Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(3): 510-516, 2017
DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2017.050324
http://www.hrpub.org
A Cross-national Study of Student Teachers' Views about
Intelligence: Similarities and Differences in
England and Turkey
Dilek Ilhan-Beyaztas1,*, Elizabeth Dawson2
1
Faculty of Education, Erzincan University, Turkey
2
Independent Researcher, England
Copyright©2017 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License
Abstract A cross-national descriptive research method
was used to explore Turkish and English student teachers’
views about intelligence, and the factors which shape them.
The “Adult Version of The Implicit Theory of Intelligence
Scale” [1], and the Turkish version of this scale [2] were used
to investigate the views of 114 English and 201 Turkish
students of Primary Education. A semi-structured interview
was also used with a sub-group of the students. The findings
reveal that the Turkish students, on average, scored more
highly in relation to entity intelligence theory than in relation
to incremental intelligence theory, and the English students,
on average, scored more highly in relation to incremental
intelligence theory than to entity intelligence theory. In
addition, when comparing the average scores in relation to
incremental intelligence theory, the scores of the English
students are significantly higher than those of the Turkish
students.
Conversely, individuals with a “growth mindset”, who
believe that intelligence can be developed, are more willing
to take risks, to focus on improvement and mastery, and to
see their mistakes and failures as a necessary part of learning
[4]; [6]. Consistent with this theory is the finding by
Renaud-Dubé, Guay, Talbot, Taylor and Koestner [7] that a
growth mindset attitude among US high schools students
was related positively to their choices about continuing to
higher levels of education, with its increased level of
challenge and requirement of greater effort.
Student teachers have chosen to continue as learners in
higher education, whilst simultaneously learning to teach.
The views they hold about intelligence are therefore relevant
both to their own experiences as learners and to their
prospective pupils. There appears to be little research on the
effect of student teachers’ beliefs about intelligence on their
own learning. However, unsurprisingly, studies indicate that
the views teachers hold about intelligence affect their
Keywords Perceptions of Intelligence, Mindset Theory, educational goals [8], their beliefs about their pupils’
Pre-Service Teacher Attitudes, Cultural Differences
abilities, and their attitudes towards and treatment of them
[9]. Research also indicates that teachers can in turn have an
impact on the views about intelligence which pupils
themselves hold [10]; [1].
Several studies of the views of student teachers in the
1. Introduction
United States have found that they are more likely to hold the
Theories about the dynamic nature of intelligence have view that intelligence can change rather than to believe that it
been around for many years, and even in the 1990s Sternberg is fixed [11];[12];[13]. In the UK, Asbury, Klassen,
was suggesting that the idea that intelligence is malleable had Bowyer-Crane, Kyriacou, and Nash [14] also found that
become orthodoxy [3]. Over the last forty years, Dweck and student teachers at a UK university held broadly
her colleagues at Stanford University and beyond have growth-mindset beliefs, but that those who had grown up in
gathered compelling evidence about the effect which beliefs East Asia were less likely to do so. Moreover, those of East
about intelligence have on motivation, learning habits and Asian origin were also less likely to hold growth mindset
goal-orientation - factors which in turn affect achievement attitudes about their pupils. However, a recent study by
[1];[4];[5]. They conclude that individuals with a “fixed İlhan-Beyaztaş and Hymer [2] found that Turkish student
mindset”, who believe that intelligence is unchanging, tend teachers across a range of academic disciplines were more
to focus on results and performance, to regard mistakes likely to believe that intelligence is fixed rather than
negatively, to avoid challenge, and to fear failure. malleable.
Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(3): 510-516, 2017
This current study therefore makes a further contribution
to understanding about cultural/national differences in
student teachers’ views of intelligence. The comparative
nature of this study is also timely: in recent years, the Turkish
government has been striving to “harmonise” [15] its
education system in relation to the European Union (EU) and
its Common European Principles for Teacher Competences
and Qualifications [16]. Turkey has also developed a set of
Generic Teacher Competencies [17] with reference to the
Standards for Qualified Teacher Status (Teacher’
Development Agency, 2008) which pertained in England at
that time [15]. The English Teaching Standards (and,
previously, the Standards for Qualified Teacher Status),
make no direct reference to teacher beliefs, though “high
expectations” [18]; [19], and “goals that stretch and
challenge” [20]; are requisites and could (but do not
necessarily) imply that a growth-oriented view of
intelligence. However, the Turkish Competencies include
statements specifically about what teacher beliefs which
relate to views about intelligence (“believing that all students
can learn and achieve”; “believe that each student will be
successful” – Turkish Republic Ministry of National
Education, [17], A:2 and A:2.10).
This study proposes to answer the following questions:
1. How do Turkish and English primary education
students perceive intelligence?
2. How do Turkish and English primary education
students perceive intelligence based on their gender?
3. What views do Turkish and English primary
education students hold about intelligence
perceptions?
2. Methods
This is a cross-national study conducted to explore
Turkish and English students’ perceptions of intelligence.
The study used both quantitative research and qualitative
research tools.
2.1. Participant
In total, 315 students whose major fields of study were in
primary education volunteered to participate in the
quantitative part of the study. 201 students (132 females, 69
males) from Turkey and 114 students (81 females, 33 males )
from England were selected through stratified random
sampling. In addition, 10 student volunteers (also
undergraduate students in primary education) took part in
semi-structured interviews.
2.2. Data Collection Tools
In this study, the “Adult Version of The Implicit Theory of
Intelligence Scale” developed by Dweck [1] was used to
investigate the English students’ perceptions of intelligence.
511
The study also used the “Adult Version of The Implicit
Theory of Intelligence Scale” which was adapted into
Turkish by İlhan-Beyaztaş and Hymer [2], in order to
explore the Turkish students’ perceptions of intelligence.
The Adult Version of The Implicit Theory of Intelligence
scale is a Likert scale developed by Dweck [1] to determine
the beliefs learners hold about the nature of intelligence. The
original scale is a 6 point Likert-type scale ranging from
“strongly agree” (1) to “strongly disagree” (6). The sub
dimensions of the scale are entity (items 1, 2, 4 and 6: for
example: “You can learn new things, but you can’t really
change your basic intelligence”), and incremental (items 3, 5,
7 and 8: for example: “You can change even your basic
intelligence level considerably”).
In order to explore students’ perception of intelligence
further, a semi-structured interview was developed by the
researchers. Drawing on the relevant literature, seven draft
questions were prepared. These questions were revised
following the suggestions of three subject area experts, a
Turkish field expert, and a measurement-evaluation expert.
The interview form consisting of 7 questions was finalized
based on experts’ recommendations. The final interview
form consisted of two parts. The first part covered
demographic questions, while the second part consisted of
questions examining students’ opinions of their perceptions
of intelligence.
2.3. Data Collection Process and Analysis
The analysis of the study includes descriptive statistics
such as arithmetic average and standard deviation values in
order to specify students’ perceptions of intelligence. The
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was run to test
the variations through students’ perceptions of intelligence in
terms of students’ gender and country. One of the multi
variable test statistics (Wilk’s Lambda statistics) was used in
order to determine whether there was a difference between
the group averages according to any dependent variables.
The F statistic was used in order to determine which
dependent variables caused the difference between the
groups. When differences were found between the groups,
LSD comparison tests were used by controlling the
equivalence of variances and the number of categories.
Additionally, the responses of the students in the
interviews were subjected to content and thematic analysis.
The following steps took place during the analysis process:
1. Ten students were interviewed to gain a deeper
understanding of their perceptions of intelligence. Interviews
were recorded with the permission of the participants. The
recorded interviews were transcribed.
2. Before coding, all transcripts were read twice by the
researchers in order to gain an appreciation of the scope of
the data set. After that, initial codes were developed based on
the data. Initial coding in an inductive thematic analysis is
driven by the goal to remain open to all possible
interpretations [21].
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A Cross-national Study of Student Teachers’ Views about Intelligence: Similarities and Differences in England and Turkey
Thirdly, all of the codes were combined, and thematic
relationships were identified. Themes are identified by
"bringing together components or fragments of ideas or
experiences, which often are meaningless when viewed
alone" [22]
Table 3. The results of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for
each perception of intelligence in terms of country
Type III
Sum of
Squares
3. Results
The findings of the study are given here in relation to the
sub-questions.
1.
How do Turkish and English primary education
students perceive intelligence?
The descriptive scores related to this question are given in
Table-1.
Table 1. Arithmetic mean and standard deviation statistics of university
students’ intelligence perception
Entity
Turkish Students
(N=201)
English Students
(N=114)
Incremental
x
df
x
df
15,63
5,29
11,92
4,37
16,40
4,44
18,27
3,35
When comparing the perception of intelligence scores, the
entity (fixed mindset) scores are higher than the incremental
(growth mindset) scores for Turkish students and the
incremental scores are higher than the entity scores for
English students.
To investigate the national differences in the students’
perception of intelligence, the One Way Between Groups
Multivariate Analysis Of Variance (MANOVA) was
performed on the data obtained from the students of each
country. Table 2 illustrates the MANOVA results which
include the comparison of the scores in the intelligence
perception.
Table 2. MANOVA results which show the comparison of total scores of
university students’ intelligence perception
Wilks' Lambda
,614
F
98,277
Hypothesis df
2
Error df
312
p
,00
When Table 2 is analyzed, the average scores for
intelligence perception (Wilks’ Lambda value, 614, F=
98,277, p<.05) show a significant difference of ,05 level.
Table 3 illustrates the information about the comparison of
the scores for the entity and incremental dimensions (two of
the intelligence perception dimensions) of the students
grouped by country.
df
Mean
Square
F
p
1,706
,192
180,269
,00
Entity
42,760
1
42,760
Error
7843,926
313
25,060
Increm
ental
2934,589
1
2934,589
Error
5095,297
313
16,279
Dif.
t-e
The F test is included in Table 3 to compare the mean
scores in the entity and incremental dimensions in terms of
country. According to the MANOVA results, the mean
scores of the students in the incremental dimension show a
statistically significant difference in terms of country
(F=180,269 p<.05). However, no significant difference was
found in the mean scores of students in the entity dimension
in terms of country (F=1,706 p<.05).
Due to the number of categories under three, the LSD test
was used in order to find out which country showed the
difference in the mean incremental dimension. When the
incremental dimension scores were taken into account, a
significant difference was found in favour of the English
students.
2.
How do Turkish and English primary education
students perceive intelligence, based on their
gender?
The descriptive scores related to this question are given in
Table 4.
Table 4. Arithmetic mean and standard deviation statistics of university
students’ intelligence perception according to gender variable.
Entity
Incremental
x
df
x
df
Female for Turkey (N=132)
15,91
5,32
12,22
4,23
Male for Turkey (N=69)
15,10
5,24
11,33
4,51
Female for England (N=81)
15,76
4,50
17,88
3,42
Male for England (N=33)
17,96
3,94
19,21
3,01
When comparing the perception of intelligence scores in
terms of gender, the entity scores are higher than the
incremental scores for the Turkish students and the
incremental scores are higher than the entity scores for the
English students. Table 5 illustrates the information about
the comparison of the scores in the entity and incremental
dimensions (two of the intelligence perception dimensions)
by gender
Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(3): 510-516, 2017
513
Table 5. The results of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) of university students’ intelligence perception according to gender variable
Type III Sum
of Squares.
Turkey
df
Mean Square
F
p
1,074
,301
1,901
,170
6,020
,016
3,746
,055
Entity
30,114
1
30,114
Error
5580,373
199
28,042
Incremental
36,211
1
59,28
Error
3790,515
199
19,048
Entity
113,926
1
113,926
England
Error
2119,513
112
18,924
Incremental
41,055
1
41,055
Error
1227,515
112
10,960
Difference
m-f
Due to the number of categories under three, the LSD test was used in order to find out which gender showed the difference
in the entity dimension for the English students. When the entity scores were taken into account, a significant difference was
found in favour of males. Also, there was not a statistically significant difference between males and females for the Turkish
students.
3.
What views do Turkish and English primary education students hold about intelligence perceptions?
To explore students’ opinions about intelligence perceptions, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 (8
Turkish and 2 English) undergraduate students of education. 5 Turkish and 2 English students were female, and 3 Turkish
students were male. The participants were aged between 21 and 23.
Students’ opinions about intelligence perceptions were categorized based on the content analysis. They were classed as
entity and incremental under the themes. The distribution of the students’ opinions about intelligence perceptions are shown
in Table 6.
Table 6. Intelligence perceptions of students who are in primary education
THEMES
CODES
Number of students who adopt entity
ENTITY
English Students (2)
f
%
f
%
6
60
1
10
Born with certain intelligence and it
can’t change
4
40
1
10
Look smart
2
20
-
-
Effortless
5
50
1
10
Tendency to give up and
disappointment
4
40
1
10
Workload
1
10
-
-
Decrease in grades during times of
adversity
1
10
-
-
Focusing get a high score
1
10
-
-
Don’t take responsibility
1
10
-
-
Using math as a criterion of
intelligence
4
40
-
-
Number of students who adopt incremental
INCREMENTAL
Turkish Students (8)
2
20
1
10
Intelligence is not fixed and can be
improved
2
20
1
10
Having desire to learning
-
-
1
10
Effort
2
20
1
10
Work harder
1
10
1
10
Increase in grades during times of
adversity
1
10
-
-
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A Cross-national Study of Student Teachers’ Views about Intelligence: Similarities and Differences in England and Turkey
With reference to Table 6, 7 of the 10 students were found
to hold broadly entity beliefs, and 3 of the 10 students were
broadly to adopt broadly incremental beliefs. Direct
quotations related to the entity and incremental themes are
given below:
Students Talking about Entity Beliefs
EFS1(English Female Student) :
... So I believe that some people do have a limit to which
they can understand. That’s why some of us are more
intelligent than others…
---- I think that mostly we’re born with it, maybe I just
haven’t been challenged. Maybe I haven’t challenged
myself enough, do you know what I mean: I stick to my
comfort zone…
TFS1(Turkish Female Student) :
…Intelligence is an inborn trait…When I observe
generally Medical faculty, Law Faculty students and the
parents of my friends who will study in these faculties, they
are probably the children of doctors, engineers, lawyers etc.
In my opinion they are intelligent as inborn or maybe they
will develop themselves later, but even so, intelligence is
inborn. Compared to my other friends in primary school, I
was good at verbal lessons, but I had difficulty in Math,
although I got extra private lessons for Math I am still not
good at it which means I am not much intelligent. For
example, although I increased my grade from zero to five or
ten, I could not increase it to twenty that means I am not good
at it, so my motivation decreased and I gave up…
suppose how you’ve been brought up, how you look at things;
but if you’re willing to work at something -- I know for me, I
have to work at things - but if you’re willing to work, you –
reap the rewards. It’s more about self – pushing, I guess.
-----I think you can make yourself more intelligent. I think it’s
just again how much you want to push yourself to make
yourself that person you want to be…
TFS3(Turkish Female Student) :
… I think being intelligent can be directed or improved
and if people are guided well, they can do better things. I was
good at Math, but I also had some problems in some topics, I
had difficulty in Physics, I am still not good at it. For
example, I got 30 or 40 at 9th grade but I studied and I got 90.
But, I think it’s about the difficulty level of the exam I have
still some problems about it, I know myself…
Factors that Affect and Shape Students’ Opinions about
Intelligence Perceptions
In order to identify factors that affect and shape students’
opinions about intelligence perceptions, the data from the
interviews was coded under the themes of “teachers’
behaviour” and “family”. The distribution of the students’
opinions about intelligence perceptions in relation to these
themes is shown in Table 7.
Table 7. Factors that affect and shape students’ opinions about intelligence
perceptions
THEMES
CODES
TMS3(Turkish Male Student) :
…I think intelligence is an absolutely inborn trait. At first,
when children study at primary school or secondary school
they are influenced by their teachers, they aren’t under much
pressure and don’t have many lessons; but at high school
there are lots of subjects, students do not care for their
teacher much or they are not influenced by their teacher.
They have plans for the future, they think logically. So what I
mean is that the successful student at primary or secondary
school cannot be successful at high school. Until high school,
even students who are not intelligent can be successful, but
later they can’t do well if they are not intelligent. There is lots
of responsibility and pressure (lessons and subjects). so
intelligence is an important factor for these things. All people
around me said that I was intelligent, as I never studied but I
succeed in lots of things…
Students Talking about Incremental Beliefs
EFS1(English Female Student) :
…I think everybody’s born with a level of intelligence. I
think it depends how much you work at it to develop that
intelligence. I think that everybody’s got – a mindset which
is determined when you’re younger, depending on how – I
Teachers’
Behavior
Family
Negative attitude for entity
Praise for entity
Make a distinction between
students
Positive attitude for
incremental
Negative attitude for entity
Turkish
Students
(8)
f
%
6
60
2
20
English
Students
(2)
f
%
-
3
30
-
-
1
10
-
-
2
20
-
-
According to Table 7, 7 of the 10 students stated that
teachers’ negative attitudes had influenced their adoption of
entity beliefs, and 1 student stated that teachers’ positive
attitudes had influenced his/her adoption of incremental
beliefs. Also, 3 of the 10 students stated that teachers made a
distinction between students (based on their perceived
intelligence), and 2 of the 10 students stated that the teachers’
use of praise influenced their adoption of entity beliefs.
Direct quotations related to these themes are given below:
Students Talking about the Influence of Teachers and
Family’s Behaviour
TMS2(Turkish Male Student):
….one of the reasons that I do not like Math was my
teacher’s behaviour towards me. I was 9 years old at 3rd
grade, my teacher was so rude towards me in front my
Universal Journal of Educational Research 5(3): 510-516, 2017
friends and I disliked Math. I felt that I was not intelligent, I
felt I was incompetent because of that event. Also, the first
time I had a Math exam and I got poor grade, my father
scolded me. So I never liked Math. It was a disappointment
for me.
515
from their children’s infancy onward, Turkish parents show
pride in children’s behaviours which they associate with
intelligence, this will affect the higher average scores of the
entity-fixed intelligence dimension [2]. The socio-cultural
factors which influence the students’ perception of
intelligence could usefully be the subject of more extensive
TFS2(Turkish Female Student):
research.
…My teachers were not efficient, there was also
When the gender variable was taken into account, the male
discrimination between the hardworking students and the English students were found to be significantly more likely
other ones. Teachers always paid attention to the intelligent, to hold entity beliefs than the female students. There was not
competent students. They always loved and really cared for a statistically significant difference between males and
them and they focused on them. I do not know the reason. females for the Turkish students. When the general literature
These kind of things resulted as a lack of self-confidence. I was examined, it was found that gender is not a reliable
was not interested in lessons.
predictor of mindset [23]
With regard to the semi-structured interviews, when the
TMS2(Turkish Male Student):
students’ answers about perceptions of intelligence are
…I was at secondary school and when I got low grade at analyzed, it was found that the codes which emerged had
math, I believed that I was not intelligent; but when I started parallels in the existing literature [1];[4] [6]; [24]. One of the
high school, I also got extra lessons and I recognized that I most interesting findings is that students (4 Turkish students)
could do better at Math. As I went to a math course and paid stated that being able to understand maths is an indicator of
money, those teachers behaved us better and cared us intelligence. An examination of the literature reveals that the
positively. But at public school that was not like that. I was relation between success in school and students’ perception
always sat in the rear row of seats and I skipped lessons. My of intelligence has often been explored, but how “success” or
father tried to help me and I felt really bad. It was a kind of “failure” in different subjects affects the students’ perception
learned helplessness. The teacher always cared for certain of intelligence has not been examined. So, future quantitative
kinds of students: he/she ignored those like me. So I got and qualitative studies on how success in different subjects
angry and I did not study. I thought that I had a problem affects the mindset of students could be undertaken.
about my intelligence level. I believed that I could never be
One of the important themes emerging from the
good at this. The teacher was an important factor. But at high semi-structured interviews is that of teacher attitudes and the
school I was better. The teacher always tried to help us, effect of praise on the students’ views of intelligence. These
he/she tried to satisfy all students and cared for all of us. findings are consistent with those of Mueller, C. M., &
After that I could do better at Math…
Dweck, C. S. [25] whose study concluded that teacher praise
had a dramatic effect on the students’ mindset. Praising
students for their ability encouraged a fixed mindset and
3. Conclusion and Discussion
created vulnerability, but praising them for their effort or the
The social-cognitive motivation theory developed by strategy they used encouraged a growth mindset and fostered
Carol Dweck is about learners’ beliefs about the nature of resilience.
Therefore, early in their course of study, it is suggested
intelligence. According to this theory, there are two different
perceptions of intelligence: that intelligence is largely fixed, that student teachers should be introduced to Dweck’s
stable and resistant to change (entity theory or fixed mindsets) mindset theory [1]. Teacher education programmes could
and that intelligence is fluid, malleable and open to change include the initial identification of students’ beliefs about
(incremental theory or growth mindsets) [1] The findings of intelligence and their learning orientation. The students
this study reveal that the Turkish students’ average score in should then be encouraged to reflect on their own beliefs and
relation to entity intelligence theory is higher than that which learning behaviours and those of their pupils. In particular,
relates to incremental intelligence theory, and the English given the demonstrable value of high quality feedback
students’ average score regarding incremental intelligence strategies and the role of metacognition in learning
theory is higher than that relating to entity intelligence theory. (summarised in Hattie, [26]; [27]), teacher trainees should be
In addition, when comparing the average score in relation to shown how to teach their pupils to think explicitly about their
incremental intelligence theory, the scores of the English thinking, and learn about how best they learn.
students are significantly higher than those of the Turkish
students. These results are consistent with the findings of the
existing literature ([14]; [2]. It is possible that sociocultural
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