Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 2019, Vol. 7, No. 7, 485-490
Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/jfnr/7/7/1
Published by Science and Education Publishing
DOI:10.12691/jfnr-7-7-1
Linum usitatissimum (Flaxseed) Oil during Postpartum
Period Contributes to Lean Mass and Healthy Serum
Lipid Profile in Rats
Bianca Ferolla da Camara Boueri1,*, Carolina Ribeiro Pessanha1, Aline D’Avila Pereira1,
Danielle Cavalcante Ribeiro1, Fernanda Carvalho de Santana2, Jorge Mancini-Filho2,
Carlos Alberto Soares da Costa1, Gilson Teles Boaventura2
1
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Fluminense Federal University, Niterói, Brazil
Department of Food Science and Experimental Nutrition, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
*Corresponding author: biancaferolla@hotmail.com
2
Received May 05, 2019; Revised June 05, 2019; Accepted July 06, 2019
Abstract There is a dearth of efficient strategies to support postpartum among women in order to protect them
from chronic diseases in later life. Flaxseed oil (FO) is a food derived oil that has functional ingredients as alphalinolenic acid (ALA). The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of FO during postpartum period in
body parameters and lipid profile in rats. After the delivery of their pups, rats were randomly divided into two
groups: control – diet with soybean oil as fat source- or FO – diet with FO as a fat source. After 51 days offering
experimental diets, each group was evaluated on body composition, intra-abdominal fat, serum lipid profile
and polyunsaturated fatty acids. The diet based on FO recorded high serum levels of ALA (P<0.0001)
and eicosapentaenoic fatty acids (P<0.05). The diet also recorded a decrease in gamma-linolenic (P<0.05),
dihomo-gamma-linolenic (P<0.05) and arachidonic fatty acids (P<0.0001). These aforementioned results lead to the
activation of metabolic and physiologic pathways that provided higher lean mass (P<0.05), lower results on total
cholesterol (P<0.05) and low density cholesterol (P<0.05). Hence, consumption of FO during postpartum can
promote lean mass and healthy body composition, better lipid profile and contribute to chronic disease prevention.
Keywords: flaxseed oil, alpha-linolenic acid, body composition, postpartum period, rats
Cite This Article: Bianca Ferolla da Camara Boueri, Carolina Ribeiro Pessanha, Aline D’Avila Pereira,
Danielle Cavalcante Ribeiro, Fernanda Carvalho de Santana, Jorge Mancini-Filho, Carlos Alberto Soares da
Costa, and Gilson Teles Boaventura, “Linum usitatissimum (Flaxseed) Oil during Postpartum Period Contributes
to Lean Mass and Healthy Serum Lipid Profile in Rats.” Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, vol. 7, no. 7
(2019): 485-490. doi: 10.12691/jfnr-7-7-1.
1. Introduction
Chronic noncommunicable diseases (CND) such as
cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and cancer are among
the main causes of deaths worldwide [1]. Certain Life stages’
of women such as pregnancy and postpartum, require special
attention in order to prevent changes in metabolism
and physiology. Those changes could lead to future health
disturbances related to CND [2,3]. Accumulation of body
mass in high fat, variation in triglycerides and cholesterol
levels are some of the changes that happen in the maternal
body in order to support the new-life and lactation [4,5,6].
However, physiological and structural changes return to
normal during postpartum period. Nevertheless, in some
cases they may persist and compromise the mother’s
health in later life [2,5,6,7].
As a potential nutritional strategy, the flaxseed (Linum
usitatissimum), has a unique composition of nutritional
and functional ingredients. Flaxseed is rich in polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFA), mainly alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) a
small chain form of omega-3 (n-3) [8,9]. Polyunsaturated
fatty acids are represented for n-3 and omega-6 (n-6) and
they are essential in mammalian diets. Alpha-linolenic acid is
obtained from diets and can be converted into a long chain
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA). However, the n-6 small chain, called linoleic acid
(LNA), gets converted into long chain arachidonic acid
(ARA) [8]. An increased production of eicosanoids from
ARA’s metabolism can be associated with effects that
could lead to CND such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes
and obesity [10]. However, the addition of dietetic sources
rich in n-3 fatty acids such as flaxseed in a diet, have
provided positive results, such as in body mass, adiposity and
lipid profile [11-16]. Flaxseed oil (FO) is an important source
of n-3 fatty acids that can be consumed as a supplement or
food ingredient. The advantages of FO compared to fish
oils are: it is more sustainable, presents less chances of mercury
toxicity and it can be introduced in a vegetarian diet [17].
Animal studies are useful to simulate stages periods of
human life, such as postpartum. In order to understand
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Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
how nutrients can affect health parameters and help
mothers in establishing health promoting changes to
prevent CND in later life. Flaxseed oil is rich in ALA and
when it is added to a diet might help mothers achieve a
better body composition and lipid profile. The objective of
this study was to investigate the influence of FO during
postpartum period in female rats for studying body
parameters and lipid profile.
2. Materials and Methods
The present study was approved by the Fluminense Federal
University Ethical Committee on Animal Research (887/2017).
All procedures were in accordance with the Brazilian
Science and Laboratory Animals Society and the Guide
for Care and Use of Laboratory. During the study animals
were placed in biotery with controlled temperature (23 ±
1°C), humidity (60 ± 10%) and an artificial system of light
that was on from 7:00 to 19:00 hours.
Twelve female Wistar rats, ninety-day-old and
nulliparous were subjected to mate and thereafter they
were put in individual cages. Female rats received free
standard diet (Nuvilab-CR1, Paraná, Brazil) and ad
libitum water until the birth of pups. In first 24 hours after
birth, pups were adjusted by six pups per mother in order
to maximize lactation performance [18]. The mother rats
were randomly assigned to either control C, (n=6) or FO
(n=6) group and were offered two different semi-purified
diets based on American Institute of Nutrition (AIN-93)
recommendations (Table 1) [19]. The difference between
C and FO groups was the fat source offered through diet:
soybean oil or FO, respectively.
Table 1. Composition of experimental diets
Ingredients (g/100g)
AIN-93G
AIN-93M
C
FO
C
20
20
14
14
52.95
52.95
62.07
62.07
Sucrose
10
10
10
10
Soybean oil
7
-
4
-
Flaxseed oil
-
7
-
4
Alpha-linolenic acid
0.49
3.66
0.28
2.09
Linoleic acid
3.57
0.86
2.04
0.49
Cellulose
5
5
5
5
Mineral mix (AIN-93M)
-
-
3.5
3.5
Mineral mix (AIN-93G)
3.5
3.5
-
-
1
1
1
1
0.18
Casein
Cornstarch
Vitamin mix
FO
L-Cystine
0.3
0.3
0.18
Choline bitartrate
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
Tert-Butylhydroquinone
0.014
0.014
0.008
0.008
C, control; FO, flaxseed oil. Diets were formulated based on the
American Institute of Nutrition AIN-93G and AIN-93M
recommendation for rodent diets. C and FO, fed a diet containing casein,
mineral and vitamin mix, L-cystine, choline bitartrate, Pragsolucões®;
cornstarch, cellulose, FARMOS®; soyabean oil, Liza®; sucrose, União®;
flaxseed oil: Giroil Agroindustria Ltda.
Flaxseed oil (Giroil Agroindustria LTDA, Santo Ângelo,
RS, Brazil) was derived from brown flaxseed bought at a
local market. The FO used in this study differs from
soybean oil in fatty acid composition. Flaxseed oil has an
interesting fatty acid composition. It is richer in PUFA
(73%) than saturated (9%) and monounsaturated fatty
acids (18%) [11]. Flaxseed oil presents 3.66g of ALA and
0.86g of LNA in 7 mL (Table 1). In the first 21 days of
experimental period diets, there was an increase in
calories to support lactation period (AIN-93G). After 21
days of lactation, rodent pups were separated from their
mothers. Dams remained in experimental protocol and
diets were adjusted for maintenance period (AIN-93M)
until 51 postpartum. Postpartum protocol studies have
suggested the period of 30 days after weaning as a potential
moment to implement nutritional strategies using flaxseed
upon adiposity and health parameters [12,13]. The study
incorporated post-weaning period, 21 days of lactation
period and 30 days of post-lactation. During experimental
period, food and water continued to be ad libitum and
food intake was measured (g) weekly for each group.
At the 51st day postpartum female rats were fasted for 8
hours and were weighted (g). The animals were anesthetized
with Thiopentax® (Sodium Tiopental, 0.1mg/100g) and
submitted for body composition analysis (fat mass, lean
mass and trunk fat mass in g) by Dual-energy X-ray
absorptiometry (DXA) using densitometer Lunar IDXA
200368 GE (Lunar, Wisconsin, USA) and using a software
for small animals (encore 2008 Version 12.20 GE Healthcare).
After body composition, animals were submitted to euthanasia
through total exsanguination, in order to collect blood via
cardiac puncture. The rodents had their compartments of
intra-abdominal fat dissected and weighted (g): mesenteric,
retroperitoneal and gonadal fat.
Samples of blood were centrifuged to obtain serum.
Part of the serum samples were put in a biochemical
automatic analyzer by colorimetric method (Bioclin BS120, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil) to obtain: total cholesterol,
high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) and triglycerides
(mg/dL). Low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) and
very low density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-c) were
calculated using Friedewald et al. (1972) and by Norbet
(1995) formula, respectively [20,21]. The other part of
serum samples were analyzed by gas chromatography. The
gas chromatography (Shimadzu GC 17A) was equipped with
a flame ionization detector (FID), COA-20 automatic injector
and a GC10 class workstation. The separation of fatty
acids was performed using a SP-2560 fused silica column
(bis-cianopropilo polissiloxano, 100m x 0,25mm x 0,2mm,
Supelco, Bellefonte, USA). The methodology was described
in AOAC Official Methods 996.06 (2002) and with some
considerations based on the study by Costa et al. (2016)
[15,22]. Quantification of LNA, gamma-linolenic acid
(GLA), ALA, eicosadienoic acid, dihomo-gamma-linolenic
acid (DGLA), ARA, EPA, docosapentaenoic acid, DHA
and total PUFA were determined (μmol/mL).
The data was analyzed by Student’s t test by Graph Pad
Prism (San Diego, CA, EUA) program. The results were
expressed in mean ± standard error of mean (EPM)
considering significance level P<0.05.
3. Results and Discussion
In the present study FO group presented lower serum
n-6: GLA (P<0.05), DGLA (P<0.05), ARA (P<0.0001)
and also a higher serum n-3: ALA (P<0.0001) and EPA
(P<0.05) vs. C group (Table 2).
Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
487
Table 2. Polyunsaturated fatty acid composition by gas chromatography at 51-day postpartum
Fatty Acid (μmol/mL)
18:2n-6 - Linoleic
18:3n-6 - Gamma-linolenic
18:3n-3 - Alpha-linolenic
20:2n-6 - Eicosadienoic
20:3n-6 - Dihomo-gamma-linolenic
20:4n-6 - Arachidonic
20:5n-3 - Eicosapentaenoic
22:5n-3 - Docosapentaenoic
22:6n-3 - Docosahexaenoic
Total polyunsaturated fatty acids
C
Mean ± SEM
1269.00 ± 104.6
30.73 ± 3.74
34.67± 5.32
54.62 ± 19.30
270. 50 ± 74.01
2134.00 ± 48.79
244.30 ± 74.06
151.50 ± 43.30
171.50 ± 23.17
4353.00 ± 241.50
FO
Mean ± SEM
1213.00 ± 60.06
17.66 ± 1.09*
325.00 ± 28.32***
28.13 ± 11.20
32.93 ± 5.28*
956.00 ± 117.00***
461.10 ± 30.09*
109.90 ± 43.50
170.70 ± 11.78
3310.00 ± 223.30*
P-value
0.6578
0.0283
0.0001
0.2801
0.0186
0.0001
0.0350
0.5234
0.9760
0.0193
Control (C, n = 6) group, treated with a control diet, and flaxseed oil (FO, n = 6) group, treated with diet containing flaxseed oil at 51-day postpartum;
SEM standard error of the mean; significantly different to the control group (Student’s t test, *P<0.05; ***P<0.0001; no significance P<0.05).
Table 3. Food intake, body mass, body composition by DXA, intra-abdominal fat mass and lipid profile at 51-day postpartum
Food intake (g)
Body mass (g)
Fat mass (g)
Lean mass (g)
Trunk fat mass (g)
Retroperitoneal fat (g)
Mesenteric fat(g)
Gonadal fat (g)
Intra-abdominal fat (g)
Total cholesterol (mg/dL)
VLDL-c (mg/dL)
LDL-c (mg/dL)
HDL-c (mg/dL)
Triglycerides (mg/dL)
C
Mean ± SEM
60.81 ± 6.12
265.60 ± 6.10
67.29 ± 2.64
174.50 ± 4.84
50.14 ± 3.41
4.16 ± 0.16
3.49 ± 0.26
6.55 ± 0.55
13.90 ± 1.03
70.43 ± 3.55
11.88 ± 1.09
30.72 ± 3.97
28.86 ± 1.01
59.40 ± 5.45
FO
Mean ± SEM
62.90 ± 6.36
285.10 ± 4.63 *
74.29 ± 5.71
192.30 ± 2.87 *
51.27 ± 5.02
4.43 ± 0.60
3.53 ± 0.25
6.05 ± 0.52
13.64 ± 1.07
58.00 ± 3.48 *
12.37 ± 1.82
16.97 ± 2.82 *
29.00 ± 1.80
61.83 ± 9.09
P-value
0.82
0.02
0.28
0.01
0.81
0.69
0.90
0.52
0.86
0.03
0.83
0.02
0.95
0.83
Control (C, n = 6) group, treated with a control diet, and flaxseed oil (FO, n = 6) group, treated with diet containing flaxseed oil at 51-day postpartum;
SEM = standard error of the mean; *significantly different from the control group (Student’s t test, P<0.05; no significance P<0.05).
Similar results were found for Ribeiro et al. (2017) and
Pereira et al. (2016) have found an increased serum of
ALA and EPA and decreased ARA offering diets
containing flaxseed flour and oil, respectively [23,24].
Small chain PUFA ALA and LNA could be transformed
to long chain PUFA by the organism. Nevertheless, there
is a competition between ALA and LNA for the same
elongation and desaturation enzymes [25]. The higher
concentration of ALA in FO fatty acid composition
contributed to the lower ratio of n-6/n-3. The aforementioned
results contributed to diminish the competition between n6 and n-3 short chain PUFA for desaturation and
elongation enzymes, leading to increased levels of EPA as
observed in the results from the study.
Rats treated with control and FO diets during 51 days of
postpartum had no difference in food intake (Table 3).
However, the FO group presented an increase in body
mass (P<0.05) vs. C group. Similar results were found in
Pereira et al. (2016) and Abreu et al. (2018) with diets
containing FO in puppies over lactation period or flaxseed
flour during 180 days in male rats, respectively [24,26].
Ribeiro et al. (2017) studied the influence of a diet with
flaxseed flour during postpartum period and found no
difference in body mass [23]. In this study, it is possible to
ascribe the increase in body mass by a significantly high
lean mass (P<0.05) in FO group vs. C group. However, it
is possible to associate postpartum period with lean mass
loss in humans as it depends on factors, such as exercise,
lactation and diet [27,28]. A low amount of lean mass can
contribute to an increase in body fat and obesity due to the
decrease in energy metabolism. Besides obesity, other
CND can be associated with decreased lean mass,
demonstrating the importance of alleviating loss of lean
mass [29].
In this study, FO - rich in ALA – has shown to increase
levels of lean mass, which positively effects the body
composition in postpartum period. Galmiche et al. (2016)
presented that a high-fat diet, rich in ALA or long-chain n3, could preserve muscle mass during weight loss in adult
rats [30]. That occurred by enriching sarcolemma with
long-chain n-3 PUFA which provides membrane fluidity
and insulin sensitivity in muscle together with the
downregulation of genes involved in proteolysis. Other
experimental studies suggest an anabolic answer from
long-chain PUFA due a greater activation of AKT, mTOR
and /or p70s6K signaling pathways in skeletal muscle
[31,32]. Costa et al. (2016) suggests that increase in lean
mass in rats treated with ALA-rich diet occurred due to
differentiation in mesenchymal stem cells in skeletal and
smooth muscles [15]. In the present study, a similar
physiological mechanism may have occurred in the FO
group. The ALA-rich diet contributed to an increased lean
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Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
mass and significantly enhanced body composition in
postpartum rats.
Fat mass gain, mainly visceral fat, can be associated
with postpartum period and parity [27,33]. The
accumulation of visceral fat is recognized as a marker of
metabolic disorders such as hypertension, changes
in lipid metabolism, insulin resistance and thrombotic
prevalence [34]. Changes in body fat components
during postpartum can be a risk for CND [33,35].
Polyunsaturated fatty acids n-3 is described in scientific
literature as a possible nutrient to reduce adiposity through
several pathways: reducing triglycerides deposition
in fat tissue; increasing mitochondrial biogenesis and
beta-oxidation; suppressing lipogenic enzymes; decreasing
proliferation and differentiation of pre-adipocytes
to mature adipocytes; reducing size and number of
adipocytes; inducing pre-adipocyte apoptosis [25,36]. In
this study, no change in fat mass or intra-abdominal fat
mass (Table 3) was observed between FO and C groups.
Diverse results on fat mass were observed based on the
dietary source, the ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFA and length of the
study [12,24,26,37]. However, a 51-day postpartum study
is insufficient to observe the effect of FO in body and
intra-abdominal fat mass.
Besides modification in adipose tissue, parity can also
be associated with abnormalities in lipid metabolism that
could lead to cardiovascular diseases [38,39]. During
pregnancy, there is an increase in total cholesterol due to
changes in hormonal profile, adipose tissue accumulation
and hepatic activity [40]. Changes in cholesterol metabolism
are common during pregnancy and they are expected
to go back to normal levels during post lactation period,
although it depends on the mother’s physiological state
[41]. In this study, FO group presented a significant
decrease in total cholesterol (P<0.05) and LDL-c serum
levels (P<0.05) vs. C group (Table 3). Low total
cholesterol has been observed by Pereira et al. (2016) in
male pups treated with FO [24]. Similar results were
reported by Tzang et al. (2009) and Vijaimohan et al.
(2006) with male hamsters and rats respectively, fed with
a high fat diet rich in FO [42,43]. Fukumitsu et al. (2013)
observed that ALA from FO is associated with suppression
of genes involved in cholesterol and triglycerides biosynthesis
pathways and also decreased expression of sterol regulatory
element binding proteins and fatty acid synthase
[44]. These observations predicted lowered serum
cholesterol. Bile acid synthesis is the chief mechanism
for cholesterol degradation. Alpha-linolenic acid diet
increases 7α-hydroxylase hepatic enzyme - responsible for
a higher secretion of cholesterol in bile and a subsequently
cholesterol synthesis and turnover [45].
4. Conclusions
The results showed that FO provides high levels of
ALA and EPA in the serum that activates metabolic
and physiological pathways to provide a better body
composition and lipid profile. Flaxseed oil has an
appealing nutritional composition that when add to a diet
at postpartum improves health parameters. The results
from this study can be a stepping stone for further
investigations into clinical research on dietary components
for health and wellness.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Laboratory of Nutritional
and Functional Assessment at Federal Fluminense
University for use of DXA equipment and technique. This
study was supported by [CAPES - Coordination for the
Enhancement of Higher Education Personnel #1] under
Grant [number 001]; [FAPERJ - The State of Rio de
Janeiro Carlos Chagas Filho Research Foundation #2]
under Grant [number 103373].
Statement of Competing Interests
The authors have declared no conflict of interest.
List of Abbreviations
AIN - American Institute of Nutrition; ALA - alphalinolenic acid (C18:3); ARA - arachidonic acid (C20:4);
C – control; CND - chronic noncommunicable diseases;
DGLA - dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (C20:3);
DHA - docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6); DXA - dual-energy
X-ray absorptiometry; EPA - eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5);
EPM - standard error of mean; FO - flaxseed oil;
GLA - gamma-linolenic acid (C18:3); HDL-c - high
density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-c - low density
lipoprotein cholesterol; LNA - Linoleic acid (C18:2);
n-3 - omega-3; n-6 - omega-6; PUFA - polyunsaturated
fatty acid(s); VLDL-c - very low lipoprotein cholesterol
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