Journal of Sedimentary Environments
https://doi.org/10.1007/s43217-020-00024-5
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Provenance and paleo‑weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic
sedimentary rocks of Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin, Uttar Pradesh,
India: using a geochemical approach
Shamim A. Dar1 · K. F. Khan1 · Akhtar R. Mir2
Received: 13 June 2020 / Revised: 6 August 2020 / Accepted: 9 August 2020
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
Abstract
Shales and sandstones of the Paleoproterozoic Bijawar Group (India) have been studied to decipher their paleo-weathering
conditions and provenance based on geochemistry. Shale samples are composed of k-feldspars, mica, quartz, and fine ironoxides, whereas sandstones are composed of quartz and k-feldspars. The predominant positive correlation of K2O vs TiO2,
Na2O vs Al2O3, and K2O vs Al2O3 indicates that the elements are associated with detrital phases. Trace elements Sc, Rb,
Ba,Th, Y, and Zr show a strong positive correlation with Al2O3 and K2O which indicates that the absolute abundances of
these elements are controlled mainly by illite. A negative correlation of trace elements Ni, Cu, Co with Al2O3, and K2O
represents their presence in iron oxides like magnetite, ilmenite, and hematite. Multi-element Post-Archaean Australian
Average Shale (PAAS) normalized spider diagrams show enrichment of V, Pb, Zr, Y, Hf, Th, Rb, and depletion of Ni, Sr,
Ba, Nb, U. The depletion of Sr indicates the least enrichment of plagioclase and the same is also supported by negative Euanomaly of the samples, though weak. The chondrite normalized rare earth element (REE) plots show a slightly light-REE
(LREE) enriched and flat heavy-REE (HREE) pattern with weak negative Eu anomaly. The overall, high values of LaN/
SmN (avg. 10.49), CeN/YbN (avg.0.37), LaN/YbN (avg. 34.28) and low values of GdN/YbN (avg. 1.82) and TiO2 (0.27–1.82,
average 0.92 < PAAS) in most of the samples, show a relationship with the felsic source rocks. The index of compositional
variability (ICV) of the samples is < 0.84 which indicates no enrichment of primary minerals. The chemical index of alteration (CIA) of present samples varies from 48.60 to 81.69, indicating low to moderate intensity of chemical weathering of
the source. The plot between SiO2 and Al2O3 + K2O + Na2O depicts that majority of the samples belong to the environment
from humid to semi-humid and have attained a high chemical maturity. The high SiO2/Al2O3 values (1.36–20.79) in studied samples indicate relatively high sediment maturity due to the extreme sorting of sediments in a stable cratonic regime.
A stable cratonic regime, with a low upliftment rate that has allowed strong chemical weathering of protoliths, is further
indicated by low CaO, Na2O, and Sr contents of the studied samples. The overall geochemical characteristics of the present
samples—high SiO2, Al2O3 and K2O and low TiO2, MgO, Na2O, and CaO contents—suggest a felsic provenance. The felsic
nature of the source rocks is also supported by the trace element ratios like (La/Lu)N (7.72–76.89), La/Sc (1.50–7.40), La/Co
(0.39–11.48), Th/Co (0.80–15.90), and Cr/Th (0.08–5.10). Since the Bijawar Group is sited over the Bundelkhand Granite
Gneiss Complex (BGGC), it is, therefore, plausible that the main source components of Bijawar Group siliciclastic rocks
are the BGGC felsic rocks.
Keywords Geochemistry · Geochemical indices · Shale · Sandstone · Sedimentary basin
Communicated by M. V. Alves Martins
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this
article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s43217-020-00024-5) contains
supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
* Shamim A. Dar
sjshamim@gmail.com
Extended author information available on the last page of the article
1 Introduction
The origin and evolution of continental crust have remained
a flaming issue in the field of geosciences. In this regard,
Precambrian sedimentary rocks offer an opportunity to
understand the compositional and the tectonic setting evolution of continental crusts (Absar et al. 2009). Various
researchers have carried out geochemical studies of clastic
13
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S. A. Dar et al.
rocks to evaluate the paleo-weathering, paleo-climate, paleotectonic setting of basins, sediment provenance, etc. Such
studies have been helpful in understanding the evolution of
global continental crust (Nesbitt and Young 1982; Bhatia
and Crook 1986; Roser and Korsch 1988; Wronkiewicz and
Condie 1990; Taylor and Mclennan 1985; Cullers 2000;
Naqvi et al. 2002). However, sedimentary processes like
weathering, erosion, deposition, diagenesis may bring some
chemical changes in sedimentary rocks, though certain insoluble elements (like REEs, Th, Sc, Co, Cr, Zr, and Hf) having short residence time in seawater are transferred almost
quantitatively to clastic sediments (Taylor and McLennan
1985; Wronkiewicz and Condie 1987; Fedo et al.1996).
Some elements (e.g., Th, La) are highly incompatible during
magmatic processes and are, hence, enriched in residual silicate melts. On the other hand, some elements (e.g., Sc, Co,
Cr, Ni) are compatible and as a result, concentrate in early
crystallizing minerals (Absar et al. 2009). Hence, the relative
abundance of these two groups of elements provides a platform to differentiate between felsic and mafic provenances.
Among the clastic sedimentary rocks, shales are the
most abundant and well-homogenized rocks in sedimentary
basins. Shales provide the average crustal composition of
the rock from which they come much better than any other
detrital rock (Rudnick and Gao 2004). Different authors
from the world like Taylor and McLennan (1985), Condie
and Wronkiewicz (1990), Raza et al. (2002), Cullers (2002),
Mir (2015) have carried out geochemical studies on the
shales to interpret their weathering processes, provenance
characteristics, tectonic setting, and paleoredox conditions.
The earlier workers (Banerjee 1982; Srivastava 1989; Roy
et al. 2004; Khan et al. 2012a, b; Dar et al. 2014, 2015; Jha
et al. 2020) have carried research on the Bijawar group with
the aim to discuss phosphate origin, exploration strategy of
phosphates, uranium concentration of phosphates, paleoenvironmental conditions necessary for uranium enrichment,
etc. However, provenance, paleo-weathering, and tectonic
setting studies, based on geochemical data (major and trace
and rare earth elements) of sedimentary rocks of the Paleoproterozoic Bijawar Group, are lacking. Therefore, the main
aim of the present work was to determine the provenance
and source area weathering characteristics of the Paleoproterozoic sedimentary rocks (especially sandstones and shales)
of the Bijawar group.
Early Proterozoic (> 1800 my) Bijawar Group (Bogdanov
et al. 1974). The Bijawar group overlies the Archaean Bundelkhand Basement Complex and is underlain by Vindhayan
Supergroup. The Bundelkhand group (BkG), the Bijawar
group (BG), and the Vindhyan Super group (VSG) form
three important rock groups ranging in age from Archaean
to Late Precambrian. BkG, among the three, is unconformably overlain by the BG. It is mostly composed of granitoids and enclaves of older metamorphic rocks. BkG and
BG together are unconformably overlain by VSG. All these
three groups are overlain by Late Mesozoic to early Tertiary
Deccan Traps. The study area forms the southern part of
the Bundelkhand Granite Complex. The VSG surrounds the
Bundelkhand Craton on its east, west, and south periphery
(Fig. 1).The BG is folded to form a large west-south-west
plunging synclinorium, the southern limb of which is concealed below the Vindhyan rocks in the Sonrai area. The
northern limb presents generally monoclinal gently or moderately (300–600) dipping sequence in the west and central
part of the basin. In the eastern part, usually flat folds have
developed with dips changing to the west or even north-west.
The folds are closely related to the east–west trending decollement surface. Such major surfaces have developed along
(i) the contact of Sonrai Formation with the basement complex, and (ii) the contact of Rohini Carbonate with Gorakalan Shale. The planes of decollement have been intruded by
rocks of diabasic composition, which are present as lenticular bodies and are often strongly chloritized. The Gorakalan Shale member acts as a major surface of decollement
with the overlying Rohini Carbonate and Bandai members
relatively more strongly deformed. The lithostratigraphy of
the area is given in Table 1 after Pant et al. (1989) and Dar
et al. (2015). The lithostratographic units of the BG in the
Lalitpur district are better exposed and are divided into three
formations: Berwar, Sonrai, and Solda Formations. The Berwar Formation, which occurs at the base, contains banded
hematite-quartzite, chloritic shale, quartzite, and pebbly conglomerate. The overlying Sonrai Formation is divided into
five members, which in ascending order are: (a) Jammuni
member, (b) Gorakalan member, (c) Brecciated quartzite
member, (d) Rohini member, and (d) Bandai member. The
uppermost Solda Formation is divided into two members:
(a) Dhori Sagar Member, and (c) Hadda Member.
3 Materials and methods
2 Geology setting
The study area is part of the Survey of India toposheet number. 54L/15 covered by longitudes 78o50′ to 78°59′ E and
latitudes 24°18′ to 24°24′ N. Sonrai rift basin preserves Late
Achaean to early Proterozoic volcano-sedimentary units
(Sharma 2000) (Fig. 1). Within the Sonrai basin there is the
13
Sampling was carried out using geological maps and topographic sheets (54L/15, 54L/11, 54L/16). Thin sections were
prepared for petrographic studies which were carried out
in the Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, India using both the ordinary and electronic binocular microscopes (LEICA-EC3, 1.6.0 version). Microscopic
Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of…
Fig. 1 Modified geological map of Sonrai basin, Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India (modified after Khan et al. 2012a, b). The inset map
showing the Bijawar and the younger Vindhyan, fringe the southern margins of the Bundelkhand granite complex (BGC)
characteristics of the studied samples are given in Supplementary Table 1 and petrography results are discussed in
upcoming section. After petrographic studies, the five representative (two shale and three sandstone) samples were
selected for the geochemical analysis. These samples were
crushed to -30 mesh size in a steel mortar and were dried
in the oven at 100 °C to eliminate the hygroscopic moisture. These crushed samples were, then, finely powdered in
a centrifugal ball mill and sieved by the standard sieve of
−200 mesh at the Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim
13
S. A. Dar et al.
Table 1 Stratigraphy of the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin in Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India (after Pant et al. 1989; Dar et al. 2015)
Vindhyan supergroup
(late Proterozoic
1400–600 my)
Unconformity
Bijawar group
(early Proterozoic > 1800 my)
Vindhyan sandstone, etc.
Quartzite
Hadda
shale interMember
calations
Dhori
Tuffaceous
Sagar
shale
Member
Tuffaceous
Bandai
shale,
Member
sandstone
Rohini
and grit
Member
Sandy,
shaly and
dolomitic
carbonate
rocks
Brecciated
Brecciquartzated
ite with
Quartzlensoid
ite
bodies of
Member
Gorakalan phosphorite
Shale
Member Grey, green,
and red
Jamuni
shales with
Member
carbonate
Bandai
and phosMember
phorite
Rohini
bands
Member
Calcareous
laminated
shale,
limestone,
dolomite,
and grit
Banded
hematite
quartzite,
chloritic
shale,
quartzite,
and conglomerate
Solda formation
Sonrai formation
Barwar Formation
Unconformity
Bundelkhand group (Archaean > 2500 my)
Bundelkhand Granitoid Complex with pegmatite and quartz veins, etc.
University, Aligarh, India. The whole rock geochemical
analysis of these samples was carried out at the National
Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad, India.
Collapsible aluminum cups were used for the preparation
of pressed pellets to determine major element data (Govil
1985). These cups were filled with boric acid and about
1 g of each powdered rock sample was put on top of the
boric acid and these cups were subjected to the hydraulic
press at 20-ton pressure. The sample pellets were analyzed
using a Philips MagiX PRO model PW-2440 wavelength
13
dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF) coupled
with automatic sample changer PW 2540. Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) technique using
Perkin-Elmer, SCIEX, Model ELAN DRC-II system has
been used to determine trace elements and rare earth elements. Analytical solutions were prepared by the open acid
digestion method and acquisition parameters for instrument
and data are alike as set by Roy et al. (2007). For the open
acid digestion method, 50 mg of powdered rock sample was
placed in a clean, dried PTFE Teflon beaker. A few drops of
Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of…
ultra-pure water were added to moisten each sample. Then,
10 ml of an acid mixture (containing 7:3:1 HF:HNO:HClO)
was added to each sample. Samples were swirled until completely moist and left over night for digestion after adding
1 ml of 5 g/ml Rh solution (as internal standard). The next
day, sample beakers were heated on a hot plate at ~ 200 °C
for about 1 h; the contents were evaporated to incipient
dryness until a crystalline paste was obtained. Ten ml of a
1:1 HNO solution was added to dissolve residual material
in these beakers and again these beakers were placed on a
hot plate for 10 min with gentle heating (70 °C) to dissolve
all suspended particles. Finally, the volume was diluted to
250 ml with double distilled water after adding10 ml of
1 ppm Rhodium solution as an internal standard. This solution was used for estimation of trace (including REEs) elements using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry
techniques (ICP-MS). The precision of ICP-MS data is better than ± 6% RSD for all the trace elements and REE. All
the available data were standardized against the international
reference rock standard iron formation (FeR-1) and cody
shale (SCo-1).
The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) measures the
strength and direction of linear relationships between two
or more random variables and ranges from − 1 to 1 (Bluman
2003). In the present study, the Pearson correlation coefficient has been determined by the parametric “t test” method
with the help of R-software. In the present study ‘r’ is used
to describe the interrelationships between the elements analyzed at a significance level (p) of < 0.05. Hydraulic sorting
arranges detrital minerals according to their grain properties.
This type of sorting significantly influences the chemical
composition of bulk sediments. The index of compositional
variability (ICV) (Cox et al. 1995) was calculated to evaluate geochemical variability due to hydraulic sorting. This
parameter is calculated as ICV = (Fe2O3 + K2O + Na2O + C
aO + MgO + MnO + TiO2)/Al2O3 (Cox et al. 1995). The ICV
results are discussed in the next section.
4 Results and discussion
4.1 Petrography
The Petrographic study of present shale and sandstone
samples is given in Supplementary Table 1. Studied shale
samples are composed of fine crystals of k-feldspars, muscovite, biotite, etc. and some iron-oxides (Fig. 2a). Quartz and
K-feldspars are the major constituents and micas, chlorite,
etc. occur in minor concentration in shales. In sandstone
samples quartz is one of the main constituents (72–90%) and
k-feldspars (5–10%) are present in small quantity (Fig. 2b).
Muscovite and biotite also occur in minor concentrations
in sandstone samples. Quartz is present in all the samples
Fig. 2 a Microphotograph of shale sample composed of fine crystals
of k-feldspars, muscovite, biotite etc. b Microphotograph of sandstone samples having quartz as a main constituent and k-feldspars as
minor constituents
with monocrystalline quartz as the dominant variety. Quartz
grains show diagnostic wavy extinction. Two K-feldspars,
microcline as major and orthoclase as minor, are seen in
sandstone samples. Sometimes these feldspars alter along
cleavage plains and grain boundaries on account of their
hydrothermal and weathering conditions. Carbonates, iron,
and silica occur as cementing material. Rhomb-shaped calcite cement and patchy iron cement develops through pore
fillings.
4.2 Major elements
The major (in wt.%) and trace (in ppm) elements (including REEs) geochemical data of studied silisiclastic sedimentary rocks from Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin, Lalitpur, India, is given in Table 2. The concentration of major
oxides (in wt. %) in studied shale samples (S-1 and S-2)
varies as follows; (SiO2 = 48.89–54.85, TiO2 = 1.37–1.82,
Al2O3 = 35.86–27.96, Fe2O3 = 1.53–8.47, MnO = 0.01–0.03,
MgO = 1.06–1.43, CaO = 0.10–0.12, Na2O = 0.92–0.73,
K 2O = 10.24–4.58, and P2O 5 = 0.03–0.01. In sandstone
samples (Ss-1, Ss-2 and Ss-3), major oxides (in wt.%)
show values like (SiO2 = 82.30–93.36, TiO2 = 0.27–0.60,
Al2O3 = 4.49–7.60, Fe2O3 = 0.49–3.00, MnO = 0.00–0.10,
MgO = 0.16–1.10, CaO = 0.09–0.70, Na2O = 0.02–0.61,
K2O = 1.10–5.14, and P2O5 = 0.01–0.18).The significant
positive correlation of K2O with TiO2, Na2O with Al2O3,
13
S. A. Dar et al.
12
2
K2O wt. %
10
12
Na2O wt. %
1
8
K2O wt. %
10
8
6
6
1
4
4
2
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
10
TiO2 wt. %
20
30
40
0
Al2O3 wt. %
10
20
30
40
Al2O3 wt. %
Fig. 3 TiO2 vs K2O, Al2O3 vs Na2O and Al2O3 vs K2O correlation diagrams for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai
Basin
10
S-1
S-2
Ss-1
Ss-2
Ss-3
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
Fig. 4 Post-Achaean Australian average Shale (PAAS) normalized
multi-element spider diagrams (Taylor and McLennan 1985) for
siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin
and K2O with Al2O3 (Table 3; Fig. 3) indicates that these
elements are associated with detrital phases. Lower concentration of P2O5 in the studied samples may suggest a lesser
amount of accessory phases such as apatite and monazite
as compared to Post-Archaean Australian average shale
(PAAS). The low SiO2 content in some samples suggests
possible hydraulic sorting during sedimentary processes.
According to Cox et al. (1995), K2O/Al2O3 ratio varies from
0.00 to 0.40 for clay minerals and 0.50 to 0.90 for feldspars.
In the studied samples, K2O/Al2O3 ratio varies from 0.16 to
0.79 with an average of 0.40, which implies that illite is the
dominant clay mineral. Most of the studied samples have
TiO2 values (0.27–1.82, average 0.92) lower than the PAAS
(= 0.99, Taylor and McLennan 1985), which suggests a more
evolved (felsic) source. Enrichment of K2O (4.58–10.24) and
depletion of Na2O (0.73–0.90) in shale samples as compared
to PAAS (Fig. 4) suggest either a lesser amount of albiteplagioclase detritus and/or comparatively intense chemical
weathering of the source (Mir et al. 2015).
13
4.3 Trace elements and rare earth elements
Trace element data including REEs of the studied samples
is given in Table 2. Some trace elements such as Rb, Ba,Th,
Zr, Y, and Sc show positive correlation with Al2O3 and K2O
(Table 3; Fig. 5), which indicates that the absolute abundances of these elements were controlled by illite. The negative correlations of Co vs Al2O3, K2O, Fe2O3, and MgO,
weakly positive correlations of Ni vs Al2O3, Cu vs Al2O3, Cu
vs K2O, Ni vs Fe2O3, and Cr vs Fe2O3 and positive correlations of Cr vs Al2O3, Ni vs K2O, Cr vs K2O, Cu vs Fe2O3,
Ni vs MgO, Cu vs MgO, and Cr vs MgO allow to infer that
these trace elements may have been bound in iron oxides like
magnetite, ilmenite and hematite (Table 3; Fig. 6).
Multi-element-PAAS normalized spider diagrams of
trace elements (Fig. 4) show enrichment of V, Pb, Zr, Y, Hf,
Th and depletion of Ni, Sr, Ba, Nb, U. The depletion of Sr
indicates the least enrichment of plagioclase, which is also
supported by weakly negative Eu-anomaly of these samples.
The chondrite normalized REE plots of the analyzed samples are shown in (Fig. 7). These samples show a slightly
LREE-enriched and HREE pattern with weak negative Eu
anomaly. LREEs are fractionated as LaN/SmN = 4.21–29.38
(avg. = 10.49), whereas HREEs show moderate fractionation as GdN/YbN = 0.99–3.27 (avg. = 1.82). The overall, high
values of LaN/SmN (avg. 10.49), CeN/YbN (avg.0.37), LaN/
YbN (avg. 34.28), and low values of GdN/YbN (avg. 1.82)
in the majority of samples, match well with those of felsic
igneous rocks.
4.4 Hydraulic sorting
Rock forming minerals like K-feldspars, plagioclase, pyroxenes, and amphiboles indicate ICV values of > 0.84, whereas
typical alteration products such as kaolinite, illite, and muscovite show values of < 0.84 (Cox et al. 1995; Cullers 2000).
The ICV values of studied samples are < 0.84, hence indicating no enrichment of primary minerals (Table 2). Textural maturity can also be defined by SiO2/Al2O3 ratios. The
Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of…
Table 2 Major element, trace element, and rare earth element geochemical data of the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of the Bijawar group, Sonrai basin, Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India
Samples
S-1 shale
S-2 shale
Latitudes
24°18′25′′
24°17′38′′
Longitudes
78°55′10′′
78°48′25′′
Major elements (wt. %)
48.89
54.85
SiO2
1.37
1.82
TiO2
35.86
27.96
Al2O3
1.53
8.47
Fe2O3
MnO
0.01
0.03
MgO
1.06
1.43
CaO
0.10
0.12
0.92
0.73
Na2O
10.24
4.58
K2O
0.03
0.01
P2O5
Total
100.01
100.00
1.36
1.96
SiO2/Al2O3
26.18
15.36
Al2O3/TiO2
0.29
0.16
K2O/Al2O3
Trace and rare earth elements (REEs) (ppm)
Sc
30.73
22.33
V
586.42
282.82
Cr
351.30
199.19
Co
4.30
8.97
Ni
37.12
21.02
Cu
22.83
73.82
Zn
50.40
79.51
Ga
41.29
33.08
Rb
321.16
126.51
Sr
86.72
75.16
Y
32.39
27.91
Zr
273.82
287.82
Nb
10.62
12.00
Cs
4.82
6.51
Ba
839.06
222.61
La
49.31
32.41
Ce
57.49
25.31
Pr
7.58
3.61
Nd
30.22
15.39
Sm
7.37
4.53
Eu
2.14
1.55
5.45
3.93
Gd
Tb
1.07
0.93
Dy
6.20
5.74
Ho
1.28
1.15
Er
3.42
2.84
Tm
0.63
0.49
Yb
3.76
2.89
Lu
0.66
0.47
Hf
7.75
7.94
Ta
1.11
1.27
Ss-1 sandstone
Ss-2 sandstone
Ss-3 sandstone
Max
Min
Avg
24°18′50′′
78°47′16′′
24°19′02′′
78°49′30′’
24°18′15′′
78°54′58′′
82.3
0.53
6.50
2.30
0.01
1.10
0.34
0.61
5.14
0.18
99.01
12.66
12.26
0.79
85.01
0.60
7.60
3.00
0.10
0.26
0.70
0.31
4.27
0.01
101.86
11.19
12.67
0.56
93.36
0.27
4.49
0.49
0.00
0.16
0.09
0.02
1.10
0.01
99.99
20.79
16.63
0.24
93.36
1.82
35.86
8.47
0.10
1.43
0.70
0.92
10.24
0.18
101.86
20.79
26.18
0.79
48.89
0.27
4.49
0.49
0.00
0.16
0.09
0.02
1.10
0.01
99.01
1.36
12.26
0.16
72.88
0.92
16.48
3.16
0.03
0.80
0.27
0.52
5.07
0.05
100.17
9.59
16.62
0.41
6.04
101.11
96.12
27.86
39.47
68.82
49.00
8.98
6.37
7.43
13.08
96.40
2.33
0.27
13.63
19.83
20.15
2.55
9.45
1.88
0.40
1.58
0.30
1.84
0.41
1.20
0.22
1.30
0.21
4.64
0.45
9.06
42.28
3.64
13.27
7.16
20.86
90.83
1.04
2.19
25.35
6.78
94.45
0.99
3.023
47.04
66.66
7.93
0.86
5.03
1.43
0.45
1.33
0.17
1.25
0.21
0.45
0.09
0.42
0.09
6.02
1.82
10.80
7.31
7.28
60.85
2.29
0.30
5.77
4.32
25.02
8.89
6.14
89.69
3.20
0.21
126.12
23.70
40.60
3.78
12.75
1.93
0.47
1.75
0.21
1.07
0.11
0.37
0.04
0.43
0.08
5.73
3.47
30.73
586.42
351.30
60.85
39.47
73.82
90.83
41.29
321.16
86.72
32.39
287.82
12.00
6.51
839.06
66.66
57.49
7.58
30.22
7.37
2.14
5.45
1.07
6.20
1.28
3.43
0.63
3.76
0.66
7.94
3.47
6.04
7.31
3.64
4.30
2.29
0.30
5.78
1.04
2.19
7.43
6.14
89.69
0.99
0.22
13.63
19.83
7.93
0.86
5.03
1.43
0.40
1.33
0.17
1.07
0.11
0.37
0.04
0.42
0.08
4.64
0.41
15.79
203.99
131.51
23.05
21.41
37.33
55.10
17.74
96.25
40.71
17.26
168.44
5.83
2.97
249.69
38.38
30.29
3.68
14.57
3.43
1.00
2.81
0.54
3.22
0.63
1.66
0.29
1.76
0.30
6.42
1.62
13
S. A. Dar et al.
Table 2 (continued)
Samples
S-1 shale
Pb
20.74
Th
68.36
U
3.63
Ti
8213.15
Cr/Ni
9.46
Th/Sc
2.22
Th/Co
15.90
Cr/Th
5.10
La/Co
11.50
La/Sc
1.60
4.21
(La/Sm)N
1.17
Gd/Yb)N
8.85
La/Yb)N
7.72
La/Lu)N
0.45
Ce/Yb)N
Geochemical indices
ICV
0.42
CIA
74.00
CIW
96.00
PIA
94.00
Table 3 Pearson correlation
coefficient (r) of major and
trace elements for siliciclastic
sedimentary rocks from the
Bijawar group, Sonrai basin,
Lalitpur, India
S-2 shale
Ss-1 sandstone
Ss-2 sandstone
Ss-3 sandstone
Max
Min
Avg
6.04
77.51
2.76
10,910.90
9.48
3.47
8.60
2.60
3.60
1.50
4.50
1.10
7.57
7.08
0.30
11.99
45.29
2.44
3177.35
2.44
7.50
1.60
2.10
0.70
3.30
6.65
0.99
10.29
9.85
0.39
2.22
47.80
10.41
3597.00
0.51
5.28
3.60
0.10
5.00
7.40
29.38
2.58
107.76
76.89
0.05
61.50
50.90
1.50
1618.65
3.18
4.71
0.80
0.10
0.40
2.20
7.72
3.27
36.90
31.14
0.66
61.50
77.51
10.41
10,910.90
9.48
7.50
15.91
5.14
11.48
7.40
29.38
3.27
107.76
76.89
0.66
2.22
45.29
1.50
1618.65
0.51
2.22
0.84
0.08
0.39
1.50
4.21
0.99
7.57
7.72
0.05
20.48
57.97
4.15
5503.41
5.01
4.64
6.12
2.01
4.24
3.18
10.49
1.82
34.28
26.54
0.37
0.61
82.00
96.00
95.00
1.54
49.00
83.00
42.00
1.22
57.00
87.00
75.00
0.47
78.00
98.00
98.00
1.54
81.69
97.51
98.05
0.42
48.60
83.20
41.68
0.85
67.94
91.77
80.55
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
Sc
Cr
Co
Ni
Cu
Rb
Y
Zr
Ba
Th
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K 2O
1
− 0.93
− 0.99
− 0.49
0.16
− 0.78
0.43
− 0.90
− 0.79
− 0.92
− 0.94
0.78
− 0.57
− 0.38
− 0.88
− 0.99
− 0.97
− 0.78
− 0.88
1.00
0.90
0.76
− 0.04
0.79
− 0.38
0.79
0.55
0.81
0.78
− 0.75
0.38
0.52
0.68
0.90
0.97
0.54
0.95
1.00
0.40
− 0.19
0.67
− 0.49
0.84
0.78
0.97
0.95
− 0.71
0.49
0.22
0.93
0.97
0.97
0.86
0.89
1.00
0.23
0.64
− 0.05
0.40
− 0.01
0.26
0.21
− 0.52
0.05
0.73
0.05
0.44
0.58
− 0.13
0.67
1.00
− 0.33
0.88
− 0.16
− 0.08
− 0.25
− 0.37
− 0.41
− 0.40
− 0.07
− 0.32
− 0.31
− 0.21
− 0.32
− 0.20
1.00
− 0.40
0.87
0.55
0.51
0.72
− 0.61
0.77
0.85
0.48
0.81
0.74
0.33
0.67
1.00
− 0.25
− 0.12
− 0.57
− 0.54
− 0.22
− 0.23
− 0.04
− 0.54
− 0.55
− 0.54
− 0.50
− 0.59
1.00
0.88
0.70
0.90
− 0.82
0.85
0.58
0.74
0.90
0.79
0.65
0.63
1.00
0.72
0.88
− 0.77
0.76
0.16
0.84
0.78
0.63
0.83
0.43
average values of SiO2/Al2O3 ratio in fresh igneous rocks
range from ~ 3.00 (in basic rocks) to ~ 5.00 (in acidic rocks).
The high SiO2/Al2O3 values (1.36–20.79) in studied samples
(Table 2) indicate relatively high sediment maturity (Roser
and Korsch 1999) due to the extreme sorting of sediments in
13
a stable cratonic regime. In addition, low concentrations of
CaO, Na2O, and Sr of studied samples (Table 2) also suggest
a stable cratonic regime with a low upliftment rate that has
allowed strong chemical weathering of protoliths.
Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of…
400
1000
Rb (ppm)
100
Ba (ppm)
300
800
80
200
600
60
100
400
40
0
200
20
-100
0
0
10
20
30
40
0
0
10
20
30
40
0
40
Zr (ppm)
40
Y (ppm)
30
30
200
20
20
100
10
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
10
1000
20
30
40
0
10
20
100
Ba (ppm)
40
Th (ppm)
80
500
100
30
Al2O3 wt. %
300
200
40
Sc (ppm)
Al2O3 wt. %
Rb (ppm)
30
0
0
Al2O3 wt. %
400
20
Al2O3 wt. %
300
0
10
Al2O3 wt. %
Al2O3 wt. %
400
Th (ppm)
60
40
0
0
20
-100
-500
0
5
10
0
0
15
5
15
0
40
Zr (ppm)
40
Y (ppm)
30
30
200
20
20
100
10
10
0
0
5
10
15
10
15
K2O wt. %
300
0
5
K2O wt. %
K2O wt. %
400
10
Sc (ppm)
0
0
5
K2O wt. %
10
K2O wt. %
15
0
5
10
15
K2O wt. %
Fig. 5 Al2O3 and K2O vs Rb, Ba, Th, Zr, Y, Sc correlation diagrams for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin
4.5 Paleo‑weathering
Geochemical studies have contributed appreciably to the
understanding of the growth of the continents through time
(Taylor and McLennan 1985). Numerous factors including
source area composition, source area weathering conditions,
hydraulic sorting, adsorption, diagenesis, and metamorphism affect the composition of clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks over a wide-scale (Fedo et al. 1996). Silicate
weathering strongly affects the major-element geochemistry
and the mineralogy of siliciclastic sediments (Nesbitt and
Young 1982; McLennan 1993). In this process, larger cations (Al2O3, Ba, Rb) remain fixed in the weathering profile,
whereas smaller cations (Ca, Na, Sr) are selectively leached
(Nesbitt et al. 1980). These chemical signatures are ultimately transferred to the sedimentary record (Nesbitt and
Young 1982; Wronkiewicz and Condie 1987) and provide
a useful tool for monitoring source area weathering conditions. For instance, several silicate weathering indices
such as the plagioclase index of alteration (PIA), chemical
index of alteration (CIA), and chemical index of weathering
(CIW) are applicable to understand the paleo-weathering of
13
S. A. Dar et al.
50
80
Ni (ppm)
40
50
Cu (ppm)
60
30
40
20
80
30
60
20
40
20
10
20
10
0
0
0
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
20
Al2O3 wt. %
80
30
100
Ni (ppm)
40
0
0
40
5
80
400
60
300
40
200
20
100
0
0
10
0
400
Co (ppm)
Cr (ppm)
60
300
40
200
20
100
0
0
10
20
30
0
10
20
40
0
5
Fe2O3 wt. %
50
Cu (ppm)
Cr (ppm)
10
10
Fe2O3 wt. %
80
Ni (ppm)
40
80
Ni (ppm)
5
40
Al2O3 wt. %
Al2O3 wt. %
50
30
10
0
0
40
5
Fe2O3 wt. %
Fe2O3 wt. %
Al2O3 wt. %
Co (ppm)
Cu (ppm)
Cu (ppm)
60
30
60
40
20
30
40
10
20
0
0
0
5
10
15
0
0
5
10
400
60
300
40
200
20
100
0
0
-20
-100
0.50
1.00
80
Cr (ppm)
1.50
0.00
2.00
5
10
K2O wt. %
15
400
Co (ppm)
60
300
40
200
20
100
10
2.00
Cr (ppm)
0.50
1.00
1.50
0.00
2.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
MgO wt. %
MgO wt. %
5
1.50
0
0.00
0
1.00
MgO wt. %
0
0
0.50
MgO wt. %
15
K2O wt. %
Co (ppm)
0
0.00
K2O wt. %
80
20
10
20
15
K2O wt. %
Fig. 6 Ni, Cu, Co, Cr vs Al2O3, and K2O correlation diagrams for
siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin.
Ni, Cu, Co, Cr vs Fe2O3 and MgO correlation diagrams for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin
Fig. 6 (continued)
1000
S-1
S-2
Ss-1
Ss-2
Ss-3
100
sediments (Harnois 1988; Fedo et al. 1996). For example,
high CIA values reflect the removal of labile cations (Ca2+,
Na+, K+) in comparison with stable residual constituents
(Al, Ti) (Nesbitt and Young 1982). Conversely, low CIA
values indicate that the chemical alteration is almost absent
which implies cool and arid conditions (Fedo et al. 1995).
The CIA is calculated from the equation [Al2O3/(Al2O3 + Ca
O* + Na2O + K2O] × 100, where all elements are in molecular proportion and CaO* represents Ca in silicate fraction.
In this work, a method given by McLennan et al. (1993)
has been applied for the correction of CaO*. According
to this method, CaO* is equal to CaO when CaO is lower
than Na2O and when CaO is higher than Na2O then CaO*
is supposed to be equal to Na2O. The CIA values vary for
un-weathered to highly weathered rocks; for example, in the
case of un-weathered rocks, average shales and intensely
13
10
1
0.1
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Fig. 7 Chondrite-normalized (Taylor and McLennan 1985) rare
earth-element patterns for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the
Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin
weathered rocks, the CIA values are 50, 70–75, and 100,
respectively (Absar et al. 2009; Mir et al. 2016). In the
Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of…
Fig. 8 A–CN–K ternary diagram (after Nesbitt and Young 1982) of
siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin.
A = Al2O3; CN = CaO* + Na2O; K = K2O (all in molar proportions)
present study, the CIA (48.60–81.69; Table 2) values specify
low to moderate degrees of the chemical weathering of the
source. In surplus, a triangular plot of Al2O3, CaO* + Na2O,
and K2O (A–CN–K; after Nesbitt and Young 1982) has been
used to show the weathering trends and composition of the
source rock (Fig. 8). In this diagram (Fig. 8), the departure
of two samples from the weathering trend indicates that
some potassium (K)—metasomatism is present in the studied siliciclastic rocks (Fedo et al.1995). This metasomatism
may be either due to alteration of aluminous clay minerals
(such as kaolinite) to illite or due to a change of plagioclase
into K-feldspar. The placing of studied samples in the vicinity of the Al2O3 to K-feldspars (AK) boundary (Fig. 8) indicates the demolition of plagioclase due to intense weathering
which in turn caused the removal of CaO and Na2O. Moreover, the composition of the source rock has been inferred to
be similar to granites (Fig. 8).
The CIW and PIA indices are also used to measure the
intensity of chemical weathering of rocks. CIW removes
the effect of K-metasomatism and is calculated as follows:
CIW = Al2O3/(Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O) × 100. Studied samples have CIW values like 83.20–97.51 (Table 2) which
indicates a much-reduced K-metasomatism effect on the
samples of the study area. The PIA imitates the weathering of plagioclase feldspars and is defined by the equation:
PIA = [(Al2O3–K2O)/(Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O – K2O)] × 100.
Kaolinite and gibbsite show the highest values of PIA equal
to 100, whereas, in the case of unweathered plagioclase it
is equal to 50. Studied samples have PIA values ranging
from 41.68 to 98.05 (Table 2), which points towards a low
to moderate degree of weathering of plagioclase. The degree
of weathering and composition of detritus is also controlled
by climatic conditions (Suttner and Dutta 1986); hence, the
relationship between SiO2 and Al2O3 + K2O + Na2O (Fig. 9)
shows that the studied rock formations have experienced
high chemical maturity under humid or semi-humid climatic
conditions.
Fig. 9 SiO2 vs Al2O3 + Na2O + K2O plot (after Suttner and Dutta
1986) to determine the chemical maturity of siliciclastic sedimentary
rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin
4.6 Provenance
As we know, geochemical composition of basin sediments
changes to some extent by various processes such as hydraulic sorting, weathering, and diagenesis (Mir et al. 2015).
However, strong signatures of the source terrain are stored
in these sediments by which nature of the exposed continental crust can be assessed. Because of low solubility of
oxides and hydroxides of Al and Ti at low temperatures,
these elements are generally stable in the pace of siliciclastic weathering (Sugitani et al. 2006). For this reason,
Al/Ti ratio of residual soils is believed to be very close to
those of their parent material; hence this ratio is used by
various researchers for the discrimination of provenances
(Hayashi et al. 1997; Sugitani et al. 2006; Odigi and Amajor 2008; Sun et al. 2013; Mir et al. 2015, 2016). Hayashi
et al. (1997) find out that Al2O/TiO2 ratio varies in mafic,
intermediate, and felsic rocks from: 3 to 8; 8 to 21 and; 21
to 70, respectively. Therefore, the Al2O3/TiO2 values ranging from 12.26 to 26.18 in the concerned samples (Table 2)
suggests that the intermediate to felsic granitoid rocks as
the probable source. The provenance discriminant function diagram, given by Roser and Korsch (1988), has been
used by different researchers to key out the provenance of
terrigenous sediments (Cullers 2000; Islam et al. 2002;
Rashid 2005; Mir et al. 2016). This diagram distinguishes
four major provenances: quartzose sedimentary, felsic,
intermediate, and mafic (Fig. 10). In this diagram (Fig. 10),
studied shale samples fall in intermediate to felsic igneous
provenances and sandstone samples plot in quartzose sedimentary provenance. Although sandstones are the first cycle
sediments which may have been derived from felsic igneous
provenance.
The provenance studies are further elaborated on the
bases of trace element and rare earth element geochemistry.
Rare earth elements, due to their unique coherent behavior,
13
S. A. Dar et al.
Fig. 10 Discriminant function diagram (after Roser and Korsch 1988)
of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai
Basin
have contributed to understand the geochemical processes
in various fields (Taylor and McLennan 1985). The REEs
are believed to be transported without any losses and hence
preserve the signatures of their provenance (Maharana et al.
2018; Malik and Pramod 2020a, b). The low Cr and Ni contents mark the dominance of felsic rocks in the provenance,
whereas high contents of these transitional elements indicate
dominance of mafic to ultramafic rocks in the provenance
(Armstrong-Altrinet al. 2004). The Cr/Ni (0.51–9.48) ratios
are low in the studied samples which suggest intermediate
to felsic source. The relative contribution of felsic to mafic
input into the sedimentary basins can be established in the
ratio–ratio plot of different compatible to incompatible element pairs. For this purpose, studied samples were plotted
in Th/Sc vs Sc, La/Sc vs Sc/Th, and Th/Co vs La/Sc diagrams (Fig. 11) along with the available data of Tonalitetondhjemite-granodiorites (Sharma and Rahman 1995),
Mafic rocks (Mondal and Ahmad 2001), low-silica highmagnesium (LSHM) granitoids and high-silica low-magnesium (HSLM) granitoids (Joshi et al. 2017), and Sanukitoids
(Joshi and Slabunov 2019) of the BGGC to distinguish the
source lithology. In these diagrams, the studied samples are
plotted around the granitoids and sanukitoids, i.e., closer to
BGGC felsic rocks as compared to BGGC mafic rocks indicating a minor contribution from the mafic rocks (Fig. 11).
In the present study, values of (La/Lu)n (7.72–76.89), La/
Sc (1.50–7.40), La/Co (0.39–11.48), Th/Co (0.84–15.90),
Cr/Th (0.08–5.14), LaN/SmN (avg. 10.49), CeN/YbN (avg.
0.37), LaN/YbN (avg. 34.28), and GdN/YbN (avg. 1.82) indicate main contribution from felsic source rocks. This interpretation is further supported by the Th/Co vs. La/Sc plot
(Fig. 11c; after Cullers 2002), where studied samples fall
around the felsic source rocks. Felsic source for the studied
samples is also encouraged by their slightly enriched LREE
13
Fig. 11 a Th/Sc vs Sc, b La/Sc vs Sc/Th, and c Th/Co vs La/Sc diagram of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin. TTG (after Sharma and Rahman 1995); mafic rocks (after
Mondal and Ahmad 2001), LSHM Granitoids and HSLM Granitoids
(after Joshi et al. 2017) and Sanukitoids (after Joshi et al. 2019)
and flat HREE patterns with weak negative Eu anomaly
(Fig. 6) (Taylor and McLennan 1985). Hence, above discussed geochemical parameters depict that the main source
of the studied samples was felsic in nature. Since the Bijawar
Group is sited over the Bundelkhand Granite Gneiss Complex, it is, therefore, plausible that the main source component of the Bijawar Group siliciclastic rocks was the BGGC
felsic rocks.
5 Conclusion
The salient geochemical characteristics such as (high SiO2,
Al2O3, and K2O) and (low TiO2, MgO, Na2O, and CaO)
contents suggest a felsic provenance. Felsic nature of source
rocks is also supported by trace element ratios like (La/Lu)
Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of…
n (7.72–76.89), La/Sc (1.50–7.40), La/Co (0.39–11.48), Th/
Co (0.84–15.91), and Cr/Th (0.08–5.14). Since the Bijawar
Group is located over the Bundelkhand Granite Gneiss Complex, it is, therefore, concluded that the sediment material
of Bijawar group siliciclastic rocks has mainly been derived
from the BGGC felsic rocks. On the bases of CIA and CIW,
it is concluded that the studied samples had experienced a
low to moderate degree of chemical weathering. The PIA
values in the studied samples show moderate weathering of
plagioclase feldspars. The consistent variation in terms of
the degree of chemical weathering noticed in the sandstones
and shales indicates climatic influence in the deposition of
the Bijawar group sediments.
Acknowledgements The Chairman, Department of Geology, Aligarh
Muslim University, Aligarh and the Director, NGRI, Hyderabad are
highly acknowledged for grant of permission to analyze present samples. Special thanks are due to Dr. V. Balaram, Scientist-Emeritus,
NGRI, Hyderabad for providing full facilities and cooperation to conduct major, trace and rare earth element analysis. Authors are thankful
to Dr. Farooq A. Sheikh, Department of English, Leh campus, University of Kashmir for his assistance to improve English language and
grammar of this manuscript.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author
states that there is no conflict of interest.
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Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of…
Affiliations
Shamim A. Dar1 · K. F. Khan1 · Akhtar R. Mir2
1
Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh 202002, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Department of Geology, Satellite Campus Leh, University
of Kashmir, Ladakh 194101, India
13