International Journal of English Linguistics; Vol. 7, No. 4; 2017
ISSN 1923-869X E-ISSN 1923-8703
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education
English Oral Communication Apprehension in Students of Indonesian
Maritime
Nur Aeni1, Baso Jabu1,2, Muhammad Asfah Rahman2 & John Evar Strid3
1
Indonesia Maritime Academy AIPI Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
2
State University of Makassar, Makassar, Indonesia
3
Northern Illinois University, Dekalb, Illinois, USA
Correspondence: Nur Aeni, Indonesia Maritime Academy AIPI Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. E-mail:
ainiminollahi@gmail.com
Received: March 21, 2017
doi:10.5539/ijel.v7n4p158
Accepted: June 5, 2017
Online Published: July 15, 2017
URL: http://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v7n4p158
Abstract
Oral communication is essential for people’s workplace performance as well as for university students learning English.
Speaking fluently is also crucial for maritime academy students prepared to work in industries abroad. Students need to
believe in their ability to speak English. For this reason, sound communication skills are necessary for maritime students
so they can compete with seafarer or sailor from other countries. The purpose of this research was to identify the level of
oral communication apprehension of nautical students of Akademi Maritim Indonesia (Indonesian Maritime Academy)
AIPI Makassar. The sample consisted of 10 first year students at nautical of AMI AIPI Makassar. Data was
gathered through questionnaires adapted from Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Class Scale (FLCAS). The
findings indicated that students were generally apprehensive in EFL oral communication. The students showed
the highest apprehension for public speaking. The level of nautical students’ apprehension based on observation
and supported by the modified FLCAS were 20% in the low category, 60% in the moderate category, and 20%
in the high category. Students in the high apprehension category showed more symptoms than students in the
moderate and low apprehension categories.
Keywords: oral communication apprehension, maritime academy, Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety
Scale (FLCAS)
1. Introduction
In today’s global context, a lack of comfort in communicating with others can be an unfortunate inhibitor to success. We
sometimes find that many students have difficulty in producing a sentence in English without making mistakes despite
their early exposure to the language at schools or university. It also happens to graduates who have problems conversing
in English at job interviews. In fact, poor English communication at a job interview in a highly competitive international
field might lead to a large number of unemployed graduates in Indonesia. Currently, Indonesia has English study
integrated into the curriculum at almost all stages of the educational system. In higher education in Indonesia
various fields of study use discipline specific curricula to teach English. For example, in the curriculum in
maritime studies, in addition to engineering, courses in English communication were added in the belief that
graduates would be joining an international industry in which English will likely be used as a principal means of
workplace communication (Maritime Engineering Curriculum, 2011). Graduates in the maritime field need
fluent English communication skills in order to succeed in the workplace (Charlesworth, 2008). The maritime
industry is particularly important to Indonesia, because of its geographic position as the largest archipelago state
in the world, consisting of 17,508 islands from Sabang to Merauke. In addition, the profession of seafarer or
sailor in Indonesia is internationally focused, not restricted to one area or country, leading to many multicultural
exchanges. Due to the international forums in which seafarers work, they need to be able to speak advanced
English, the language of international commerce and exchanges. The President of Indonesia, Jokowi said that he
wants to make Indonesia a global maritime axis, (Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, 2014). President Jokowi
has visited Makassar as one of the maritime city in Indonesia. He established a port at Makassar in order to help
societies in maritime trading on November 25th, 2016. Accompanied by South Sulawesi Governor Syahrul Yasin
Limpo, Makassar Mayor Danny Pamonto, then-coordinator minister for maritime affairs Indroyono Soesilo, and
Pelindo IV Director Mulyono, the president gave a speech at Soekarno-Hatta Seaport, translating his national
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maritime vision into a regional roadmap for Makassar. He discussed how improved maritime transportation in
the form of a “Tol Laut” or “Sea Toll” would affect the lives of South Sulawesi’s citizens, suggesting that if
inter-island transportation costs drop, so would the cost of everyday goods. Supporting those goals, the
coordinating minister for maritime affairs asserted that the maritime students have to be prepared with English
communication skills. Not only the students but the lecturers as well. Sakkir, Rahman, & Salija (2016) found that
the lecturer not difficulties to explain their material for students, so students can explore their argument; make
students simply in learning process and easy study; easy communication; the students can train the ability to
write with use information that in electronic social media; the students can be free write anything in our mind,
spontaneously, and can get much information as well as can get and give critic from another; Some people
usually use it for search something important for example, they use it for searching about what is the real
purpose of English learning or searching how to improve their language.
Unfortunately, in Indonesia, English still has the status as a foreign language that students rarely use and practice.
They speak English only in the classroom. This lack of practice is especially critical for maritime students who
will end up working in international contexts while commonly acquiring low abilities in English communication.
In fact, the International Maritime Organization (IMO, 2010) identified a problem with the English proficiency
of many Asian graduates. Seafarers may lose job opportunities in the global maritime labor market due to their
poor English communication ability.
Research demonstrates that various psychological variables affect communication performance. A case in point is
the effect that communication apprehension may have on students’ overall academic performance (Daly &
McCroskey, 1984). Frymier (2005) also found out that students’ communication apprehension affected their
learning outcomes. All in all, communication apprehension is a crucial academic success determinant although
there could be factors that would be responsible for it. The person with a high level of communication
apprehension will avoid talking too much in order to avoid experiencing the fear or anxiety the person has
learned to associate with communication encounters (McCroskey, 1977).
Having a fear of making errors or mistakes causes learners to give up some parts of their oral performance.
Ellis (2005) stated that having difficulties in oral production is to a high extent the most widespread problem
that almost every foreign language speaker experiences during the process of language learning. Compared
with other language skills such as reading, writing, and listening, speaking or oral communication is the most
apprehension causing skill for language learners. Many speakers experience some apprehension based on a
variety of factors. For example, when someone does not feel adequately prepared or otherwise lacks
background knowledge about the topic s/he feels really nervous and afraid to talk. Idri, N. (2014) figured out
the six causes of communication apprehension are: poor preparation, inappropriate self-expectations, fear of
evaluation, excessive focusing on the topic, and fear of the audience’s reactions.
This article presents the results of an investigation of maritime academy students’ level of communication
apprehension. Communication apprehension (CA) is defined as an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated
with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons (McCroskey, 1984). Daly (1985)
stated that communication apprehension is the fear or anxiety an individual feels about orally communicating.
Most importantly, a number of other related constructs are not directly tied to oral communication, but which
nonetheless emphasize people’s anxieties about communication. Lucas (2009) found that some level of fear
(nervousness) experienced during oral communication is normal for everyone and that it may harm or help
communication. Anxiety towards public speaking is very common among both college students and society.
About 20%-85% of people experience some anxiety when they need to speak in public (Katz, 2000). The
American Psychological Association (2015) defines anxiety as “an emotion characterized by feeling of tension,
worried thoughts, and physical changes”. Communication apprehension is a type of shyness characterized by
fear of or anxiety about communicating with people (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986). Difficulties in speaking
in groups (oral communication anxiety) or in public (stage fright), or in listening or learning a spoken message
(receiver anxiety) are all manifestations of communication apprehension. Communication apprehension or
some similar reaction obviously plays a crucial role in foreign language anxiety. The students who typically
have trouble speaking in groups are likely to experience even greater difficulty speaking in a foreign language
class where they have little control of the communicative situation and their performance is constantly
monitored (Horwitz, 1991). The difficulties related were irresistible. They spoke of “freezing” in class, standing
outside the door trying to summon up enough courage to enter, and going blank when they have a test. They
also reported many of the physiological symptoms commonly associated with apprehension (nervousness,
trembling, sweating, throbbing, and sleep disturbances). But the researcher focused on some symptoms namely:
trembling, getting tense, much of filler or did not say anything.
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Experiences related in support groups contributed to the development of the Foreign Language Classroom
Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) (Horwitz, 1983). The scale has demonstrated internal reliability, achieving an alpha
coefficient of .93 with all items producing significant corrected item-total scale correlations. Foreign language
communication anxiety (FLCA) is defined as “the special communication apprehension saturating foreign
language learning [derived] from the personal knowledge that one will almost certainly have difficulty of
understanding others and making oneself understood” (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986). Foreign language
apprehension has a critical influence on language learners because they are likely to experience it to a much
larger degree than when communicating in their L1. Studies (Daly & McCroskey, 1984) indicate that students’
level of communication apprehension in L1 is significantly lower than their apprehension in L2 (English, in that
case).
Moreover, the requirements for communicative competence of seafarers in Standard of Training Certification
and Watch keeping of Seafarer (STCW, 2010) presented great challenges to Indonesian seafarers who need to
improve their English communication ability. The language problem in Indonesia is mainly attributable to
improper maritime English education and training in Indonesia. Most class time is spent giving lectures that
focus on explaining vocabulary and grammar, leaving little time for individual and group interactions. In class,
teachers generally expect students to say grammatically correct English. In fact, teachers commonly put pressure
on students to produce perfect sentences when speaking. The consequence may be hesitancy, fear, and anxiety
when using the language in real communicative contexts. The degree of communication apprehension of
Indonesian maritime students has never been completely examined, meaning that research examining their level
of English communication anxiety would help assess if and how Indonesian English teacher competencies,
teaching methods, and instructional materials should be changed.
This study aims at answering the following question:
What is the maritime academy AIPI Makassar students’ level of communication apprehension during an oral
communication task (speaking test)?
2. Method
This research investigates the level of students’ communication apprehension at Maritime Academy AIPI
Makassar and uses a mixed method approach. One quantitative and qualitative method the researcher used to
collect data was to administer a questionnaire to measure the degree of apprehension felt by first year nautical students
during oral communication. The questionnaire was adapted from Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (Horwitz,
1987), changing some wording and selecting the most relevant questions to examine communication apprehension.
The version used during this study consisted of twenty-five questions with responses given on a five point Likert-scale,
with the scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. This questionnaire was adapted to investigate
specifically maritime students’ extent of apprehension when forced to communicate orally in their English class,
choosing items from the original survey most appropriate to students at the Maritime Academy and translating them
into Indonesian and rewording in some cases. All of the questions were chosen to indicate if students feel anxious
or apprehensive in speaking English as foreign language. All the statements in the questionnaire are presented to all
participants in both Indonesian and English in order to avoid possible misinterpretation for the students. Some example
statements from the questionnaire include:
I tremble when I know that I am going to be called on during a speaking test;
I start to panic when I have to speak without good preparation;
At the time of a speaking test, I feel very nervous when I forget what to say;
Although I have already prepared my speaking test or presentation very well, I still feel anxious;
I feel my heart beat faster when I start the speaking test;
Sometimes I feel do not want to face presentations or speaking test;
I am worried if the teacher/lecturer corrects the mistakes I make during the speaking test;
The more I prepare myself for the speaking test, the more I feel anxious;
I feel more nervous and anxious when faced with a speaking test than a written test;
I am afraid if people laugh when I have my speaking test by using the English language;
It frightens me when I do not understand what the lecturer is saying in the foreign language.
The questionnaire was administered at the end of the semester with the students filling out the questionnaire in one
class meeting using approximate thirty of the ninety minute class duration. It was distributed to a class of 15 nautical
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students in the session prior to a speaking test, but only 10 of the students returned the questionnaire within a day.
The data collected from the questionnaire was analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively and was supported
by observation. The observation was held in the next class when the students were having the speaking test. The
speaking test was a test that the researcher designed every semester in order to know whether the students of
maritime academy could produce English. This is a part of the speaking test that the researcher used.
Mini Presentation (2-3 minutes)
In this part of test, you are going to talk on your own. I am going to ask each of you a question, and I’d
like you talk about your answer in a minute. You have 30 seconds to prepare your answer.
(Repeat the instruction to the students)
(Choose one topic below to be asked to the students. Remember, one question for one student only)
a.
In your opinion, what is the best ship for you in the future? Why?
b.
What is communication ? Tell me!
c.
Do you think doing sport is important? Why?
When the speaking test was held, the researcher observed the students looking for examples of characteristics based
found in the adapted version of the FLCAS questionnaire. Specifically, the researcher was monitory if the students
trembled, if they repeated the same words two or three times, if they spoke too slowly or quickly, if they had many
fillers like “uuuh” or if they had a deadpan expression.
Participants
The participants of the study were 10 students from the Nautical department at AMI AIPI Makassar. The
students from this department work as on board captains or other deck officers. The deck officers have
responsibility to ensure continuous smooth operations on any seagoing craft. Nautical department students were
chosen as participants because they are preparing to working in international trade and their responsibilities when
they are on a ship are harder than others. The participants’ ages range from 16 to 21 (with an average age of) and
included eight male students and two female students.
These students were taking the course “General English I” during 2015-2016 and the questionnaire was
administered at the end of the course. General English I is an extended course that maritime academy students
have to take as a part of the sequence during the first semester in their first year of study. The students had
studied English as a foreign language since their junior year in high school. However, their level of English
fluency was variable, ranging from basic to proficient. The English class in first year focuses on language used
for talking about daily life and general language knowledge. The class’ objectives are for students to be able to
communicate and produce oral communication proficiently. In this course, the students need to be able to show
sufficient comprehension of simple grammar, use appropriate vocabulary to talk about everyday situations,
perform simple exchanges, and produce responses which are extended beyond short phrases. These participants
were appropriate to examine the research question of this study because their range in English proficiency could
potentially contribute to some degree of apprehension during English communication.
3. Results
This section examines the results of the questionnaire and their implications. The findings follow the research
problem outlined in the introduction section. The researcher shares results from each participant including a
measure of each student’s level of anxiety obtained through modified FLCAS (Foreign Language Class Anxiety
Scale). In the discussion section, arguments and further interpretation of the findings are given.
Level of oral communication apprehension in Nautical students at AMI AIPI Makassar.
The modified FLCAS questionnaire was used to investigate whether the students were in a high, moderate, or
low apprehension category. After the participants filled out the questionnaires, the researcher then scored them
marking the rating for each question from each partipant. After examining each participant’s FLCAS
questionnaire, the answers to all questions were compiled to create an overall apprehension rating, using the
Likert Scale outlined in Table 1 to score survey questions according to whether they were positive or negative.
The data were calculated manually with scores possibly ranging from 25 to 125. After obtaining a composite
score from each student’s FLCAS results, it was categorized into a level of apprehension: high (90-125),
moderate (67-89), or low (25-66). Table 2 gives the range of scores for each degree of apprehension. The results
showing the numbers of students and percentages at the different levels of apprehension based on the modified
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FLCAS questionnaire can be viewed in table 3 below. The questionnaire results were also used to inform
observations of the students’ level of apprehension during a later oral communication task.
Table 1. Adapted from the Likert scale
Statement
Positive
Negative
Scoring
Agree Undediced Disagre
2
3
4
4
3
2
Strongly Agree
1
5
Undecide DiStrongly disagree
5
1
Table 2. Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986)
Level
Range
90-125
67-89
High Apprehension
Moderate Apprehension
Low Apprehension
25-66
Table 3. The percentage level of students’ apprehension
Level of Apprehension
Low
Moderate
High
Number of students
2
6
2
Percentage
20%
60%
20%
4. Discussion
a. Participant 1
The score on the FLCAS of participant 1 was 83 out of a possible score 125. This result indicates that participant
1 had moderate apprehension. Participant 1 stated that she felt less apprehensive in speaking in public. Based on
the observation of participant 1, she did in fact experience moderate communication apprehension while
completing the communication activity. When her name was called to take the speaking test, she smiled and
before she started, she took a long breath. During the test, she did not look very anxious and her voice was
normal although sometimes she forgot what to say.
b. Participant 2
Participant 2’s score on the FLCAS was 69 out of a possible 125. This result indicated that participant 2 had
moderate anxiety. The data from his observation sheet supported these findings. This result indicated that
participant 2 had lower anxiety than participant 1. Participant 2 stated that he did not feel very anxious in the
speaking test. During the first minutes of the speaking test, his face looked twitchy and his voice was rather
trembling. But after about two minutes, he apparently was able to take control of himself and manage his anxiety.
After the first two minutes, his voice became normal. Although sometimes he searched for words, his tone did
not indicate that he was nervous and she breathed normally.
c. Participant 3
The score on the FLCAS of participant 3 was 66 out of a possible 125. This result indicated that participant 3
had low anxiety. Participant 3 stated that he felt less anxiety in speaking in public. Participant 3 also did not
seem very nervous before the speaking test was held. His English was good. Both his pronunciation and
vocabulary were good, and his grammar was also not too poor, even though he occasionally repeated a word
about two or three times. He did not have a deadpan expression.
d. Participant 4
Participant 4 had a score on the FLCAS of 76 out of a possible 125. This result indicated that participant 4 had
moderate anxiety. Participant 4 stated that she felt anxious in speaking in public. She smiled and walked into the
class confidently when her name was called to have the speaking test. Unfortunately, when she started the
speaking test she became nervous, affecting her test. Her voice trembled, she spoke too fast, and she had a
deadpan expression. During the speaking test, she spoke hesitantly and with too many “uhhh”or filler words. In
addition, she frequently repeated words about two or three times. She looked like she was in doubt about word
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choice. The researcher also noticed some mispronunciations. In general, the participant looked apprehensive,
breathed heavily, and waved her hand frequently.
e. Participant 5
Participant 5 needed to complete the speaking test a second time, since his first attempt was stopped because of
poor performance. His score on the FLCAS was 70 out of a possible 125, indicating moderate anxiety. This
finding was further supported by data from his observation. During his first attempt on the speaking test,
participant 5 stated that he felt anxiety. During this test, he consistently forgot what to say, had too many pauses,
mumbled, and used fillers “uhhh…” Because of the participants’ performance was not good, the lecturer gave
him a second chance. Participant 5 did not seem well prepared since he continually read from notes during the
test. However, on his second try he no longer felt that anxiety disturbed him and his performance was better than
before. He did not read his notes anymore. During the speaking test, he looked more confident although he still
mumbled a lot (“uhhh….”) during his speech.
f. Participant 6
Score on the FLCAS of Participant 6 was 64 out of a possible 125. This result indicated that Participant 6 was in
the category of low apprehensive. However, according to researcher’s observation participant 6 stated that he felt
nervous in interviewing and public speaking. Before Participant 6 performed the speaking test, the researcher
watched him walked back and forth in the room, talked with her friend, even with the researcher and she said
that: “I am really nervous, sister, what should I do to reduce my anxiety? My body is cold and I am shaking.”
But then, when the speaking test started, he looked very calm. He started his speaking test with a full smile on
her face. When he introduced himself, he looked a little bit nervous but it did not take a long time before he
could control herself and speak like a professional speaker. Although he made too many body movements, it did
not indicate that he had high apprehension.
g. Participant 7
Score on the FLCAS of participant 7 was 90 out of a possible 125. This result indicated that participant 7 had
high anxiety. Participant 7 stated that she felt very anxious when speaking in public. During the first performance,
she looked very nervous. Her face looked very worried and her face muscles were tense. There were awkward
pauses (mumble “uhhh….”), stammering and halting, and her speech seemed blocked. She often repeated the
same word. There were, also many mispronunciations and she lacked vocabulary. She had a deadpan expression.
These symptoms indicated that she was very anxious.
h. Participant 8
Participant 8 was 68 out of a possible 125 based on FLCAS. This result indicated that participant 8 was in the
category of moderate apprehensive. Participant 8 stated that he did not feel very anxious about speaking in
public. He spoke slowly but the researcher still understood what the participant said. He felt nervous and had
many body movements like shaking his hands.
i. Participant 9
Score on the FLCAS of participant 9 was 92 out of a possible 125. This result indicated that participant 9 had
high apprehension. Participant 9 stated that he felt very apprehensive about speaking in public. Based on the
observation of the first performance, her voice quivered. He stammered and halted and awkward pauses were
made. He made some grammatical mistakes, mispronunciations, and lacked vocabularies. He also repeated one
word many times. He showed discomfort with her body movement and used too many fillers.
j. Participant 10
Score on the FLCAS of participant 10 was 71 out of a possible125. This result indicated that participant 10 was
in the moderate apprehensive range. When participant 10 performed his speaking test, he had a deadpan
expression, without a smile. He paused and did not say anything for 2 or 3 minutes.
During the observation, some students had to repeat their speech because their performance did not run well.
Based on the result of the questionnaire and observations, there were two participants who were indicated to be
low apprehensive, supported by FLCAS results. They experienced the symptoms of apprehension only at the
first time they spoke, then they could manage and control their communication in order to get a good
performance. Ortega (2009) states that foreign language speaking anxiety includes many symptoms such as
freezing up and getting confused in spite of having studied hard. Hanna & Gibson (1987) provide that public
speaking anxiety is manifested in many ways (i.e., blood pressure, hand trembling, weakness in some parts of the
body, feeling anxious, forgetting the prepared material, and avoiding looking at the audience). Moreover, the
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results indicated that six participants had moderate apprehension. They still showed the symptoms of
apprehension such as mumbling, many fillers, and flat expression. Although they looked very anxious at the
beginning of the speaking test, they still tried to cope their apprehension by using techniques such as: deep
breathing, smiling, and using hand gestures. There were two participants who were indicated to have high
apprehension. During the speaking test, they were nervous, used many fillers, and sometimes they did not speak
at all.
Amogne & Yigzaw (2013) indicated that apprehension profoundly affects how people communicate, and
communication is critical to success in academic settings as well as virtually all other environments. The
researcher believed that the students felt anxiety or apprehension because they did not practice their English
conversation enough. In this case, the students did not have much time to practice their English, only ninety
minutes a week. The researcher also believed that the students were worried about their evaluation. Idri (2014)
believes that fear of negative evaluation is also another inhibitor of oral communication apprehension. Most of
participants felt apprehensive because they knew that the speaking test was the final test that the lecturer
evaluated their progress.
Lack of an extensive vocabulary in English is a crucial factor in oral communication apprehension. When people
are speaking without background knowledge or vocabulary related to the topic, she/he feel reluctant to speak and
it reveal communication apprehension. Yahya (2013) found that having oral communication without good
preparation and extension vocabulary can lead someone to be anxious and more apprehensive.
Based on those explanation, the researcher constructed that the more symptoms of anxiety that the students have,
the more anxious or apprehensive they are. In contrast, the fewer symptoms they have, the less anxious or
apprehensive they will be.
5. Conclusion
Based on the FLCAS, the research findings and discussions in the previous section, the researcher concluded that
the level of students’ apprehension at Maritime Academy AIPI Makassar during the speaking test was as follows:
students categorized with high apprehension was 20%, students categorized with moderate apprehension was
60%, and the students categorized with low apprehension was 20%. Students’ anxiety seemed to be a crucial
problem. The students experienced apprehension, worry, even dread. They had difficulty concentrating, became
forgetful, sweat and trembled. They sometimes did not speak at all. Students felt anxious due to lack of practice,
insufficient vocabulary, and fear of negative evaluation. However, teachers cannot guarantee that a class will be
anxiety-free. Teachers should be aware of trying to minimize the anxiety in the classroom to strengthen language
learning efficiency and can use techniques such as warm up activities, group work, and conversation practice to
foster the students’ confidence.
6. Recommendation
Since the level of students’ communication apprehension at AMI AIPI Makassar indicated the majority of the
students exhibited moderate to high apprehension, the lecturers need to be more creative about establishing a
cheerful atmosphere in the language classroom because the mood dimension is a factor in oral communication
apprehension. In a state of positive mood, learners are less likely to experience apprehension. Teacher should
help their students to mitigate their apprehension by providing some interesting activities in the classroom. For
further research, finding empirical evidence concerning how effective anxiety reducing techniques are in foreign
language classrooms is suggested.
Acknowledgments
The researcher addresses thanks to Direktorat Kualifikasi Sumber Daya Manusia, KEMRISTEK DIKTI
(Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of Indonesia for the financial support (PKPI Program
2016), State University of Makassar, Northern Illinois University and AMI AIPI Makassar.
Special thanks to the researcher’s mentor at Northern Illinois University (NIU), John Evar Strid, PhD who has
given advice and great contribution in accomplishing this article.
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