about the name of their employer and whether they worked
30 hours or more per week. Sedentary behavior was self-reported as the percentage of time during
an average workday in the past week they spent sitting [33]. To assess productivity, job satisfaction,
and fatigue, survey items from existing validated questionnaires were used [34,35]. All measures
of sedentary behavior, productivity, job satisfaction, and fatigue prompted participants to consider
the past seven days when responding. In the interest of keeping the survey at a manageable length,
the instrument for this study used subsections of the original validated measures. Sample items are
displayed in Table 1.
Table 1. Sample survey items.
Construct
Sedentary Behavior
Demographics
Productivity
Fatigue
Job Satisfaction
Sample Item
Describe your typical work day in the last 7
days: % of time spent sitting (do not include
driving)
Are you in your office at least 30 hours per
week (not including telecommuting)?
How would you describe the OVERALL
QUALITY of your work in the past 7 days?
Rate your level of fatigue on the average during
the past week.
How personally rewarding did you find your
work in the past 7 days?
Previous Source
Occupational Sitting and Physical Activity
Questionnaire, Chau et al., 2012
n/a
Health & Work Questionnaire, Shikiar et al.,
2004
Fatigue Symptom Inventory, Hann et al.,
1998
Health & Work Questionnaire, Shikiar et al.,
2004
2.3. Data Analyses
The data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0. Armonk, NY:
IBM Corp. Descriptive statistics for each construct are presented as mean ± SD. Significance was
set as p < 0.05. For the productivity (three items, α = 0.88) and job satisfaction (four items, α = 0.84)
subscales, an aggregate score was created by calculating the mean of the responses within each subscale.
Data from participants who completed more than half of the items within the subscale (two of three
items for productivity or three of four items for job satisfaction) were used for analyses involving each
scale. When an item within a subscale was incomplete (n = 145/14,464 total items), the missing score
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was replaced by the average score of the entire participant sample for that item. The three fatigue items
were multiplied together to create an overall fatigue index rather than an average score, which would
not have been appropriate given the disparate structure of scale items. Missing data points were not
replaced for any of the fatigue index items.
Parametric assumptions were checked for each variable and the sitting time item was
logarithmically transformed and reflected to correct for skewness and kurtosis. Following checks
for collinearity, a three-step linear regression analysis (entry method) was used to determine the
association between sitting time and productivity, statistically adjusting for potential confounding
variables in steps 2 and 3. At step 2, job satisfaction and fatigue index were entered into the regression
model, and at step 3, demographic factors (race, age, gender, education) were entered. Changes in
R2 were determined at each step. Following linear regression, additional analyses were conducted
to determine differences in productivity, job satisfaction, and fatigue index by three levels (lowest,
middle, and highest) of percentage of time spent sitting during a typical workday. Three levels were
used specifically to deal with non-normal distribution, potentially non-linear relationships, and to
contrast the lowest and highest levels while minimizing misclassification. Owing to the kurtosis for the
sitting time variable and the violation of additional parametric assumptions for the fatigue index score,
two-sided asymptotic Kruskal–Wallis tests of independent samples with Bonferroni corrections were
used to assess differences in productivity, job satisfaction, and fatigue index, comparing the highest
level to the lowest level for percentage sitting time for a typical work day.
3. Results
3.1. Participants
A total of 2629 participants across 12 government agencies began the study by completing the
interest survey. Data from participants who did not answer any of the job satisfaction, fatigue,
and productivity measures (n = 367) and from participants who were not full-time employees (n = 193)
were removed. After excluding one additional participant who reported being younger than 18 years
old, 2068 participants remained in the final dataset.
The data from the job satisfaction scale were excluded from analyses for three participants who
had missing data for two of the four items. In cases where participants answered all but one item
within a subscale (productivity or job satisfaction), the missing value was replaced. The number of
missing values for each item ranged from 3 to 62, or from 0.14% to 3.00% of the data for a single item
(see Appendix B).
3.2. Demographics
Participant demographics are displayed in Table 2. The average age of participants was 46 years
(SD = 11.9 y). The sample of government employees was primarily female, with minimal racial or
ethnic diversity. A majority (61%) reported being married, as compared with being widowed, divorced,
separated, or single. A large majority of participants reported having completed at least some college;
participants were most likely to report having completed a bachelor’s degree.
The mean (SD) for each of the 19 survey items is reported in Table 3. Participants reported sitting
for an average of >78% of their work day. For all measures of productivity, job satisfaction, and fatigue,
higher numbers indicate a greater level (e.g., a higher level of efficiency).
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Table 2. Participant demographics.
Demographic Variable
Frequency
Percentage (%)
1476
576
2052
71.9
28.1
100
1871
54
18
13
24
39
2019
92.7
2.7
0.9
0.6
1.2
1.9
100
160
1872
2032
7.9
92.1
100
1261
41
280
20
444
2046
61.6
2.0
13.7
1.0
21.7
100
0
1
160
452
212
853
371
2049
0
<1
7.8
22.1
10.3
41.6
18.1
100
Gender
Female
Male
Sum
Race
White
Black or African-American American
American Indian or Alaska Native
Asian American or Pacific Islander
Other race
Multiracial
Sum
Ethnicity
Hispanic/Latino/Spanish
Non-Hispanic/Latino/Spanish
sum
Marital Status
Married
Widowed
Divorced
Separated
Single
Sum
Education
Less than 9th grade
9th to 12th grade, no diploma
High school diploma or GED
Some college, no degree
Associate degree
Bachelor’s degree
Graduate or professional degree
Sum
Note: GED is a General Equivalency Diploma which is a high school equivalency diploma.
Table 3. Mean results for sedentary behavior, productivity, job satisfaction, and fatigue.
Occupational Variable
Sedentary Behavior
Percentage of Worktime
Spent Sitting
Productivity
Overall Quality of Work
Overall Amount of Work
Work Efficiency
Productivity Subscale Score
Job Satisfaction
Satisfaction with Coworkers
Overall Job Satisfaction
Work is Personally Rewarding
Satisfaction with Work Environment
Job Satisfaction Subscale Score
Fatigue
Average Fatigue Level
Amount of Day with Fatigue
Number of Days with Fatigue
Overall Fatigue Index
Note:
#
Scale #
M
SD
0–100%
78.1
18.9
1–10 (Best ever)
1–10 (Best ever)
1–10 (Best ever)
7.8
7.6
7.3
7.6
1.4
1.7
1.6
1.4
1–10 (Very satisfied)
1–10 (Very satisfied)
1–10 (Very rewarding)
1–10 (Very satisfied)
7.5
6.6
6.4
5.8
6.6
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
1.8
1–11 (As fatigued as I could be)
1–11 (The entire day)
0–7
0–847
6.3
5.1
3.9
179.7
2.4
2.4
2.2
184.4
parentheses indicate the meaning of the largest value.
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3.3. Associations between Sedentary Behavior and Productivity
Table 4 displays the results from the three-step linear regression analyses. At step one, there
was not a significant association between percentage time spent sitting during a typical work day
and productivity. This association remained non-significant at step two as well as in the fully
adjusted model (step three). At step two and step three, the addition of job satisfaction, fatigue index,
and demographic variables significantly increased the explained variance in productivity within
the model. Job satisfaction was positively associated with productivity within the partially and
fully adjusted models, whereas fatigue index was negatively associated with productivity; however,
this association was very small and would not be significant after correction for multiple comparisons.
Age, gender, and education level were all significantly associated with productivity in the fully adjusted
model; however, associations were very small.
Table 4. Associations between percent time spent sitting during a typical workday and productivity,
statistically adjusting for job satisfaction, fatigue index, and demographic variables.
Variable
Step 1
Sitting time (%)
Step 2
Sitting time (%)
Job satisfaction
Fatigue index
Step 3
Sitting time (%)
Job satisfaction
Fatigue index
Race (white, non-white)
Age (years)
Gender (male, female)
Education level
Standardized β
Adjusted R2
∆R2
0.016
0
0.240
0.24
0.240
0.24
0.265
0.025
Significance
−0.009
0.481
−0.036
0.013
0.473
−0.047
−0.034
0.089
0.105
−0.076
0.48
0.48
<0.001
0.636
<0.001
0.086
<0.001
0.519
<0.001
0.023
0.085
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
3.4. Differences in Productivity, Job Satisfaction, and Fatigue Index by Level of Sitting Time
Kruskal–Wallis analyses were performed for productivity, job satisfaction, and fatigue index by
level of percentage of time spent sitting during a typical work day. The omnibus tests for productivity
(p = 0.011), job satisfaction (p < 0.001), and fatigue index (p < 0.001) were all significant. Further
analyses examined the differences between the lowest level (0–74% time spent sitting; n = 560) and
the highest level (91–100% time spent sitting; n = 420). Overall, productivity differed significantly
according to the level of time spent sitting during a typical work day in the last 7 days (H = 8.940,
df = 2, p = 0.011). Office workers who reported spending less than 75% of their work day sitting
reported higher productivity (median = 8.0, interquartile range (IQR) = 7.0, 8.7) as compared with
those who reported spending 91% or more of their typical work day sitting (median = 7.7, IQR = 6.7,
8.3; H = 2.184, df = 1, p = 0.029). After Bonferroni correction, however, the p-value no longer indicated
that this difference was significant (padj = 0.087).
Job satisfaction was also different by the level of percentage of time spent sitting (H = 33.471,
df = 2, p < 0.001). Office workers in the lowest level for sitting reported higher job satisfaction (median
= 7.0, IQR = 5.5, 8.0) as compared with the highest level (median 6.3, IQR = 4.8, 7.5; H = 4.750, df = 1,
p <0.001). Finally, fatigue index differed significantly by the level of percentage of time spent sitting
(H = 29.294, df = 1, p < 0.001). Participants in the lowest level of time spent sitting reported lower
fatigue overall (median 84.0, IQR = 24, 224) as compared with those in the highest level (median 135.0,
IQR = 42, 333; H = −4.334, df = 1, p < 0.001).
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4. Discussion
The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between workplace sedentary behavior
and productivity in a large sample of office workers within government agencies in Kansas. Further,
we sought to examine other important factors that may be associated with time spent sitting, or may
help to explain the association, or lack thereof, between time spent sitting and productivity, including
job satisfaction and fatigue. The primary results of this study indicated that there was not a significant
association between workplace sedentary behavior and productivity among this sample of full-time
government office workers when using self-report measures. Additionally, office workers in the lowest
level of time spent sitting reported higher job satisfaction and lower fatigue as compared with those in
the highest level of time spent sitting. Because previous research suggests that productivity concerns
are a key barrier to implementing changes in the workplace that may decrease sedentary behavior,
results from the current study may be interpreted positively with respect to alleviating employer
concerns related to reducing sedentary behavior for their employees [11–13].
Overall, the results suggest that office workers in the current study were primarily sedentary
during the workday, sitting for approximately 78% of their time spent at work. This percentage is near
the upper edge of the range of 65–75% that previous studies of office-based sedentary behavior have
demonstrated [4–6,36]. These results are generally consistent with previous findings, and reinforce the
consensus that sedentary behavior is prevalent in office settings.
Our study’s results are similar to those found by Puig-Ribera and colleagues, which also indicated
no relationship between these variables among employees at a Spanish university [22]. Collectively,
these studies may help to explain why workplace interventions that reduce sedentary behavior do not
typically result in changes in productivity [14–16]. Moreover, these data may suggest that researchers as
well as employers should not expect changes in productivity as a result of interventions that effectively
reduce workplace sedentary behavior.
Furthermore, when considered alongside the positive results with regard to better job satisfaction
and lower fatigue in employees with lower levels of sitting time, the current results may actually
encourage employers to consider implementing policies that aim to reduce sedentary behavior. Sitting
time was not associated with productivity. Additionally, although the follow-on analyses indicated that
office workers who reported sitting for less than 75% of their work day did report higher productivity,
as compared with those who reported more than 91% of their day was spent sitting, the difference was
not statistically significant, and likely not meaningful. Studies show that the use of a sit-to-stand desk
or an active workstation has the potential to improve productivity overall—rather than simply not
harming it when intervening in the work place—potentially through reductions in worker fatigue or
discomfort [15,16]. Overall, the current results, along with previous research, suggest that reducing
workplace sedentary behavior is unlikely to be associated with significant changes in productivity.
This study afforded the opportunity to examine potential associations between other factors that
might impact productivity. Job satisfaction was positively associated with productivity in the partially
adjusted (β = 0.481) as well as fully adjusted (β = 0.473) model, in agreement with previous research
demonstrating a positive association between these variables [26,34]. In the follow-on analyses in the
current study, which reflected unadjusted associations between sedentary time and job satisfaction,
job satisfaction was higher in the office workers who reported the lowest level of time spent sitting as
compared with those who reported the highest level of time spent sitting. This finding adds support to
the fully adjusted regression model, indicating that job satisfaction warrants further investigation in
future studies, particularly intervention studies, to determine whether reductions in sedentary time
could contribute to improved job satisfaction. There have been a few intervention studies that have
examined the associations between sedentary behavior in the workplace and job satisfaction. However,
one cross-sectional study conducted in sedentary employees who sat at least eight hours per day
showed that employees who did not participate in regular physical activity had lower job satisfaction
and reported a poorer quality of life, as compared with employees who obtained at least one hour of
physical activity at least three days per week [37]. A natural experiment where activity-based working
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(ABW) principles were used in one workplace showed no significant effect on overall job satisfaction
as compared with the comparison workplace [38]. However, study authors reported that productivity
was slightly reduced in the ABW workplace, as compared with the comparison workplace. Another
cross-sectional study indicated that standing or walking work that was not strenuous, as compared
with sedentary work, was associated with higher odds for reporting being “very satisfied” with the
job [39]. The opposite relationship was reported for heavy or strenuous work, and overall, the strongest
predictors for job satisfaction were social support from colleagues and superiors, as well as influence
at work.
One other notable finding from the current study was that the calculated fatigue index score was
negatively associated with productivity, albeit a very weak association, indicating that office workers
who reported greater levels of fatigue also reported lower levels of productivity. This finding is again
in agreement with the previous results of cross-sectional research that support a relationship between
increased fatigue and decreased productivity [29,30]. Of note, the association between fatigue index
and productivity was only statistically significant in the fully adjusted model, which indicates that other
explanatory demographic factors may contribute to this association. Given the correlation between job
satisfaction and productivity as well as fatigue index and productivity, we considered the possibility of
a mediating relationship, where these factors might serve as mediators between sedentary time and
productivity. However, given that the correlation between sedentary time and productivity was not
statistically significant, it would not be appropriate to conduct a mediation analysis using our data.
Were such an analysis to be conducted, given the cross sectional design of the study, the true nature
and direction of the mediation would be inscrutable. While not the main focus of this study, statistical
adjustment according to multiple demographic factors indicated that age, gender, and education level
were significantly associated with productivity (see Table 4). Overall, the current study confirms
the importance of monitoring fatigue when examining workplace productivity. Follow-on analyses
indicated that those in the lowest level of time spent sitting reported significantly lower fatigue overall
as compared with those in the highest level of time spent sitting. This is consistent with previous
evaluations of worksite-based interventions that have demonstrated reductions in sedentary behavior
and self-reported fatigue [31,32]. Overall, the unadjusted analysis indicates a potential positive effect of
reduced sitting time on fatigue in office workers, however, causality cannot be inferred. Longitudinal
studies that help to elucidate directional relationships between sitting, fatigue, and productivity are
needed to shed more light on potential mechanisms through which sitting exerts effects.
4.1. Limitations
There are several limitations to consider when interpreting the results of the current study.
The primary limitation is the self-report measures of sedentary behavior and productivity. Although
Chau and colleagues [17] reported a moderate-to-strong correlation (r = 0.65) between objectively
measured sitting time and self-reported sitting time, estimates of sitting time do not capture actual
sitting time precisely. Similarly, self-reports of productivity may not reflect actual productivity. Previous
research using the Health and Work Questionnaire (HWQ) has suggested a significant association
between self-reported productivity estimates and one objective measure of productivity, total hours
lost (time unavailable to accept telephone calls without an authorized excuse), but the correlation was
low (r = −0.195) [34]. In the same study, however, a more comprehensive objective assessment of
productivity, total performance points, was not significantly associated with self-reported productivity.
Productivity is challenging to measure objectively; it requires measures to be tailored to the specific
responsibilities of the employee sample [40]. Objective productivity measures also limit the ability
for studies to include samples with varying occupational duties. Thus, the current study design was
appropriate for an easily captured estimate of productivity across a large sample of participants who
did not share the same work responsibilities.
Though this cross-sectional study demonstrates a number of significant associations, longitudinal
investigations of these factors are needed to determine causal relationships. Another limitation is
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that the study sample may not be representative of the specific worksites included in the study.
This survey was administered as part of an interest survey for a larger study of sedentary behavior in
the workplace. Although all employees were encouraged to complete the survey, it is possible that the
sample of employees who were willing to participate in the interest survey was not representative of
the population of interest for this study; that is, employees of large state government agencies in the
State of Kansas. Furthermore, this study focused on only one work sector. The findings of this study
may not be generalizable to office workers within other work sectors. Finally, this study used selected
items from full questionnaires to measure fatigue, productivity, and job satisfaction. The selections
were made in a way that maintained subscales could be analyzed in a similar or identical fashion to
the original scales, as evidenced by the high internal consistency values for productivity (α = 0.88) and
job satisfaction (α = 0.84). However, there are additional items within these scales that could have
provided a more comprehensive assessment of these three constructs. Ultimately, the survey length
was appropriate for the purpose of identifying interest in participation; it allowed for the opportunity
to gain some initial insight into the relationships of interest from a large sample of primarily sedentary
office workers without an excessive time burden for participants.
4.2. Future Research
Researchers can build on the findings of the current study by continuing to investigate the potential
relationship between workplace sedentary behavior and productivity using both self-report and
objective measures. In particular, studies that examine associations between fatigue and productivity
are needed in order to answer questions related to the potential for reduced sitting to lead to reductions
in fatigue that may enhance job satisfaction and productivity. It is important to determine whether
sitting and fatigue are part of a feedback loop linking sedentary behavior to fatigue, leading to
reductions in productivity. Studies should seek to understand how other factors such as age and
gender play a role in actual and perceived productivity.
The absence of a significant relationship between sitting time and productivity within the current
study may also suggest that additional measures of related constructs are necessary to understand
the relationships between workplace sedentary behavior and work-related outcomes. For instance,
there may be differences in productivity between those who engage in light versus moderate physical
activity at work when they have similar amounts of accumulated sedentary time [16]. Moreover,
measures of other work-related outcomes (e.g., focus) could help illustrate the effects of sedentary
behavior in the workplace [32]. Additional evidence related to each of these potential relationships
could produce a more comprehensive understanding of workplace sedentary behavior and productivity.
5. Conclusions
The current study provides an initial assessment of workplace sedentary behavior among full-time
state government office workers, and its relationship with productivity. The data support previous
studies that demonstrate the pervasiveness of sedentary behavior in the workplace, which is a cause for
concern regarding health. Overall, the results suggest that sitting time at work is not associated with
productivity, and office workers in the lowest level of time spent sitting report higher job satisfaction and
lower fatigue as compared with those in the highest level of time spent sitting. Future investigations of
sedentary behavior and productivity will require a more comprehensive assessment of job satisfaction,
fatigue, and other related factors, using more objective methods where possible, in order to provide
meaningful contributions to better understand workplace sedentary behavior and associations with
work-related outcomes. For the time being, as researchers and public health professionals engage with
employers to promote reductions in sedentary behavior in office workers, these data offer promising
support that less sitting time is associated with positive outcomes that do not seem to come at the
expense of productivity.
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Author Contributions: Conceptualization, all authors; methodology, all authors; data collection, E.L.M., E.U., and
E.A.; formal analysis, S.K.R. and R.R.R.; writing—original draft preparation, S.K.R., E.U., and E.A.; writing—review
and editing, all authors. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge all of our participants for their time in completing the survey
used for this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A. Survey Used for Data Collection
1.
2.
Select your current employer [dropdown list with government agencies]
Are you in your office at least 30 hours per week (not including telecommuting)?
3.
How would you describe your typical work day in the last 7 days? (This involves only your work
day, and does not include travel to and from work, or what you did in your leisure time)
4.
Yes
No
% of time spent sitting (do not include driving): ____
% of time spent driving: ____
% of time spent standing: ____
% of time spent walking: ____
% of time spent doing heavy labor or physically demanding tasks: ____
% of time doing other activities: ____
[total percentages had to total 100%]
How personally rewarding did you find your work in the past 7 days?
1
Not rewarding at all
5.
6
7
8
9
10
Very rewarding
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Very Satisfied
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Very Satisfied
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Very Satisfied
8
9
10
Very Satisfied
How would you describe your EFFICIENCY in the past 7 days?
1
Very Dissatisfied
9.
5
How satisfied were you in the past 7 days with your relationships with your coworkers?
1
Very Dissatisfied
8.
4
How satisfied were you overall with your job in the past 7 days?
1
Very Dissatisfied
7.
3
How satisfied were you in the past 7 days with the physical environment in which you work (e.g.,
amount of noise, temperature where you work)?
1
Very Dissatisfied
6.
2
2
3
4
5
6
7
How would you describe the OVERALL QUALITY of your work in the past 7 days?
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 6535
1
My worst ever
10.
2
2
1
7
6
2
3
4
5
8
7
6
1
2
7
3
1
2
3
4
5
10
My best ever
9
8
8
4
6
Male
Female
Married
Widowed
Divorced
Separated
Single
Less than 9th grade
9th to 12th grade, no diploma
High school diploma or GED
Some college, no degree
Associate degree
Bachelor’s degree
Graduate or professional degree
Are you of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin?
19.
5
What is your highest level of education completed?
18.
4
What is your age? [entry box for age]
What is your marital status?
17.
3
What is your gender?
15.
16.
6
10
My best ever
9
10
As fatigued as I could be
9
5
6
7
Days
Rate how much of the day, on average, you felt fatigued in the past week.
0
None of the day
14.
5
Indicate how many days, in the past week, you felt fatigued for any part of the day.
0
Days
13.
4
Rate your level of fatigue on the average during the past week.
0
Not at all fatigued
12.
3
How would you describe the OVERALL AMOUNT of work you did in the past 7 days?
1
My worst ever
11.
11 of 14
Yes
No
What is your race? (check all that apply)
White
7
8
9
10
The entire day
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Black or African American
American Indian or Alaska Native
Asian American or Pacific Islander
Other (please specify)
Appendix B. Table of Missing Value Imputations
Productivity
How would you describe your EFFICIENCY in the past 7 days?
How would you describe the OVERALL QUALITY of your work in the
past 7 days?
How would you describe the OVERALL AMOUNT of work you did in
the past 7 days?
Job Satisfaction
How personally rewarding did you find your work in the past 7 days?
How satisfied were you in the past 7 days with the physical
environment in which you work (e.g., amount of noise, temperature
where you work)?
How satisfied were you overall with your job in the past 7 days?
How satisfied were you in the past 7 days with your relationships with
your coworkers?
Total Missing Values (to be imputed)
Number of
Missing Values
Percentage of
Total Values
4
0.19
16
0.77
12
0.58
4
0.19
3
0.14
62
3.00
44
2.13
145
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