21 Status and Diet: Variations in Élite Foodways at Newfoundland Fishing Stations in the 17th and 18th Centuries Eric Tourigny and Stéphane Noël his paper uses archaeological and historical evidence to compare élite foodways at two Newfoundland ishing sites: a permanent 17th-century English settlement and a seasonal 18th-century French ishing station. Similarities between high-status deposits at these sites demonstrate faunal exploitation patterns that relect the time and resources available to higher-status individuals. Diferences between assemblages at the the two sites suggest that year-round and seasonal residence gave access to diferent ranges of foods, while helping to shape the perception of what constituted luxury foods in each context. introduction From the 16th century onward various European nations shared ishing space along the coast of Newfoundland: the Basques ished in Placentia Bay and the west, the English and Portuguese ished along the Avalon Peninsula, and the Normans and Bretons ished in various areas, including the east coast of the Great Northern Peninsula, known as the Petit Nord.1 European crews established on-shore seasonal ishing stations where they produced dried and salted codish products for export to Europe and the Mediterranean. As the ishery expanded, expeditions based their operations on the shores of Newfoundland where they could salt and dry cod ready for export across the Atlantic. In some cases, what began as seasonal ishing stations became permanent colonies. Today, evidence of historic European presence is relected in the many archaeological sites scattered along Newfoundland’s coast. Two sites have illuminated aspects of early isheries on the island: Ferryland, a 17th-century permanent English settlement on Newfoundland’s Avalon Peninsula, and Champ Paya, a 17th- to 19th-century seasonal French ishing station at Cap Rouge on the Petit Nord.2 his paper examines and compares zooarchaeological assemblages associated with élite-status deposits at these sites. At irst glance, the assemblages may not appear to have much in common with regards to chronological period, cultural origins or permanency of occupation. However, both originate from sites where the ishing industry was the primary economic focus. Using the cod ishery as the constant, and ethnicity, period of occupation, and type of settlement as variants, we examine how these diferent factors afected élite diet at early ishing stations. 21.indd 233 01/05/2013 14:02 234 exploring atlantic transitions archaeology and foodways at ferryland In 1620 Sir George Calvert, Secretary of State for King James I and later the irst Lord Baltimore, purchased a tract of land on the Avalon Peninsula with the intention of developing Ferryland as a permanent ishing settlement. he following summer, construction began on infrastructure for the new community and, within a few years, Calvert’s settlers had erected various structures including the large, two-storey stone Mansion House to serve as Baltimore’s family home upon his arrival in 1628.3 Although Calvert spent less than one year in Newfoundland, the Mansion House continued to house the community’s leaders and wealthiest residents, including the island’s irst governor, Sir David Kirke. In September of 1696 Ferryland was attacked by the French as part of a plan to disrupt the English ishery.4 Much of it was burned and destroyed in the attack, including the Mansion House.5 Ferryland’s importance in Newfoundland has resulted in its being one of the best documented settlements on the island. However, extant letters, legal documents and census records provide only a few clues on foodways and provisioning. hey inform us that hens, goats and horses were present by 1625. Small ields of wheat, barley, oats, peas and beans were sown in the 1620s, and lettuce, cabbage, radish, carrots and turnips were grown in kitchen gardens.6 Census documents from the 1670s record livestock populations that were likely typical of the colony in the later 17th century: cattle numbers ranged around 30 head, while 22 pigs and seven horses were recorded in 1677. One document indicates that cattle were owned by only four of the eight planter families living in the community at that time.7 In 2005, excavations uncovered portions of the Mansion House. Within its thick stone walls it had wooden loors and large ireplaces. Ailiated structures include a courtyard and two accessory buildings, one of which contained an underground cellar. housands of wellpreserved faunal remains were recovered alongside many high-status artefacts, providing an opportunity to investigate the diet and foodways of Ferryland’s élite (Table 21.1).8 Given that the primary economic activity in Ferryland was the ishery, it comes as no surprise to ind codish is the most commonly identiied species throughout the site. In a previous zooarchaeological study of other Ferryland deposits, Lisa Hodgetts describes the general diet of residents as exploiting a wide range of both wild and domestic mammals, primarily pigs, cattle, caprines, caribou and seal, in that order of importance.9 he ive mammalian species identiied as the most heavily exploited in Ferryland play an equally important role in the Mansion House assemblage, albeit in a slightly diferent way. Where domestic pig was identiied as the most prominent species in the overall Ferryland diet, cattle appear more prominently in the Mansion House assemblages (Fig. 21.1).10 here does not appear to be a diference between the amount of wild mammals consumed by Mansion House occupants and that consumed by other Ferryland residents. Elsewhere on site, a total of eight diferent bird species were identiied.11 All eight species were represented at the Mansion House, as well as an additional 24 species, possibly a result of the better preservation conditions. Coastal birds such as alcids, sea ducks and seagulls form the majority of the assemblage (approximately 70% NISP). hese seabirds made a signiicant contribution to the diets of Ferryland residents; unsurprisingly so, as they would have been readily accessible and are still seen at the site today.12 Fish and mammals were the most important animals in the diet of the occupants of the Mansion House. Wild birds were less important but regularly consumed. Cod, beef and pork were important, as were regular provisions of caribou, seal and caprines.13 hese 21.indd 234 01/05/2013 14:02 status and diet 235 general trends are similar to those described in other Ferryland deposits.14 he main diference is that the Mansion House deposits generally contained a higher number of cattle remains, a diference that is best explained by the wealth of the building’s occupants and, more importantly, the level of their involvement in the local ishery. Wealthy planters had not only greater purchasing power; they also had more time. hey typically owned many boats, but had the inancial resources to hire workers to man those boats and process their catches. A less wealthy planter, by contrast, probably took part in the ishing and/ or processing activities him or herself, as he (or she) could not aford the same level of hired help. hus the wealthy planter had more time and resources to spend on activities unrelated to the ishery, such as cattle husbandry, crop management, keeping horses and hunting. archaeology and foodways of champ paya By 1541 Norman, French Basque and Breton crews were already ishing in Cape Rouge Harbour, now Crouse, where Champ Paya is located. he Bretons dominated this productive ishing station during the 17th and 18th centuries; in the 19th century the Breton migratory ishermen coexisted, though not without problems, with a growing population of Anglo-Irish settlers.15 It was only in 1904 that France ceded its seasonal ishing rights to Great Britain, under the terms of the Entente Cordiale, ending a 400-year tradition.16 Historical documents such as travel journals, provisioning contracts and government regulations shed light on the foodways of French migratory ishermen. Proper food provisioning was essential to the success of seasonal stations on Newfoundland’s coast. Provisioning options were limited and needed to be such that food could survive the damp of a ship’s hold. Provisions seem to have remained unchanged from the 16th to the 19th centuries, when cargo holds were illed with supplies of biscuits, bread, wine, cider, eau-de-vie (liquor), salted and fresh cod, lard, salted meat, peas, beans, butter and sometimes vinegar, with some regional variations.17 Some foods could be grown and cultivated once onshore, and the available natural resources were certainly exploited. In 1672 French merchant and entrepreneur Nicolas Denys explained that in Acadian ishing stations the captain made a garden, providing him with fresh salads, peas and beans. He goes on to say that he and the surgeon would hunt for rabbits and fowl in their leisure time.18 In 1851 Captain Désury wrote that on the Petit Nord the captains got together for an August feast. Each one provided a sheep, and they sent people to hunt ptarmigans, curlews and hare.19 he lower-status crew were not included in the captain’s feast of wild game and mutton; nor had they enjoyed the captain’s privileged diet two centuries before. French seasonal ishermen were on the coast of Newfoundland from roughly April to October or November. Cod was only present on the coast for a short period, which put the ishermen under a lot of pressure, limiting the leisure time available to hunt wild game. Crews ished everyday of the week, including Sundays, from early in the morning to late in the afternoon, when they returned to shore, unloaded their catch, had dinner and went to bed.20 Wild game was therefore a luxury restricted to those of higher status. In addition, it is likely that only certain privileged individuals had access to guns and shot. here was a clear hierarchy within the micro-society of the migratory ishing station.21 Similarly, there was also a hierarchy in the organization of space for eating within the ishing room. he table du capitaine, literally ‘the captain’s table’, was a particularly revealing 21.indd 235 01/05/2013 14:02 236 exploring atlantic transitions Fig. 21.1 Percentage of identiied mammal NISP for pig and cow specimens in Ferryland, Newfoundland. he six deposits on the left relate to the Mansion House and the three deposits on the right represents other Ferryland deposits. Standard error at 95% conidence interval. he * indicates deposits analysed in Hodgetts 2006. Fig. 21.2 Distribution of wild vs. domestic animals at the ishing room Champ Paya, at Crouse, Newfoundland, by %NISP. Fish and shellish remains are excluded from this ratio, due to sampling diferences. 21.indd 236 01/05/2013 14:02 status and diet 237 aspect of the crew’s social organization. Here food was better, more varied and abundant. Denys explains that the captain ate in his cabin, along with the master, the pilot and the surgeon.22 He also had a boy (mousse) to serve him, and boys at each plate, who would eat the leftovers at the end of each meal. Denys and C. J. A. Carpon make it clear that oicers and ishermen lived apart, and that they did not eat together.23 Lescarbot recounts that, during his trip to Port Royal, fresh food was reserved for the captains and the masters, as they thought salted pork products were a cause of scurvy. Oicers ate separately and they ate better.24 In 2007 archaeologists discovered the remains of a burnt structure on the site’s waterfront. It was further excavated in 2008, exposing a dry masonry hearth which suggests that the structure was probably used as a cookroom. Stratigraphic position and associated artefacts indicate a mid-18th-century occupation. Some of the artefacts associated with the burnt structure – glass stemware, glass tumbler bases and a gold gilded button – suggest that its occupants had the high living standards of oicers, a captain or perhaps a surgeon. Historic descriptions of a cabin for the état-major, where food was cooked and oicers ate, it this structure in some regards. his type of structure was typically composed of a kitchen and chimney along with an interior division separating the kitchen from the dining room, where benches were placed around the table at which the oicers ate their meals.25 A midden deposit associated with the oicers’ cookroom contained a signiicant amount of faunal remains. Contrasting this high-status assemblage with faunal assemblages from other areas of the ishing station, such as a ish processing area, a work area and a food refuse deposit, helps to interpret the food habits of both oicers and ishermen (Table 21.1). he faunal remains recovered from the oicers’ cookroom matches what might be expected of higher-status individuals. All deposits analysed across the site exhibit a high percentage of codish, pig, sheep/goat, and sometimes chicken, along with gulls and the occasional duck, goose, and other birds. Very few cattle and caribou remains were found. he assemblage from the oicers’ cookroom was composed of almost equal proportions of domestic/imported products and wild animal remains (Fig. 21.2). Domestic animals included pigs, sheep/goat and chicken. Wild animals were mostly arctic hare and a large variety of local birds. While species such as gulls would have been easily procured around the site, catching hares, ptarmigans, sandpipers, godwits, ducks and loons would require more efort.26 élite foodways in newfoundland fishing stations he notion of luxury is particularly relevant in discussing diferences in food consumption among social classes at early modern ishing stations. Luxury eating can be deined as ‘the consumption, beyond the level of aluence, of goods that are special, limited in supply, diicult to procure or very expensive for other reasons’.27 hat said, what constitutes luxury is deeply embedded in the cultural, social and geographical contexts of consumers. Like poverty, it is a relative concept.28 In zooarchaeology, luxury foods are more easily recognized in quality and variety than in quantity. With this in mind, luxury foods can be deined as those foods that are either rare, expensive, imported, restricted to a certain class, taken from prime parts of an animal, taken from animals slaughtered before the optimal age, or are varied beyond the ratio of cost to nutritional value.29 Depending on context, each of these criteria could lead to a foodstuf’s being considered a luxury. 21.indd 237 01/05/2013 14:02 21.indd 238 238 Table 21.1 Representation of faunal specimens, by NISP and %NISP, identiied at the Mansion House in Ferryland, Newfoundland, and from French deposits at the ishing room Champ Paya at Crouse, Newfoundland Species fish† Cod (Gadidae sp.) Other ish species Indeterminate ish species Total ish bird Loons (Gaviiformes sp.) Cormorants (Phalacrocoracidae sp.) Ducks & geese (Anatidae sp.) Pheasants (Galliformes sp.) Plovers (Charadrius sp.) Woodcocks, sandpipers & curlews (Scolopacidae sp.) Gulls (Larinae sp.) Auks & murres (Alcidae sp.) East wall deposit Collapse of main structure 214 47.6% 100 36.5% 2 0.4% 4 1.5% 234 52.0% 170 62.0% Accessory structure deposit 1 Accessory structure deposit 2 Champs Paya Southeast midden Processing area? late 17th–early 18th century Oicers’ cookroom mid-18th century Midden deposit mid-18th century Working area late 18th century 59 53.2% 787 34.2% 0 0.0% 4 0.2% 52 46.8% 1509 65.6% 67 74.4% 3 3.3% 20 22.2% 210 97.2% 237 72.5% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 6 2.8% 90 27.5% 63 94.0% 111 88.1% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 4 6.0% 15 11.9% 450 100.0% 274 100.0% 111 100.0% 2,300 100.0% 90 100.0% 216 100.0% 327 100.0% 67 100.0% 126 100.0% 4 2.7% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 1.3% 0 0.0% 3 1.3% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 0.3% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 11 12.0% 3 3.4% 44 7.0% 9 11.5% 2 13.3% 19 8.1% 4 15.4% 16 21.6% 44 18.6% 6 23.1% 27 36.5% 25 17.1% 7 4.8% 6 6.5% 1 1.1% 33 5.3% 4 5.1% 5 33.3% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 6.7% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.7% 1 1.1% 0 0.0% 4 0.6% 1 1.3% 0 0.0% 16 6.8% 4 15.4% 1 1.4% 10 10.9% 4 4.5% 24 3.8% 30 12.7% 7 26.9% 19 21.3% 17 2.7% 15 10.3% 2 1.4% 4 4.3% 11 14.1% 2 2.6% 4 26.7% 1 6.7% 9 3.8% 0 0.0% 20 27.0% 5 6.8% exploring atlantic transitions Common name (Scientiic name) Ferryland – Deposits related to the Mansion House* 01/05/2013 14:02 21.indd 239 Table 21.1 continued Species Common name (Scientiic name) Doves (Columbidae sp.) Perching birds (Passeriformes sp.) Owls (Strigiformes sp.) Indeterminate bird species Total bird East wall deposit Collapse of main structure Accessory structure deposit 1 Accessory structure deposit 2 Champs Paya Southeast midden Processing area? late 17th–early 18th century Oicers’ cookroom mid-18th century Midden deposit mid-18th century Working area late 18th century 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 0.3% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 1.4% 2 2.2% 0 0.0% 3 0.5% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 12 5.1% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.7% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.2% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 5 6.8% 89 61.0% 58 63.0% 62 69.7% 496 79.2% 50 64.1% 2 13.3% 103 43.6% 5 19.2% 146 100.1% 92 100.0% 89 100.0% 626 99.9% 78 100.0% 15 100.0% 236 100.0% 26 100.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.7% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 0.3% 1 0.3% 0 0.0% 21 1.3% 2 1.0% 0 0.0% 0 0 0.0% 23 6.5% 0 0.0% 170 10.9% 23 11.4% 0 0.0% 1 0.1% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.1% 0 0.0% 0 1 0.1% 2 0.6% 0 0.0% 1 0.1% 3 1.5% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.1% 0 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.1% 0 74 100.1% 0.4% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 30 10.7% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% status and diet 01/05/2013 14:02 239 mammal Voles & lemmings (Microtinae sp.) Rabbits & hares (Leporidae sp.) Mice and rats (Muroidea sp.) Rats (Rattus sp.) House mouse (Mus musculis) American beaver (Castor canadensis) Whales & dolphins (Cetacea sp.) Carnivore order (Carnivora sp.) Ferryland – Deposits related to the Mansion House* 21.indd 240 240 Table 21.1 continued Species Common name (Scientiic name) East wall deposit Collapse of main structure Accessory structure deposit 1 Accessory structure deposit 2 Champs Paya Southeast midden Processing area? late 17th–early 18th century Oicers’ cookroom mid-18th century Midden deposit mid-18th century Working area late 18th century 0 0.0% 2 0.6% 1 0.7% 10 0.6% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.7% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 0.6% 1 0.7% 1 0.1% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.1% 0 0.0% 1 0.7% 1 0.1% 1 0.5% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.4% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 18 5.1% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 7 1.0% 14 4.0% 3 2.0% 22 1.4% 4 2.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.1% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.1% 8 2.3% 1 0.7% 0 0.0% 1 0.5% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 33 4.9% 8 2.3% 4 2.7% 36 2.3% 17 8.4% 33 34.4% 36 5.3% 32 9.1% 10 6.8% 69 4.4% 9 4.5% 39 40.6% 102 36.4% 46 6.8% 20 5.7% 13 8.8% 35 2.2% 10 5.0% 2 2.1% 0 0.0% 2 2.1% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 2 0.6% 0 0.0% 1 0.1% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 71 10.5% 20 5.7% 17 11.5% 61 3.9% 15 7.4% 2 2.1% 0 0.0% 1 1.1% 10 3.4% 37 13.2% 27 28.7% 76 25.7% 53 56.4% 107 36.1% exploring atlantic transitions 01/05/2013 14:02 Canids (Canidae sp.) Wolves, cayotes & dogs (Canis sp.) Domestic dog (Canis familiaris) Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) American Black Bear (Ursus Americanus) Domestic cat (Felis catus) True seal family (Phocidae sp.) Harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) Harp seal (Phoca groenlandica) Artiodactyls (Artiodactyla sp.) Domestic pig (Sus scrofa) Caribou (Rangifer terandus) Bovids (Bovidae sp.) Domestic cow (Bos taurus) Ferryland – Deposits related to the Mansion House* 21.indd 241 Table 21.1 continued Species Ferryland – Deposits related to the Mansion House* Champs Paya Common name (Scientiic name) East wall deposit Sheeps & goats (Caprinae sp.) Domestic horse (Equus caballus) Indeterminate mammal species Total Mammal 27 4.0% 6 1.7% 3 2.0% 42 2.7% 5 2.5% 1 0.1% 0 0.0% 1 0.7% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 91 61.5% 1093 69.8% 112 55.4% 7 673 99.5% 352 100.2% 148 100.2% 1,566 100.2% 202 100.1% 96 Unidentiied Total Collapse of main structure 445 66.1% 194 55.1% 39 1,308 3.0% 1 719 0.1% Accessory structure deposit 1 2 350 0.6% Accessory structure deposit 2 66 4,558 1.4% Southeast midden 0 370 Processing area? late 17th–early 18th century 13 13.5% 0.0% 0 Midden deposit mid-18th century Working area late 18th century 4 1.4% 4 4.3% 18 6.1% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 7.3% 105 37.5% 7 7.4% 100% 280 100% 94 0.0% 0.1% 0 327 1 844 187 85 28.7% 100% 296 100% 0.0% 0.4% 2 498 status and diet Note: his table presents only the deposits with the largest number of faunal remains recovered at each site. Where totals are not 100%, this is due to rounding. * For a comparison to other Ferryland deposits, see Hodgetts 2006; n.d. † he Champs Paya ish specimens were identiied for only half of the excavated archaeological units. Oicers’ cookroom mid-18th century 241 01/05/2013 14:02 242 exploring atlantic transitions As at Champ Paya, the primary economic focus at Ferryland was the cod ishery. Unlike the seasonal ishing stations of the Petit Nord, Ferryland was operated by planters who lived in Newfoundland year-round with their families and employees. Ferryland also difered from its counterparts in the American colonies; Ferryland planters owned boats and went ishing, whereas most American settlers owned land and raised crops. Ferryland planters’ time and resources were tied to the cod ishery from late spring to early fall. While residents may have been in want of leisure at the height of the ishing season, these constraints were no longer in efect during the of-season, when the hunting of game, especially caribou, could be pursued by all, as the archaeological evidence suggests. Hodgetts irst proposed that while the ishery was the ‘main focus for the wealthy planter, it was the exclusive focus for the poorer ones’.30 Wealthy planters were not entirely preoccupied with the ishery and could aford to hire servants to man their boats, whereas the poorer planters needed to go out with their vessels themselves.31 Wealthy planters also had money to spend on labour towards activities unrelated to the ishery. his is what allowed them to raise cattle – a demanding endeavour that required pasture land for the summer, and fodder, byres or stables to keep the cows alive through the cold winter. Growing winter fodder required more land and labour during the busy summer months to sow and gather the crops – all time spent away from the ishery. In this way, the relatively frequent consumption of beef became a luxury in Ferryland. On the other hand, hunting wild game such as caribou was a winter activity open to all, as it did not take time away from the ishery. At Champ Paya, even hunting was reserved for élite individuals. he French were only present on the site temporarily, at the height of the ishing season, and therefore their time in Newfoundland was more constrained than that of Ferryland’s planters. As a result, oicers hunting here did not heavily exploit large fauna and could not raise cattle. On the French Shore the social hierarchy was mostly based on experience and working position in the crew. he captain’s table, where food was better, more abundant, and more varied, was a material manifestation of this social ranking, for the consumption of luxury foods has strong social meaning. Sitting there and enjoying a special diet alongside the oicers was an honour reserved for individuals of higher social status, and a way for them to advertise and display their position. he captain’s table and the foods associated with it were desirable because they ofered a reinement of the basic diet, were a form of distinction, and were only attained by a few privileged individuals.32 conclusion Faunal analysis at Champ Paya and Ferryland underscores the way in which the cod ishery shaped diet. A comparison of the two assemblages helps us understand how economic and technical constraints can play a role in shaping the social divisions between ishermen and élites. he ability to invest time and other resources into activities unrelated to the cod ishery was common to the élite at both sites. Fishermen working at Champ Paya were there only for a short period of time, focused almost exclusively on the ishery. Oicers were the only people with leisure time to spend hunting fowl and wild game. At Ferryland wealthy planters who did not go out ishing themselves were able to invest their extra time and resources into non-ishery related activities such as cattle husbandry. In both cases, the constrained schedule of the ishery made certain foods – cattle in Ferryland, wild game 21.indd 242 01/05/2013 14:02 status and diet 243 at Champ Paya – the prerogative of the élites. On the historic coast of Newfoundland, as elsewhere, what was considered luxury depended almost entirely on the context in which products were consumed. acknowledgements his research was possible thanks to funding from the SSHRC Canada, J. R. Smallwood Foundation, ISER, and the Provincial Archaeology Oice, Newfoundland and Labrador. Special thanks to Peter Pope and Barry Gaulton for access to archaeological collections, and to the Canadian Museum of Nature for access to their reference collection. hank you to Peter Pope, Shannon Lewis-Simpson and our anonymous reviewer for their helpful comments. notes 1 Pope 2008, 2–6. 2 he Ferryland excavation (CgAf-02) is part of the Colony of Avalon research project, co-directed by James A. Tuck and Barry Gaulton. his project has uncovered many structures associated with the 17th-century settlement (Gaulton & Tuck 2003). he French ishing station Champ Paya was excavated as the archaeological site Dos de Cheval (EfAx-09), as part of Peter Pope’s An Archaeology of the Petit Nord project, which focuses on the French presence on the Great Northern Peninsula, 1500–1900. 3 Gaulton & Tuck 2003; Tourigny 2009; Tuck, this volume. 4 Williams 1987. 5 Gaulton & Tuck 2003. 6 Alexander 1625; Powell, 1622; Wynne 1622. 7 Wyborne 1676; Poole 1677. 8 Hodgetts 2006 is a previous study of the zooarchaeology of three domestic assemblages and one privy deposit in Ferryland. 9 Hodgetts 2006. 10 Tourigny 2009. 11 Hodgetts 2006. 21.indd 243 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Tourigny 2009, 154. Tourigny 2009. Hodgetts 2006. Pope 2008, 4. Hiller 1996, 1–23. La Morandière 1962, 77–81; Turgeon & Dickner 1990. An example of regional variation is that the Bretons used butter, and the Basques olive oil. Denys 1672, 175–6. Désury 1851. La Morandière 1962. La Morandière 1962. Denys 1672, 171. Carpon 1852; Denys 1672. Lescarbot 1617. Carpon 1852, 62–3. Noël 2010. Ervynck et al. 2003, 429. Veen 2003, 407. Ervynck et al. 2003, 431–3. Hodgetts 2006, 135. Pope 2004, 263–4. Veen 2003, 408, 420. 01/05/2013 14:02 244 exploring atlantic transitions bibliography Alexander, W. 1625. An Encouragement to Colonies. In Pope 1993. Carpon, C. J. A. 1852. Voyage à Terre-Neuve: Observations et notions curieuses. Paris: Chez Dutot. Denys, N. 1672. Histoire naturelle des peuples, des animaux, des arbres et plantes de l’Amerique septentrionale, et de ses divers climats, vol. 2. Paris: Claude Barbin. Désury, P. R. 1851. ‘Notice sur la navigation et la pêche de la morue a la côte de l’île de Terre-Neuve.’ In Le Maout 1851, 639–82. 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