21
Status and Diet: Variations in Élite Foodways
at Newfoundland Fishing Stations
in the 17th and 18th Centuries
Eric Tourigny and Stéphane Noël
his paper uses archaeological and historical evidence to compare élite foodways at two
Newfoundland ishing sites: a permanent 17th-century English settlement and a seasonal
18th-century French ishing station. Similarities between high-status deposits at these sites
demonstrate faunal exploitation patterns that relect the time and resources available to
higher-status individuals. Diferences between assemblages at the the two sites suggest that
year-round and seasonal residence gave access to diferent ranges of foods, while helping to
shape the perception of what constituted luxury foods in each context.
introduction
From the 16th century onward various European nations shared ishing space along the
coast of Newfoundland: the Basques ished in Placentia Bay and the west, the English and
Portuguese ished along the Avalon Peninsula, and the Normans and Bretons ished in
various areas, including the east coast of the Great Northern Peninsula, known as the Petit
Nord.1 European crews established on-shore seasonal ishing stations where they produced
dried and salted codish products for export to Europe and the Mediterranean. As the
ishery expanded, expeditions based their operations on the shores of Newfoundland where
they could salt and dry cod ready for export across the Atlantic. In some cases, what began
as seasonal ishing stations became permanent colonies.
Today, evidence of historic European presence is relected in the many archaeological
sites scattered along Newfoundland’s coast. Two sites have illuminated aspects of early
isheries on the island: Ferryland, a 17th-century permanent English settlement on
Newfoundland’s Avalon Peninsula, and Champ Paya, a 17th- to 19th-century seasonal
French ishing station at Cap Rouge on the Petit Nord.2 his paper examines and
compares zooarchaeological assemblages associated with élite-status deposits at these sites.
At irst glance, the assemblages may not appear to have much in common with regards
to chronological period, cultural origins or permanency of occupation. However, both
originate from sites where the ishing industry was the primary economic focus. Using the
cod ishery as the constant, and ethnicity, period of occupation, and type of settlement
as variants, we examine how these diferent factors afected élite diet at early ishing
stations.
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exploring atlantic transitions
archaeology and foodways at ferryland
In 1620 Sir George Calvert, Secretary of State for King James I and later the irst Lord
Baltimore, purchased a tract of land on the Avalon Peninsula with the intention of developing
Ferryland as a permanent ishing settlement. he following summer, construction began
on infrastructure for the new community and, within a few years, Calvert’s settlers had
erected various structures including the large, two-storey stone Mansion House to serve as
Baltimore’s family home upon his arrival in 1628.3 Although Calvert spent less than one year
in Newfoundland, the Mansion House continued to house the community’s leaders and
wealthiest residents, including the island’s irst governor, Sir David Kirke. In September of
1696 Ferryland was attacked by the French as part of a plan to disrupt the English ishery.4
Much of it was burned and destroyed in the attack, including the Mansion House.5
Ferryland’s importance in Newfoundland has resulted in its being one of the best
documented settlements on the island. However, extant letters, legal documents and census
records provide only a few clues on foodways and provisioning. hey inform us that hens,
goats and horses were present by 1625. Small ields of wheat, barley, oats, peas and beans
were sown in the 1620s, and lettuce, cabbage, radish, carrots and turnips were grown in
kitchen gardens.6 Census documents from the 1670s record livestock populations that were
likely typical of the colony in the later 17th century: cattle numbers ranged around 30 head,
while 22 pigs and seven horses were recorded in 1677. One document indicates that cattle
were owned by only four of the eight planter families living in the community at that time.7
In 2005, excavations uncovered portions of the Mansion House. Within its thick stone
walls it had wooden loors and large ireplaces. Ailiated structures include a courtyard and
two accessory buildings, one of which contained an underground cellar. housands of wellpreserved faunal remains were recovered alongside many high-status artefacts, providing an
opportunity to investigate the diet and foodways of Ferryland’s élite (Table 21.1).8
Given that the primary economic activity in Ferryland was the ishery, it comes as no
surprise to ind codish is the most commonly identiied species throughout the site. In a
previous zooarchaeological study of other Ferryland deposits, Lisa Hodgetts describes the
general diet of residents as exploiting a wide range of both wild and domestic mammals,
primarily pigs, cattle, caprines, caribou and seal, in that order of importance.9 he ive
mammalian species identiied as the most heavily exploited in Ferryland play an equally
important role in the Mansion House assemblage, albeit in a slightly diferent way. Where
domestic pig was identiied as the most prominent species in the overall Ferryland diet,
cattle appear more prominently in the Mansion House assemblages (Fig. 21.1).10 here does
not appear to be a diference between the amount of wild mammals consumed by Mansion
House occupants and that consumed by other Ferryland residents. Elsewhere on site, a
total of eight diferent bird species were identiied.11 All eight species were represented
at the Mansion House, as well as an additional 24 species, possibly a result of the better
preservation conditions. Coastal birds such as alcids, sea ducks and seagulls form the
majority of the assemblage (approximately 70% NISP). hese seabirds made a signiicant
contribution to the diets of Ferryland residents; unsurprisingly so, as they would have been
readily accessible and are still seen at the site today.12
Fish and mammals were the most important animals in the diet of the occupants of
the Mansion House. Wild birds were less important but regularly consumed. Cod, beef
and pork were important, as were regular provisions of caribou, seal and caprines.13 hese
21.indd 234
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status and diet
235
general trends are similar to those described in other Ferryland deposits.14 he main
diference is that the Mansion House deposits generally contained a higher number of
cattle remains, a diference that is best explained by the wealth of the building’s occupants
and, more importantly, the level of their involvement in the local ishery. Wealthy planters
had not only greater purchasing power; they also had more time. hey typically owned
many boats, but had the inancial resources to hire workers to man those boats and process
their catches. A less wealthy planter, by contrast, probably took part in the ishing and/
or processing activities him or herself, as he (or she) could not aford the same level of
hired help. hus the wealthy planter had more time and resources to spend on activities
unrelated to the ishery, such as cattle husbandry, crop management, keeping horses and
hunting.
archaeology and foodways of champ paya
By 1541 Norman, French Basque and Breton crews were already ishing in Cape Rouge
Harbour, now Crouse, where Champ Paya is located. he Bretons dominated this
productive ishing station during the 17th and 18th centuries; in the 19th century the Breton
migratory ishermen coexisted, though not without problems, with a growing population
of Anglo-Irish settlers.15 It was only in 1904 that France ceded its seasonal ishing rights to
Great Britain, under the terms of the Entente Cordiale, ending a 400-year tradition.16
Historical documents such as travel journals, provisioning contracts and government
regulations shed light on the foodways of French migratory ishermen. Proper food
provisioning was essential to the success of seasonal stations on Newfoundland’s coast.
Provisioning options were limited and needed to be such that food could survive the
damp of a ship’s hold. Provisions seem to have remained unchanged from the 16th to
the 19th centuries, when cargo holds were illed with supplies of biscuits, bread, wine,
cider, eau-de-vie (liquor), salted and fresh cod, lard, salted meat, peas, beans, butter and
sometimes vinegar, with some regional variations.17 Some foods could be grown and
cultivated once onshore, and the available natural resources were certainly exploited. In
1672 French merchant and entrepreneur Nicolas Denys explained that in Acadian ishing
stations the captain made a garden, providing him with fresh salads, peas and beans. He
goes on to say that he and the surgeon would hunt for rabbits and fowl in their leisure
time.18 In 1851 Captain Désury wrote that on the Petit Nord the captains got together
for an August feast. Each one provided a sheep, and they sent people to hunt ptarmigans,
curlews and hare.19 he lower-status crew were not included in the captain’s feast of wild
game and mutton; nor had they enjoyed the captain’s privileged diet two centuries before.
French seasonal ishermen were on the coast of Newfoundland from roughly April to
October or November. Cod was only present on the coast for a short period, which put
the ishermen under a lot of pressure, limiting the leisure time available to hunt wild game.
Crews ished everyday of the week, including Sundays, from early in the morning to late in
the afternoon, when they returned to shore, unloaded their catch, had dinner and went to
bed.20 Wild game was therefore a luxury restricted to those of higher status. In addition, it
is likely that only certain privileged individuals had access to guns and shot.
here was a clear hierarchy within the micro-society of the migratory ishing station.21
Similarly, there was also a hierarchy in the organization of space for eating within the
ishing room. he table du capitaine, literally ‘the captain’s table’, was a particularly revealing
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exploring atlantic transitions
Fig. 21.1 Percentage of identiied mammal NISP for pig and cow specimens in Ferryland,
Newfoundland. he six deposits on the left relate to the Mansion House and the three deposits
on the right represents other Ferryland deposits. Standard error at 95% conidence interval.
he * indicates deposits analysed in Hodgetts 2006.
Fig. 21.2 Distribution of wild vs. domestic animals at the ishing room Champ Paya, at Crouse,
Newfoundland, by %NISP. Fish and shellish remains are excluded from this ratio, due to sampling
diferences.
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status and diet
237
aspect of the crew’s social organization. Here food was better, more varied and abundant.
Denys explains that the captain ate in his cabin, along with the master, the pilot and the
surgeon.22 He also had a boy (mousse) to serve him, and boys at each plate, who would eat
the leftovers at the end of each meal. Denys and C. J. A. Carpon make it clear that oicers
and ishermen lived apart, and that they did not eat together.23 Lescarbot recounts that,
during his trip to Port Royal, fresh food was reserved for the captains and the masters, as
they thought salted pork products were a cause of scurvy. Oicers ate separately and they
ate better.24
In 2007 archaeologists discovered the remains of a burnt structure on the site’s
waterfront. It was further excavated in 2008, exposing a dry masonry hearth which suggests
that the structure was probably used as a cookroom. Stratigraphic position and associated
artefacts indicate a mid-18th-century occupation. Some of the artefacts associated with the
burnt structure – glass stemware, glass tumbler bases and a gold gilded button – suggest
that its occupants had the high living standards of oicers, a captain or perhaps a surgeon.
Historic descriptions of a cabin for the état-major, where food was cooked and oicers
ate, it this structure in some regards. his type of structure was typically composed of
a kitchen and chimney along with an interior division separating the kitchen from the
dining room, where benches were placed around the table at which the oicers ate their
meals.25 A midden deposit associated with the oicers’ cookroom contained a signiicant
amount of faunal remains. Contrasting this high-status assemblage with faunal assemblages
from other areas of the ishing station, such as a ish processing area, a work area and a food
refuse deposit, helps to interpret the food habits of both oicers and ishermen (Table 21.1).
he faunal remains recovered from the oicers’ cookroom matches what might be
expected of higher-status individuals. All deposits analysed across the site exhibit a high
percentage of codish, pig, sheep/goat, and sometimes chicken, along with gulls and the
occasional duck, goose, and other birds. Very few cattle and caribou remains were found.
he assemblage from the oicers’ cookroom was composed of almost equal proportions
of domestic/imported products and wild animal remains (Fig. 21.2). Domestic animals
included pigs, sheep/goat and chicken. Wild animals were mostly arctic hare and a large
variety of local birds. While species such as gulls would have been easily procured around
the site, catching hares, ptarmigans, sandpipers, godwits, ducks and loons would require
more efort.26
élite foodways in newfoundland fishing stations
he notion of luxury is particularly relevant in discussing diferences in food consumption
among social classes at early modern ishing stations. Luxury eating can be deined as ‘the
consumption, beyond the level of aluence, of goods that are special, limited in supply,
diicult to procure or very expensive for other reasons’.27 hat said, what constitutes
luxury is deeply embedded in the cultural, social and geographical contexts of consumers.
Like poverty, it is a relative concept.28 In zooarchaeology, luxury foods are more easily
recognized in quality and variety than in quantity. With this in mind, luxury foods can be
deined as those foods that are either rare, expensive, imported, restricted to a certain class,
taken from prime parts of an animal, taken from animals slaughtered before the optimal
age, or are varied beyond the ratio of cost to nutritional value.29 Depending on context,
each of these criteria could lead to a foodstuf’s being considered a luxury.
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238
Table 21.1 Representation of faunal specimens, by NISP and %NISP, identiied at the Mansion House in Ferryland, Newfoundland,
and from French deposits at the ishing room Champ Paya at Crouse, Newfoundland
Species
fish†
Cod (Gadidae sp.)
Other ish species
Indeterminate
ish species
Total ish
bird
Loons
(Gaviiformes sp.)
Cormorants
(Phalacrocoracidae sp.)
Ducks & geese
(Anatidae sp.)
Pheasants
(Galliformes sp.)
Plovers
(Charadrius sp.)
Woodcocks,
sandpipers & curlews
(Scolopacidae sp.)
Gulls
(Larinae sp.)
Auks & murres
(Alcidae sp.)
East wall
deposit
Collapse
of main
structure
214 47.6% 100 36.5%
2 0.4%
4 1.5%
234 52.0% 170 62.0%
Accessory
structure
deposit 1
Accessory
structure
deposit 2
Champs Paya
Southeast
midden
Processing
area?
late 17th–early
18th century
Oicers’
cookroom
mid-18th
century
Midden
deposit
mid-18th
century
Working area
late 18th
century
59 53.2% 787 34.2%
0 0.0%
4 0.2%
52 46.8% 1509 65.6%
67 74.4%
3 3.3%
20 22.2%
210 97.2% 237 72.5%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
6 2.8% 90 27.5%
63 94.0% 111 88.1%
0 0.0%
0 0.0%
4 6.0% 15 11.9%
450 100.0% 274 100.0% 111 100.0% 2,300 100.0%
90 100.0%
216 100.0% 327 100.0%
67 100.0% 126 100.0%
4
2.7%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
1.3%
0
0.0%
3
1.3%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2
0.3%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
11 12.0%
3
3.4%
44
7.0%
9 11.5%
2 13.3%
19
8.1%
4 15.4%
16 21.6%
44 18.6%
6 23.1%
27 36.5%
25 17.1%
7
4.8%
6
6.5%
1
1.1%
33
5.3%
4
5.1%
5 33.3%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
6.7%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.7%
1
1.1%
0
0.0%
4
0.6%
1
1.3%
0
0.0%
16
6.8%
4 15.4%
1
1.4%
10 10.9%
4
4.5%
24
3.8%
30 12.7%
7 26.9%
19 21.3%
17
2.7%
15 10.3%
2
1.4%
4
4.3%
11 14.1%
2
2.6%
4 26.7%
1
6.7%
9
3.8%
0
0.0%
20 27.0%
5
6.8%
exploring atlantic transitions
Common name
(Scientiic name)
Ferryland – Deposits related to the Mansion House*
01/05/2013 14:02
21.indd 239
Table 21.1 continued
Species
Common name
(Scientiic name)
Doves
(Columbidae sp.)
Perching birds
(Passeriformes sp.)
Owls
(Strigiformes sp.)
Indeterminate
bird species
Total bird
East wall
deposit
Collapse
of main
structure
Accessory
structure
deposit 1
Accessory
structure
deposit 2
Champs Paya
Southeast
midden
Processing
area?
late 17th–early
18th century
Oicers’
cookroom
mid-18th
century
Midden
deposit
mid-18th
century
Working area
late 18th
century
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2
0.3%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2
1.4%
2
2.2%
0
0.0%
3
0.5%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
12
5.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.7%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.2%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
5
6.8%
89 61.0%
58 63.0%
62 69.7% 496 79.2%
50 64.1%
2 13.3% 103 43.6%
5 19.2%
146 100.1%
92 100.0%
89 100.0% 626 99.9%
78 100.0%
15 100.0% 236 100.0%
26 100.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.7%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2
0.3%
1
0.3%
0
0.0%
21
1.3%
2
1.0%
0
0.0%
0
0
0.0%
23
6.5%
0
0.0% 170 10.9%
23 11.4%
0
0.0%
1
0.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.1%
0
0.0%
0
1
0.1%
2
0.6%
0
0.0%
1
0.1%
3
1.5%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.1%
0
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.1%
0
74 100.1%
0.4%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
30 10.7%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
status and diet
01/05/2013 14:02
239
mammal
Voles & lemmings
(Microtinae sp.)
Rabbits & hares
(Leporidae sp.)
Mice and rats
(Muroidea sp.)
Rats
(Rattus sp.)
House mouse
(Mus musculis)
American beaver
(Castor canadensis)
Whales & dolphins
(Cetacea sp.)
Carnivore order
(Carnivora sp.)
Ferryland – Deposits related to the Mansion House*
21.indd 240
240
Table 21.1 continued
Species
Common name
(Scientiic name)
East wall
deposit
Collapse
of main
structure
Accessory
structure
deposit 1
Accessory
structure
deposit 2
Champs Paya
Southeast
midden
Processing
area?
late 17th–early
18th century
Oicers’
cookroom
mid-18th
century
Midden
deposit
mid-18th
century
Working area
late 18th
century
0
0.0%
2
0.6%
1
0.7%
10
0.6%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.7%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2
0.6%
1
0.7%
1
0.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.1%
0
0.0%
1
0.7%
1
0.1%
1
0.5%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.4%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
18
5.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
7
1.0%
14
4.0%
3
2.0%
22
1.4%
4
2.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
1
0.1%
8
2.3%
1
0.7%
0
0.0%
1
0.5%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
33
4.9%
8
2.3%
4
2.7%
36
2.3%
17
8.4%
33 34.4%
36
5.3%
32
9.1%
10
6.8%
69
4.4%
9
4.5%
39 40.6% 102 36.4%
46
6.8%
20
5.7%
13
8.8%
35
2.2%
10
5.0%
2
2.1%
0
0.0%
2
2.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
2
0.6%
0
0.0%
1
0.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
71 10.5%
20
5.7%
17 11.5%
61
3.9%
15
7.4%
2
2.1%
0
0.0%
1
1.1%
10
3.4%
37 13.2%
27 28.7%
76 25.7%
53 56.4% 107 36.1%
exploring atlantic transitions
01/05/2013 14:02
Canids
(Canidae sp.)
Wolves, cayotes &
dogs (Canis sp.)
Domestic dog
(Canis familiaris)
Red fox
(Vulpes vulpes)
American Black Bear
(Ursus Americanus)
Domestic cat
(Felis catus)
True seal family
(Phocidae sp.)
Harbour seal
(Phoca vitulina)
Harp seal
(Phoca groenlandica)
Artiodactyls
(Artiodactyla sp.)
Domestic pig
(Sus scrofa)
Caribou
(Rangifer terandus)
Bovids
(Bovidae sp.)
Domestic cow
(Bos taurus)
Ferryland – Deposits related to the Mansion House*
21.indd 241
Table 21.1 continued
Species
Ferryland – Deposits related to the Mansion House*
Champs Paya
Common name
(Scientiic name)
East wall
deposit
Sheeps & goats
(Caprinae sp.)
Domestic horse
(Equus caballus)
Indeterminate
mammal species
Total Mammal
27
4.0%
6
1.7%
3
2.0%
42
2.7%
5
2.5%
1
0.1%
0
0.0%
1
0.7%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
91 61.5% 1093 69.8% 112 55.4%
7
673 99.5% 352 100.2% 148 100.2% 1,566 100.2% 202 100.1%
96
Unidentiied
Total
Collapse
of main
structure
445 66.1% 194 55.1%
39
1,308
3.0%
1
719
0.1%
Accessory
structure
deposit 1
2
350
0.6%
Accessory
structure
deposit 2
66
4,558
1.4%
Southeast
midden
0
370
Processing
area?
late 17th–early
18th century
13 13.5%
0.0%
0
Midden
deposit
mid-18th
century
Working area
late 18th
century
4
1.4%
4
4.3%
18
6.1%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
0
0.0%
7.3% 105 37.5%
7
7.4%
100% 280
100%
94
0.0%
0.1%
0
327
1
844
187
85 28.7%
100% 296
100%
0.0%
0.4%
2
498
status and diet
Note: his table presents only the deposits with the largest number of faunal remains recovered at each site.
Where totals are not 100%, this is due to rounding.
* For a comparison to other Ferryland deposits, see Hodgetts 2006; n.d.
† he Champs Paya ish specimens were identiied for only half of the excavated archaeological units.
Oicers’
cookroom
mid-18th
century
241
01/05/2013 14:02
242
exploring atlantic transitions
As at Champ Paya, the primary economic focus at Ferryland was the cod ishery. Unlike
the seasonal ishing stations of the Petit Nord, Ferryland was operated by planters who lived
in Newfoundland year-round with their families and employees. Ferryland also difered
from its counterparts in the American colonies; Ferryland planters owned boats and went
ishing, whereas most American settlers owned land and raised crops. Ferryland planters’
time and resources were tied to the cod ishery from late spring to early fall. While residents
may have been in want of leisure at the height of the ishing season, these constraints were
no longer in efect during the of-season, when the hunting of game, especially caribou,
could be pursued by all, as the archaeological evidence suggests.
Hodgetts irst proposed that while the ishery was the ‘main focus for the wealthy
planter, it was the exclusive focus for the poorer ones’.30 Wealthy planters were not entirely
preoccupied with the ishery and could aford to hire servants to man their boats, whereas
the poorer planters needed to go out with their vessels themselves.31 Wealthy planters also
had money to spend on labour towards activities unrelated to the ishery. his is what
allowed them to raise cattle – a demanding endeavour that required pasture land for
the summer, and fodder, byres or stables to keep the cows alive through the cold winter.
Growing winter fodder required more land and labour during the busy summer months to
sow and gather the crops – all time spent away from the ishery. In this way, the relatively
frequent consumption of beef became a luxury in Ferryland. On the other hand, hunting
wild game such as caribou was a winter activity open to all, as it did not take time away
from the ishery.
At Champ Paya, even hunting was reserved for élite individuals. he French were only
present on the site temporarily, at the height of the ishing season, and therefore their
time in Newfoundland was more constrained than that of Ferryland’s planters. As a result,
oicers hunting here did not heavily exploit large fauna and could not raise cattle. On the
French Shore the social hierarchy was mostly based on experience and working position in
the crew. he captain’s table, where food was better, more abundant, and more varied, was
a material manifestation of this social ranking, for the consumption of luxury foods has
strong social meaning. Sitting there and enjoying a special diet alongside the oicers was an
honour reserved for individuals of higher social status, and a way for them to advertise and
display their position. he captain’s table and the foods associated with it were desirable
because they ofered a reinement of the basic diet, were a form of distinction, and were
only attained by a few privileged individuals.32
conclusion
Faunal analysis at Champ Paya and Ferryland underscores the way in which the cod ishery
shaped diet. A comparison of the two assemblages helps us understand how economic and
technical constraints can play a role in shaping the social divisions between ishermen and
élites. he ability to invest time and other resources into activities unrelated to the cod
ishery was common to the élite at both sites. Fishermen working at Champ Paya were
there only for a short period of time, focused almost exclusively on the ishery. Oicers
were the only people with leisure time to spend hunting fowl and wild game. At Ferryland
wealthy planters who did not go out ishing themselves were able to invest their extra time
and resources into non-ishery related activities such as cattle husbandry. In both cases, the
constrained schedule of the ishery made certain foods – cattle in Ferryland, wild game
21.indd 242
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status and diet
243
at Champ Paya – the prerogative of the élites. On the historic coast of Newfoundland, as
elsewhere, what was considered luxury depended almost entirely on the context in which
products were consumed.
acknowledgements
his research was possible thanks to funding from the SSHRC Canada, J. R. Smallwood
Foundation, ISER, and the Provincial Archaeology Oice, Newfoundland and Labrador.
Special thanks to Peter Pope and Barry Gaulton for access to archaeological collections,
and to the Canadian Museum of Nature for access to their reference collection. hank
you to Peter Pope, Shannon Lewis-Simpson and our anonymous reviewer for their helpful
comments.
notes
1 Pope 2008, 2–6.
2 he Ferryland excavation (CgAf-02) is part of the
Colony of Avalon research project, co-directed by
James A. Tuck and Barry Gaulton. his project
has uncovered many structures associated with
the 17th-century settlement (Gaulton & Tuck
2003). he French ishing station Champ Paya
was excavated as the archaeological site Dos
de Cheval (EfAx-09), as part of Peter Pope’s
An Archaeology of the Petit Nord project, which
focuses on the French presence on the Great
Northern Peninsula, 1500–1900.
3 Gaulton & Tuck 2003; Tourigny 2009; Tuck, this
volume.
4 Williams 1987.
5 Gaulton & Tuck 2003.
6 Alexander 1625; Powell, 1622; Wynne 1622.
7 Wyborne 1676; Poole 1677.
8 Hodgetts 2006 is a previous study of the
zooarchaeology of three domestic assemblages
and one privy deposit in Ferryland.
9 Hodgetts 2006.
10 Tourigny 2009.
11 Hodgetts 2006.
21.indd 243
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
Tourigny 2009, 154.
Tourigny 2009.
Hodgetts 2006.
Pope 2008, 4.
Hiller 1996, 1–23.
La Morandière 1962, 77–81; Turgeon & Dickner
1990. An example of regional variation is that the
Bretons used butter, and the Basques olive oil.
Denys 1672, 175–6.
Désury 1851.
La Morandière 1962.
La Morandière 1962.
Denys 1672, 171.
Carpon 1852; Denys 1672.
Lescarbot 1617.
Carpon 1852, 62–3.
Noël 2010.
Ervynck et al. 2003, 429.
Veen 2003, 407.
Ervynck et al. 2003, 431–3.
Hodgetts 2006, 135.
Pope 2004, 263–4.
Veen 2003, 408, 420.
01/05/2013 14:02
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