Title: Winery regions as the oldest cultural landscapes: remnants, signs, and
metamorphoses
Author: Urszula Myga-Piątek, Oimahmad Rahmonov
Citation style: Myga-Piątek Urszula, Rahmonov Oimahmad. (2018). Winery
regions as the oldest cultural landscapes: remnants, signs, and metamorphoses.
“Miscellanea Geographica” (Vol. 22, iss. 2 (2018), s. 69-80), doi
10.2478/mgrsd-2018-0009
Miscellanea GeoGraphica – REGIONAL STuDIES ON DEVELOPMENT
Vol. 22 • No. 2 • 2018 • pp. 69-80 • ISSN: 2084-6118 • DOI: 10.2478/mgrsd-2018-0009
Winery regions as the oldest cultural landscapes:
remnants, signs, and metamorphoses
Abstract
Considering the general typology of landscapes, winery landscapes
are a subtype of agricultural landscapes. A winery landscape is an area
in which the dominant land use or indigenous vegetation consists of
extensive grapevine crops, that is, vineyards and/or areas covered by wild
grapevines; where a specific wine culture has evolved, or grapes constitute
an important part of the local diet. In this paper, winery landscapes are
studied at two levels: typological (as a repeatable, specific type of area
with precisely defined characteristic features), and regional (regional
areas that are unique and individual). The authors analyze the evolution
of winery landscapes over time and describe their natural and historical
aspects. A wide range of factors were taken into consideration: historical
and political, socio-economic, cultural and religious influences, as well as
the natural environmental background. This paper aims to describe the
evolution of winery landscapes in Europe and beyond by considering the
Mediterranean Basin, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, and Central Asia.
Keywords
Winery landscape • cultural landscape • Vitis vinifera • Mediterranean
Europe • Central Asia
© university of Warsaw – Faculty of Geography and Regional Studies
Introduction
Describing the process of the formation of winery landscapes
from the point of view of their evolution as well as transformation
is difficult for a number of reasons. First of all, a difficulty results
from the question: Do such landscapes actually exist? Or should
we rather talk about winery regions, as mentioned in the title? As
will be shown in this paper, these two terms are often treated as
synonyms; so an appropriate methodological perspective needs
to be set. Other problems include the extended period under
analysis (the last 8 thousand years) and the necessity of relying
on heterogeneous sources.
This paper reports on two kinds of analyses. One of these
relates to the historical perspective and provides a temporal
typology of landscapes in which vineyards dominate; and the
other relates directly to the title of this paper and focuses on the
transformation of selected regions as well as the spatial signs and
remnants reflecting the use of land for the needs of viticulture.
The former analysis focuses on winery regions that are
perceived to be part of,
–
Natural landscapes: defined on the basis of their natural
characteristics, taking into consideration the indigenous
vegetation of an area, but not how the land has been acted
upon by human culture in recent or historical times. This
includes an analysis of the range of wild grapevines and the
conditions in which they need to thrive (both in prehistoric
times and afterwards);
–
Historical landscapes: defined on the basis of the
characteristics of the natural and cultural heritage of a given
culture or civilization;
Urszula Myga-Piątek,
oimahmad rahmonov
Faculty of Earth Sciences
University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland
e-mail: urszula.myga-piatek@us.edu.pl
e-mail: oimahmad.rahmonov@us.edu.pl
Received: 18 January 2018
Accepted: 9 May 2018
–
–
Existing landscapes: defined on the basis of an analysis of
the present characteristics of the natural environment, the
use of land, and landscape physiognomy (characteristic
features and landmarks);
Forecasted landscapes: discussed with the specific
scenario of climate changes in mind, as well as considering
the influence of numerous cultural factors.
The authors have consciously decided to disregard here,
potential landscapes, which are created with the hypothetical
assumption that all human activity should stop in an area while
natural processes are still at work (Chmielewski et al. 2015; MygaPiątek 2012). Such an analysis seems to be merely a theoretical
exercise in this context, consequently, the goal of the paper does
not justify taking it up.
In considering the general typology of landscapes, the
term winery landscapes as used in this paper, is subordinate
to agricultural landscapes. We could therefore describe a
winery landscape as an area in which the dominant land use or
indigenous vegetation consists of extensive grapevine crops, that
is, vineyards and/or areas covered by wild grapevines, where a
specific wine culture has evolved, or where grapes constitute
an important part of the local diet. Regular, partly geometrical
fields covered with grapevines constitute the so-called landscape
background. In considering their physiognomy, the structural
and functional (material) aspects, and the esthetic and symbolic
aspects-that is, all the landscape’s aspects-winery landscapes
are a very distinctive subtype of agricultural landscapes. (Plit
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2011, 2016; Myga-Piątek 2012; Chmielewski et al. 2015). As with most
agricultural landscapes, winery landscapes strongly depend on
natural conditions (mainly climate, soil, and orography). Their
development has also been influenced by numerous other
cultural landscape-forming factors, which will be discussed in this
paper. Consequently, winery landscapes may be studied on two
levels:
–
typological: a repeatable, specific type of area with precisely
defined characteristic features (see the definition we have
suggested above);
–
regional: a unique, individual area, for example, winery
regions such as Moslavina, Slavonia (and even their
constituent micro-regions Kutjevo, Daruvar, OrahovicaSlatina, and Slavonski Brod), and Podunavlje with its subregions Baranja, Erdut and Srijem), etc. This uniqueness
is additionally emphasized by endemic grapevine strains,
which in some places receive their locale’s name.
This dual approach to landscapes is indicated by the title of
this paper, as we endeavor to combine an analysis of the spread
of winery landscapes, a description of their objectives, and its
repeatable characteristic features (i.e., ‘typical’ and, to some
extent, common and universal);1 while, against this background,
we identify specific ‘islands,’ that is, regions with highly individual
or even unique characteristic features that constitute landscape
determinants2 within specific regions (Myga-Piątek et al. 2015).
Winery landscapes are very individual in character, which
results not only from the geometrical forms of grapevine
plantations, but also from the highly specific architecture of
accompanying winery buildings and other facilities.3 In many
countries, vineyards are treated as a part of the cultural heritage
and protected by law. They play a cultural role in keeping up
traditions and regional identities. In English-language literature,
the process of forming this type of landscape is called winery
landscaping.4
The aim of this article is to describe the evolution of winery
landscapes in Europe, while taking into consideration the
Mediterranean Basin, Asia Minor, Transcaucasia, and Central
Asia. The article is an initial attempt to analyze the expansion
of winery landscapes and to identify some of the regularities in
their transformations on the basis of the remaining traces and
signs that are present in the landscape as well as in the material
and non-material culture of local societies in selected areas.
Traces refer here to fragments, remnants, scraps of space,
but also to the extent of winery landscapes that have not been
clearly delimitated. Signs, in turn, identify features, attributes,
characteristics, and even landscape landmarks and determinants
(in a material and physiognomic approach), as well as brands
and emblems (in a symbolic and semantic approach).
The spatial scope of the paper covers Europe’s warm,
temperate climate zone and the landscape zone of deciduous
forests. However, some areas in Western and Central Asia
constitute a necessary background to our topic. This results from
the fact that Vitis grapevines represent, according to botanists,
three groups: North American, Asian (with about 30 species each),
but only one Eurasian species, which had the biggest influence on
spreading cultivation around the world (Komarov 1938).
Winery regions should be understood as large areas with
regular, common, and long-lasting grapevine cultivation. Winery
Except for the ‘core’ described here, the same features are also common for the
winery landscapes of California, Chile, Argentina, Australia, and South Africa, which
have formed since the colonial period.
1
2
Disappearing landmarks may be one of the diagnostic features that help determine the
borders of a given region (landscape determinants).
70
3
World Landscape Architect 2017
4
Henry Architects 2017
regions constitute a continuous landscape zone (Figure 1),
whose reach within the area under analysis gradually moves
north. It becomes more and more common to find small, scattered
and often isolated grapevine patches (traces) among forests,
agricultural land (of different character), mosaic landscapes,
or even suburban landscapes, north of this continuous winery
regions zone. Such patches result from the spontaneous
decisions of landowners, some of whom may want to test the
suitability of the environmental conditions for this sensitive plant.
These experimental (to a certain degree) vineyards cultivate
increasingly more resistant strains. Likewise, in contemporary
Poland, the process of establishing new vineyards may be
considered to be a kind of avant-garde process in agriculture,
however, most vineyards result from the successful restoration
of those that existed in the Middle Ages, for example in Lesser
Poland (the so-called historical landscapes).5
Sources and methods
Our analysis is a secondary one; it is an attempt to collect
and generalize the results of primary research in the fields
of archeology, paleobotany, palynology (lake and biogenic
sediments), history, paleoclimatology (Bouby &Marinval 2001;
Góralczyk 2016; Mangafa & Kotsakis 1996; McGovern 2003), and
ampelography (Jackson 2008). Analyses of grapevine remnants
enable scientists to determine the areas where wild grapevines
have grown, to trace the process of their domestication, to
distinguish between the wild and domesticated varieties, and to
follow cultivation methods and improvements in the technology
of wine-making (Góralczyk 2016). Highly advanced laboratory
methods, which were applied to material consisting of finds
and fossils, enabled the analyses of grapevine ecotypes,
and their range and popularity, as well as being able to trace
the domestication processes. The finds, mostly in the form of
grapevine seeds; preserved shoots, stems, trunks and even
leaves; dried fruit and skins; remnants of individual grapes and
whole clusters, often charred; and even pollen, have become
objects of specialist research in the fields of archeobotany,
palynology and paleobotany (Mangafa&Kotsakis 1996; Renfrew 1996;
Mc Govern 2003; Mc Govern et al. 1996; Myles et al. 2011). The increased
proportion of organic material in archeological samples testifies
to a sudden rise in the importance of grapevine cultivation and
the popularity of grapevines as significant elements of the cultural
landscape. It should be noted that advanced research in this area
has already been carried out as early as the beginnings of the
20th century, when, inter alia, criteria, which enabled individual
grapevine species to be distinguished on the basis of seed
founds (such as Stummer’s [1911] width/length index of seeds),
were worked out. Important material for comparative research
has been provided by artifacts such as presses used to squeeze
out grape juice, barrels and ceramic containers for storing wine,
drinking vessels, and devices that served to transport wine (e.g.,
from the Nile Valley). Their dating made it possible to describe
in relatively great detail how grapevine cultivation spread and
how the specificity of various winery regions developed (Góralczyk
2016).
In case of ancient times, significant material for analysis is
provided by iconographic and heraldic data: preserved official
stamps and emblems that document the process of wine-making
(see Kaftari-Góralczyk 2016). Additional material may also come from
artistic creations picturing grapevines and grapes, architectural
details, as well as from notes written in cuneiform script on the
oldest clay tablets in Mesopotamia during the second half of the
3rd millennium BCE (Zohary 1996). Relevant information (on the
production and import of wine and raisins into the countries of
5
At present, 398 vineyards are registered in Poland - Przybek 2018; Bosak 2013
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Fig 1. Winery landscapes of Europe
Source: Own compilation
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the Levant) was also discovered in Egyptian hieroglyphic writings
(Zohary 1996). Ancient writings created by the Sumerians, the
Amorites, the Babylonians, the Chaldeans, and the Assyrians
are currently under scientific scrutiny (Powell 1996; Zohary 1996).
Thanks to the work of historians and paleobotanists, it is possible
to identify the earliest venue of grapevine cultivation. Greek and
Roman myths also provide some important clues. Interpretation
of the cultural landscape in modern times has been significantly
advanced by geohistorical sources, first of all, by the books
of F. Braudel (2004) and B. Grąbczewski (2012).
Our extensive literature survey shows the considerable role
played by studies nowadays involving genetic material analyses,
which is aimed at explaining how certain species emerged and
how grapevines were domesticated, while also taking up topics
such as the hybridization of plants and directions of their spread
(e.g., Bacilieri et al. 2013; This, Lacombe & Thomas 2006; Zinelabine et al.
2010). Additionally, many recent studies deal with the biochemical
analyses of various grapevine strains (focusing mainly on
anthocyanidins). These issues lie outside the scope of our
analysis as they possess few links with the main topic.
This paper draws heavily on methods of landscape analysis,
including evolutionary, factor analysis, and landscape stratigraphy
(Myga-Piątek 2012). These were supplemented by observations
and interviews carried out by the authors in many regions of the
Mediterranean Basin and Central Asia. The paper provides a
survey and a synthesis of existing research on the spreading of
winery landscapes within the area under analysis.
Natural landscapes
Natural landscapes formed by the dominating Vitis
vinifera subsp. Sylvestris originally covered large areas of the
Mediterranean Basin and south-western Asia. This was the only
representative of the Vitis genus in Europe and Northern Africa.
During the Vistulian glaciation, it found refuge in Transcaucasia
and the southernmost outskirts of Europe, that is, the Iberian
Peninsula and Apennine Peninsula, where the greatest genetic
diversity of this species is in evidence (in Italy, especially in
Sicily). In historic times, wild grapevines grew in large areas of
Southern Europe, from the territory of today’s Spain, through Italy,
Switzerland, Austria and Hungary, to Romania and the southern
part of the Balkans. The map of Vitis’ range includes areas from
the coast of the Black Sea through the Caucasus to the southern
coasts of the Caspian Sea (Figure 1). To the east, the range of
the plant is delimitated by isolated patches in Uzbekistan and
Tajikistan. Originally, the species grew in a wide range of habitats
(Arroyo-García & Revilla 2013; Heywood & Zohary 1991).
In mild and moist climates the species spread north, typically
settling on the outskirts of deciduous forests, where grapevines
constituted a part of the local flora. During the Neolithic, wild
grapes, together with other wild fruit such as figs, apricots,
pears, and bitter almonds, were a valuable contribution to the
diet of nomadic societies, and also later for early agricultural
societies at the stage of settling down (Olmo 1996). Archeologists
generally agree that from the earliest times some wild grapes
were used for winemaking. Even today, wild grapevines appear
south of the Caspian Sea, in the Balkans, and in the narrow
coastal strip around the Mediterranean Sea, both in Europe and
Africa, where grapevines cover the northern side of the Atlas
Mountains, settling in deep valleys and moist gullies (Renefrew
1996; Zohary 1996) (see Figure 1). Thanks to its ability to adapt
to difficult soil, climate, and orography, the plant may also be
found among dry macchia scrubland in the Mediterranean region
(Bouby & Marinval 2001). The Vitis is a dioecious plant, and its
fruit are the product of allogamy. It grows in the neighborhood
of fields, small forests, and even on road shoulders and within
secondary habitats up to 400 m and sometimes even 800 m
72
above sea level, where many new varieties emerge these
days from crossing with domesticated grapevines. Vines climb
on trees up to a height of 30 m (Góralczyk 2016). There are
numerous scientific publications in the fields of paleobotany and
archeology that focus on the origin and spread of wild grapevines
(referred to above). Such research may effectively help in
determining the continuity of original winery landscapes (Heaton
& Merenlender 2000).
Historical landscapes
Historical winery landscapes emerged from the expansion of
natural landscapes in which wild grapevines were the dominant
form of local flora. Their earliest forms of these areas were covered
by wild grapevines, which were used for food (and also, even
then, for wine), and afterwards, areas settled by domesticated
grapevines. In order to analyze historical landscapes, it is crucial
to be aware of the environmental relations and cultural factors
shaping the development of landscapes in a given period. As
results of research carried out by the authors in relation to,
inter alia, juniper forest landscapes in Central Asia, identifying
the mutual ecological and anthropogenic influences plays a key
role in the correct interpretation of landscape expansion and
transformation processes (Rahmonov et al. 2017 a,b).
In accordance with the landscape stratigraphy model
proposed by Myga-Piątek (2012), very widespread historical winery
landscapes may be classified into three subtypes:
–
Continuous landscapes – ones that continue to exist, without
any breaks, for thousands of years, for instance in Southern
Europe (in countries such as Greece). From the point of
view of stratigraphy, these landscapes are characterized
by a very great thickness. In the Mediterranean they are
among the oldest landscape subtypes. They are vertically
homogenous, which results in horizontal homotony
(cohesion and homogeneity of the landscape background).
Such landscapes may be exemplified by well-established
winery regions in which vineyards have been used
continuously since historic times (Figure 1) – regions such
as Toscana, Thrace, Epirus, the Peloponnese, Thessaly,
Euboea, Macedonia, and Andalusia (Arroyo-García & Revilla
2013).
–
Disappeared landscapes – ones that were covered by
vineyards in historic times, but where grapevine cultivation
has stopped for various reasons. Landscape disappearance
processes are often caused by natural phenomena such
as a considerably colder climate (in Europe, the Little Ice
Age 1350–1750), but also by historical and political factors.
A good example are winery regions in Lesser Polandthat
thrived from the beginnings of the Polish state until midfourteenth century, and disappeared afterwards (Bosak
2004; Myśliwiec 2009). Considering their vertical profiles,
such landscapes changed their use completely over time,
and were replaced by other landscapes, typically forest or
agricultural land. They are heterogeneous and, depending
on the subsequent forms of land use, either homotonic or
heterotonic. (Figure 3).
–
Revitalized landscapes – ones that are currently being
reshaped through transformations and metamorphoses:
vineyards are established either where they disappeared
some time ago or in new venues with a different prior model
of land use. Although rare, this also happens in the case of
natural landscapes, where roots still remain in the soil (Bosak
2004; Myśliwiec 2009). The vertical profiles of such landscapes
display no cohesion, and there are clear ‘stratigraphic
gaps’ resulting from different land use (other landscape
types). Revitalized landscapes are secondarily homotonic,
or they may possess numerous elements and leftovers of
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other landscapes, which results in mosaicked, scattered
landscapes with many traces and signs of grapevine
cultivation in the past.
Figure 1. Current Tuscan landscape – an example of a
continuous winery landscapes, Photo: U. Myga-Piątek
Figure 2. Extinct landscapes – The Dalmatian Coast, Photo:
U. Myga-Piątek
Figure 3. Revitalized landscapes – the surroundings of
Segonzano, Trentino Alto Adige, Photo: U. Myga-Piątek
The evolution of historical winery landscapes on the basis
of traces
The earliest traces of grapevine cultivation were identified on
the basis of finds discovered during excavations, among other
places, in Asia Minor. Works on reconstructing the extent of such
cultivations were carried out at sites such as Nevali Çori near Urfa
in the Euphrates Valley (finds dated to 8,400 BCE), Tell Aswad
near Damascus, Tell Abu Hureyra in Syria, Korucutepe and
Tepecik, Arslantepe, Kurban Höyük, Tell es-Sweyhat, Tell Hadidi
and Tell Selenkahiyeh, Hammam et-Turkmen on the Balikh River
in Syria, Tell Leilan on the Khabur River, and Tell Taya in northern
Iraq (Zettler & Miller 1996). Traces of tartaric acid discovered at the
Hajji Firuz Tepe site north of the Zagros Mountains were, in turn,
dated to the end of the 6th millennium BCE.
The oldest remnants of wild grapevines as well as
archeobotanical evidence of grapevine domestication to be
discovered in Europe come from continental Greece and Crete,
and are dated at earlier than 6000 BCE. The continuity of winery
landscapes in this area can be assumed from this. Excavations
revealed the paleobotanical remnants of wild grapevines in
Franchthi Cave in Argolis (from the upper Paleolithic onwards);
in Argissa, Achilleion and Sesklo in Thessaly (the Neolithic 1);
in Sitagroi in Eastern Macedonia and Sesklo in Thessaly (the
Neolithic 2); in Arapi, Dimini, Sesklo and Pefkakia in Thessaly;
Dimitra, Dikili Tash and Sitagroi in Eastern Macedonia; Franchthi
in Argolis (the Neolithic 3); in Sitagroi in Eastern Macedonia and
Aghios Kosmas in Attica (Early Bronze Age); in Argissa and
Pefkakia in Thessaly; Assiros in Western Macedonia; Athens in
Attica; Knossos on Crete; Lerna in Argolis; Nichoria in Messenia
and Orchomenus in Beotia (Middle Bronze Age); in Assiros and
Kastanas in Western Macedonia; Dimitra in Eastern Macedonia;
Iolkos in Thessaly; Kato Zachro and Knossos on Crete; Mycenae
and Tiryns in Argolis, and Menelaion in Sparta (Late Bronze
Age); in Assiros and Kastanas in Western Macedonia; Athens
in Attica; Demetrias in Thessaly; and Samos in Eastern Aegean
(Iron Age) (Renfrew 1996). In Spain, archeologists have dated
cultivations to the Neolithic, about 3rd millennium BCE (Arnold
et al. 1998; Nuñez-Rivera & Walker 1989); and in Southern France,
probably to the mid-Mesolithic (Bouby et al. 2010). An analysis
of the oldest archeobotanical remnants discovered in Languedoc
revealed that the same variety still grows in the area (Bouby et
al. 2010). Paleobotanical and archeological research has shown
that, in the Iron Age, when grapevines started being cultivated
for wine in Southern France, wild and domesticated grapevines
were still co-occurring there (Bouby et al. 2010, p.130). Wild varieties
of grapevine were also grown outside the Mediterranean Basin,
which is confirmed by archeological finds from Switzerland. They
were discovered in sediments of the Neuchâtel and Léman Lakes
and clearly show that wild grapevines grew on the banks of these
lakes in the Bronze Age (Arnold et al. 1998; Desfayes 1989; Jacquat
1988).
Origin and expansion of winery landscapes
The grapevine (Vitis vinifera) belongs to the family Vitaceae,
which comprises about 60 inter-fertile wild Vitis species that
are distributed across Asia, North America, and Europe under
subtropical, Mediterranean, and continental-temperate climatic
conditions. It is the single Vitis species that has acquired significant
economic interest over time; some other species, for example,
the North American V. rupestris, V. riparia, or V. berlandieri, are
used as breeding rootstock due to their resistance to grapevine
pathogens (Terral et al. 2010), such as Phylloxera, Oidium, and
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mildews. It was a very good solution to generate resistance to
Phylloxera with the use of American species, which were hybrids
from rootstock, and many additional varieties of rootstock were
developed by breeders (Arraigo & Arnold 2007). The great majority
of cultivars that are widely cultivated for fruit, juice, and mainly
for wine (classified as Vitis vinifera L. subsp. vinifera [or sativa]),
derive from wild forms (Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sylvestris [Gmelin]
Hegi) (ed. Ovčinnikov 1981; Crespan 2004; This, Lacombe & Thomas
2006). It should be emphasized that the distinction between
wild and cultivated forms of Vitis vinifera L is mainly based on
morphological traits.
The process of domestication of Vitis vinifera L. has already
been described, during the 1940s and 50s, by, among others,
Negrul (1946) and Levdoux (1956). Archeologists emphasize how
long the domestication process lasted and note that grapevine
cultivation spread in an irregular manner. For instance, in
Transcaucasia it started around the 8–6th millennium BCE; while
on the coast of the Aegean Sea, in Mesopotamia, Syria and Egypt
it was at the end of the 5th millennium BCE; and in Northwestern
Iran, in the 4th millennium BCE. Around the 3rd millennium BCE,
grapevine cultivation became common and reached beyond the
habitat of wild grapevines (areas in today’s Georgia, Armenia,
and even Iran and Pakistan) – it was already popular in the
Levant (inter alia, in the Jordan Valley and on the coast of the
Dead Sea) (Zohary 1996). In the second half of 1st millennium BCE
Greek colonizers brought grapevine cultivation to the southern
parts of the Apennine Peninsula (Zohary 1996). In the first half of
1st millennium BCE, Phoenicians spread grapevine cultivation to
the Maghreb (Terral et al. 2010). They are also believed to have
done the same on the Iberian Peninsula (l’Alt de Benimaquia
sites, Denia, Alicante). Both Phoenicians and Greek colonizers
from Ampurias contributed to grapevine cultivation and winemaking in northeastern Spain (Bouby & Marinval 2001; Nuñez-Rivera
& Walker 1989). In France, the development of vineyards started at
the time of Greek colonization (about 600 BCE, when Marseilles
was established by settlers from Phocaea), and from the 5th
century BCE grapevine cultivation became common in Gallia
Narbonensis (today’s Provence and Languedoc). The expansion
of the Roman Empire brought vineyards to the temperate climate
zone of Europe, for example, the Rhine Valley (Zohary 1996). Other
areas of grapevine cultivation we know of today became common
from about 4th century CE, when Christianity was adopted in
Europe (Terral et al. 2010; Góralczyk 2016).
The early Middle Ages can be regarded as the first stage in
the development of cultural winery landscapes. Domestication
of wild grapevines resulted in the relatively common tradition of
establishing vineyards and producing wine in the Mediterranean.
According to Jackson (2008) and McGovern, (2003), from the earliest
times, wine was made from both wild and domesticated grapes,
as both species grew in the same areas, although some
specialization in production was already in evidence, and wine
was still considered a luxury good and an object of international
trade. As A. H. Joffe writes (1998), the consumption of alcoholic
beverages was an important element of nutrition, feasting and
hospitality rituals, and political economies in the early societies of
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria, and the Levant.
Just as in the case of other plant species, grapevine
domestication aimed to increase the crops and improve the taste
of the fruit. During the 1st millennium BCE grapevines started
being cultivated in northern and central Italy, France (Provence),
Northern Africa, and Spain. The varieties growing there are not
homogeneous, they were classified according to their ecotypes,
which were verified thanks to research carried out in the Rhine
Valley, the Danube Valley, and elsewhere. The first domesticated
varieties were crossed with wild varieties (Bouby et al. 2010). There
was also some hybridization between grapevine strains growing
74
in neighboring areas. It is easier to reconstruct the origins of
grapevine ecotypes from the more temperate zones of Europe:
Portugal, France, and the Rhineland (Olmo 1996). Since ancient
times, cultivation of grapevines has involved propagation using
such methods as cuttings, layering, and grafting, but also sexual
reproduction (Bouby et al. 2010, Olmo 1996). At present, nearly 10,000
cultivars stem from the wild species Vitis vinifera ssp. Sylvestris
(Renfrew 1996).
An analysis of the spread of major grapevine varieties and
strains may follow the classification proposed in the 1940s
by Negrul (1946), who distinguished three groups of varieties.
This typology is a very general one, and, according to modern
specialists (Góralczyk 2016), it may even be selective and,
consequently, incomplete; the Mediterranean, for instance,
is missing. In fact, it is difficult nowadays to talk about the
distinctiveness and homogeneity of winery regions that would
result solely from their specialization in the cultivation of particular
varieties and strains. The natural environmental conditions,
including climate, have changed even in historical times, which
results in hybridization and species migration. Furthermore,
cultural factors, and primarily religious beliefs, have played a
decisive role in spreading specialized grapevine varieties, that
is, those suitable for wine-making and those producing fruit for
immediate consumption or for raisins. Islam strongly influenced
the selection of grapevine species that were cultivated in areas
inhabited by Muslims with its preference for grapes that are only
suitable for food. Resorting to a huge generalization and using
classification examples given by Levadoux (1956) and Olmo (1996),
it is possible to distinguish the following winery megaregions,
which are characterized by their dominant grapevine varieties.
In Western Europe (France, Germany, Spain, and Portugal),
the Occidentalis variety dominates. This variety is characterized
by small but compact clusters of small, white or red grapes with
medium sugar content and high acidity. This variety has been
popularized with wine-making in mind, and it is very productive.
Most strains are resistant to cold (Pinot noir, Riesling, Traminer,
Aligoté, Gamay, Pinot, Chardonnay, Malingre précoce, Madeleine
Angevine, Cabernet, Verdot, Sémillon, Sauvignon, Muscadelle,
Folle blanche, Morrastel, Mourvèdre, Aléatico, Verdelho, Sercial,
Oporto, Touriga, Albilho).
In Asia Minor as well as Greece, Romania, Georgia,
Bessarabia, and Hungary, the Pontica variety is cultivated. Its
clusters are also compact, medium-sized, and very juicy. The
grapes’ colors may vary from white to red or black. The variety
is characterized by high acidity, and some strains are seedless.
Its leaves have various shapes. Grapevines of this variety are
mostly used for wine-making (Saperavi, Furmint, Hars Levelu,
Vermentino, Clairette, Corinthe, Mtsvanie, Rka-Tsiteli, Saperavi,
Alvarna, Kakur, Plavai, Chaouch, Dodrelabi).
In Central Asia, that is, Iran, Afghanistan, Armenia, and
Azerbaijan, the Orientalis variety is cultivated. This variety needs
very favorable climatic conditions, as it requires a long growing
season and high temperatures. Scattered clusters create large
and long bunches. The grapes are mostly white, fleshy and
characterized by low acidity. The fruit is often seedless, so it is
typically used for immediate consumption (Muslim countries).
The strains include Thompson (Sultana), Muscat blanc à petits
grains, Muscat d’Alexandrie, Cinsaut, Ohanes, Cornichon,
Sultanine, Khalili, Charas, Katta-Kurgan, Rich Baba) (Levadoux
1956; Olmo 1996).
Factors causing metamorphoses of historical winery
landscapes
Natural factors are the basis for winery landscape
development. These are primarily the climatic factors
(macroclimate, mesoclimate, and microclimate) as well as
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environmental conditions that exert significant influence on
soil fertility, and determe where grape species can grow well.
The most important climate factor is the annual atmospheric
temperature range. This determines, inter alia, the so-called SAT
(°C) and LTI indexes that describe the ripening potential (Bokwa
& Klimek 2009) and the average temperatures in January and
July. Other important factors are sunshine duration, air humidity,
length of the growing season, occurrence of ground frost (and
wet snow likely to break branches), annual rainfall distribution,
snow cover, and general weather conditions during blooming and
ripening. These factors are, at present, very well known (Bosak
1998, 2004, 2006).
Wild grapevines are heliophilous liana, and generally grow
along river banks and in alluvial and colluvial deciduous and
semi-deciduous forests (Levadoux 1956; Arnold et al. 1998). Physical
and chemical soil properties, and their location in the landscape,
play a key role in the development and vitality of a species, as
well as its bioproductivity. The majority of species of the Vitis
genera grow well in soil types such Haplic Leptosol (Calcaric),
Calcic Chernozem, Mollic Gleysol (Colluvic), Haplic Luvisol,
Mollic Fluvisol, or even Haplic Regosol according to WRB (2006)
classification.
Winery landscapes in Central Asia (e.g., Northwestern
and Southwestern Tajikistan, and uzbekistan) appear primarily
on fluvial terraces (e.g., of the Zarafshan River), and their
development is made possible by huge melioration networks.
Without water supply they would not have been able to develop
there due to the dominance of continental and subtropical
climates (dry, and extremely dry, continental climates).
In other regions, factors other than climate may play crucial
roles. For instance, land elevation and orography is important,
as grapevines prefer slopes that face southwards or artificially
shaped hillsides that are meant to provide Vitis vinifera subsp.
sativa with the optimal conditions for growth. In cold habitats,
grapevines are likely to be damaged by frost, and are also
susceptible to pathogens.
These were the decisive factors for the grapevine
domestication processes and the paths they took. Likewise, they
still play crucial roles in the establishment of vineyards today.
However, other factors, beyond the natural ones, have also
influenced further transformation of winery landscapes. These
include:
–
historical and political factors – Resorting to a huge
generalization, these are, inter alia, expansions of
certain cultures, wars, events resulting from new
borders and administrative divisions, technological
progress, establishment of influence zones in politics and
administration with their accompanying legal systems
which, since the time of the Roman Empire, have had
crucial influences on changes in the reach of grapevine
cultivation and the creation of winery regions (continuous,
lasting landscapes) or their disappearance. Such factors
have occurred frequently in historical times, and winery
landscapes have gathered numerous layers, which has
resulted in their metamorphoses. At present, such changes
may be analyzed in detail through the reconstruction of the
spatial organization features of certain venues or through
the interpretation of landscape landmarks, that is, signs.
–
economic factors – The most important of these seem
to be special economic privileges for vineyards and for
countries specializing in wine production, such as tariff
and tax exemptions. Other factors, such as the presence
of trade routes, the possibility for building and supervising
wine storehouses, and trade monopolization, influenced the
development of winery regions. Economic factors also refer to
rich regions’ potential to obtain new cultivation methods and
–
techniques and gain access to new technologies protecting
plants from diseases, as well as to the rules governing winemaking supervision. At present, specialist marketing and
advertising should also be enumerated among such factors.
The wine trade was influenced by new discoveries related
to wine preservation, and additives including cedar oil,
juniper sprigs, laurel leaves, pine needles, thyme, rosemary,
absinthe, and even opium and hashish. In many Southern
European countries, and primarily in Central Asia, owning
a vineyard is still a status symbol and a prosperity indicator
among given ethnic groups. A vineyard is affordable for big
landowners who also produce other plants in their extensive
fields.
socio-economic factors – The most significant of these in the
possible transformation of winery regions include systems
and forms of ownership related to land and material goods
as well as demographic changes (rising population density
in a specific area). The preservation of old professions as
well as the social, material and professional structures
(wine-makers) characterizing inhabitants of a given area
also play an important role. Socio-economic factors also
include the susceptibility of certain societies to adopting
wine consumption patterns typical of Western Europe (e.g.,
serving wine to accompany meals). Wine is becoming
fashionable, and, in some countries, it is increasingly
treated as an indicator of ‘prestige lifestyle’. At the same
time, consumers’ awareness of the advantages of wine
as an element of a healthy diet is rising. Fruit farmers, in
turn, acquire more knowledge on viticulture thanks to the
experience they gain through working in European wineries
and through access to specialist literature, which is being
published in increasing amounts (raising the overall level
of agricultural expertise). Furthermore, more and more
frequently (as is often the case with revitalized landscapes)
fruit farmers search for new, alternative sources of income
(the so-called economic niche) (Myśliwiec 2009).
As their ecological requirements are relatively modest,
some Vitis species are planted to secure river banks and protect
embankments from erosion. Alleys with grapevine architecture
are also created in such places. Artificial structures constitute
a support on which V. vinifera lianas are able to spread quickly,
and their wide leaves form thick canopies that give protection
from sunlight and provide cooling shade during hot summer days.
–
cultural factors – These result from the gradual cultural
popularization of grapevine cultivation and improving
patterns (models, directions) of cultivation. These factors
also include specific vineyard architecture and facilities that
have evolved over centuries, and typically comprise stone
mansions (residences), wine cellars, storehouses, access
roads highlighted by rows of cypresses, and oak trees or
thujas. Such mansions constitute the contribution of many
generations of winemakers to the shaping of the structure
and physiognomy of the cultural landscape. Among cultural
factors, local customs may also be distinguished, such as
emphasizing ownership (e.g., with rosebushes of different
colors) and traditions accompanying grape harvesting
(e.g., special songs sung during harvesting, local legends).
Wine-related customs and celebrations stem from preChristian times, dating back to ancient Greece (where
the cult of wine reached its height with the Dionysia) and
ancient Rome (the cult of Bacchus). Grapevine leaves and
grapes are present as ornaments in the oldest paintings,
drawings, and additionally, in architecture. The influence
of non-material culture (celebrations, customs, legends,
mythology, toponymy) on creating the symbols associated
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with winery landscapes is also notable. In Poland, cultural
factors have contributed to the development of a toponymic
layer of the landscape, for example, places such as Winary6,
Winnica, Winogrady (Myśliwiec 2009). Some names that used
to be familiar only to the native inhabitants of winery regions
have entered the international vocabulary, for example, from
Spanish (Bodega), from Italian (Azienda agricola, Azienda
vinicola, Cantina), from French (Chateau, Clos, Cru classe,
Domaine, Grand Cru, Premier cru), from German (Keller),
from Czech (sklep), from Hungarian (szőlőskert), from
Croatian (vinogorje, vinograd) etc.
In many countries in hot and dry zones, grapevines are grown
to provide shade for houses, mansions, and public facilities,
becoming an indispensable element of landscape design. For
instance, in Tajikistan it is common to build special canopies
that become grown over by grapevines, which spreads rapidly.
It is, on the one hand, a decorative element, and on the other, a
hideaway on hot days. The entrances to all public institutions in
Tajikistan, and in particular in the Zerafshan Valley, are adorned
with corridors (pergolas) formed by grapevines (Figure 4). It
reflects the culture of the region, but, at the same time, there
are no other plant species that would be equally resistant to
extreme environmental conditions. Cultural factors also influence
professional traditions and regional cuisine. Due to the diversity
of climate and the wide range of grapevine varieties, in Tajikistan
and partly also in uzbekistan, grape harvesting starts in early
July and lasts until the end of September (Figure 5, 6). Harvested
grapes are mainly used for consumption, for export, and for
alcohol production. An important part of harvesting is in drying the
grapes next to vineyards in specially selected places with direct
sunlight in order to obtain a number of resin varieties with seeds.
During the whole harvesting period, grapes are to be found on
every table and their consumption is very common. They are
believed to have healing properties.
–
religious factors – These have played a decisive role in
specialization of certain grapevine strains and the purpose
of cultivation. With the expansion of Christianity, Benedictine
and Cistercian monks are believed to have been the
precursors of viticulture in Europe since the Middle Ages.
On farms next to their monasteries, they grew grapevines
and made wine – mainly for the liturgy. In pre-Muslim
times, wine was relatively popular in Arab countries. Islam
brought restrictions that took the form of a total prohibition.
It should be underlined that the ban on alcohol in Islam
stems from social processes. Due to excessive alcohol
consumption people lost control over their behavior and
failed to participate in everyday prayers, which is required
by the Quran. In addition, excessive alcohol consumption
caused problems within families and societies. The ban was
meant to deal with these problems and to protect Muslims.
At the beginning of Islam’s existence, some Muslims
observed the ban very scrupulously, however, depending
on the region, with time they began ignoring it; at present,
the ban is not observed by everybody. Wine was served in
the courts of Muslim rulers, particularly between 7th and
10th century, as a beverage from fermented grapes. Wine
was also used by medieval Muslim medics (e.g., by Abu Ali
Sina, widely known as Avicenna) as a healing substance,
mixed with herbs (Azonzod 2010). Excellent Persian poets
E.g., Winiary, a village in the province of Lesser Poland. Its name proves that
grapevines were cultivated in Poland and wine was produced from grapes. This name
first referred to the group of people who were employed in winemaking, servants of
the local duke. Later on, this name was adopted by the village that they inhabited.
Originally, the name had the form ‘Winary’ and was a derivative of old-Polish ‘winarz’,
i.e., winemaker. First mentions of this village date back to the 13th century: Vinare,
Winary, Winari (Malec 2003; Szczerbowska-Kopacz 2011).
Figure 4. Vitis as a typical element of small architecture –
Southwestern Tajikistan, Photo: O. Rahmonov
Figure 5. Ripening grapes, Southwestern Tajikistan,
Photo: O. Rahmonov
6
76
Figure 6. A dessert variety of grape, Southwestern Tajikistan,
Photo: O. Rahmonov
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very often employed the word ‘alcohol’ with metaphorical
meaning (as a beverage that ‘makes [one] nobly happy’ in
everyday life). Among them were Omar Chajjam (11th c.)
coming from Avicenna’s school; and the most distinguished
Sufi poet, Persian mystic, and Islamic theologian, Jalāl adDīn Muhammad Balkhī (13th c.) – widely known as Rumi.
Consequently, it can be shown that at the time this beverage
was a symbol of mystical knowledge for members of mystic
brotherhoods and for Sufis in general (Arberry 2009).
The symbolic attachment of Christianity to wine exerted a
crucial influence on the development of grapevine cultivation
in the Middle Ages. After the fall of the Roman Empire a rapid
development in grapevine cultivation and winemaking is
observable. It was the Catholic Church that played the main role
in this process, particularly monks inhabiting various monasteries
across Europe, which were very numerous at the time (Rekowski
2013).
This is how the culture of societies, based on specific
preferences and attachment to traditions, that is, the unique
genius loci of particular regions, emerged (Myga-Piątek 2012).
The coexistence and combined influence of the
abovementioned local and regional factors constitute a system
of multiple variables that are very difficult to interpret globally.
This is why it was merely signaled here. A detailed discussion of
these factors is only possible for particular winery regions and
would require a deeper analysis (using the method of regional
biography – Myga-Piątek 2012; Raszeja 2013).
Existing winery landscapes
The present distribution of the wild grapevine is highly
fragmented, and can be found in disjoint micro-populations or
metapopulations with few individuals, at least in the western
part of the Mediterranean Basin (Terral et al. 2010). Regions in
which extensive vineyards constitute a common landscape
element at present, have emerged, mostly, as a result of
conscious human activity. Forest and shrub biocenoses were
replaced with agrocenoses of V. vinifera subsp. sativa, which
has gradually become the dominant element of the cultural
landscape. Consequently, such agrocenoses constitute
a homotonic background that clearly stands out among other
natural phytocenoses.
Anthropogenic pressure on their natural habitats, and
pathogens introduced from North America during the second
part of the 19th century, may explain the progressive decline
of wild grape populations (Arnold et al. 1998) in several regions.
The ‘Phylloxera crisis’ that affected European vineyards had
a considerable impact on both cultivated varieties and wild
grapes. As a result, modern wild grapevines are endangered
throughout their distribution range and threatened with extinction
(Arnold et al. 2005). Conservation efforts are required to maintain
the genetic integrity and survival of the remnant populations
(Bacilieri et al. 2013). The future of Vitis vinifera represents a major
stake in biodiversity conservation.
In contrast to wild grapevines, the cultivated Vitis vinifera
subsp. Sativa has today spread considerably thanks to human
agricultural activity, with new winery regions emerging on all
continents (Johnson & Robinson 2008).
Current winery landscapes stem from the relatively narrow
natural range of Vitis vinifera subsp. sylvestris. They are
common nowadays in Southern Europe, stretching from the
Spanish and French Atlantic Coast to certain regions of Western
Asia (see Figure 1), that is the Near East, the Levant, Iran, the
Transcaucasia, uzbekistan, and Tajikistan (Zohary 1996); where the
climate and other habitat conditions are favorable to grapevines.
The expansion of wild grapevines became possible during the
warm period of the late Pleistocene (Komarov 1938). During the
Neolithic, grapevines covered almost the same area as today,
although climate diversity was less then.
Forecasted landscapes
In contemporary Europe, V. vinifera supsp. sativa is cultivated
north of the natural range of Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sylvestris, and
it has adapted very well to these climate conditions. Grapevines
also produce fruit near the tropics, while in the Himalayas they
are cultivated at high altitudes – up to 2,700 m above sea
level. Consequently, in comparison with other species of the
Vitis genus, the domesticated subspecies possesses a wide
ecological amplitude and may be regarded as a eurytopic.
Winery landscapes expand in some regions while dwindling
in others, which results from social needs and industrial demand.
It should be emphasized that this process is typically observed
within the natural range of the species. The populations that are
isolated and scattered nowadays may gain greater cohesion over
time due to changes in land use.
In some regions of Central Asia (e.g., in Tajikistan, the
Zerafshan Valley), vineyards have been transformed into
sunflower plantations for economic reasons. Consequently, some
continuous winery landscapes may turn into isolated patches.
In western Tajikistan, on the other hand, black-earth (Calcic
Chernozem) is used to establish numerous new vineyards, so
that grapevines cover increasing amounts of agricultural land.
Throughout the centuries, evolutionary cultural landscapes
have been subject to rapid transformation resulting from, among
other factors, urban sprawl and the dispersion of housing into
open areas; increased mass commercial tourism and the socalled tourist colonization; and a change in traditional forms
of land management into industrialized agriculture, that is,
high technology agriculture (Myga-Piątek 2008). In the future,
the development of winery landscapes worldwide will depend
primarily on financing and the degree of commercialization
of winery areas (competition among winery regions). Due to
the changing climate (water deficits), in areas with an arid or
semiarid climate, the availability of irrigation systems will play
a decisive role. Moreover, if grapes and their derivatives are
difficult to introduce into markets, this may result in farmers
giving up production and, consequently, in the disappearance of
winery landscapes. Winery landscapes should play an important
public role in cultural, economic, ecological and social fields.
They create a resource for economic activity, stimulate new
jobs, create a recognizable image for regions, and contribute
to the development of tourism. The successful development
of vineyards and viticulture in many places around the world
testifies to the important role of governmental support, such as
preferential taxation, or the financing of marketing activities and
scientific research aimed at improving grape quality.
Winery tourism may well meet the requirements for, so-called,
sustainable tourism (Myga-Piątek 2011). This will only become
possible, however, with optimal management. The planning
and organization of grape cultivation and wine production must
constitute an integral part of the development policies that are
implemented by individual regions. Another necessary element
is the creation and implementation of a model of partnership
between the public and the private sectors, which should intend to
prevent the negative results of globalization processes and small
vineyards being pushed out of the market. Whereas in the recent
past, viticulture was limited to traditional family businesses, now
it has spread to cover large areas and in many regions it already
resembles mass agriculture.
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Conclusion
Cultural landscapes have emerged from the historical
process of human culture acting upon natural landscapes. They
comprise many subtypes that differ according to their origin,
structure, functions, and their dominant shaping factors. From
the point of view of landscape physiognomy, this is reflected in
specific spatial organization characteristics for a given landscape
type (Myga-Piątek 2008, 2012). Regionally, a landscape may be
defined as a fragment of geographical space whose structure
and functions have emerged due to a combination of natural and
cultural processes and components, resulting in a specific spatial
organization that determines the physiognomic distinctiveness of
a region.
Winery landscapes are a subtype of the agricultural
landscape, which constitute one of the oldest types of cultural
landscapes. The structure of a winery landscape, seen as a way
of placing, organizing and giving a hierarchy to a landscape’s
elements as well as the connections among the constituent parts
(layout, composition, and configuration of structural elements of
a winery landscape); is highly specific. Inter alia, winery
landscapes are distinguishable through their largely geometric
field layout, which results from the specificity of cultivated
grapevines, from the location and shape of grapevine patches,
and, increasingly, also from mechanized agriculture methods.
Our analysis of the evolution of winery regions shows that
these landscapes belong to the oldest cultural landscapes in
the world. In many places, they have already disappeared and
replaced by other cultural landscape types and subtypes – the
so-called landscape stratigraphy (Myga-Piątek 2012). At present, the
reach of winery landscapes has increased considerably. Winery
microregions are to be found far from the contiguous range of
the grapevine. Increasingly often, vineyards are established in
areas with poorer soils. Due to their resistance to water deficits
and strong sunshine, grapevines may be cultivated in very sunny
areas. Viticulture defines the environmental conditions of a
specific vineyard as terroir (Seguin 1986; Sommers 2008). The places
where grapevines are cultivated exert significant influence on
the growth and fruit production of plants, but it also determines
the future taste of the local wine. This is why grapevines are so
closely connected with the area in which they grow, and place of
origin is one of the most important determinants of a wine.
Winery landscapes as a form of cultural landscape
constitute the heritage of individual regions, as they document,
in geographical space, the activities of societies across many
historical epochs, and the combined influence of very numerous
interlinked factors. Consequently, they provide evidence of local
traditions and identities, of societies’ attachment to a specific
place. Highly specialized, ancient winery regions testify to the
durability of specific land use and to the so-called ‘landscape
memory’ (Myga-Piątek 2015).
The history of grapevine domestication is very long and
complex. At the same time, it illustrates, with much detail, the
life history of the Vitis species. Humans have developed and
improved a wide range of varieties, which are famous under
their own names, in various regions of the world. The beginnings
of global viticulture have been scrutinized by various scientific
disciplines, and the history of Vitis vinifera has been thoroughly
studied by genetics (Pipia et al. 2014). Analyses of genetic material
and other research has enabled scientists to explain the
emergence and mechanisms of domestication, hybridization,
and spread of grapevines. This holistic approach facilitates our
understanding of the history of Vitis vinifera subsp. sativa – a truly
amazing subspecies.
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