Sniegon, T. (2014). Vanished History: The Holocaust in Czech and Slovak Historical Culture. Making Sense of History, 18. Berghahn Books: Oxford & New York.

K Vanished History L MAKING SENSE OF HISTORY Studies in Historical Cultures General Editor: Stefan Berger Founding Editor: Jörn Rüsen Bridging the gap between historical theory and the study of historical memory, this series crosses the boundaries between both academic disciplines and cultural, social, political and historical contexts. In an age of rapid globalisation, which tends to manifest itself on an economic and political level, locating the cultural practices involved in generating its underlying historical sense is an increasingly urgent task. Volume 1 Volume 10 Western Historical Thinking: An Intercultural Debate Time and History:The Variety of Cultures Edited by Jörn Rüsen Volume 2 Identities:Time, Diference, and Boundaries Edited by Heidrun Friese Volume 3 Narration, Identity, and Historical Consciousness Edited by Jürgen Straub Volume 4 Thinking Utopia: Steps into Other Worlds Edited by Jörn Rüsen, Michael Fehr, and Thomas W. Rieger Volume 5 History: Narration, Interpretation, Orientation Jörn Rüsen Volume 6 The Dynamics of German Industry: Germany’s Path toward the New Economy and the American Challenge Werner Abelshauser Volume 7 Meaning and Representation in History Edited by Jörn Rüsen Volume 8 Remapping Knowledge: Intercultural Studies for a Global Age Mihai Spariosu Volume 9 Cultures of Technology and the Quest for Innovation Edited by Helga Nowotny Edited by Jörn Rüsen Volume 11 Narrating the Nation: Representations in History, Media and the Arts Edited by Stefan Berger, Linas Eriksonas, and Andrew Mycock Volume 12 Historical Memory in Africa: Dealing with the Past, Reaching for the Future in an Intercultural Context Edited by Mamadou Diawara, Bernard Lategan, and Jörn Rüsen Volume 13 New Dangerous Liaisons: Discourses on Europe and Love in the Twentieth Century Edited by Luisa Passerini, Lilianna Ellena, and Alexander C. T. Geppert Volume 14 Dark Traces of the Past: Psychoanalysis and Historical Thinking Edited by Jürgen Straub and Jörn Rüsen Volume 15 A Lover’s Quarrel with the Past: Romance, Representation, Reading Ranjan Ghosh Volume 16 The Holocaust and Historical Methodology Edited by Dan Stone Volume 17 What is History For? Johann Gustav Droysen and the Functions of Historiography Arthur Alfaix Assis Volume 18 Vanished History:The Holocaust in Czech and Slovak Historical Culture Tomas Sniegon VANISHED HISTORY The Holocaust in Czech and Slovak Historical Culture Tomas Sniegon berghahn NEW YORK • OXFORD www.berghahnbooks.com First published in 2014 by Berghahn Books www.berghahnbooks.com ©2014 Tomas Sniegon All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sniegon, Tomas, author. Vanished history: the Holocaust in Czech and Slovak historical culture / Tomas Sniegon. pages cm. -- (Making sense of history; v. 18) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-78238-294-2 (hardback: alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-1-78238295-9 (ebook) 1. Jews--Czech Republic--History. 2. Holocaust, Jewish (1939-1945)--Czech Republic--Inluence. 3. Jews--Slovakia--History. 4. Holocaust, Jewish (1939-1945)--Slovakia--Inluence. 5. Jews-Czechoslovakia--History. 6. Holocaust, Jewish (1939-1945)--Czechoslovakia-Inluence. 7. Czech Republic--Ethnic relations. 8. Slovakia--Ethnic relations. 9. Czechoslovakia--Ethnic relations. I. Title. DS135.C95S57 2014 940.53’18094371--dc23 2013044572 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Printed on acid-free paper. ISBN: 978-1-78238-294-2 (hardback) ISBN: 978-1-78238-295-9 (ebook) Contents List of Illustrations viii Introduction Czechoslovak history’s velvet awakening From Cold War to peace, from Hiroshima to Auschwitz The tragedy of the Czech and Slovak Jews The organisation of this study Theoretical and conceptual starting points Historical narrative The use of history The Holocaust’s Americanisation and Europeanisation The Holocaust, historical cultures and research 1 1 3 4 6 7 9 10 13 18 Chapter 1. Czech and Slovak historical narratives The Jewish narrative and Theresienstadt The main plots of the primary narratives Narrators – bearers of historical culture The diaspora and the communists 27 33 39 44 46 Chapter 2. The Holocaust in Czechoslovak historical culture before 1989 Between the Slánský trial and individualisation on the cinema screen The period of bad conscience Stalinist communism, anti-Semitism and the Holocaust The literature of individualisation Films of the new wave The communist normalisation 56 56 57 60 63 65 69 vi Vanished History Chapter 3. The Holocaust’s uneven return Czechoslovakia towards dissolution, 1990–1992 Slovakia: the Holocaust as an irritant to nationalism Anti-Semitic stereotypes Mild nationalism and its silent sympathisers The insuicient opposition The Czech Republic: their Holocaust is not ours Concluding remarks 73 73 75 81 84 89 93 101 Chapter 4. Schindler’s List arrives in Schindler’s homeland Oskar Schindler as a problem of Czech historical culture Oskar Schindler created by Steven Spielberg Schindler’s identity according to Thomas Keneally Earlier returns to Czechoslovakia The non-compromisers: ‘Drive Schindler out!’ Schindler’s shadow over the Czech parliament Invisible Schindler stories – fear, doubt and compromise Schindler? Allow him in! No challenge to ‘the real Czech trauma’ 107 107 110 111 113 115 118 121 127 130 Chapter 5. Pig farm as a Porrajmos remembrance site The Holocaust of the Roma as a new challenge for Czech historical culture Holocaust, Porrajmos, Shoah The Porrajmos and Roma in the Czech context Lety, Polansky and the Americanisation of the Porrajmos A part of the globe that has been stolen – the moral use of history From the defence of Roma identity to that of Czech identity – the scientiic use of history ‘Don’t forget us’ – the existential use of history For Roma or without Roma? The ideological use and non-use of history Czech continuity 134 Chapter 6. The Slovak war history goes to Europe The Holocaust in the Slovak national-European narrative The uprising The museum as a historical-cultural object The history of the museum before 1989 The period of great uncertainty and the Holocaust The search for a new meaning The Europeanised resistance, the doubtful Holocaust 134 135 137 138 141 147 152 157 161 166 166 168 169 171 173 178 186 Contents Auschwitz-Birkenau as a diferent Slovak Holocaust Europeanisation at the cost of the Holocaust vii 192 195 Chapter 7. The Holocaust – lacking historical cultures in Slovakia and the Czech Republic The ‘Jew-free’ Czech victim role The ‘Jew-free’ Slovak heroisation Cultural Europeanisation as a determining factor 201 202 205 207 Conclusion 211 Bibliography 219 Index 233 Illustrations Figure 1 Figures 2 and 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 The suitcase of the Czech Jewish woman prisoner x Zdena Fantlová exhibited at the Museum in Auschwitz. Fantlová was deported to Auschwitz with her entire family but was the only one who survived the Holocaust. After the victory of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia she emigrated irst to Australia in 1949 and later to the United Kingdom. The Shop on Main Street was the irst Czechoslovak 68 ilm and the irst ilm about the Holocaust ever awarded an Oscar, in 1966. This picture shows the main ‘hero’, the carpenter Tono Brtko (Jozef Króner), when he – while drunk – parodies ‘The Führer’. Two Slovaks on their way from Jozef Tiso’s grave 76 in Bratislava where they took part in a ceremony glorifying the ‘founder of the irst Slovak nation state’. Their idol Tiso was the President and ‘Führer’ of that state. The memorial of those Czech Jews who were 95 murdered during the Holocaust. The names of more than 70,000 victims are written on the walls of the Pinkas synagogue in Prague. A memorial dedicated to Oskar Schindler in his 109 hometown Svitavy, in German Zwittau. The house where Schindler was born in 1908 is seen here as well. However, a memorial plaque to honour Schindler could not be placed directly on the house since the owner in 1994 refused to accept it due to Schindler’s ethnic origin and Nazi past. Illustrations Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Oskar Schindler and ‘his’ workers in the factory in Cracow. Oskar Schindler and his family members in Svitavy, Czechoslovakia, before the Second World War. Oskar Schindler with his sister Elfriede and mother Franzisca in his hometown of Svitavy, Zwittau. The photo is from 1916, two years before Zwittau became included into the new-born Czechoslovak Republic. Oskar Schindler and his wife Emilia. A cruciied Romani man as a symbol of the victims of the Porrajmos, the Holocaust of the Roma in the Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia. This memorial plaque is placed inside a small cemetery in Černovice near the former Porrajmos camp Hodonín u Kunštátu. Lety u Písku, ‘AGPI Písek-production of pork meat’. In the same place, a concentration camp for Gypsies from the Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia was located during the Second World War. The Museum of the Slovak National Uprising in Banská Bystrica, Slovakia. The building consisting of two parts connected by a bridge was built in the 1960s. The statue, ‘Victims Warn’, made by the sculptor Jozef Jankovič, is situated at the entrance to the museum. It was removed in the early 1970s during the era of the communist ‘normalisation’ but returned in 2004. The message, stressing the sufering of anonymous victims, did not correspond with the goals of the communist propaganda wanting to emphasise the heroic resistance of the communist and partisan ighters.Introduction ix 111 113 115 128 139 155 171 184 Figure 1 The suitcase of the Czech Jewish woman prisoner Zdena Fantlová exhibited at the Museum in Auschwitz. Fantlová was deported to Auschwitz with her entire family but was the only one who survived the Holocaust. After the victory of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia she emigrated irst to Australia in 1949 and later to the United Kingdom. Photo: Tomas Sniegon Introduction Czechoslovak history’s velvet awakening This book is an analysis of the Holocaust’s position in Czech and Slovak historical culture during ‘the long 1990s’, a period which commenced with the radical political changes in Europe of 1989 and developed towards the Czech Republic’s and Slovakia’s entry into the European Union in 2004. In a broader perspective the book concerns the role of history during the two societies’ development from dictatorship to democracy, when both were forced to redeine themselves both internally and in relation to the wider world. It deals with questions surrounding values and expectations that were relected at a national Slovak and Czech level, and their relation to, primarily, a supranational, European historical culture that was being created in parallel. It is precisely this European historical culture and its relation to certain selected national historical cultures that has been the focus for the project, The Holocaust and European Historical Culture, within whose frame this work has been written.1 In concrete terms, I focus on the Czech and Slovak manifestations of historical consciousness in relation to the Holocaust or Shoah: the genocide perpetrated by the Nazis against Jews and certain other ethnic/religious groups during the Second World War. This event has not been randomly selected. The Holocaust struck and deeply afected both of the countries that are at the centre of this book. At the same time the genocide against the Jews during the period of this study has attained a broader signiicance in terms of its European and universal symbolic value. Because the Czech Republic and Slovakia have endeavoured to become part of an international context in the post-communist era, it has been an urgent matter for them to deal with their painful history. At the end of the Cold War, the political situation in Central Europe changed dramatically. Until 1989 Czechoslovakia was a communist state, strongly dependent on the Soviet Union. Towards the end of 1989 communist Notes for this section begin on page 23. 2 Vanished History rule was replaced by a newly born democracy during a peaceful process called the ‘Velvet Revolution’. But as early as 1 January 1993 Czechoslovakia split into two independent states: the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Velvet Revolution culminated in a peaceful ‘velvet divorce’, which ended the velvet process and initiated a wholly new period in the development of both countries. Even if the disintegration of the Czechoslovak state was not totally unexpected, many were surprised by the speed of the process. The radical changes afected almost all aspects of life. The old system disappeared after several decades of stagnation. The newly won freedom of the press and other forms of expression, freedom to travel, freedom of commerce and freedom to choose diferent political parties ofered people in Czechoslovakia new possibilities, but at the same time increased competition, social stress and confrontation with the surrounding world. In such an atmosphere, old and established values were challenged and continuously redeined, while new ones were still waiting to be born or developed. Thus the Velvet Revolution was not only a political, ideological and socioeconomic revolution, but a cultural and mental one as well. In this turbulent situation, where hopes of a brighter future were strong, history did not just become a passive remnant. While in 1990 the Slovak historian, Lubomír Lipták, described the fall of communism in Czechoslovakia in November 1989 as a radical change without precedent, as ‘a change that needed neither historical attire nor sweeping slogans’,2 another historian,Vilém Prečan, spoke just a few years later about ‘a surplus of history’.3 History had great and sometimes even decisive signiicance for orientating individuals and collectives in the Czech Republic and Slovakia in the direction of something perceived as a better society and a happier situation in life. Historical consciousness, which every human being develops in order to mentally be able to move between yesterday’s questions, today’s tasks and tomorrow’s promises, therefore came to function as an active and mobilising power in this transformation. Many historical disclosures began to be served as the ‘truth’ that had at last arrived to replace the communists’ ‘lies’ and ‘fallacies’. Suddenly there was not only one, but two, three or even more ‘truths’ that conlicted with each other. They were supported by previously suppressed historical facts and, moreover, often claimed to be ‘scientiically proven’. But which historical arguments was a person to accept as his or her own, and how was that person to ind a standpoint in this argumentation? Which historical events did he or she most want to forget and which, conversely, were to be highlighted? And why? Should the Holocaust belong to the irst or the second category? During the Cold War a relative silence regarding the history of the Holocaust prevailed, particularly in Eastern Europe, where the sufering of the Jews was not allowed to compete with the communists’ sufering and heroism. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Holocaust began to be held up on an increasingly broad front. The British historian, Tony Judt, enthusiastically describes the new attention paid to the Holocaust in Europe as ‘the very deinition and guarantee Introduction 3 of the continent’s restored humanity’.4 The Holocaust has become a phenomenon that now reaches far beyond Europe’s borders; some researchers even talk about the Holocaust as the foundation for a new global or ‘cosmopolitan’ memory, the function of which is to create a basis for the defence of human rights.5 Irrespective of whether one regards these claims as exaggerated or not, it is not possible to ignore that the Holocaust in our particular era has been given emphasis, especially in Western societies, more than any other historical event. How was this emphasis concretely manifested during the intensive transformation of the two Central European states of this study? From Cold War to peace, from Hiroshima to Auschwitz Among the historical events most often noted in Czechoslovakia during the early post- communist development were the most decisive moments from the communist period: the victory of communism in 1948, the terror of the Stalin era until the mid-1950s, and the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact which halted the reform process that became known internationally as the Prague Spring of 1968. Second World War traumas can be added to these.6 Despite the Second World War having ended forty-ive years earlier, it was only following the cessation of the Cold War that it became possible to freely discuss all its aspects. For example, in 1990 the Czechs were able to celebrate for the irst time since 1948 that their part of Czechoslovakia had been liberated not only by the Red Army but also by American troops. Discussions about pre-1945 history became in certain respects even more important than debates about the just-concluded communist epoch, particularly in debates concerning foreign policy and events and processes, such as the reuniication of Germany or European integration. The period up to 1945 represented, namely, a time when Czechoslovakia, far more than later, had contacts with the well-developed democratic countries in the West, which at this stage were seen simultaneously as Czechoslovakia’s new and old allies. This did not, however, mean that the memories were only positive. Thoughts about the Munich Agreement of 1938 and the Western powers’ so-called appeasement politics, which left Czechoslovakia to Hitler, had left a bitter aftertaste for many Czechs and Slovaks. But the memory of the Second World War, the most traumatic event in twentieth-century Europe, was no longer there to serve as a cut of between separate countries and rival ideologies. As the Swedish historian Klas-Göran Karlsson points out, the traumatic war history after the fall of the Berlin Wall has not only been the focus of national historical accounts, it is instead treated in a way which is thought to answer to ‘European’ values.7 The process of reconciliation between old enemies, which at one time was the basis for Western Europe’s integration, was now expanded to the other side of the former Iron Curtain. The memory of 4 Vanished History the Second World War was put to use to avoid violent conlicts in the future, but served also as a building block for the new European identity which as early as 1992 was formally decided in the so-called Maastrich Treaty.8 The political will to overcome old conlicts between East and West was manifest both during the process of reuniting Germany in 1990 and at the celebrations of important, positive junctures in the Second World War, such as the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Allied invasion of Normandy in 1944 and the surrender of the Third Reich in 1945. Despite neither Germany nor Russia being invited to Normandy in 1994, and despite many Western statesmen boycotting the military parade at the celebrations in Moscow in May 1995 as a protest against Russia’s ongoing war in Chechnya, the victory over Nazism was still unanimously presented as a new springboard for Europe’s united future. Now that the immediate threat of a global nuclear war between the world’s dominating military superpowers has disappeared, Hiroshima has lost some of its political-symbolic signiicance. Instead it is the Holocaust that has become the strongest symbol of absolute evil, the lowest point in history. As the Israeli Holocaust historian of Czech-Jewish descent, Yehuda Bauer, observed in 2000 at the opening ceremony of the ‘Stockholm International Forum on the Holocaust’, the Holocaust has become a universal concern and one that, according to him, is politically expressed: ‘Major politicians, wrongly but characteristically, compare Saddam Hussein to Hitler, or the tragedy in Kosovo to the Holocaust’.9 Another proof he submitted for the increasing global signiicance of the Holocaust is an Auschwitz museum now being built near Hiroshima, and the fact that a department for teaching about the Holocaust has been opened at Shanghai University. But did the Holocaust play any role whatsoever in the Czech and Slovak historical debates? Were there strong tendencies towards remembering or, perhaps, an interest in forgetting? Who wanted to remember and who wanted to forget? The tragedy of the Czech and Slovak Jews Before presenting my theoretical points of departure and my analytical tools, I would like to briely discuss the course of the Holocaust in the area which after 1918 had become Czechoslovak territory and which during the Second World War was divided into two parts: the occupied Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia on the one side and the Slovak Republic on the other. The number of Czechoslovak citizens who lost their lives during the Second World War is estimated at 360,000. Even though the old numbers from the early post-war period have been re-examined and partly modiied since 1989, all kinds of evidence show that most of these victims were Jews. According to statistical records about 270,000 Czechoslovak Jews were Introduction 5 murdered, which means that as many as three out of four Czechoslovak victims of Second World War violence were killed in the Holocaust as a result of antiJewish politics.10 Almost 80,000 Jewish victims came from the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, i.e., the area of the Czech Lands with the exclusion of the Sudetenland, the territory annexed by Hitler’s Third Reich after the 1938 Munich Agreement.11 Roughly 70,000 were Jews from Slovakia. The rest of the victims came from territories that were taken away from Slovakia by Hungary shortly after the Munich Agreement: southern and eastern Slovak regions (approx. 42,000 victims) and the poorest eastern province of Ruthenia (approx. 80,000 victims).12 Among the victims of the Nazi genocide were also around 5,500 Czech and 2,000 Slovak gypsies.13 In the Czech territory, i.e., the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, the occupying power, Germany, was responsible alone for ‘the inal solution’. In Slovakia, however, the domestic regime, led by the Catholic priest, Jozef Tiso, organised the forcible measures and deportations with their own forces and in that way took over a great part of the responsibility from Germany. At the end of the war, Tiso’s Slovak regime stood among the losers, side by side with its main ally, Germany, while Bohemia and Moravia were liberated and thus situated on the winning side. Slovakia was never forced into openly dealing with its war history on the international stage. As early as 1945, Slovakia ceased to exist as an international entity and was once again included in Czechoslovakia. The stance of the Allied great powers, in particular that of the USA, was of decisive importance. The USA never recognised Slovakia as an independent state and viewed Czechoslovakia’s exile government in London, with Edvard Beneš at its head, as the country’s sole oicial representative during the war. In December 1941 the USA even ignored the declaration of war by Slovakia.14 The reuniication of the Czech and Slovak parts was part of the Beneš government’s plan to reconstruct the irst Czechoslovak Republic within its pre-war borders and in this way cancel the results of the Munich Agreement with regard to constitutional law. Thus even the trial of Jozef Tiso and his close collaborators in 1947 was seen as an internal Czechoslovak matter rather than part of the international post-war judicial processes.15 At the end of the war Tiso led to German Bavaria, where he was captured by American troops and shortly thereafter handed over to the Czechoslovak authorities. In April 1947 Tiso was sentenced to death in accordance with Czechoslovak law and executed just three days later. The trial was characterised by an intensive political power struggle in Slovakia and the whole of Czechoslovakia. This fact made it easier for those who wanted to interpret the sentence as a communist or Czech revenge against the man who had become the main symbol of the Slovak state.16 Despite the fact that the communists could have had reason to use Tiso ideologically as a frightening example of Nazi collaboration in their historical 6 Vanished History propaganda, they did so only to a limited degree during their time in power. They probably feared that giving too much voice to historical problems would threaten the sensitive relations between Czechs and Slovaks and increase the opposition to communism in Slovakia. Why the same regime that had deined itself as being consistently anti-Nazi and anti-fascist avoided a debate of the Holocaust is something I will discuss in more detail later, as this question is central for this study. The organisation of this study At the core of this study are four concrete examples of history’s position in Czech and Slovak societies where Holocaust history directly or indirectly stands at the centre.These examples are intended to relect diferent attitudes to ‘the inal solution’ and the memory of it among Czechs and Slovaks during the period of transition from communism to democracy. However, the study does not strive to present a complete list of all the cases touching upon the Holocaust in Czech and Slovak development after 1989. Instead, it focuses on those situations where the post-communist constructions of meaning with regard to Czech and Slovak history were confronted with the process of making sense of the Holocaust. Thus, the selected cases, over and above other situations, can be argued to relect the essential features of Czech and Slovak historical cultures in relation to the Holocaust. In the following part, the theoretical, conceptual and analytical starting points will be explained. Thereafter, a survey of the use of Holocaust history in Czechoslovakia between 1945 and 1989 will be presented as an empirical background description. During this period history was irst and foremost decided by the dictates of communist ideology. The subsequent four empirically orientated chapters will, from a main principle of chronology, illuminate the historical-cultural development in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The irst of these chapters will focus on the Czech and Slovak historical debate against the background of Czechoslovakia’s division in 1990–1992. It was at this time that the irst Slovak nation state or, alternatively, the German satellite of the Second World War, was primarily debated.The reason for putting focus on this particular period is that nationalistic sentiments were most strongly expressed during this time, while the old Czechoslovak communist historical narrative was being replaced by new ones. The second empirical chapter is concerned with the Czech reaction to the American ilm, Schindler’s List, perhaps the most well-known and inluential historical-cultural product about the Holocaust. Directed by Steven Spielberg, it portrays a former Czechoslovak citizen, the Sudeten German, Oskar Schindler, paying tribute to his heroic action in saving more than 1,000 Jewish prisoners. Introduction 7 Here the Czech reactions are placed in relation to the Americanisation of the Holocaust. In the third empirical chapter another Czech debate will be analysed: the debate concerning two memorial sites, Lety and Hodonín u Kunštátu, where during the Second World War there were two concentration camps for Roma from the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia who were threatened with extermination. At these sites the Czechs, after the war, constructed a pig farm and a holiday establishment, a fact that during the 1990s drew signiicant attention and protests. As will be shown, the process described as the Europeanisation of the Holocaust meant that the genocide of the Jews and that of the Roma were coupled together without consideration of the diferences between the two operations, a concept whose problems become evident when viewed through the lens of the Czech actions. In the inal empirical chapter the main question is how the Holocaust has been presented in a Slovak museum, which during the communist era was the most prominent museum about the Second World War in Slovakia. The establishment was later converted into the irst museum in the country to also include the history of the Holocaust. It was above all this museum that was given the task of adjusting the memory of the war and the Holocaust to the needs of the new Slovakia: a Slovakia which had introduced a democratic system and strengthened its ties with the European Union and NATO. Thus the complications surrounding the Europeanisation of Slovak history and the Second World War are given particular attention in this chapter. Lastly, a concluding discussion with a summary of my indings will be presented. Theoretical and conceptual starting points The concept of historical consciousness is of fundamental theoretical signiicance for this book. The function of historical consciousness is to orientate people in a low of time by relating the comprehension of their own present situation to, on the one hand, experiences and memories of the past, and on the other hand, expectations and fears in relation to the future. Historical consciousness places all human beings in a context of meaning which is greater than their own clearly deined lives. The concept is meaningful when dealing with individual as well as collective contexts of signiicance, but it is in the latter sense as a mental tool, which to a high degree is determined by collective experiences and memories, and which incorporates us into a collective context, that it will be used in the present work. In practice this collective context has often comprised a national unity, but in our era this is challenged by both regional and transnational unities. As has already been stated, this study highlights a European historical context of meaning that competed with or complemented the Czech and Slovak context. 8 Vanished History It has to be mentioned, however, that the concept of historical consciousness as used here is diferent from the traditional usage of the term historical consciousness in the Czech and Slovak scholarly contexts. Some Czech and Slovak historians, among them, Miroslav Hroch, had used the term (historické vědomí) already during the 1960s, i.e., before the deinition of historical consciousness which was established by Karl-Ernst Jeismann in 1979 and which is used here.17 However, they did not understand the term in the same way as Jeismann did later. According to Hroch, the term relected the level of historical knowledge and common awareness about (especially national) history.18 This interpretation was questioned in 1995 by another Czech historian, Zdeněk Beneš.19 However, it is only now, in very recent years, that the concept of historical consciousness has been approached on a broader bases that is closer to Jeismann’s original deinition.20 Historical consciousness is, to a great extent, connected to diferent social and cultural developments in a society and a state, but it can also be triggered by various political interest groups which have the capacity and will to create meaning from the past, as well as the power and possibility to reach out to large parts of the population with their message. In such situations, historical consciousness can be transformed into an efective weapon in the struggle for political power in a country. Hence, it may be presumed that historical consciousness is most often mobilised in times of rapid change, turbulence and crisis. It is then that our need for and interest in orientating ourselves and creating meaning in time increases. The period of Central European history examined in this book was deinitely such a time. An important aspect of the term historical consciousness is that it helps us to see that history is so much more than a subject of science and teaching. The historical dimension has links to problems concerning existence and identity, moral-judicial decisions, political and ideological questions of contention, and so much more.Those wishing to examine historical consciousness are, however, faced with the problem that the object, as such, cannot be analysed. Analyses can only be directed towards the concrete manifestations of historical consciousness, which will here be described as aspects of a historical culture. At the centre of this culture stands a historical artefact or product, which can consist of a scientiic monograph or history textbook for teaching use, but which may also be a ilm, a monument or a debate relating to a current historical question. Such historical-cultural products will be analysed in the separate empirical chapters to follow. A historical culture has been described as a communicative context, linked to the historical products mentioned.21 These can consequently be analysed in terms of sender/production, intermediary/communication and recipient/ consumption. The following account will not be purely historiographical, i.e., focused on how and under which conditions historical products are depicted, Introduction 9 but will also show how history is communicated in the Czech Republic and Slovakia in political debates, ilm reviews and museum exhibitions. The question of how historical-cultural artefacts are received is diicult to assess. It is in all likelihood partly dependent on the efectiveness of the communicative process, and partly traditions and conceptions regarding historical development, which brings us back to the primary cultural question of which history a society believes to be worth saving, debating, celebrating or forgetting. An adjacent perspective on historical culture has to do with power. The research questions that are related to power and inluence are multiple: Which groups in a society have the power to choose which historical perspectives are promoted or withheld? What role does the state play as a conveyor of history? What importance do domestic actors have in highlighting and mobilising crucial questions, and to what extent is the historical-cultural debate inluenced in a country of international actors, questions and trends? What power functions does history exercise in a society? Historical culture has traditionally been framed in a national manner and has often had a strongly homeland-focused and patriotic stamp. During the communist era it had a special character particularly with regard to modern history, as ‘national values’ were coupled with a class perspective. The national framework was, even so, constantly among the decisive criteria. Books and museum exhibitions have had Czechoslovak, Czech or Slovak history as a focal point. Interpretations of historical phenomena such as war have been built around ‘national’ actors and structures even more than those of domestic political events. Against this background it has seemed reasonable to base this book upon national historical cultures.The term ‘nationalising’ signiies in this context that a historical phenomenon is ‘written into’ a national interpretative context sanctioned by long usage and is adapted to the values seen as characterising it. This does not, however, mean that historical cultures cannot be connected to other categories than the nation and state. Among those that become visible in this book are professional groups, regions and ethnic groups. Above all, as has been mentioned, the national historical-cultural context over the past decades has been challenged by a European-wide interpretative context. In this work, the ‘Europeanisation’ of history will signify the communicative process by which a historical-culturally interesting phenomenon is placed in relation to what is perceived and portrayed as European interpretations and values. Historical narrative One method of analysing historical culture is by positioning the narrative at the centre. This will be further explained later in this introductory chapter. First, it is necessary to present an analytical framework for the narrative concept. 10 Vanished History A narrative is always a story about something.The communicative element is prominent: there is always someone who narrates, and someone who takes in the story. A historical narrative concerns our relationship with the past; it is a presentation of how selected, mutually dependent events follow upon one another in a temporal perspective. The narrative, which has a beginning, a middle section and a conclusion, is bound together by a plot. A plot ties together the story’s diferent stages and therefore contributes to creating context, wholeness and meaning around questions regarding what happened, how it happened and why it happened. A historical narrative emphasises the totality and not the separate event that stands out as important, because it is precisely the plot that decides the choice of events in diferent historical narratives and not the opposite. The same events can, however, be included in diferent historical narratives when they are presented with diferent plots in focus. Notions such as goals and means, actors, intentions and motives become particularly important in a storyline of this kind, while structural, impersonal conditions end up in the background.22 This close link to dimensions such as identity, morality and power illustrates the narrative’s close relation to historical consciousness. In the narrative two extreme positions are often placed against each other to create excitement and conlict, and the story frequently ends with the antagonisms being solved – or culminating. Clearly, not everything we relate can qualify as a narrative in a deeper sense. Nor can all stories be described as having the same historical signiicance. Some are strictly individual and particular, while others are common goods and function in a unifying or separating manner. In historical culture, narratives are constructed, chosen and valued. In a competitive situation, some are seen as useful and important while others are not. In the historical-cultural context we often adapt our interpretation of the past and formulate our stories in connection to already formulated narratives, placing them in the more general themes that characterise them.23 Researchers sometimes use the term grand narratives or master narratives, which are deined as stable conveyors of meaning that ideologically and culturally support and legitimise whole institutions or societies. Attempting to ind these kinds of slow-moving narratives in Czechoslovakia’s changeable history is far from unproblematic. Despite this, I will be focusing on such hegemonic narratives, which fulil the necessary criteria more than all the others. The use of history Every historical culture has a procedural aspect. This concerns questions on how historical consciousness is expressed and how historical culture is created. Introduction 11 Historical culture is a product of individuals and collectives who actively use history. They mobilise and activate their historical consciousness and transform it into concrete texts and actions. Individuals and groups use history to satisfy diferent needs and interests, and to attain diverse goals. As Klas-Göran Karlsson has shown, it is possible when considering these needs and goals, and in addition diferent historical and societal contexts, to distinguish between at least several diferent types of history usage. These include scientiic, existential, moral, ideological and political use, as well as non-use.24 A typology of this kind conlicts with the traditional understanding of our attitude towards history that developed during the professionalisation of the history discipline, namely, that scientiic historians are the only ‘true’ users of history, while all others more or less abuse it. However, as Friedrich Nietzsche demonstrated as early as the end of the 1800s, traditionally understood historical science cannot deal with and satisfy all the historical dimensions concerned with history as a necessity of life.25 Karlsson’s thought is that the typology can be analytically applied to diferent societies and ages to provide knowledge about similarities and diferences in regard to the use of history.The presented uses of history comprise analytical categories or ideal types. Several of the uses can overlap and strengthen each other, which in this book is most clearly shown in the chapter on the Holocaust of the Roma, the Porrajmos. Sometimes a use of history is instead weakened by another. As the borders between these attitudes are not always exactly clear, and as diferent ways of using history can be combined, the typology is not intended to be used in a normative way. However, with its help it is possible to better understand the main actors’ needs and intentions. Existential history usage helps its practitioners to seek answers to questions about existence and identity. It is triggered by a need to remember in order to orientate oneself in a society characterised by uncertainty and crisis, a society in the process of rapid change or under strong pressure. This use is often found in groups struggling against amnesia, unconscious forgetting, and striving for cultural homogenisation. Moral history usage expresses thoughts about questions of right and wrong in history, about good and bad. History becomes a moral-political power in a time when political liberalisation or another radical change makes it possible to bring previously unnoticed or consciously suppressed historical questions into the political-cultural agenda.The main practitioners of this method, often intellectual and cultural elites, are eager for forgotten and previously denied, even banal and trivialised history to be accepted, rehabilitated and reinstated. Their goal can generally be described as settling things, with the functional state power restoring the situation that prevailed before this power’s encroachment on history. Political and ideological history usage arises in connection with questions about power and legitimacy. The political use is metaphoric, analogical, 12 Vanished History instrumental and comparative. The intention here is to invoke historical phenomena to support a current issue and by this means bring about a political debate. Similarities are strongly emphasised to the detriment of diferences, which makes the relationship between then and now both simple and unproblematic. The objects used in such comparisons are not selected randomly; what is important is that they possess strong emotional, moral and political power. The ideological use of history is connected to those systems of ideas that exploit history in order to justify a position of power. Its main practitioners who, like those of the political use of history are political and intellectual elites, invoke ‘historical laws’ and ‘objective needs’ in order to construct a relevant contextual meaning which legitimises a certain power position, and which rationalises it by portraying history in such a way that mistakes and problems on the road to power are toned down, trivialised or ignored. A special form of the ideological use of history is the non-use of history. This refers to the desire not to be ‘disturbed’ by history in situations where it is deemed important to focus on the present and the future. Intentional non-use of history thus does not comprise temporary and unintentional forgetting. Rather, it represents a conscious tendency not to legitimise the existing society with the aid of history or cultural heritage, or parts thereof, but instead to refer to speciic socioeconomic conditions in the present or to a bright future. The historical dimension is deliberately ignored and suppressed. Scientiic history usage has developed around the question of what is true or false in the interpretation of the past. It is based on a professional and theoretical-analytical and methodological system of rules within the scientiic discipline and history as a taught subject. In contrast to the political use of history, the scientiic use consciously distances the historical dimension from present interests and needs. The past is to be studied in itself and unique aspects and diferences, rather than similarities, between historical phenomena are emphasised. This genetic, prospective view generally represents history as a science. A boundary between the scientiic and the ideological use of history is also important, though not always completely clear. In both cases interpretation and the creation of meaning play a central role, and in both cases intellectual groups are the main actors. In Karlsson’s opinion the main diference should be seen in the aims of both uses: while history as a science is normally carried out with the intention of creating new knowledge and thereby contributing to intra-scientiic research development, ideological history is used to convince and to mobilise large groups of people for the great ideological task. Practitioners of scientiic history often place emphasis on parts of the context of historical meaning, whereas ideological practitioners tend to underline the whole.26 Introduction 13 The Holocaust’s Americanisation and Europeanisation It has already been stated that nationalisation and Europeanisation belong to those historical-cultural processes which since 1989 have most inluenced the question of what position the Holocaust is given in the Czech and Slovak historical cultures. However, it must also be noted that the Holocaust’s Americanisation has also inluenced the Holocaust debate, particularly in the Czech case. Both the Americanisation and Europeanisation of the Holocaust became prominent and analytically relevant processes within the context of the Cold War’s end, but despite their being generally accepted as important, researchers still have problems deining what the Americanisation and Europeanisation of the Holocaust actually entail. It is particularly the Americanisation of the Holocaust, which has been developing since the 1970s, that is diicult to see as a clearly formulated narrative that might pose long-term challenges for the main Czech and Slovak historical narratives. The Holocaust’s Americanisation can be perceived in two ways. The irst concerns how the Holocaust is incorporated into the domestic American historical culture and how it inds its place in the historical consciousness of Americans, i.e., what role it is given in relation to American values and in American conceptions about the future of the USA. Researchers have pointed out that the Holocaust’s positioning in an American- meaning context can primarily be connected to leading elements in American societal life, such as multiculturalism and ethnicity, while at the same time the Holocaust’s representation in an American context is adapted to ‘traditional’ American values, such as positive and forward-orientated thinking, a striving for ‘happy endings’, a focus on strong individual heroes and the toning down of brutality, despair and a tragic view of life.27 The American historian and linguist Alvin Rosenfeld associates the Holocaust’s Americanisation with ‘a tendency to individualize, heroize, moralize, idealize and universalize’.28 The second perception in regard to the Americanisation of the Holocaust is linked to the question of whether the USA with the help of the Holocaust’s ‘American’ representation has inluenced other countries and cultures both through political activities and by the distribution of popular culture produced by the American ilm and television industry, and American mass media with its global reach. Both perceptions are, of course, closely connected to each other. In this study I wish to draw attention to the ‘outwardly directed’ Americanisation in relation to the Czech and Slovak historical cultures after the fall of communism. However, it must be pointed out that despite the signiicant inluence of the USA in regard to both political and economic contacts and the export of popular culture, it is still unclear and unascertained how much and in which ways this political and cultural Americanisation of the Holocaust has 14 Vanished History inluenced the democratic process in the Eastern and Central European region since 1989. A concrete sign of American inluence is, irstly, that the term Holocaust itself initially only came to be used in Czechoslovakia at the beginning of the 1990s. Prior to this the Holocaust was denoted either with a Czech or Slovak translation of the German term ‘the inal solution’ or as ‘race reprisals’ – though without information connecting these terms to the Jews. After the demise of communism the American term was inally adopted; it had been used in the USA since the end of the 1960s and particularly since 1978, when the American television series of the same name was broadcast, irstly in the USA in April 1978 and later in Western Europe.29 The formation of the President’s Commission on the Holocaust by US President James Carter in the same year can be seen as another important milestone here, since one of the most important goals of this commission was to create a new American deinition and understanding of the Holocaust – even though an originally non-American phenomenon. Created at a time ‘when the Holocaust had moved not only from the periphery to the center of American Jewish consciousness, but to the center of national consciousness as well’,30 the mechanical transplantation of this deinition back into the European and especially Central European context of the early post-Cold-War era was far from problem-free.31 While the irst breakthrough of the parallel cultural and political interest in the Holocaust in the USA in 1978 did not afect Czechoslovakia at all, the following wave in 1993, dominated by the opening of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C. and the worldwide success of the ilm Schindler’s List, became much more relevant, especially for the newly formed Czech Republic. There were also political activities that can be linked to the role of the USA in NATO and to NATO’s expansion, which also came to encompass diferent uses of the Holocaust term. In this book I demonstrate historicalcultural manifestations of these activities in connection to the mid-1990s Czech debate on the genocide of the Roma.The political initiative on the part of the USA was, however, never as great as for example in Romania, which in 2003, less than one year before the country became a NATO member, established the American-Romanian International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania – also known as ‘The Wiesel Commission’. This Commission was initiated by then-Romanian President, Ion Iliescu, and led by American professor, Elie Wiesel, a Nobel Peace Prize winner who had himself survived the Holocaust and who moreover had his roots in Transylvania. The Commission’s two most important aims were to include the Holocaust in Romanian historical culture and, with the help of this inclusion, prove to the world at large that the new post-communist Romania respected human rights on a historical basis and was therefore developing in the right direction, as seen from a Western perspective.32 Introduction 15 With regard to the inluence of American popular culture one can, above all, discuss Steven Spielberg’s ilm, Schindler’s List, which had a special connection to the Czech Republic. This movie was not a clear guide to how the Holocaust should be written into Czech and Slovak historical narratives, a guide that could be perceived as American. In connection with Schindler’s List, the nationalisation of the Holocaust became more than problematic, as I will demonstrate in the chapter devoted to this subject. All this being said, Schindler’s List was followed in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia by a further American initiative: Steven Spielberg’s, Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation. Focused on interviews with those who had survived the Holocaust, this activity also came without a clear American message, i.e. without being framed into what could be described as an American meaning.33 The Holocaust’s Europeanisation can, on the other hand, be interpreted much more unequivocally. Because European institutions began to use the Holocaust to give historical legitimacy to the ongoing European integration process in the 1990s, one can irst and foremost perceive the process of Europeanisation as an attempt to create a common European historical narrative, or at least a common European view of the Holocaust that would be able to compete with established national narratives and induce the EU members and candidate countries to concur. What is meant by the Holocaust’s Europeanisation is therefore a historical-cultural process stemming from the EU goal of including the Holocaust as a cultural aspect of the current process of European integration.34 As previously mentioned, it was initially the Second World War and not speciically the Holocaust that was used in this process shortly after the end of the Cold War, the aim being to bridge the diferences between East and West. One could not, however, speak of either a united or centralised view of the Second World War. It was only when the Holocaust had been put forth as the war’s most signiicant component that the Europeanisation process gained a historical foundation stone which could assist the EU in developing a cultural counterpart to the member states’ common political decisions and common European market.35 The Holocaust has, as one of the European institutions concluded,‘driven the EU’s founders to build a united and peaceful Europe and thus been at the very root of the European integration project’.36 The relationship between the memory of the Holocaust and respect for human rights in Europe after the Cold War began to receive attention irst when the EU was set to expand eastwards while simultaneously fearing the radical growth of post-communist nationalist and religious hatred in the former Yugoslavia, which grew into the most violent conlict in Europe since the end of the Second World War. This can be illustrated by the fact that in 1995, during the irst expansion after the fall of the Berlin Wall, there were no special EU demands placed upon the new member countries of Finland, Sweden and Austria. This was particularly interesting in Austria’s case, as it was