Standard Implicature in Teacher Talks

COMMUNICATION TODAY VOLUME 1 EDITORS: Nyak Mutia Ismail Athik Hidayatul Ummah Rizky Hafiz Chaniago COMMUNICATION TODAY Sanctions for Violation of Article 113 Law No. 28 of 2014 concerning Copyright 1. 2. 3. 4. Any person without rights violates the economic rights as referred to in Article 9 paragraph (1) letter i for Commercial Use shall be punished with imprisonment for a maximum of 1 (one) year and/or a fine of a maximum of Rp. 100,000,000.00 (one hundred million rupiah). Any person without rights and/or without permission of the Author or Copyright holder violates the economic rights of the Author as referred to in Article 9 paragraph (1) letter c, letter d, letter f, and/or letter h for Commercial Use shall be subject to criminal sanction with a maximum imprisonment of 3 (three) years and/or a maximum fine of Rp. 500,000,000.00 (five hundred million rupiah). 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Everyone who meets the requirements as referred to in paragraph (3) committed in the form of piracy, shall be sentenced to a maximum imprisonment of 10 (ten) years and/or a maximum fine of Rp. 4,000,000,000.00 (four billion rupiah). COMMUNICATION TODAY EDITORS: Nyak Mutia Ismail Athik Hidayatul Ummah Rizky Hafiz Chaniago SYIAH KUALA UNIVERSITY PRESS Book Title: Communication Today Volume 1 Editors: Nyak Mutia Ismail Athik Hidayatul Ummah Rizky Hafiz Chaniago Layout & Cover Designer: Ni’am Widiyoko : 978-623-264-517-2 (Volume number) 978-623-264-518-9 (Vol.1 ) E-ISBN : 978-623-264-519-6 (PDF volume number) 978-623-264-520-2 (PDF Vol. 1) ISBN Production: SYIAH KUALA UNIVERSITY PRESS Publisher: Syiah Kuala University Press Jl. Tgk Chik Pante Kulu No.1 Kopelma Darussalam 23111, Kec. Syiah Kuala. Banda Aceh, Aceh Telp: 0651 - 8012221 Email: upt.percetakan@unsyiah.ac.id Website: http://www.unsyiahpress.unsyiah.ac.id Print Year 2022, Digital Year 2022 X + 219 (15 X 23) Member of IKAPI 018/DIA/2014 Member of APPTI 005.101.1.09.2019 Photocopying or reproducing a part or all parts of this book without written permission from the publisher is strictly prohibited. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................ v ACKNOWLEDGMENT ........................................................................... vii FOREWORD ........................................................................................... ix Chapter 1. RESEARCH RESULTS ........................................................1 Digital Communication in Universities during the COVID-19 Pandemic Leon A. Abdillah ..........................................................................3-21 Here comes the Acehnese Gen-Z! Language and Identity in Social Media Communication Saiful Akmal, Nadia Ulfah, Nabila Fitria ....................................23-44 Reframing Modernity on Asphalt: A Study of Development Journalism in Toll Road Reporting in Indonesia Reny Triwardani ........................................................................45-60 Standard Implicatures in Teacher Talks Nyak Mutia Ismail, Moriyanti, Sepri Kurniadi .............................61-78 Comparisonal Language Style In The News Rubric 24 Bisnis.Com: The Changes of Covid-19 Vaccination Outside Jakarta Abdul Aziz..................................................................................79-90 The Social Media as A Political Communication Platform (A Case Study of Twitter Account @ganjarpranowo) Muhammad Eko Atmojo, Vindhi Putri Pratiwi, Helen Dian Fridayani ...............................................................91-109 Chapter 2. THEORETICAL STUDIES ................................................. 111 Ethics of Communication in the COVID-19 Era Muhammad Aminullah ...........................................................113-129 Social media ethics: Concepts and applications Susri Adeni, Machyudin Agung Harahap...............................131-144 The Social Construction of Reality: Concept and Applications of Corporate Social Responsibility Natalia Widiasari ...................................................................145-164 Tourism News Writing Techniques in the New Normal Era Rieka Yulita Widaswara, I Ketut Putu Suardana, Sayu Kadek Jelantik ..................................................................................165-183 C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 v Cloud Kitchen As Innovation Digital Marketing Communication Strategy For Small Medium Enterprise Prima Yustitia Nurul Islami, Nada Arina Romli ......................185-201 Chapter 3. BOOK REVIEWS .........................................................203 Women in International Film Industry: Policy, Practice, and Power Putri Wahyuni, Hamedi Mohd Adnan ....................................205-216 INDEX .................................................................................................217 vi C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 ACKOWLEDGEMENT Alhamdulillah. The book series entitled Communication Today Volume 1 has been published. Hence, we bear undescribable joy because of the support from the Rector of Syiah Kuala University and the authors who have trusted us to publish their writing. Also, I would deliver a lot of thanks to the team who have helped to publish this book with its refinements. The book series entitled Communication Today Volume 1 is a collection of various research results, theoretical studies, and book reviews that will be useful for future researchers in related fields. With various issues and trends in communication presented from various research fields, it will be very useful to be used accordingly with the needs of each researcher in the related field. In addition, we also hope that this book will not only be pubished to benefit one parties, but will provide many benefits for all such as researchers, practitioners, and other relevant parties. Banda Aceh, December 2021 Syiah Kuala University Press C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 vii viii C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 FOREWORD The book series entitled Communication Today Volume 1 has added to the onthology of knowledge on various issues in the field of communication research. This book is structured in accordance with the need for up-to-date information in the field of communication research and its interrelationship with other scientific expertise. Thus, this book can be used as a reference book for researchers and practitioners in related fields. In terms of content, this book is very useful, besides for researchers in the field of communication, this book also has benefits for students who are involved in related fields. Because it contains various issues that occur in various fields of science, this book is considered important to add insights for its readers, for those with educational backgrounds, media communication, engineering, women studies, economics and business, and philosophy. As The Rector of Syiah Kuala University, he hereby expresses his highest and for the publication of the first book series entitled Communication Today Volume 1. Hopefully this effort will be beneficial for all parties either directly or indirectly. Banda Aceh, December 2021 Rector of Syiah Kuala University Prof. Dr. Ir. Samsul Rizal, M. Eng C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 ix x C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 STANDARD IMPLICATURES IN TEACHER TALKS Nyak Mutia Ismail1, Moriyanti2, Sepri Kurniadi3 1 Universitas Serambi Mekkah 2 SMP Negeri 2 Muara Tiga 3 Politeknik Aceh Selatan Corresponding Email: nyakmutiaismail@serambimekkah.ac.id ABSTRACT The use of communication strategies in classrooms extensively covers areas of pragmatic discipline. This study sought the standard implicatures employed by lecturers in teaching their classes. Qualitative research design was adopted as the approach as it embraces the core objective of this study. Specifically, pragmatic analysis was carried out by employing Grice’s Conversational Implicature Theory. The subjects of this study were two lectures on Listening Course with 90-minute length each and the objects were the conversational implicatures found in these lectures. The data collection process was done by reading, identifying, and categorizing the implicatures found from the transcribed data source. Later, the data were analyzed using thematic coding analysis by familiarizing the data, coding, defining and naming the codes, identifying patterns, and identifying themes for each code. A recurrent theme shown in the result is that there are 13% Generalized Conversational Implicature and 87% Particularized Conversational Implicature. It can be concluded that, first, the majority of implicature used in teaching Listening was Generalized Conversational Implicature; second, the functions of the implicature usage are for enhancement and referent provisions. Keywords: Grice’s implicature theory, pragmatic implicatures, teacher talk, conversational analysis, and pragmatic analysis. A. SPOKEN DISCOURSE IN TEACHING SETTING Language is acknowledged as a critical part inside society to be a major capacity as a method for communication. A great part of individuals’ correspondences are supposed to be done through language. With the presence of language, individuals can share information and feelings, C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 61 express their thoughts, considerations, sentiments, opinions, etc. In portraying a language; nonetheless, individuals do not simply make a bunch of syntactically correct clauses and sentences. It is broadly seen that occasionally individuals do not exclusively express what they mean; the expressions they deliver are unique in relation to the intentions they look for and there should be more communicated verbalizations to clarify what he/she truly means. In short, there are consistently hidden or unclear motivations, goals, or reason behind ones’ expressions. These implied meanings in language are for the most part called implicatures (Yule, 1996). hence, it can be said that there is always something untold when two interlocutors have conversation. However, those unshared meanings can be conceived through the surrounding world. Pedagogical communication has become an interest in whether the educational research area itself or other areas such pragmatics. A significant part of communication is without a doubt the understanding of pragmatics. More explicitly, second language pragmatics needs to be reacted upon the communicative difficulties faced in the globalization era. In such concern, it is fundamental that language teachers become more mindful about pragmatics so that they can focus to teach such ability as well to their students. This article analyzed the conversations made by English language teachers during their teaching time in the classroom. It is important to be noted that pragmatics can sharpen teachers’ viewpoint and attention as they shape their intention to teach foreign language, in this case English (Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor, 2020). Different levels of education portray different types of communicative strategies. In higher education, classroom communication is rather different from lower educational level as elementary schools, middle schools, and senior high schools. Implicatures are fundamentally critical to the process of teaching. It is centralized due to the demonstrations of communicating information, exercise distribution, classroom controls and management, and telling directions are done through teacher talks that contain the implicatures. To bear adequate information on pragmatics particularly implicatures is indeed vital to limit misconception during the process of teaching. This is likewise upheld by the way that in the present era language teaching, students are requested to have syntactic capability as well as pragmatic ability. Boundaries in communication are not likely to occur when both teachers have excellent pragmatic awareness and capacity. 62 C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 Consequently, one might say that the disappointment or achievement of instructing and learning is significantly dictated by the proper utilization of pragmatics elements, such as implicatures (Oller, 1979). Pragmatics concerns on the use of implicatures in which they are applied in-bound with maxims of conversations. Yule (1996) refers to implicature as ‘unfolded meaning’ which needs to be folded to make the conversations clear and understandable for both parties of interlocutors. There are two types of implicatures (Grice, 1983): conventional implicatures and conversational implicatures. The first one is implicature that is not bound to a certain context. It becomes implied for the addition of some words such as ‘yet’, ‘and’, ‘but’, and ‘therefore’. Meanwhile, conversational implicatures are the ones strongly determined by contexts. Hence, the influence of maxims is also significant in this second type (Mey, 2009). However, this study focused on the second type of implicature. One of the greatest challenges for teachers or lecturers in using strategies in classroom conversations is that they tend to see themselves as more superior and have power over their students. This reflectively appears in their word choice of speech acts and the implicatures that they amplify. There is an increasing concern that students are at the disadvantageous side as they will agree to everything their teacher say instead of truly comprehend the his/her explanation; and without even knowing what they are agreeing with. Thus, it is essential for educational practitioners—including teachers and lecturers—that this study presents an insight on how their implicature of conversation can show the meaning of their explanation. They can be more insightful in using these implicatures in capturing the students’ attention during the classroom process so that the materials can be understood at better level of absorptions. Besides, this study also benefits for the theoretical area of pragmatics, especially within conversation analysis (CA) as since CA in pedagogy has long been a question of great interest in a wide range of pragmatic fields. Previous research has established some facts on the use of implicatures in conversations. A study by Christina & Afriana (2021) aimed at analyzing the function of conversational implicature in an American TV show named F.R.I.E.N.D.S. This study employed the Gricean conversational implicature theory identify the utterance and the speech acts to categorize the function. This qualitative research used interview as the instrument in C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 63 data collection process. And the results show that the directive speech acts and implicature were majorly used in the TV show. Later on, it is a study by Amrullah (2015) found out some facts. Conversational implicature is viewed as a significant issue and the most essential viewpoint in pragmatics studies. It happens on the grounds that the presence of implicature is really expected to associate the communication and the language realities which are not covered by the hypotheses of primary linguistic items. Besides, a sign of the success in a discussion is the capacity to get a handle on and comprehend the ramifications of the expressions involved. The presence of various sorts of implicature shows how unpredictable and complex an expression is. To comprehend conversational implicature, it is expected that one needs to encounter the information about certain circumstances in where the discourse acts take place. Consequently, one might say that implicature can be effortlessly perceived assuming the speakers have shared encounters and information in the communication. However, previous published studies are limited to local surveys without including any issues in language teaching nor involving any of Acehnese areas. Hence, further studies are still needed. Much uncertainty still exists about the relationship between the studies conducted in pedagogical pragmatics and their classroom application. Hence, this study offers the point of view from classroom utterances—specified toward teachers talk—to see how pragmatic implicature is engaged in the context of learning and teaching. The central thesis of the current manuscript is that to find out what types of implicature that are mostly reflected in the lectures based on Grice’s Conversational Implicature Theory and their function(s) in the lecturer/teacher talks. B. CLASSROOM PRAGMATICS 1. Pragmatics and Its Branches Experts have covered quite a large range of the definition of pragmatics but the core of this discipline is always the same: context. Mey (2009) characterizes that pragmatics is about significance between meaning and contexts in the use of language. Essentially, when a person conveys a meaning in a language, she/he would normally say more than what is just presented verbally. This is because there is frequently a crack between speakers’ intention and sentence meaning. Mey (2001) adds that pragmatics concentrates on the language utilization human 64 C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 correspondence as controlled by the states of the surroundings. Yule (1996) views pragmatics as the investigation of the connection between semantic structure and the users of those structures. The benefit of concentrating on pragmatic is that one can portray in-depth discussions regarding the importance, suspicions, motivations or objectives of the interlocutors as well as the sorts of actions that they are performing when they talk. It has been understood that pragmatics research is commonly associated to another linguistics field called semantics. This is because both pragmatics and semantics search on how to build meanings in written and spoken texts from the whole perspectives, top to bottom clarification (Capone, 2005). Semantics is a linguistics branch studying about the meaning of a text when it is relate to its syntactic rules employed by the writer or the speaker and is related with the listeners or the readers (Yule, 1996). Semantics make associations with the verbal and the non-verbal thoughts that are developed in the oral or written discourse (Yule, 1996). As further supported by Nadar (2009), pragmatics is basically a linguistics branch which centers on language utilization in some certain situation or circumstance. It is the investigation of what speakers try to encode or aim (Yule, 1996). Essentially, it does not just see the wordchoice enunciated by the interlocutor, yet additionally attempts to comprehend the speaker’s importance in his/her appearances. Pragmatics is not just related with who we are as people, it additionally manages how we manage the language use to get one of the various intentions that assist us with conveying our goal to the external world so we can grasp and conceivably affect others (Chapman, 2011). There are several branches covered under the umbrella of pragmatics, they are presupposition, implicature, deixis, cooperative principles, and speech acts. The elaboration is as shown in the following. DEIXIS is about how language features match the situation during the conversation is taking place between the interlocutors; this also include the was the interlocutor express the word-choice (Levinson, 1983). Additionally, Yule (1996) further classifies deixis into three categories: Person Deixis such as ‘I’ ‘you’, ‘we’, etc; Spatial Deixis such as here, there, this, and that; and Temporal Deixis such as later, soon, now, etc. C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 65 COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLES concerns with the use of maxims in conversations. Maxims are connectors between the speaker and the hearer. There four types of maxims, they are maxim of quality (to say true information), maxim of quantity (to say important information), maxim of relation (to say relevant information), and maxim of manner (to say brief and unambigous information). IMPLICATURE, which is defined by Grice (1975) as whatever the speaker can infer, recommend, or mean which is seen to be distinct from the meaning that is literally uttered by the speaker. Hence, to comprehend a speaker’s intention, the listener ought to have the figure out the meaning as occasionally understood by the speaker (Horn & Ward, 2006). The speaker might convey the message both in an implicit and explicit manner. It is known two types o implicature, they are conventional implicature and conversational implicature. The latter type is classified again into generalized and particularized conversational implicatures which are currently being the interest of this study. PRESUPPOSITION is described as a pre-condition that is assumed by the interlocutor to be the reason of the upcoming events or utterances. This is the relationship between two propositions or more (Yule, 1993). The purpose of presupposition is to clarify the logical meaning of a sentence or expression. SPEECH ACTS, which are reflected in sentences being uttered because sentences are not only to describe or report information but also depict actions in it (Austin, 1962). Speech acts is related to the utterances that performing some action, the function is not only to say or reporting something. Moreover, Searle, Kiefer, & Bierwisch (1980) define speech acts as something which are not only words but also have the performance in it. Therefore, speech acts is also seen as the words being acted out by the interlocutors. It can be concluded that people not only speak the utterances without meaning which is being influenced by the context of situation. In majority, there are three general speech acts, they are locutionary (the message’s viewpoints), illocutionary (the speaker’s viewpoints), and perlocutionary (the hearer’s viewpoints) (Cutting, 2002). 2. Implicatures In daily discussion, individuals do not generally obey the Gricean maxims. At times, their expression implies something beyond what is being said; henceforth, there is an additional meaning which is named 66 C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 an implicature (Yule, 1996). Essentially, Mey (2001) states that the word ‘implicature’ comes from the action word ‘to infer’ which signifies to overlap one thing into another different thing; subsequently, that which is suggested, is ‘collapsed in’, and must be ‘unfurled’ to be perceived. In other word, individuals might convey something fairly not the same as what they are in a real sense expression. Hence, there is something which is unsaid in an uncertain way in a real language usage. Implied meanings are always adhered to the contexts and shared universe together. Grice (1975) categorized implicature into two types, they are conventional implicature and conversational implicature. Furthermore, Yule (1996) defines conventional implicatures as the implicit meanings which are not following the principles of communicative maxims so that they are not dependent to context. it is usually determined by the word ‘yet’, ‘therefore’, etc. On the contrary, conventional implicatures, conversational implicatures are always bound with the context. They should happen in discussion and obey the maxims of cooperative principle. Conversational implicatures happen when the hearer very well understands the intentions delivered by the counter-interlocutor. Mey (2009) adds that a conversational implicature is something which is left implicit in utterances during the conversations. It is important to remeber that it is speakers who need convey meaning through implicatures and it is audience members who perceive those imparted implications by means of derivation. There two types of this implicature they are generalized conversational implicatures and particularized conversational implicatures. The first one takes place as the hearer can easily understand the speaker’s intention without having to understand the context. For example: Jake : Did you buy the ice cream and the milk? Jill : I bought the ice cream. (Nurani, 2015, p.14) After catching up Jill’s reaction, Jake needs to accept that Jill is answering his question and not absolutely ignorant about the importance of her answer. Jill anticipates that Jake would comprehend her answer by not referencing ‘the milk’; however, he will recognize that she just purchased ‘ice cream’ without milk. For this situation, Jill hence imparted her meaning by means of generalized types of conversational implicature. C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 67 Unlike generalized implicatures, particularized implicature requires the listener to have exceptional or background information to decipher the messages (Yule, 1996). This happens because conversations usually take place in a really specific depth and setting. For instance: Jake: Hey, will you come to the party tonight? Matt: Sorry, I have to study (Nurani, 2015, p.15) For this situation, it appears to be that Matt’s anwer is not relevant with the question. In this way, Jake needs to utilize some background information to make Matt’s reaction pertinent with the goal so that he can get the Matt’s meaning. In case Jake perceives what Matt said, he can comprehend that Matt will not join the party since Matt needs to study. To this end, it is understood that this type of implicature is more likely to be called implicature for its implicity. 3. Teacher Talks The way that teacher talks influences the L2 students’ language acquisition is affirmed by numerous experts. Cook (2000) expressed that the effects of teacher talk impact most of reaching the excess of 70% from the entire classroom talk. He additionally announces that the teacher will quite often accomplish more talk during the teaching process compared to when the teacher is not teaching. In case the teacher comes up strictly with the lesson plan direction, the students would not have opportunity to talk in the class anymore. In this current circumstance, the students have less opportunity to further develop their language competence. it is suggested that the teacher diminish the use of their talk in order to provide more chances for students to speak and express themselves in classroom (Cullen, 2002 Harmer, 2007). Teachers are aware that an important yet indistinguishable part during the classroom is the employment of teacher talks. As a matter of fact, as the teacher talks, it can show the changes as well as the progressions that are being learned by the students (Chaudron, 1988). As the engagement of teacher’s talk can boost students’ language acquision, usually teacher only gives slow responses to students. And as the students make mistakes, they will be sent to work on the mistakes on their own, without the teacher’s assistance. Then, the utilizing of specific terminologies is critical. Teachers are suggested to pick a more straightforward jargon for young learners. Afterward, the teacher should keep the speed and not to talk rapidly during 68 C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 their teacher talks. Then, the articulation just as the explanatory should be clear. Lastly, the teachers can utilize more redundancy to cause their students to get their information precisely. Teacher talks play fundamental parts in teaching and learning process. Teacher talk exceptionally affects the classroom interaction that happens among students. Yanfen and Yuqin (2010) signify that proper teacher talks could make positive environment in the classroom and make cordial connection among the teacher and students. Teacher talk is additionally accepted to have the option to offer more chance for the two parties to associate—in this case, they are teacher and students. They add that there are numerous interactive strategies and techniques show up in teacher talks to generate more interactions with the students including repetition, prompting, prodding, and expansions. Teachers deploy the variety of the vocabulary and words to determine the issue in the classroom. Moreover, talk additionally alters although it is not arranged by classroom teachers. It is significant for language teachers to be more aware about their teacher talks as the students always take them as models to be acquired. In addition, easier language is easier to be understood. The perplexing construction sentence does not immensely affect L2 as asserted by Nunan (1991) with respect to the students’ language learning. C. PROCEDURES This research is considered as qualitative design because the results of this study re expressed composed forms without any counting and mathematical analysis. Moleong (2013) states that qualitative method is used in research procedures to describe and clarify information about individuals or behaviour being noticed. Qualitative design is a research design strategy that does not involve mathematical measurements (Hennink, Hutter, and Bailey, 2011). The purpose for qualitative research is to comprehend something/someone explicitly, not continually searching for the circumstances and logical results of something and to collect perception about something that is being studied (Moleong, 2013). Concerning to the research subject, the subject of this study is the 180-minute lectures on Listening Course that was recorded on April 20th, 2021 via ZOOM recordings. Meanwhile the object of this study is all the utterances that are produced by the lecturer. The kind of data in this study C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 69 is qualitative data, which are all of the utterances produced by the lecturer the 180-minute lectures on Listening Course that was recorded on April 20th, 2021 via ZOOM recordings; and the source of the data were the the 180-minute lectures on Listening Course that was recorded on April 20th, 2021 via ZOOM recordings. As stated by Wilkinson and Birmingham (2003), it is always essential for research to have an instrument. A research instrument is a determining tool with whihc te researcher gather the data necessary for the research inquiry. In this current research, the researchers analyzed the lesson script as the documents by using table based on theoretical framework as the instrument of research. The instrument is supposed to be filled with the two types of implicature as proposed by Grice (1975) rooted from Conversational Implicature Theory, which are generalized implicatures and particularized implicatures. Regarding the technique of data collection, the data were collected according to the following steps. First, the step was listening to the lesson repetitively and carefully. Second, the script were encoded and written down. Third, the data related to the study in concern to the implicature were identified. Fourth, the data related to the study in concern to the implicature were classified. Fifth, the data related to the study in concern to the implicature were extracted and tabulated. Last, the data were progressed toward data analysis to be finally verified and concluded. Later, the data analysis was conducted using thematic coding analysis. In coding analysis, five steps are necessary to be conducted, they are 1) separating the information, 2) rechecking the information, 3) giving codes to each datum, 4) tabulating the information into its category accordingly, and 5) drawing conclusion from the data tabulation (Wertz, et al., 2011). D. STANDARD CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURES Preceded to the research question, this study sought the answer(s) toward the question: What are the types of implicature that are mostly reflected in the lectures based on Grice’s Conversational Implicature Theory and their function(s) in the lecturer/teacher talks? Before proceeding into the data analysis, the lesson scripts were perused repeatedly to identify the data and classify them into the suitable category, whether into Generalized 70 C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 Conversational Implicature or Particularized Conversational Implicature. There are 96 tokens in total. The results found from the data analysis are as displayed below. Figure 1. Implicature on Teacher Talks Source: Data Analysis (2021) From the chart above, it can be seen that the majority of conversational implicature used during the lectures in Listening Course was Particularized Conversational Implicature (87%). The prepondering reason on this is the specified context being discussed in the lectures. The first lecture discussed about the use of Wish and Conditions in Listening Section, and the other lecture was about Identifying Who and Where in Listening Section. Needless to say, students who wish to engage in a certain classroom should be connected to the issues being discussed in that class. That is why classes should have topic to specify the context of the day. In the following are some tokens (appeared in excerpts) from the data related to Particularized Conversational Implicature. The datum code assembles L for lecture and is followed by the number of datum order. Hence, L1-1 means datum from Lecture 1, number 1. Excerpt 1: Datum L1-16 “Jadi, ini yang untuk waktu sekarang, present time, at the moment of speaking...” ‘So, this is for the present time, present time, at the moment of speaking...’ C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 71 The excerpt above shows that the lecture was trying to make conclusion about the use of time in the structure of Wish. She used the word ini ‘this’ to imply to her previous sentence about the structure. Practically, this is absolutely irrelevant for those who are out of the class, even worse, the explanation cannot make any sense without any embedded background knowledge. From this portrayal, it is important for the teachers/lecturers to start at the time when all students are already present in the class; or set such timing to discipline the students in starting lessons. Otherwise, some who are late would likely need longer time to synchronize with the explanations or even lose tracks during the explanation. Consequently, the lecturer used this implicature to enhance the meaning and significance of her material explanation. This is as supported by Mey (2001) that all implied meanings taking place in daily conversation are enhanced by contexts and shared universe in a collateral manner. Another example is as shown in the following excerpt: Excerpt 2: Datum L1-22 “Kan dia ada tenses yang harus digunakan. Setiap kalimat gitu”. ‘(you know that the fact is that) there are tenses that should be used. Every sentence should be like that’. Similar to the previous excerpt, this one also presents the particularized context where the hearers should have acknowledged the prior points from the speaker in order to understand and synchronize the explanation. In this context, the lecturer was trying to highlight that there are tense in every sentence in English language, no matter what the sub-structure is. The function of this implicature is to provide referents on the term tenses. The last example of particularized implicature is as below: Excerpt 3: Datum L2-67 “Kalau ada kalimat begitu, berarti kan dia ga punya itu.” ‘if there is a sentence like that, it means that he/she does not have it’. The context of the excerpt above is where the lecturer explained about a sentence that is being read on the screen-sharing mode. The sentence was I wish I had a helicopter. The lecturer did read this sentence to bridge her explanation; then she only marked the sentence using cursor without rereading it and use the spatial implicature begitu ‘like that’ and itu ‘that’. What is unexpected in this study is the portrayal of this type of context. Using whiteboard, slideshow projections, and even the newcomer screen-sharing in this pandemic era are considered innate to teaching and 72 C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 learning process. Materials are exposed in such platforms so that students can easily detect what point is being discussed. This teaching media actually help students in traversing the lecturer’s or teacher’s implicatures when they are not keeping up the pace. Identical to the former excerpt, the function if this implicature is also for information enhancement. This is in line with Amrullah’s (2015) finding stating that the use of instruments make imlpicatures easily grasped and understood by the hearer(s). By having no semantic connection between the discourse and something that is being implied, it tends to be accepted that a discourse will be deciphered by different implicatures. When it is wrongly assumed, speaker can commit errors in catching implicature conveyed to him/her. The other type of conversational implicature is the generalized one. The graph shows that the usage of this type is only 13% from the whole teacher talks. In the following are some tokens (appeared in excerpts) from the data related to Generalized Conversational Implicature. The excerpts are as shown in the following. Excerpt 4: Datum L1-7 “Ms maunya kita dipantai tapi faktanya tidak. Yang mau ms tekankan adalah ms maunya gitu”. ‘I wish we were at the beach but the fact (is that) we are not. What I want to emphasize is that (is what I want)’. Excerpt 5: Datum L2-83 “Seperti yang tadi”. ‘As it was just now’. This sentence is categorized into generalized conversational implicature because the students could easily understand what the lecturer said. She used the referent (I wish we were at the beach but the fact (is that) we are not) quite close to the implicature agent ‘that’. In other word, she provided the context in a narrow ripple so that her students did not meet the chance to wander. As we can see, this implicature is basically not necessary as she used it to enhance her explanation about the previous sentence. However, she chose to restate it in order to give more influential effect on the students. It is essential to choose different words for different context and audience. Lavenda and Schultz (2007) states that speakers generally need to choose and select carefully the words and lexicons that best suit the topics in order to fit the audiences. The more suitable the C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 73 word choice, the more influencing the speakers will be. Similarly, Excerpt 5 is also categorized into generalized implicature because the students can decode the idea that had been previously delivered. These results are considered significance for practical and theoretical implications. Practically, the results show that standard implicatures used in classroom context is particularized conversational implicature. This fact demands students to be present in class on time so that they would not miss any key explanations from their teachers. The implication goes direct to teachers’ ability in governing students’ time and discipline. Later, the use of learning media is also vital in clarifying the implicatures used by teachers in classroom contexts. As mentioned earlier, besides providing vivid visual model, media help students in synchronizing with the teachers’ explanation and even to catch up the pace. Theoretically, the results have unveiled that teacher talks strongly relate with the idea of disciplining students and teaching media. With the expansive advancement in the use of technology in teaching, theorists can either search for some more handy procedures for students to catch up with the teachers’ explanation in case they are not ready to attend class on time or to construct more elaborate ideas on the advantages of teacher talks’ implicatures. However, the corpus number involved in this research appears as the limitation of this study. The data source is very limited, which is only 180 minutes for two meetings in Listening Course. More findings can be assessed when longer lectures employed by more than one lecturers or teachers are used as the data sources. It roots towards the recommendation for future researchers in related area that more expanded corpus needs to be investigated from various levels of educations. E. CONCLUSION From the result and discussion that have been portrayed, it can be concluded the standard implicature used in classroom contexts is Particularized Conversational Implicature, while the functions of the implicature usage are to enhance the explanation and to provide referents to the idea being explained. 74 C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 GLOSSARY C Classroom setting is a place where teaching and learning takes place and pegagogical talks are employed. D Data token is a piece of datum that has been coded in the data analysis process. G Generalized Conversational Implicature is hidden meanings that are not bound with context. Gricean maxim is four major maxims used bu interlocutor during conversations. I Implicature is hidden meaning of orally expressed words conveyed by the interlocutors. Interlocutor is a term for person(s) who are getting involved in a conversation. P Particularized Conversational Implicature is hidden meanings that are bound with context. Pragmatics is an analysis of language use regarding the context involved. Pedagogical communication is communication mode employed in classroom settings. S Spoken discourse is the term used for any ideas stated orally in the interactions. T Teacher talk is teacher’s sppoken discourse employed in the classroom setting under teaching circumstances. C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 75 REFERENCES Amrullah, L., 2015. Implicature in the Study of Pragmatics. Lingua Scientia 7(1), pp. 57-63. Austin, J. L., 1962. How to Do Things with Words. London: Oxford University Press. Capone, A., 2005. Pragmemes (A Study With Reference to English and Italian). Journal of Pragmatics 37, pp. 1355-1371. Chapman, S., 2011. Pragmatics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Christina, V., & Afriana., 2021. The Functions of Conversational Implicature in TV Show “F.R.I.E.N.D.S”: Pragmatics approach. Journal BASIS 8(1), pp. 76-84. Cook, V., 2000. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. 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Pragmatik & penelitian pragmatik [Pragmatics and Research in Pragmatics]. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu. Nunan, D., 1991. Language Teaching Methodology: a textbook for Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nurani, N. P., 2015. A pragmatic analysis of classroom speech acts in the 76 C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 English teaching and learning process at SMA N 1 Purworejo (A case study). Yogyakarta State University, unpublished. Oller, J. W, Jr., 1979. Language Tests at School: A Pragmatic Approach. London: Longman. Searle, J. R., Kiefer, F., & Bierwisch, M., 1980. Speech Act Theory and Pragmatics. London: D. Reidel Publishing Company. Usó-Juan, E., & Martínez-Flor, A., 2020. Teacher Pragmatic Awareness in English As An International Language. Oxfordhsire: Taylor and Francis. Wertz, F. J., Charmaz, K., McMullen, L. M., Josselson, R., Anderson, R., and McSpadden, E., 2011. Five Ways of Doing Qualitative Analysis: Phenomenological Psychology, Grounded Theory, Discourse Analysis, Narrative Research, and Intuitive Inquiry. New York: The Guilford Press. Wilkinson, D., and Birmingham, P., 2003. Using Research Instrument: A Guide for Researchers. New York: Routledge. Yanfen, L., and Yuqin, Z., 2010. A study of teacher talk in interactions in English classes. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics 33(2), pp. 76-86. Yule, G., 1996. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. BIOGRAPHY Nyak Mutia Ismail is an English education lecturer at Universitas Serambi Mekkah, Aceh, Indonesia. Besides, she is also lecturing General English as well as a TOEFL at Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh, Indonesia. She bears educational strata in English Language Education from Syiah Kuala Unversity, both for undergraduate and master level. Her research focused on English Language Learning, Cognitive in Learning, English teaching and pedagogy, educational assessment, and applied linguistics. All of her research articles have been published on national and international reputable journals, scopus-indexed, and national accredited journal. Moreover, she has been actively participated in International Conference as speaker and moderator. In addition, she is one of the editors of SiELE journal (Syiah Kuala University), JETLi Journal (Iskandarmuda University), and ELASTE journal (Serambi Mekkah Unviersity). C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 77 Moriyanti was born in Lhokseumawe, November 10, 1990. Undergraduate education (S1) was taken at English Education Study Program at IAIN Ar-Raniry Banda Aceh in 2008. Then, she continued her Master’s Degree in 2013 at the English Education Study Program, Syiah Kuala University, Banda Aceh. Currently, she is English teacher at SMPN 2 Muara Tiga, Pidie, Aceh. In addition, the author is active as English lecturer at the campus in Banda Aceh. Scientific articles have been published in local, national and international journals. Moreover, she is enthusiastic as a keynote speaker in the international conference event. Sepri Kurniadi was born in Tapaktuan, South Aceh, Aceh, Indonesia, in 24th September 1986. He finished his formal education in Tapaktuan, which then he continued his undergraduated program at English Language Education from the University of Serambi Mekkah, Banda Aceh, Indonesia, and in 2010 received the S.Pd degree, afterward he raised the M.Pd degree from the Syiah Kuala University Banda Aceh, Indonesia, in 2017. Then in 2019, he joined the Informatics Engineering study program of Polytechnic Aceh Selatan, as an English Lecturer. Now, teaching, conducting research and community service are his main duties as a lecture. His main area of research interest is English Language Education. 78 C O M M U N I C A T I O N T O D AY VOLUME 1 Published by: ISBN 978-623-264-520-2 (PDF Vol.1)