Journal of Sedimentary Environments https://doi.org/10.1007/s43217-020-00024-5 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Provenance and paleo‑weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin, Uttar Pradesh, India: using a geochemical approach Shamim A. Dar1 · K. F. Khan1 · Akhtar R. Mir2 Received: 13 June 2020 / Revised: 6 August 2020 / Accepted: 9 August 2020 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 Abstract Shales and sandstones of the Paleoproterozoic Bijawar Group (India) have been studied to decipher their paleo-weathering conditions and provenance based on geochemistry. Shale samples are composed of k-feldspars, mica, quartz, and fine ironoxides, whereas sandstones are composed of quartz and k-feldspars. The predominant positive correlation of K2O vs TiO2, Na2O vs Al2O3, and K2O vs Al2O3 indicates that the elements are associated with detrital phases. Trace elements Sc, Rb, Ba,Th, Y, and Zr show a strong positive correlation with Al2O3 and K2O which indicates that the absolute abundances of these elements are controlled mainly by illite. A negative correlation of trace elements Ni, Cu, Co with Al2O3, and K2O represents their presence in iron oxides like magnetite, ilmenite, and hematite. Multi-element Post-Archaean Australian Average Shale (PAAS) normalized spider diagrams show enrichment of V, Pb, Zr, Y, Hf, Th, Rb, and depletion of Ni, Sr, Ba, Nb, U. The depletion of Sr indicates the least enrichment of plagioclase and the same is also supported by negative Euanomaly of the samples, though weak. The chondrite normalized rare earth element (REE) plots show a slightly light-REE (LREE) enriched and flat heavy-REE (HREE) pattern with weak negative Eu anomaly. The overall, high values of LaN/ SmN (avg. 10.49), CeN/YbN (avg.0.37), LaN/YbN (avg. 34.28) and low values of GdN/YbN (avg. 1.82) and TiO2 (0.27–1.82, average 0.92 < PAAS) in most of the samples, show a relationship with the felsic source rocks. The index of compositional variability (ICV) of the samples is < 0.84 which indicates no enrichment of primary minerals. The chemical index of alteration (CIA) of present samples varies from 48.60 to 81.69, indicating low to moderate intensity of chemical weathering of the source. The plot between SiO2 and Al2O3 + K2O + Na2O depicts that majority of the samples belong to the environment from humid to semi-humid and have attained a high chemical maturity. The high SiO2/Al2O3 values (1.36–20.79) in studied samples indicate relatively high sediment maturity due to the extreme sorting of sediments in a stable cratonic regime. A stable cratonic regime, with a low upliftment rate that has allowed strong chemical weathering of protoliths, is further indicated by low CaO, Na2O, and Sr contents of the studied samples. The overall geochemical characteristics of the present samples—high SiO2, Al2O3 and K2O and low TiO2, MgO, Na2O, and CaO contents—suggest a felsic provenance. The felsic nature of the source rocks is also supported by the trace element ratios like (La/Lu)N (7.72–76.89), La/Sc (1.50–7.40), La/Co (0.39–11.48), Th/Co (0.80–15.90), and Cr/Th (0.08–5.10). Since the Bijawar Group is sited over the Bundelkhand Granite Gneiss Complex (BGGC), it is, therefore, plausible that the main source components of Bijawar Group siliciclastic rocks are the BGGC felsic rocks. Keywords Geochemistry · Geochemical indices · Shale · Sandstone · Sedimentary basin Communicated by M. V. Alves Martins Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s43217-020-00024-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. * Shamim A. Dar sjshamim@gmail.com Extended author information available on the last page of the article 1 Introduction The origin and evolution of continental crust have remained a flaming issue in the field of geosciences. In this regard, Precambrian sedimentary rocks offer an opportunity to understand the compositional and the tectonic setting evolution of continental crusts (Absar et al. 2009). Various researchers have carried out geochemical studies of clastic 13 Vol.:(0123456789) S. A. Dar et al. rocks to evaluate the paleo-weathering, paleo-climate, paleotectonic setting of basins, sediment provenance, etc. Such studies have been helpful in understanding the evolution of global continental crust (Nesbitt and Young 1982; Bhatia and Crook 1986; Roser and Korsch 1988; Wronkiewicz and Condie 1990; Taylor and Mclennan 1985; Cullers 2000; Naqvi et al. 2002). However, sedimentary processes like weathering, erosion, deposition, diagenesis may bring some chemical changes in sedimentary rocks, though certain insoluble elements (like REEs, Th, Sc, Co, Cr, Zr, and Hf) having short residence time in seawater are transferred almost quantitatively to clastic sediments (Taylor and McLennan 1985; Wronkiewicz and Condie 1987; Fedo et al.1996). Some elements (e.g., Th, La) are highly incompatible during magmatic processes and are, hence, enriched in residual silicate melts. On the other hand, some elements (e.g., Sc, Co, Cr, Ni) are compatible and as a result, concentrate in early crystallizing minerals (Absar et al. 2009). Hence, the relative abundance of these two groups of elements provides a platform to differentiate between felsic and mafic provenances. Among the clastic sedimentary rocks, shales are the most abundant and well-homogenized rocks in sedimentary basins. Shales provide the average crustal composition of the rock from which they come much better than any other detrital rock (Rudnick and Gao 2004). Different authors from the world like Taylor and McLennan (1985), Condie and Wronkiewicz (1990), Raza et al. (2002), Cullers (2002), Mir (2015) have carried out geochemical studies on the shales to interpret their weathering processes, provenance characteristics, tectonic setting, and paleoredox conditions. The earlier workers (Banerjee 1982; Srivastava 1989; Roy et al. 2004; Khan et al. 2012a, b; Dar et al. 2014, 2015; Jha et al. 2020) have carried research on the Bijawar group with the aim to discuss phosphate origin, exploration strategy of phosphates, uranium concentration of phosphates, paleoenvironmental conditions necessary for uranium enrichment, etc. However, provenance, paleo-weathering, and tectonic setting studies, based on geochemical data (major and trace and rare earth elements) of sedimentary rocks of the Paleoproterozoic Bijawar Group, are lacking. Therefore, the main aim of the present work was to determine the provenance and source area weathering characteristics of the Paleoproterozoic sedimentary rocks (especially sandstones and shales) of the Bijawar group. Early Proterozoic (> 1800 my) Bijawar Group (Bogdanov et al. 1974). The Bijawar group overlies the Archaean Bundelkhand Basement Complex and is underlain by Vindhayan Supergroup. The Bundelkhand group (BkG), the Bijawar group (BG), and the Vindhyan Super group (VSG) form three important rock groups ranging in age from Archaean to Late Precambrian. BkG, among the three, is unconformably overlain by the BG. It is mostly composed of granitoids and enclaves of older metamorphic rocks. BkG and BG together are unconformably overlain by VSG. All these three groups are overlain by Late Mesozoic to early Tertiary Deccan Traps. The study area forms the southern part of the Bundelkhand Granite Complex. The VSG surrounds the Bundelkhand Craton on its east, west, and south periphery (Fig. 1).The BG is folded to form a large west-south-west plunging synclinorium, the southern limb of which is concealed below the Vindhyan rocks in the Sonrai area. The northern limb presents generally monoclinal gently or moderately (300–600) dipping sequence in the west and central part of the basin. In the eastern part, usually flat folds have developed with dips changing to the west or even north-west. The folds are closely related to the east–west trending decollement surface. Such major surfaces have developed along (i) the contact of Sonrai Formation with the basement complex, and (ii) the contact of Rohini Carbonate with Gorakalan Shale. The planes of decollement have been intruded by rocks of diabasic composition, which are present as lenticular bodies and are often strongly chloritized. The Gorakalan Shale member acts as a major surface of decollement with the overlying Rohini Carbonate and Bandai members relatively more strongly deformed. The lithostratigraphy of the area is given in Table 1 after Pant et al. (1989) and Dar et al. (2015). The lithostratographic units of the BG in the Lalitpur district are better exposed and are divided into three formations: Berwar, Sonrai, and Solda Formations. The Berwar Formation, which occurs at the base, contains banded hematite-quartzite, chloritic shale, quartzite, and pebbly conglomerate. The overlying Sonrai Formation is divided into five members, which in ascending order are: (a) Jammuni member, (b) Gorakalan member, (c) Brecciated quartzite member, (d) Rohini member, and (d) Bandai member. The uppermost Solda Formation is divided into two members: (a) Dhori Sagar Member, and (c) Hadda Member. 3 Materials and methods 2 Geology setting The study area is part of the Survey of India toposheet number. 54L/15 covered by longitudes 78o50′ to 78°59′ E and latitudes 24°18′ to 24°24′ N. Sonrai rift basin preserves Late Achaean to early Proterozoic volcano-sedimentary units (Sharma 2000) (Fig. 1). Within the Sonrai basin there is the 13 Sampling was carried out using geological maps and topographic sheets (54L/15, 54L/11, 54L/16). Thin sections were prepared for petrographic studies which were carried out in the Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India using both the ordinary and electronic binocular microscopes (LEICA-EC3, 1.6.0 version). Microscopic Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of… Fig. 1 Modified geological map of Sonrai basin, Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India (modified after Khan et al. 2012a, b). The inset map showing the Bijawar and the younger Vindhyan, fringe the southern margins of the Bundelkhand granite complex (BGC) characteristics of the studied samples are given in Supplementary Table 1 and petrography results are discussed in upcoming section. After petrographic studies, the five representative (two shale and three sandstone) samples were selected for the geochemical analysis. These samples were crushed to -30 mesh size in a steel mortar and were dried in the oven at 100 °C to eliminate the hygroscopic moisture. These crushed samples were, then, finely powdered in a centrifugal ball mill and sieved by the standard sieve of −200 mesh at the Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim 13 S. A. Dar et al. Table 1 Stratigraphy of the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin in Lalitpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India (after Pant et al. 1989; Dar et al. 2015) Vindhyan supergroup (late Proterozoic 1400–600 my) Unconformity Bijawar group (early Proterozoic > 1800 my) Vindhyan sandstone, etc. Quartzite Hadda shale interMember calations Dhori Tuffaceous Sagar shale Member Tuffaceous Bandai shale, Member sandstone Rohini and grit Member Sandy, shaly and dolomitic carbonate rocks Brecciated Brecciquartzated ite with Quartzlensoid ite bodies of Member Gorakalan phosphorite Shale Member Grey, green, and red Jamuni shales with Member carbonate Bandai and phosMember phorite Rohini bands Member Calcareous laminated shale, limestone, dolomite, and grit Banded hematite quartzite, chloritic shale, quartzite, and conglomerate Solda formation Sonrai formation Barwar Formation Unconformity Bundelkhand group (Archaean > 2500 my) Bundelkhand Granitoid Complex with pegmatite and quartz veins, etc. University, Aligarh, India. The whole rock geochemical analysis of these samples was carried out at the National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad, India. Collapsible aluminum cups were used for the preparation of pressed pellets to determine major element data (Govil 1985). These cups were filled with boric acid and about 1 g of each powdered rock sample was put on top of the boric acid and these cups were subjected to the hydraulic press at 20-ton pressure. The sample pellets were analyzed using a Philips MagiX PRO model PW-2440 wavelength 13 dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF) coupled with automatic sample changer PW 2540. Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) technique using Perkin-Elmer, SCIEX, Model ELAN DRC-II system has been used to determine trace elements and rare earth elements. Analytical solutions were prepared by the open acid digestion method and acquisition parameters for instrument and data are alike as set by Roy et al. (2007). For the open acid digestion method, 50 mg of powdered rock sample was placed in a clean, dried PTFE Teflon beaker. A few drops of Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of… ultra-pure water were added to moisten each sample. Then, 10 ml of an acid mixture (containing 7:3:1 HF:HNO:HClO) was added to each sample. Samples were swirled until completely moist and left over night for digestion after adding 1 ml of 5 g/ml Rh solution (as internal standard). The next day, sample beakers were heated on a hot plate at ~ 200 °C for about 1 h; the contents were evaporated to incipient dryness until a crystalline paste was obtained. Ten ml of a 1:1 HNO solution was added to dissolve residual material in these beakers and again these beakers were placed on a hot plate for 10 min with gentle heating (70 °C) to dissolve all suspended particles. Finally, the volume was diluted to 250 ml with double distilled water after adding10 ml of 1 ppm Rhodium solution as an internal standard. This solution was used for estimation of trace (including REEs) elements using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry techniques (ICP-MS). The precision of ICP-MS data is better than ± 6% RSD for all the trace elements and REE. All the available data were standardized against the international reference rock standard iron formation (FeR-1) and cody shale (SCo-1). The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) measures the strength and direction of linear relationships between two or more random variables and ranges from − 1 to 1 (Bluman 2003). In the present study, the Pearson correlation coefficient has been determined by the parametric “t test” method with the help of R-software. In the present study ‘r’ is used to describe the interrelationships between the elements analyzed at a significance level (p) of < 0.05. Hydraulic sorting arranges detrital minerals according to their grain properties. This type of sorting significantly influences the chemical composition of bulk sediments. The index of compositional variability (ICV) (Cox et al. 1995) was calculated to evaluate geochemical variability due to hydraulic sorting. This parameter is calculated as ICV = (Fe2O3 + K2O + Na2O + C aO + MgO + MnO + TiO2)/Al2O3 (Cox et al. 1995). The ICV results are discussed in the next section. 4 Results and discussion 4.1 Petrography The Petrographic study of present shale and sandstone samples is given in Supplementary Table 1. Studied shale samples are composed of fine crystals of k-feldspars, muscovite, biotite, etc. and some iron-oxides (Fig. 2a). Quartz and K-feldspars are the major constituents and micas, chlorite, etc. occur in minor concentration in shales. In sandstone samples quartz is one of the main constituents (72–90%) and k-feldspars (5–10%) are present in small quantity (Fig. 2b). Muscovite and biotite also occur in minor concentrations in sandstone samples. Quartz is present in all the samples Fig. 2 a Microphotograph of shale sample composed of fine crystals of k-feldspars, muscovite, biotite etc. b Microphotograph of sandstone samples having quartz as a main constituent and k-feldspars as minor constituents with monocrystalline quartz as the dominant variety. Quartz grains show diagnostic wavy extinction. Two K-feldspars, microcline as major and orthoclase as minor, are seen in sandstone samples. Sometimes these feldspars alter along cleavage plains and grain boundaries on account of their hydrothermal and weathering conditions. Carbonates, iron, and silica occur as cementing material. Rhomb-shaped calcite cement and patchy iron cement develops through pore fillings. 4.2 Major elements The major (in wt.%) and trace (in ppm) elements (including REEs) geochemical data of studied silisiclastic sedimentary rocks from Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin, Lalitpur, India, is given in Table 2. The concentration of major oxides (in wt. %) in studied shale samples (S-1 and S-2) varies as follows; (SiO2 = 48.89–54.85, TiO2 = 1.37–1.82, Al2O3 = 35.86–27.96, Fe2O3 = 1.53–8.47, MnO = 0.01–0.03, MgO = 1.06–1.43, CaO = 0.10–0.12, Na2O = 0.92–0.73, K 2O = 10.24–4.58, and P2O 5 = 0.03–0.01. In sandstone samples (Ss-1, Ss-2 and Ss-3), major oxides (in wt.%) show values like (SiO2 = 82.30–93.36, TiO2 = 0.27–0.60, Al2O3 = 4.49–7.60, Fe2O3 = 0.49–3.00, MnO = 0.00–0.10, MgO = 0.16–1.10, CaO = 0.09–0.70, Na2O = 0.02–0.61, K2O = 1.10–5.14, and P2O5 = 0.01–0.18).The significant positive correlation of K2O with TiO2, Na2O with Al2O3, 13 S. A. Dar et al. 12 2 K2O wt. % 10 12 Na2O wt. % 1 8 K2O wt. % 10 8 6 6 1 4 4 2 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 10 TiO2 wt. % 20 30 40 0 Al2O3 wt. % 10 20 30 40 Al2O3 wt. % Fig. 3 TiO2 vs K2O, Al2O3 vs Na2O and Al2O3 vs K2O correlation diagrams for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin 10 S-1 S-2 Ss-1 Ss-2 Ss-3 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 Fig. 4 Post-Achaean Australian average Shale (PAAS) normalized multi-element spider diagrams (Taylor and McLennan 1985) for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin and K2O with Al2O3 (Table 3; Fig. 3) indicates that these elements are associated with detrital phases. Lower concentration of P2O5 in the studied samples may suggest a lesser amount of accessory phases such as apatite and monazite as compared to Post-Archaean Australian average shale (PAAS). The low SiO2 content in some samples suggests possible hydraulic sorting during sedimentary processes. According to Cox et al. (1995), K2O/Al2O3 ratio varies from 0.00 to 0.40 for clay minerals and 0.50 to 0.90 for feldspars. In the studied samples, K2O/Al2O3 ratio varies from 0.16 to 0.79 with an average of 0.40, which implies that illite is the dominant clay mineral. Most of the studied samples have TiO2 values (0.27–1.82, average 0.92) lower than the PAAS (= 0.99, Taylor and McLennan 1985), which suggests a more evolved (felsic) source. Enrichment of K2O (4.58–10.24) and depletion of Na2O (0.73–0.90) in shale samples as compared to PAAS (Fig. 4) suggest either a lesser amount of albiteplagioclase detritus and/or comparatively intense chemical weathering of the source (Mir et al. 2015). 13 4.3 Trace elements and rare earth elements Trace element data including REEs of the studied samples is given in Table 2. Some trace elements such as Rb, Ba,Th, Zr, Y, and Sc show positive correlation with Al2O3 and K2O (Table 3; Fig. 5), which indicates that the absolute abundances of these elements were controlled by illite. The negative correlations of Co vs Al2O3, K2O, Fe2O3, and MgO, weakly positive correlations of Ni vs Al2O3, Cu vs Al2O3, Cu vs K2O, Ni vs Fe2O3, and Cr vs Fe2O3 and positive correlations of Cr vs Al2O3, Ni vs K2O, Cr vs K2O, Cu vs Fe2O3, Ni vs MgO, Cu vs MgO, and Cr vs MgO allow to infer that these trace elements may have been bound in iron oxides like magnetite, ilmenite and hematite (Table 3; Fig. 6). Multi-element-PAAS normalized spider diagrams of trace elements (Fig. 4) show enrichment of V, Pb, Zr, Y, Hf, Th and depletion of Ni, Sr, Ba, Nb, U. The depletion of Sr indicates the least enrichment of plagioclase, which is also supported by weakly negative Eu-anomaly of these samples. The chondrite normalized REE plots of the analyzed samples are shown in (Fig. 7). These samples show a slightly LREE-enriched and HREE pattern with weak negative Eu anomaly. LREEs are fractionated as LaN/SmN = 4.21–29.38 (avg. = 10.49), whereas HREEs show moderate fractionation as GdN/YbN = 0.99–3.27 (avg. = 1.82). The overall, high values of LaN/SmN (avg. 10.49), CeN/YbN (avg.0.37), LaN/ YbN (avg. 34.28), and low values of GdN/YbN (avg. 1.82) in the majority of samples, match well with those of felsic igneous rocks. 4.4 Hydraulic sorting Rock forming minerals like K-feldspars, plagioclase, pyroxenes, and amphiboles indicate ICV values of > 0.84, whereas typical alteration products such as kaolinite, illite, and muscovite show values of < 0.84 (Cox et al. 1995; Cullers 2000). The ICV values of studied samples are < 0.84, hence indicating no enrichment of primary minerals (Table 2). Textural maturity can also be defined by SiO2/Al2O3 ratios. The Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of… Table 2 Major element, trace element, and rare earth element geochemical data of the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of the Bijawar group, Sonrai basin, Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India Samples S-1 shale S-2 shale Latitudes 24°18′25′′ 24°17′38′′ Longitudes 78°55′10′′ 78°48′25′′ Major elements (wt. %) 48.89 54.85 SiO2 1.37 1.82 TiO2 35.86 27.96 Al2O3 1.53 8.47 Fe2O3 MnO 0.01 0.03 MgO 1.06 1.43 CaO 0.10 0.12 0.92 0.73 Na2O 10.24 4.58 K2O 0.03 0.01 P2O5 Total 100.01 100.00 1.36 1.96 SiO2/Al2O3 26.18 15.36 Al2O3/TiO2 0.29 0.16 K2O/Al2O3 Trace and rare earth elements (REEs) (ppm) Sc 30.73 22.33 V 586.42 282.82 Cr 351.30 199.19 Co 4.30 8.97 Ni 37.12 21.02 Cu 22.83 73.82 Zn 50.40 79.51 Ga 41.29 33.08 Rb 321.16 126.51 Sr 86.72 75.16 Y 32.39 27.91 Zr 273.82 287.82 Nb 10.62 12.00 Cs 4.82 6.51 Ba 839.06 222.61 La 49.31 32.41 Ce 57.49 25.31 Pr 7.58 3.61 Nd 30.22 15.39 Sm 7.37 4.53 Eu 2.14 1.55 5.45 3.93 Gd Tb 1.07 0.93 Dy 6.20 5.74 Ho 1.28 1.15 Er 3.42 2.84 Tm 0.63 0.49 Yb 3.76 2.89 Lu 0.66 0.47 Hf 7.75 7.94 Ta 1.11 1.27 Ss-1 sandstone Ss-2 sandstone Ss-3 sandstone Max Min Avg 24°18′50′′ 78°47′16′′ 24°19′02′′ 78°49′30′’ 24°18′15′′ 78°54′58′′ 82.3 0.53 6.50 2.30 0.01 1.10 0.34 0.61 5.14 0.18 99.01 12.66 12.26 0.79 85.01 0.60 7.60 3.00 0.10 0.26 0.70 0.31 4.27 0.01 101.86 11.19 12.67 0.56 93.36 0.27 4.49 0.49 0.00 0.16 0.09 0.02 1.10 0.01 99.99 20.79 16.63 0.24 93.36 1.82 35.86 8.47 0.10 1.43 0.70 0.92 10.24 0.18 101.86 20.79 26.18 0.79 48.89 0.27 4.49 0.49 0.00 0.16 0.09 0.02 1.10 0.01 99.01 1.36 12.26 0.16 72.88 0.92 16.48 3.16 0.03 0.80 0.27 0.52 5.07 0.05 100.17 9.59 16.62 0.41 6.04 101.11 96.12 27.86 39.47 68.82 49.00 8.98 6.37 7.43 13.08 96.40 2.33 0.27 13.63 19.83 20.15 2.55 9.45 1.88 0.40 1.58 0.30 1.84 0.41 1.20 0.22 1.30 0.21 4.64 0.45 9.06 42.28 3.64 13.27 7.16 20.86 90.83 1.04 2.19 25.35 6.78 94.45 0.99 3.023 47.04 66.66 7.93 0.86 5.03 1.43 0.45 1.33 0.17 1.25 0.21 0.45 0.09 0.42 0.09 6.02 1.82 10.80 7.31 7.28 60.85 2.29 0.30 5.77 4.32 25.02 8.89 6.14 89.69 3.20 0.21 126.12 23.70 40.60 3.78 12.75 1.93 0.47 1.75 0.21 1.07 0.11 0.37 0.04 0.43 0.08 5.73 3.47 30.73 586.42 351.30 60.85 39.47 73.82 90.83 41.29 321.16 86.72 32.39 287.82 12.00 6.51 839.06 66.66 57.49 7.58 30.22 7.37 2.14 5.45 1.07 6.20 1.28 3.43 0.63 3.76 0.66 7.94 3.47 6.04 7.31 3.64 4.30 2.29 0.30 5.78 1.04 2.19 7.43 6.14 89.69 0.99 0.22 13.63 19.83 7.93 0.86 5.03 1.43 0.40 1.33 0.17 1.07 0.11 0.37 0.04 0.42 0.08 4.64 0.41 15.79 203.99 131.51 23.05 21.41 37.33 55.10 17.74 96.25 40.71 17.26 168.44 5.83 2.97 249.69 38.38 30.29 3.68 14.57 3.43 1.00 2.81 0.54 3.22 0.63 1.66 0.29 1.76 0.30 6.42 1.62 13 S. A. Dar et al. Table 2 (continued) Samples S-1 shale Pb 20.74 Th 68.36 U 3.63 Ti 8213.15 Cr/Ni 9.46 Th/Sc 2.22 Th/Co 15.90 Cr/Th 5.10 La/Co 11.50 La/Sc 1.60 4.21 (La/Sm)N 1.17 Gd/Yb)N 8.85 La/Yb)N 7.72 La/Lu)N 0.45 Ce/Yb)N Geochemical indices ICV 0.42 CIA 74.00 CIW 96.00 PIA 94.00 Table 3 Pearson correlation coefficient (r) of major and trace elements for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar group, Sonrai basin, Lalitpur, India S-2 shale Ss-1 sandstone Ss-2 sandstone Ss-3 sandstone Max Min Avg 6.04 77.51 2.76 10,910.90 9.48 3.47 8.60 2.60 3.60 1.50 4.50 1.10 7.57 7.08 0.30 11.99 45.29 2.44 3177.35 2.44 7.50 1.60 2.10 0.70 3.30 6.65 0.99 10.29 9.85 0.39 2.22 47.80 10.41 3597.00 0.51 5.28 3.60 0.10 5.00 7.40 29.38 2.58 107.76 76.89 0.05 61.50 50.90 1.50 1618.65 3.18 4.71 0.80 0.10 0.40 2.20 7.72 3.27 36.90 31.14 0.66 61.50 77.51 10.41 10,910.90 9.48 7.50 15.91 5.14 11.48 7.40 29.38 3.27 107.76 76.89 0.66 2.22 45.29 1.50 1618.65 0.51 2.22 0.84 0.08 0.39 1.50 4.21 0.99 7.57 7.72 0.05 20.48 57.97 4.15 5503.41 5.01 4.64 6.12 2.01 4.24 3.18 10.49 1.82 34.28 26.54 0.37 0.61 82.00 96.00 95.00 1.54 49.00 83.00 42.00 1.22 57.00 87.00 75.00 0.47 78.00 98.00 98.00 1.54 81.69 97.51 98.05 0.42 48.60 83.20 41.68 0.85 67.94 91.77 80.55 SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O Sc Cr Co Ni Cu Rb Y Zr Ba Th SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K 2O 1 − 0.93 − 0.99 − 0.49 0.16 − 0.78 0.43 − 0.90 − 0.79 − 0.92 − 0.94 0.78 − 0.57 − 0.38 − 0.88 − 0.99 − 0.97 − 0.78 − 0.88 1.00 0.90 0.76 − 0.04 0.79 − 0.38 0.79 0.55 0.81 0.78 − 0.75 0.38 0.52 0.68 0.90 0.97 0.54 0.95 1.00 0.40 − 0.19 0.67 − 0.49 0.84 0.78 0.97 0.95 − 0.71 0.49 0.22 0.93 0.97 0.97 0.86 0.89 1.00 0.23 0.64 − 0.05 0.40 − 0.01 0.26 0.21 − 0.52 0.05 0.73 0.05 0.44 0.58 − 0.13 0.67 1.00 − 0.33 0.88 − 0.16 − 0.08 − 0.25 − 0.37 − 0.41 − 0.40 − 0.07 − 0.32 − 0.31 − 0.21 − 0.32 − 0.20 1.00 − 0.40 0.87 0.55 0.51 0.72 − 0.61 0.77 0.85 0.48 0.81 0.74 0.33 0.67 1.00 − 0.25 − 0.12 − 0.57 − 0.54 − 0.22 − 0.23 − 0.04 − 0.54 − 0.55 − 0.54 − 0.50 − 0.59 1.00 0.88 0.70 0.90 − 0.82 0.85 0.58 0.74 0.90 0.79 0.65 0.63 1.00 0.72 0.88 − 0.77 0.76 0.16 0.84 0.78 0.63 0.83 0.43 average values of SiO2/Al2O3 ratio in fresh igneous rocks range from ~ 3.00 (in basic rocks) to ~ 5.00 (in acidic rocks). The high SiO2/Al2O3 values (1.36–20.79) in studied samples (Table 2) indicate relatively high sediment maturity (Roser and Korsch 1999) due to the extreme sorting of sediments in 13 a stable cratonic regime. In addition, low concentrations of CaO, Na2O, and Sr of studied samples (Table 2) also suggest a stable cratonic regime with a low upliftment rate that has allowed strong chemical weathering of protoliths. Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of… 400 1000 Rb (ppm) 100 Ba (ppm) 300 800 80 200 600 60 100 400 40 0 200 20 -100 0 0 10 20 30 40 0 0 10 20 30 40 0 40 Zr (ppm) 40 Y (ppm) 30 30 200 20 20 100 10 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 10 1000 20 30 40 0 10 20 100 Ba (ppm) 40 Th (ppm) 80 500 100 30 Al2O3 wt. % 300 200 40 Sc (ppm) Al2O3 wt. % Rb (ppm) 30 0 0 Al2O3 wt. % 400 20 Al2O3 wt. % 300 0 10 Al2O3 wt. % Al2O3 wt. % 400 Th (ppm) 60 40 0 0 20 -100 -500 0 5 10 0 0 15 5 15 0 40 Zr (ppm) 40 Y (ppm) 30 30 200 20 20 100 10 10 0 0 5 10 15 10 15 K2O wt. % 300 0 5 K2O wt. % K2O wt. % 400 10 Sc (ppm) 0 0 5 K2O wt. % 10 K2O wt. % 15 0 5 10 15 K2O wt. % Fig. 5 Al2O3 and K2O vs Rb, Ba, Th, Zr, Y, Sc correlation diagrams for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin 4.5 Paleo‑weathering Geochemical studies have contributed appreciably to the understanding of the growth of the continents through time (Taylor and McLennan 1985). Numerous factors including source area composition, source area weathering conditions, hydraulic sorting, adsorption, diagenesis, and metamorphism affect the composition of clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks over a wide-scale (Fedo et al. 1996). Silicate weathering strongly affects the major-element geochemistry and the mineralogy of siliciclastic sediments (Nesbitt and Young 1982; McLennan 1993). In this process, larger cations (Al2O3, Ba, Rb) remain fixed in the weathering profile, whereas smaller cations (Ca, Na, Sr) are selectively leached (Nesbitt et al. 1980). These chemical signatures are ultimately transferred to the sedimentary record (Nesbitt and Young 1982; Wronkiewicz and Condie 1987) and provide a useful tool for monitoring source area weathering conditions. For instance, several silicate weathering indices such as the plagioclase index of alteration (PIA), chemical index of alteration (CIA), and chemical index of weathering (CIW) are applicable to understand the paleo-weathering of 13 S. A. Dar et al. 50 80 Ni (ppm) 40 50 Cu (ppm) 60 30 40 20 80 30 60 20 40 20 10 20 10 0 0 0 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 Al2O3 wt. % 80 30 100 Ni (ppm) 40 0 0 40 5 80 400 60 300 40 200 20 100 0 0 10 0 400 Co (ppm) Cr (ppm) 60 300 40 200 20 100 0 0 10 20 30 0 10 20 40 0 5 Fe2O3 wt. % 50 Cu (ppm) Cr (ppm) 10 10 Fe2O3 wt. % 80 Ni (ppm) 40 80 Ni (ppm) 5 40 Al2O3 wt. % Al2O3 wt. % 50 30 10 0 0 40 5 Fe2O3 wt. % Fe2O3 wt. % Al2O3 wt. % Co (ppm) Cu (ppm) Cu (ppm) 60 30 60 40 20 30 40 10 20 0 0 0 5 10 15 0 0 5 10 400 60 300 40 200 20 100 0 0 -20 -100 0.50 1.00 80 Cr (ppm) 1.50 0.00 2.00 5 10 K2O wt. % 15 400 Co (ppm) 60 300 40 200 20 100 10 2.00 Cr (ppm) 0.50 1.00 1.50 0.00 2.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 MgO wt. % MgO wt. % 5 1.50 0 0.00 0 1.00 MgO wt. % 0 0 0.50 MgO wt. % 15 K2O wt. % Co (ppm) 0 0.00 K2O wt. % 80 20 10 20 15 K2O wt. % Fig. 6 Ni, Cu, Co, Cr vs Al2O3, and K2O correlation diagrams for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin. Ni, Cu, Co, Cr vs Fe2O3 and MgO correlation diagrams for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin Fig. 6 (continued) 1000 S-1 S-2 Ss-1 Ss-2 Ss-3 100 sediments (Harnois 1988; Fedo et al. 1996). For example, high CIA values reflect the removal of labile cations (Ca2+, Na+, K+) in comparison with stable residual constituents (Al, Ti) (Nesbitt and Young 1982). Conversely, low CIA values indicate that the chemical alteration is almost absent which implies cool and arid conditions (Fedo et al. 1995). The CIA is calculated from the equation [Al2O3/(Al2O3 + Ca O* + Na2O + K2O] × 100, where all elements are in molecular proportion and CaO* represents Ca in silicate fraction. In this work, a method given by McLennan et al. (1993) has been applied for the correction of CaO*. According to this method, CaO* is equal to CaO when CaO is lower than Na2O and when CaO is higher than Na2O then CaO* is supposed to be equal to Na2O. The CIA values vary for un-weathered to highly weathered rocks; for example, in the case of un-weathered rocks, average shales and intensely 13 10 1 0.1 La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Fig. 7 Chondrite-normalized (Taylor and McLennan 1985) rare earth-element patterns for siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin weathered rocks, the CIA values are 50, 70–75, and 100, respectively (Absar et al. 2009; Mir et al. 2016). In the Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of… Fig. 8 A–CN–K ternary diagram (after Nesbitt and Young 1982) of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin. A = Al2O3; CN = CaO* + Na2O; K = K2O (all in molar proportions) present study, the CIA (48.60–81.69; Table 2) values specify low to moderate degrees of the chemical weathering of the source. In surplus, a triangular plot of Al2O3, CaO* + Na2O, and K2O (A–CN–K; after Nesbitt and Young 1982) has been used to show the weathering trends and composition of the source rock (Fig. 8). In this diagram (Fig. 8), the departure of two samples from the weathering trend indicates that some potassium (K)—metasomatism is present in the studied siliciclastic rocks (Fedo et al.1995). This metasomatism may be either due to alteration of aluminous clay minerals (such as kaolinite) to illite or due to a change of plagioclase into K-feldspar. The placing of studied samples in the vicinity of the Al2O3 to K-feldspars (AK) boundary (Fig. 8) indicates the demolition of plagioclase due to intense weathering which in turn caused the removal of CaO and Na2O. Moreover, the composition of the source rock has been inferred to be similar to granites (Fig. 8). The CIW and PIA indices are also used to measure the intensity of chemical weathering of rocks. CIW removes the effect of K-metasomatism and is calculated as follows: CIW = Al2O3/(Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O) × 100. Studied samples have CIW values like 83.20–97.51 (Table 2) which indicates a much-reduced K-metasomatism effect on the samples of the study area. The PIA imitates the weathering of plagioclase feldspars and is defined by the equation: PIA = [(Al2O3–K2O)/(Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O – K2O)] × 100. Kaolinite and gibbsite show the highest values of PIA equal to 100, whereas, in the case of unweathered plagioclase it is equal to 50. Studied samples have PIA values ranging from 41.68 to 98.05 (Table 2), which points towards a low to moderate degree of weathering of plagioclase. The degree of weathering and composition of detritus is also controlled by climatic conditions (Suttner and Dutta 1986); hence, the relationship between SiO2 and Al2O3 + K2O + Na2O (Fig. 9) shows that the studied rock formations have experienced high chemical maturity under humid or semi-humid climatic conditions. Fig. 9 SiO2 vs Al2O3 + Na2O + K2O plot (after Suttner and Dutta 1986) to determine the chemical maturity of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin 4.6 Provenance As we know, geochemical composition of basin sediments changes to some extent by various processes such as hydraulic sorting, weathering, and diagenesis (Mir et al. 2015). However, strong signatures of the source terrain are stored in these sediments by which nature of the exposed continental crust can be assessed. Because of low solubility of oxides and hydroxides of Al and Ti at low temperatures, these elements are generally stable in the pace of siliciclastic weathering (Sugitani et al. 2006). For this reason, Al/Ti ratio of residual soils is believed to be very close to those of their parent material; hence this ratio is used by various researchers for the discrimination of provenances (Hayashi et al. 1997; Sugitani et al. 2006; Odigi and Amajor 2008; Sun et al. 2013; Mir et al. 2015, 2016). Hayashi et al. (1997) find out that Al2O/TiO2 ratio varies in mafic, intermediate, and felsic rocks from: 3 to 8; 8 to 21 and; 21 to 70, respectively. Therefore, the Al2O3/TiO2 values ranging from 12.26 to 26.18 in the concerned samples (Table 2) suggests that the intermediate to felsic granitoid rocks as the probable source. The provenance discriminant function diagram, given by Roser and Korsch (1988), has been used by different researchers to key out the provenance of terrigenous sediments (Cullers 2000; Islam et al. 2002; Rashid 2005; Mir et al. 2016). This diagram distinguishes four major provenances: quartzose sedimentary, felsic, intermediate, and mafic (Fig. 10). In this diagram (Fig. 10), studied shale samples fall in intermediate to felsic igneous provenances and sandstone samples plot in quartzose sedimentary provenance. Although sandstones are the first cycle sediments which may have been derived from felsic igneous provenance. The provenance studies are further elaborated on the bases of trace element and rare earth element geochemistry. Rare earth elements, due to their unique coherent behavior, 13 S. A. Dar et al. Fig. 10 Discriminant function diagram (after Roser and Korsch 1988) of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin have contributed to understand the geochemical processes in various fields (Taylor and McLennan 1985). The REEs are believed to be transported without any losses and hence preserve the signatures of their provenance (Maharana et al. 2018; Malik and Pramod 2020a, b). The low Cr and Ni contents mark the dominance of felsic rocks in the provenance, whereas high contents of these transitional elements indicate dominance of mafic to ultramafic rocks in the provenance (Armstrong-Altrinet al. 2004). The Cr/Ni (0.51–9.48) ratios are low in the studied samples which suggest intermediate to felsic source. The relative contribution of felsic to mafic input into the sedimentary basins can be established in the ratio–ratio plot of different compatible to incompatible element pairs. For this purpose, studied samples were plotted in Th/Sc vs Sc, La/Sc vs Sc/Th, and Th/Co vs La/Sc diagrams (Fig. 11) along with the available data of Tonalitetondhjemite-granodiorites (Sharma and Rahman 1995), Mafic rocks (Mondal and Ahmad 2001), low-silica highmagnesium (LSHM) granitoids and high-silica low-magnesium (HSLM) granitoids (Joshi et al. 2017), and Sanukitoids (Joshi and Slabunov 2019) of the BGGC to distinguish the source lithology. In these diagrams, the studied samples are plotted around the granitoids and sanukitoids, i.e., closer to BGGC felsic rocks as compared to BGGC mafic rocks indicating a minor contribution from the mafic rocks (Fig. 11). In the present study, values of (La/Lu)n (7.72–76.89), La/ Sc (1.50–7.40), La/Co (0.39–11.48), Th/Co (0.84–15.90), Cr/Th (0.08–5.14), LaN/SmN (avg. 10.49), CeN/YbN (avg. 0.37), LaN/YbN (avg. 34.28), and GdN/YbN (avg. 1.82) indicate main contribution from felsic source rocks. This interpretation is further supported by the Th/Co vs. La/Sc plot (Fig. 11c; after Cullers 2002), where studied samples fall around the felsic source rocks. Felsic source for the studied samples is also encouraged by their slightly enriched LREE 13 Fig. 11 a Th/Sc vs Sc, b La/Sc vs Sc/Th, and c Th/Co vs La/Sc diagram of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks from the Bijawar Group, Sonrai Basin. TTG (after Sharma and Rahman 1995); mafic rocks (after Mondal and Ahmad 2001), LSHM Granitoids and HSLM Granitoids (after Joshi et al. 2017) and Sanukitoids (after Joshi et al. 2019) and flat HREE patterns with weak negative Eu anomaly (Fig. 6) (Taylor and McLennan 1985). Hence, above discussed geochemical parameters depict that the main source of the studied samples was felsic in nature. Since the Bijawar Group is sited over the Bundelkhand Granite Gneiss Complex, it is, therefore, plausible that the main source component of the Bijawar Group siliciclastic rocks was the BGGC felsic rocks. 5 Conclusion The salient geochemical characteristics such as (high SiO2, Al2O3, and K2O) and (low TiO2, MgO, Na2O, and CaO) contents suggest a felsic provenance. Felsic nature of source rocks is also supported by trace element ratios like (La/Lu) Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of… n (7.72–76.89), La/Sc (1.50–7.40), La/Co (0.39–11.48), Th/ Co (0.84–15.91), and Cr/Th (0.08–5.14). Since the Bijawar Group is located over the Bundelkhand Granite Gneiss Complex, it is, therefore, concluded that the sediment material of Bijawar group siliciclastic rocks has mainly been derived from the BGGC felsic rocks. On the bases of CIA and CIW, it is concluded that the studied samples had experienced a low to moderate degree of chemical weathering. The PIA values in the studied samples show moderate weathering of plagioclase feldspars. The consistent variation in terms of the degree of chemical weathering noticed in the sandstones and shales indicates climatic influence in the deposition of the Bijawar group sediments. Acknowledgements The Chairman, Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh and the Director, NGRI, Hyderabad are highly acknowledged for grant of permission to analyze present samples. Special thanks are due to Dr. V. Balaram, Scientist-Emeritus, NGRI, Hyderabad for providing full facilities and cooperation to conduct major, trace and rare earth element analysis. Authors are thankful to Dr. Farooq A. Sheikh, Department of English, Leh campus, University of Kashmir for his assistance to improve English language and grammar of this manuscript. 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The continental crust: its composition and evolution. Oxford: Blackwell. Wronkiewicz, D. J., & Condie, K. C. (1987). Geochemistry of Archean shales from the Witwatersrand Super group, South Africa: Sourcearea weathering and provenance. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 51, 2401–2416. Wronkiewicz, D. J., & Condie, K. C. (1990). Geochemistry and mineralogy of sediments from the Venters drop and Transval Super groups, South Africa: Cratonic evolution during early Proterozoic. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 54, 343–354. Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Provenance and paleo-weathering of Paleoproterozoic siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of… Affiliations Shamim A. Dar1 · K. F. Khan1 · Akhtar R. Mir2 1 Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202002, Uttar Pradesh, India 2 Department of Geology, Satellite Campus Leh, University of Kashmir, Ladakh 194101, India 13