Original Research
Comparison of Academic and Behavioral Performance between
Athletes and Non-athletes
JAMES A. ELDRIDGE‡1, TY B. PALMER † 2, KYLE GILLIS†2, RICHARD
LLOYD‡1, WILLIAM G. SQUIRES, Jr‡3, and TINKER D. MURRAY‡2
1Department
of Kinesiology, University of Texas of the Permian Basin, Odessa,
TX, USA;
of Health and Human Performance, Texas State
University, San Marcos, TX, USA; 3 Departments of Biology and Kinesiology,
Texas Lutheran University, Seguin, TX, USA
2Department
†Denotes graduate student author, ‡Denotes professional author
ABSTRACT
International Journal of Exercise Science 7(1) : 3-13, 2014. The Toronto Charter for
Physical Activity (2010) and several national physical activity plans advocate sports participation
as an important part of population targeted physical activity for youth. Emerging research
evidence also suggests that sports participation during adolescents is linked to significant
positive correlations with academic and behavioral performance. The purpose of this study was
to compare academic and behavioral performance between male and female public school
athletes (Total N=11,139; 38% Female) and non-athletes (Total N=23,891; 52% Female) in a
convenient, ethnicity diverse, sample (grades 7 -12) from the state of Texas (USA). We examined
the passing rates of individual athletes and non-athletes on standardized tests (Texas Assessment
of Knowledge and Skills, TAKS) for math, language arts, reading, writing, science, and social
studies. We also examined the percentage of athletes and non-athletes for being “at risk,” for
dropping out of school and for the total average number of disciplinary actions. Chi-Square
statistical analyses comparing athletes to non-athletes showed that athletes scored significantly
better (p<0.05) on all standardized tests compared to non-athletes (passing rate ranges ranged
from 77.1% to 92.9% versus 27.7% to 66.5% respectively). Athletes were at lower risk for dropout
compared to non-athletes (35.6% versus 49.24%; p<0.05), and they had fewer disciplinary actions
(mean of 0.85 per athletes per year versus 1.23 for non-athletes; ANOVA, p<0.05). Our results
support the research findings of others that participation in school sports is positively correlated
to better academic and behavioral performances for athletes compared to non-athletes.
KEY WORDS: Youth, sports, physical activity, academic outcomes, school health
policy
Physical activity participation such as
INTRODUCTION
playing organized school sports has been
promoted as a way to reduce the
The Toronto Charter for Physical Activity
prevalence of overweight and obesity
(2010) and several national physical activity
among adolescents, a public health
plans (USA, Norway, Scotland, and the
challenge that continues to move in the
U.K.) advocate sports participation as an
wrong direction (25). According to the
important part of population targeted
World Health Organization (2012), globally
physical activity for adolescents (2, 3).
six percent of deaths are attributed to
ACADEMIC OUTCOMES, BEHAVIOR, AND SPORTS PARTICIPATION
physical inactivity and physical inactivity is
the 4th leading attributable cause of global
deaths. (9, 30). Numerous physical health
benefits such as chronic disease prevention,
healthy weight maintenance, stronger
bones and muscles have been reported for
adolescents who participate regularly in
physical
activity,
however
many
adolescents continue to not meet physical
activity recommendations (8, 19, 23, 24).
academic outcomes associated with regular
physical
activity
participation
by
adolescents in schools based on measures
from organized sports, physical education,
or physical fitness performance measures
are inconclusive (8, 25). Study limitations
like differences in design, small sample
sizes with limited ethnic diversity, lack of
control for confounding variables, and selfreported versus individually measured
performance have not allowed a clear
understanding of how sports participation
affects academic outcomes and adolescent
behaviors.
Emerging research evidence suggests that
physical activity including organized sports
participation is correlated positively to
academic success and positive behaviors in
middle school and high school students
and that athletes perform better than nonathletes on cognitive performance tests (1,
5-13, 16 – 18, 21, 28). In states like Texas
(USA), students prior to 2011 were required
to take and pass the Texas Assessment of
Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) as part of
state legislation (20). Texas students who
were fitter based on FITNESSGRAM®
scores, performed better on TAKS than low
fit students (27). While there are no
published data that show athletes perform
better
than
non-athletes
on
the
®
FITNESSGRAM , athletes in Texas public
schools are allowed to engage in practice
eight hours per week (plus competition
time), which exceeds the one hour per day
recommended U.S guidelines for daily
physical activity in adolescents (22, 23).
The purpose of this study was to further
investigate and compare the academic and
behavioral performance between male and
female public school athletes and nonathletes in a large ethnically diverse
population that included individual data
reports. The hypotheses we tested were: 1)
There are no significant differences in risk
for dropping out of school between athletes
and non-athletes. 2) There are no significant
differences in disciplinary actions during
the school year between athletes and nonathletes. 3) There are no significant
differences in passing rates on academic
tests like the TAKS between athletes and
non-athletes.
METHODS
Participants
A total of 35,030 (N=11,139 athletes and
23,891 non-athletes; N = 16,673 girls and
18,357 boys) in grades 7 -12 were included
in the study. All data were collected from a
convenient sample of Texas school districts
(N=7) that were recruited with the help of
leaders from the Texas High School
Coaches Association (THSCA) and the
Texas High School Education Foundation
(THSEF).
The
grade
levels
and
Additionally, the vast majority of the
scientific evidence indicates that being
physically active (like playing sports)
during the school day does not negatively
affect academic success or progress (8, 25),
although currently there is no consistent
evidence that higher physical activity levels
lead to increased intelligence scores (8, 14).
Unfortunately,
the
interpretation
of
previous studies that have shown positive
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ACADEMIC OUTCOMES, BEHAVIOR, AND SPORTS PARTICIPATION
demographics of the athletes and nonathletes are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Demographic Data.
Athlete
the THSEF recruited a convenient sample of
school districts (N=12) to participate in the
study. Individual student data (student ID
code, general demographics, TAKS scores,
“at risk” for dropout status, and
disciplinary actions) organized by the
institutional technologist (IT) from each
school district were submitted to the
investigators. The data included all
information for the 2010 school year.
Student TAKS scores included the
achievement of the minimum standard by
subject and grade (meets standard) as well
as achievement of the commendable levels
(meets desirable standards for the majority
of students set by the Texas Education
Agency – at least the 90th percentile) (20).
Students were classified as athletes by each
district’s IT, if they participated in at least
one of the 20 plus University Scholastic
League (UIL, state governing body)
sponsored sports during the school year
and as a non-athlete if they did not
participate.
Non-Athlete
N
Percent
N
Percent
Male
6,840
37.3%
11,517
62.7%
Female
4,299
25.8%
12,374
74.2%
7
1,840
32.6%
3,800
67.4%
8
1,694
30.2%
3,908
69.8%
9
2,707
36.5%
4,710
63.5%
10
2,126
34.0%
4,131
66.0%
11
1,660
29.9%
3,887
70.1%
12
1,112
24.3%
3,455
75.7%
111
29.6%
264
70.4%
Asian
451
38.1%
734
61.9%
Black
2,884
32.2%
6,085
67.8%
Hispanic
3,158
24.6%
9,683
75.4%
White
4,535
38.9%
7,125
61.1%
Gender
Grade
Ethnicity
Native
American
Once data quality analyses were finished,
complete information from 7 districts was
selected for use in the study for subsequent
data analyses. To determine regular
physical activity levels between athletes
and non-athletes the following assumptions
were made regarding observations that
athletes (adolescents) are more physically
active than their general population
counterpart: It was estimated that athletes
were physically active at moderate- to
vigorous- intensities for a minimum of 8
hours per week outside the school day
(state practice rule limitations), which
exceed the national guidelines for
adolescents of 60 minutes of daily moderate
– to vigorous intensities (19, 23). Many
athletes also are active in Texas as part of
physical education classes that are taught
Data files from each school district were
transferred to the researchers via password
protected electronic media.
Individual
informed consent was not necessary since
the data is collected annually and
mandated by the State of Texas and is
available through the Freedom of
Information Act. Data for the study were
analyzed retrospectively, and IRB approval
from Texas State University (#2010R6869)
was granted.
Protocol
In the spring of 2011 the investigators
(through the leadership at the THSCA and
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ACADEMIC OUTCOMES, BEHAVIOR, AND SPORTS PARTICIPATION
non-athletes) by disciplinary actions to
determine significant differences. For all
analyses an a priori probability level was set
at p < 0.05 to determine significant
differences between the groups.
by teacher/coaches as well. Assumptions
for non-athletes were based on the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Youth Behavior Risk Surveillance System
(YRBS) 2011 data for high school youth in
Texas, which showed that 42.4% did not
play on sports teams, 16.4 % did not
participate in at least 60 minutes of physical
activity on any day, and only 55.5% were
active at least 60 minutes per day for less
than 5 days (26).
RESULTS
The results of the chi-square analyses
comparing athletes and non-athletes for atrisk status, TAKS components, and TAKS
commendable levels are presented in Table
2.
Statistical Analysis
Since the data for the study were collected
from a convenient sample, quasiexperimental design techniques were used
to determine differences between group
data. Group comparisons to determine
differences between athletes and nonathletes scores for the various study
variables utilized chi-square or ANOVA
techniques found in SPSS version 15
depending on the variables value scale.
Data for the at-risk status of the student
was scored nominally as either at risk or
not at risk of dropping out of school
therefore chi-square analyses were used to
determine significant differences between
athletes and non-athletes as well as
differences among ethnicities between the
two groups. Scores for the TAKS test
components were scored as either meeting
or not meeting the mastery level of the
minimum component therefore chi-square
analyses were used to determine significant
differences between athletes and nonathletes for the overall mastery of the test as
well as its separate components and
commendable achievement levels. Finally,
disciplinary actions were scored as the
number of times within a year the student
was disciplined by a faculty member or
administrator; therefore a oneway ANOVA
was used to compare groups (athletes vs
International Journal of Exercise Science
Chi-square analysis for the comparison of
at-risk status between athletes (n=11,139)
and non-athletes (n=23,891) resulted in a
significant difference between the groups
with a χ2 = 686.2; p<0.05. Representation of
the differences is presented in Figure 1 with
fewer athletes (35.2%) classified at-risk of
dropping out of school compared to the
non-athletes (52.3%).
Figure 1. At-risk comparison between athlete and
non-athletes. * Significant difference at p<0.05.
Further examination of the at-risk data
found significant decline in the at-risk
factor among athletes from each ethnic
group except for Native Americans. Figure
2 is a graphical representation of these data.
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ACADEMIC OUTCOMES, BEHAVIOR, AND SPORTS PARTICIPATION
When compared to their non-athletic
counterparts Asian athletes were at a lower
risk than Asian non-athletes (24.2% vs
41.1%; χ2 = 32.18; p < 0.05).
Black athletes were at a lower risk than
Black non-athletes (49.9% vs 56.7%; χ2 =
27.55; p < 0.05). Hispanic athletes were at a
lower risk than Hispanic non-athletes
(43.1% vs 59.7%; χ2 = 147.17; p < 0.05).
White athletes were at a lower risk than
White non-athletes (21.5% vs 39.8%; χ2 =
362.12; p < 0.05). The only ethnic group
that did not have a significantly lower atrisk factor for athletes compared to nonathletes were the Native American group
(39.6% vs 48.98%; χ2 = 1.93; p > 0.05).
International Journal of Exercise Science
Figure 2. At-risk comparison between athletes and
non-athletes of different ethnic identities. *
Significant difference at p<0.05.
Comparison of the academic skills of the
students associated with the TAKS pass
rates for each of the TAKS components
resulted in significantly higher pass rates
for athletes compared to non-athletes.
Figure 3 is a graphical representation of the
TAKS component data. Athletes had
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ACADEMIC OUTCOMES, BEHAVIOR, AND SPORTS PARTICIPATION
Studies component TAKSSS (χ2 = 573.64; p
< 0.05).
significantly higher passing rates compared
to their non-athletic counterparts for the
TAKS Math component (χ2 = 1,390.62; p <
0.05), the TAKS English Language
component (χ2 = 2,239.15; p < 0.05), the
TAKS Reading component (χ2 = 1,732.63; p
< 0.05), the TAKS Writing component (χ2 =
2,447.38; p < 0.05), the TAKs Science
component (χ2 = 2,277.72; p < 0.05), and the
TAKS Social Studies component TAKSSS
(χ2 = 1,799.44; p < 0.05).
Figure 4. Commendable pass rates comparisons
between athletes and non-athletes for TAKS
components. * Significant difference at p<0.05.
In the final analysis, a oneway analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was used to compare
the number of daily average disciplinary
actions
reported
by
faculty
and
administrators for the students by their
group identification as an athlete or nonathlete. The ANOVA revealed, as presented
in Figure 5, that athletes had significantly
fewer daily disciplinary actions during the
school year compared to non-athletes
(F112.62; p< 0.05).
Figure 3. TAKS component pass rate comparisons
between athletes and non-athletes. * Significant
difference at p<0.05.
Furthermore, when comparing the rates of
students who achieved the commendable
level (highest achievement) for the TAKS
academic testing, a significantly greater
number
of
athletes
achieved
the
commendable level for each of the TAKS
components compared to their non- athletic
counterparts.
Figure 4 is a graphical
representation
of
the
commendable
achievement for the TAKS component data.
Athletes
had
significantly
higher
commendable passing rates compared to
their non-athletic counterparts for the
TAKS Math component (χ2 = 641.87; p <
0.05), the TAKS English Language
component (χ2 = 657.23; p < 0.05), the TAKS
Reading component (χ2 = 542.83; p < 0.05),
the TAKS Writing component (χ2 = 730.84;
p < 0.05), the TAKs Science component (χ2 =
765.90; p < 0.05), and the TAKS Social
International Journal of Exercise Science
Figure 5. Comparisons of daily disciplinary actions
between athletes and non-athletes during the school
year. * Significant difference at p<0.05.
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ACADEMIC OUTCOMES, BEHAVIOR, AND SPORTS PARTICIPATION
disparities for minorities accompany the
academic achievement gaps related to
youth fitness levels (8). Pate and colleagues
reported that low physical activity in
adolescents was associated with many
negative health behaviors (15). Although
reasons for leaving school before
graduating may vary among individuals,
the positive effects of athletic participation
such as improved self confidence, self
esteem and self worth, coupled with the
structured atmosphere and support system
associated with athletics may improve the
individual’s decision to remain in school
and graduate (11).
If participation in
middle school and high school athletics can
help reduce student drop out rates this
would
be
important
to
school
administrators with regards to improving
academic outcomes based on 2001, No
Child Left Behind legislation and as a way
to promote positive public health messages.
DISCUSSION
The present study is one of the larger
studies ever conducted with a large
ethnically diverse population of athletes
and non-athletes that included individual
data reports. An important finding of the
study was that participation in athletics
decreased the probability of students
dropping out of school even when
classified at higher risk for premature
separation. This was true both generally
and for each ethnic group, except the
Native Americans. Although the Native
American group was not significantly
different for at-risk classification for
athletes compared to non-athletes, it is
likely due to the small sample size (N=375)
for Native American students within this
study. Lumpkin and Favor suggest that
athletes drop out of high school less often
than non-athletes (11). They reported that
in Kansas, non-athletes were 15 times more
likely to drop out of school than nonathletes in 2008-2009. They also found that
athletes across all ethnic groups in their
study were less likely to drop out of school
than non-athletes and suggested that
participating in sports may help minorities
matriculate and become acculturated when
related to future academic success. Our
significant results indicate that non-athletes
were at a 17% greater risk for dropping out
than athletes for all ethnic groups except
Native Americans in the study. These
results are important because few previous
related studies have included the ethnicity
of their study populations (1).
The athletes in our study had significantly
higher passing rates on all TAKS
components
than
non-athletes.
The
percentage passing rates percentages
comparing athletes to non-athletes for each
of the TAKS components were as follows:
Math – 19.7%; English Language – 27.6%;
Reading - 31.6%, Writing - 49.4%; Science –
34.9%; and Social Studies – 33.2%. Lumpkin
and Favor reported that athletes in their
study also scored significantly higher than
non-athletes
for
standardized
state
assessments
in
math,
reading,
history/government, writing, and science
for 2006-2009. Others have found that
physical activity through middle school
and high school sports participation is
associated with higher grade point averages
and academic ability based on a variety of
cognitive outcome measures (11, 16).
Our results show that participating in
school sports was associated with between
a 6.8% to 18.3% reduction of risk for
dropping out based upon the school.
Howie and Pate have noted that health
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ACADEMIC OUTCOMES, BEHAVIOR, AND SPORTS PARTICIPATION
Our study data also supports the
contention that participation in school
athletics improves the probability of
reaching the commendable level (at least
the
90th
percentile)
of
academic
performance based on the TAKS (20). The
percentage passing rates percentages
comparing athletes to non-athletes for each
of the TAKS components at the
commendable levels were as follows: Math
– 11.8%; English Language – 13%; Reading 15.7%, Writing – 18.4%; Science – 14.1%;
and Social Studies – 18%. Thus, athletes in
our study not only were more likely to meet
the minimal academic standards required,
they also were more likely to achieve
commendable levels, which are associated
with post secondary educational success
(20). Possible reasons for the athletes’
academic success may include increased
interest in school, improved motivation to
succeed in order to remain eligible, and the
expectation of participating at the collegiate
level. Sports participation may also increase
the athletes’ self esteem and self worth,
while at the same time increase their
parents’ interest in their performance both
during and outside of the sport
participation (29).
While a large body of evidence supports a
positive effect regarding participation in
physical
activity
and
academic
achievement, it is difficult to determine if
the effects are causal (8). This is also true
with regards to school sports participation.
Other factors such as student identification
with school related values could encourage
students to perform better academically (7).
In Texas, No Pass, No Play legislation has
been credited with keeping students in
school so that they remain eligible to
participate in extracurricular activities (22).
The fact that coaches acting as mentors that
strongly influence their athletes to maintain
their eligibility and provide praise for
success and negative feedback for failure
cannot be ignored. Sports participation for
school athletics has also been associated
with higher levels of learned self-discipline
and better time management skills (11).
Our results have implications for
policymakers, school administrators, and
practitioners. According to the WHO,
“experience and scientific evidence show
that regular participation in appropriate
physical activity and sport provides people
of both sexes and all ages and conditions,
including persons with disabilities, with a
wide range of physical, social and mental
health benefits (30).” Policy makers and
school administrators should encourage
opportunities for students to engage in
athletics at the middle school and high
school levels as one way to promote
positive academic performance and
behaviors (1, 6, 16, 21). Practitioners should
consider basic interventions that can help
students become and remain physically
active throughout the lifespan of education
(pre K to grade 12) that allows them to
acquire the basic levels of fitness, self-
We found that the athletes in our study had
significantly fewer disciplinary actions as
compared to non-athletes. Tomporowski
and colleagues reported that regular
participation in physical activity (like
school sports) by adolescents can help
improve cognitive control and attention
and other measures of mental health that
have been associated with enhanced
academic achievement (21). A student that
is constantly facing disciplinary actions is
more likely to perform poorly academically
and at an increased risk for dropping out of
school (6, 21).
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ACADEMIC OUTCOMES, BEHAVIOR, AND SPORTS PARTICIPATION
the individuals’ lifelong earning capacity
and improve their quality of life and the
quality of their community. Further studies
are warranted to determine if there are
causal associations between academic and
behavioral performances between athletes
and non-athletes.
esteem, and confidence to participate in
school sports based on their motivational
goals.
A primary strength of this study is the large
and diverse ethnic sample size based on
individually reported TAKS score data.
Few previous related research studies have
been able to evaluate individual athlete
versus non-athlete academic or behavioral
performance comparisons due to the
reliance on aggregate data. We found that
athletes versus non-athletes were at lower
risk for dropping out of school, did better
academically
at
the
minimal
and
commendable levels for TAKs, and had
fewer disciplinary actions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank the leadership of
the Texas High School Coaches Association
and the Texas High School Coaches
Education Foundation for their partial
financial support of this study.
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