Faculty of Humanities Department of Comparative Religion “Kill them, kill them, kill all the Jews” Violence and Persecution: Medieval Jewish-Christian Relations Final Paper in “Medieval Jewish-Christian Relations, 24870” By Shahar Michael Reznik January, 2014 Introduction "First the Jews were killed or burnt […]. The stronger of them dashed out the brains of those trying to creep out of the fire, and thus compelled […] to descent to hell. And the curse seemed to be fulfilled: 'his blood be upon us and upon our children'".1 That statement, which was taken from the transcripts of the trials of Jews following the “black plague”, displays most vividly the emotions the Christians of the time felt towards the Jews, who were perceived as traitors determined to destroy the Christian world. In this study I will endeavor to examine the validity of the statement “The Study of Medieval Jewish-Christian Relations Is Primarily the Study of Violence and Persecution”. First I will analyze the violent prejudices against the Jews, from them being in league with the devil to their part in spreading the black plague. This part will emphasize the development of these views and their influence over the relations between Jews and Christians in the middle Ages. The second part of the study will focus on the influence of these prejudices over the relations between Jews and Christians in the middle ages focusing on their physical Consequences like murder, conversion and Expulsions. Finally I will discuss the position that violence and persecution were the central theme in the lives of Jews in the middle ages. Chapter one: faith, a violent tool against Jews The story of the Jews in the late middle ages was a grim tale of persecutions, arrests, false accusations, imprisonments and executions.2 The first impression that arises from reading about Jews in the middle ages from the Christians standpoint is that of a wide spread, intense and 1 2 Rosemary Horrox, p. 208-209. Kenneth Stow, p. 271. abysmal hate. The Jews were ridiculed, presented as an abomination, and accused of being the root of all evil.3 The Jews were perceived as sinners and enemies of the Christian faith, who operated by moving around Europe and randomly and publicly damaging the Christian faith, "They (Jews) despoil these Christians of their movable an immovable goods by their devious deceits".4 As years went by the Christians based their faith on the notion that the Jews lost their way when they killed the Jesus, and that it was the duty of Christians to punish them for their transgressions. Thus, the Jews were subjected to insults, indignations, and persecution. The extreme violence begun with the first crusade where the word Jew became synonymous with Christ killer, and lasted for centuries, becoming more and more prominent.5 Langmuir claims that in the late middle ages the term “Jew” didn’t just contain negative connotations; it invoked hatred and violence towards entire populations, who remained foreign to most Christians. The wide spread ignorance and animosity caused the Jews to become a target for many irrational misconceptions and violence.6 In these misconceptions we can see the roots of the racially motivated anti-Semitism which was destined to become the basis for the Nazi doctrine that viewed the Jews as provoking emotional and physical antipathy. The 11 century saw the rise of a different kind of prejudice against the Jewish people. In addition to the belief that Jews killed Christ, It was widely accepted that the Jews were foreign, evil, sub human entities, who’s only goal was destroying the Christian world.7 Chazan and Langmuir added that one of the main reasons the defamation of the Jews intensified was the crisis of faith inside the Christian world.8 So the leaders of the church used the Jews as 3 Joshua Trachtenberg, p. 12. Robert chazan, p. 314. 5 Gavin Langmuir, p. 295. ; Joshua Trachtenberg, p. 11. 6 Gavin Langmuir, p. 300-301. 7 Joshua Trachtenberg, p. 6. ; Miri Rubin, p.39. 8 Gavin Langmuir, p. 300-301 ; Robert chazan, p. 301. 4 scapegoats and blamed them for the troubles the church was having. Thus, the Jews became a common enemy that the entire Christian world could unify against.9 The notion of the Jews being the cause of most problems in the Christian society gave rise to a new symbolic irrational fear mainly amongst the common man. On top of the already widely accepted notion of the Jews as Christ killers, a belief of the Jewish people as being demonic beings in league with Satan came into prominence.10 It appeared that the older anti – Jewish notions were not enough to feed the cycle of violence and terror against the Jews. Thus, it was necessary to ‘upgrade’ the status of the Jews from ‘Christ killers’ to full-fledged demons. These violent notions became part of the culture of almost any Christian society in the late middle ages.11 The Jews were perceived as creatures who could not be described by human terms, in the words of Peter the Venerable of Cluny: “Really I doubt whether a Jew can be human.”12 Christians perceived the Jew as a demonic entity that fights Jesus Christ and his disciples using demonic instruments. As a result many Christians believed that their mission was to fight this abomination in any means necessary. In many folk legends of the time the Jew is presented as assistant to the devil or the devil himself, trying to damage the faith of a Christian believer. Most of these legends end with salvation of the Christian by divine intervention.13 But the late middle ages saw the rise of new blood libels which featured a different end for the Christian victim, being sacrificed by the Jew in a blood ritual, mostly on the feast of 9 Joshua Trachtenberg, p. 11. Sara Lipton, p. 320. 11 Joshua Trachtenberg, p. 6. 12 Joshua Trachtenberg, p. 18. 13 Joshua Trachtenberg, p. 18, 21-25. 10 Passover: "Then the boy, like an innocent lamb, was led to the slaughter".14 Yuval suggests in his book that it was the Jewish Passover holiday that became the source of the blood libels against the Jews.15 In fact, the blood libel became a very common concept in the Christian anti-Jewish frame of mind. The blood libels were composed mainly of tales of Jews damaging the Communion wafers, or, as I will show now, the use of a Christian victim as blood sacrifice in a Jewish ritual. In most cases of blood libel the Jews were to gather each year, and devise a nefarious plan to kidnap and torture a Christian child for ritualistic purposes. This violent myth first appeared in the early 12 century in the writings of William of Norwich and since then was retold many times in different versions for the remainder of the late Middle Ages. In these blood libels the description of the torture the Christian child went through became increasingly more elaborate.16 The importance of these blood libels was in their success establishing the mythical image of the Jew as a danger to the Christian faith in such a way, that for generations to come it was believed that no Christian child was safe from the reach of the vicious Jews.17 Norwitch uses other anti-Semitic perceptions to help him deliver his message regarding the wickedness of the Jews. From his writings we can learn about other widespread prejudices concerning the Jews in the late middle ages (like the notion that Jews are greedy).18 The theme of kidnapped Christians continued to feature prominently in later blood libels and the violent themes intensified "This Jew is a devil; […] this man has cut the throat of my 14 Jacob Marcus, p. 123. Israel Yuval, p, 222. 16 Jacob Marcus, p. 121-122. 17 Ibid, ibid. 18 Ibid, ibid. 15 only friend, and I presume he has eaten him, too."19 These kinds of blood libels could be found from the 11 century throughout the 15 century, in all of Europe. The common theme of them all, the Jew as a murderer, recreating the Passover sacrifices and the killing of innocent Christians as Christ.20 As the crisis of faith inside the Christian world became more noticeable, accompanied by other social and economic troubles, the need of the Jew as a scapegoat increased. Even the writings in the new testament the two enemies of Christ were always the devil and the Jews. And in the theological writings of the Middle Ages the two became one entity bent on the destruction of the Christian world.21 These perception could not come at a more problematic time for the Jews than during the early stages of the black plague, Which decimated the population of Europe, leaving the Christians searching for someone to blame. And indeed the black plague was perceived as a culmination of a Jewish evil plan, "The Jews throughout the world were reviled and accused in all lands of having caused it through the poison, which they are said to have put into water and wells"22. It was unfathomable for the devout Christians that the good lord will unleash such destruction upon his flock. The plague must have been the work of the devils’ minions, and the Jewish people will pay the price for their part in it. In the aftermath of the black plague Europe witnessed the most horrific massacre of Jews in the middle ages.23 19 Darren O’Brien, p.300. More about this topic in The blood label of the Jews and The Jew in the Medieval World 21 Joshua Trachtenberg, p. 18-20. 22 Norman Cantor, p. 149. 23 Robert chazan, p. 301-302. 20 Chapter 2: physical violence as a tool to express the hate toward the Jews In the aftermath of the black plague which exterminated millions of Europe’s population including Jews, there have been many attempts by civilian and religious authorities to find its cause. During this process a number of “agents” were accused, amongst these agents the Jews were most prominent. As a result many Jews were tortured to death, made to confess or convert to Christianity. Thus the false accusation was validated by these confessions. These Jewish communities who were proven to be the agents of Satan by the religious authorities were subjected to the punishment of the angry mob. In Chazan’s charter we clearly see that although king of Aragon peter IV publically discredited the accusations, it didn’t helped to stop the outpour of violence against the Jews under his rule.24 The case of king peter the fourth was the exception to the rule, and most nobles and rulers also presented anti-Jewish sentiments. Thus, Jews could not turn to anyone to protect them from the religiously driven wrath of the commons.25 There are many surviving passages detailing the trials and sentences incurred upon the Jewish people for their perceived involvement in the plague. For instance, documents from savoy county detail the torture the Jews endured before confessing that there was a global Jewish conspiracy to destroy the Christian faith, this is an example of one of those testimonies: "He said further that rabbis had instructed him and other Jews not to drink the water […] after poison had put in it […] he immediately warned other Jews”.26 Other sources tell us of many other Jews who were tried, tortured, and confessed this same global conspiracy. Whole Jewish communities were wiped out by these trials. "And thus, within 24 Robert chazan, p. 128-130. Robert chazan, p. 128-130. 26 Rosemary Horrox, p. 213. 25 one year […] all the Jews between Cologne and Austria were burnt – and in Austria they await for the same fate, for they are accursed of god." 27 Other documents describe how whole cities opened their gates to Jew killer in order to deal with the cause of the black plague. The bodies of the Jews were put into barrels so they won’t pollute the air. There were cases of Jews committing mass suicides to avoid capture by these Jew killers.28 As the violence against the Jews intensified and entire Jewish communities were put to death,29 the most many Jews could hope for was a verdict of exile, "A scattered flock of sheep is Israel"30. In the case of Zurich circa 1348 Jews were banned from the city a year before the plague reached the city. 31 The Christian authorities found other ways to bend the Jews to their will. As punishment for conspiring to destroy the Christian faith, after the first crusade Jews were forced to convert to Christianity upon pain of death. This was considered one of the most violent campaigns against Jews in the Middle Ages, second only to the persecutions in the aftermath of the black plague. As the Christian faith became more radicalized these forced conversions became part of the lives of all Jews.32 Of the frequency of these conversions we can learn from the writings of Baruch the German of Languedoc and Alexander of Hales. In many mixed cities, during religious riots, all Jews who were apprehended by the mob were forced to choose between death and baptism: "(Baruch) having seen the people's anger and having witnessed the murder of other Jews who 27 Rosemary Horrox, p. 210. Norman Cantor, p. 156-157. 29 Norman Cantor, p. 150-151. 30 Ibid, ibid. 31 Norman Cantor, p. 154. 32 Michael Goodich, p. 40-41. 28 had refused baptism, he replied that he'd rather be baptized than killed".33 According to the Christians of the time all Jews must convert out of free will or by force. Alexander of hales accepts these conversions from a theological standpoint as long the force used was moderate. "If the force is conditional, such as through threats or lashes, then in this way faith and the imprint of baptism are received".34 Upon further examination of Christian documents we find that violence was a common part in Jewish conversion to Christianity. For example, in trials that were conducted in 1182 France and 1478 Bulgaria we learn that Jews had to convert to receive civil rights and right to property: "Some of them (Jews) […] converted to the Lord. […] To them the king, out of regard for the Christian religion, restored all their possessions” or as a way to avoid execution, "Ten of the arrested Jews were executed […] The majority of the Passau Jews, about forty, the found it advisable to accept Christianity”35 These writing prove that violent conversions were a big part of the lives of Jews in the middle ages, becoming one of the greatest fears of the Jewish people. These forced conversions became more and more violent, despite the objection of some of the secular leaders. The Christian religious rational behind these forced conversions was that it was the only way to save the Christian faith from the Jews.36 The last violent solution which the Christian authorities employed in order to solve the Jewish problem, was the expulsions. These expulsions were very common in Europe of the late middle ages. So common in fact, that by the year 1550 it was almost impossible to find Jews in 33 Michael Goodich, p. 43. Robert chazan, p. 49. 35 Jacob Marcus, p. 156. 36 Michael Goodich, p. 40. 34 Europe. The fact that this practice was so common prevented the Jews from establishing themselves in any one place.37 These expulsions were without a doubt one of the great tragedies of the Jewish people. Similarly to the writings of Chazan and Langmuir, Stow claims that this kind of violence was motivated by the need of the Christian leaders of the crumbling Christian society to unite the population behind a popular solution for a common problem. It was said that for a brief moment there became one nation united around a common, righteous cause.38 "The abbot ordered that all those who from that time forth should receive Jews or harbor them […] should be solemnly excommunicated in every church and every altar"39. The sense of solidarity was very important to civilian and religious leaders, although it is evident that there were other interests involved behind the banishment of the Jews. The first, was the evident social reason, expulsion of the Jews prevented them from corrupting the Christian society.40 Another was the need to release the Christians people from their debts to the Jews.41 Ultimately the cause of the deportations was to strengthen the position of the ruling class by solving the problems of the common man by banishing the Jews. Indeed, this kind of rhetoric worked and scores of Jews were driven out of their homes forever, to the cheers of the Christian masses. Furthermore many of these expulsions were accompanied by curses, beatings and murder, which went unpunished by the authorities. An 37 Kenneth Stow, p. 271 ; Robert chazan, p. 309 Kenneth Stow, p. 272. ; Robert chazan, p. 284 39 Robert chazan, p. 310. 40 Kenneth Stow, p. 314. 41 Kenneth Stow, p. 311, 313, 315. 38 example of that can be found in Duke John of Brittany in the year of 1236: "Moreover, no one shall in any manner be accused or summoned for the death of a Jew who has been killed"42. Discussion and conclusions In this study I attempted to examine the validity of the claim "The Study of Medieval JewishChristian Relations is Primarily the Study of Violence and Persecution". I asserted that although not the only theme in the relation of Jews and Christians in the middle ages, are central to the study, and has intensified throughout the middle ages. To prove my thesis, I presented two Complementary chapters. The first chapter which dealt with the anti-Jewish perceptions presented a Christian society that moved from accepting notions of Jews as Christ killers to condemning them as minions of the devils and responsible for the black plague. The views berthed out of ignorance served the ruling class by uniting the common people against a common enemy. So effective was propaganda of the church that the term Jew became a symbol for evil on earth, as opposed to the infinite good of the holy church. Because the views were different in content but similar in their agenda there is no doubt that violence and persecution became a big part of the relations between Jews and Christians. Still we must remember that the violence did not end with ideas, and that before long these ideas formed the base for wide spread vicious violence, as was presented in the second chapter of this study. The second chapter opens with the events surrounding the black plague which were amongst the most violent the Jewish people ever experienced. Following the 42 Kenneth Stow, p. 313. misconception that the Jews were responsible for the spread of the black plague, many of them were persecuted, tried and executed. Even the rulers could not stand before the wrath of the common people who were eager to punish their perceived tormentors. Three years later the black plague was over, but many Jews remained. So a new doctrine was formed aimed to deal with the Jewish problem by less violent means. The premeditated mass conversions were conducted on a massive scale, and were based on the belief that once converted, the Jew will not pose a danger to the Christian world. These conversions were forced violently upon the Jews, and the evidence brought in in this paper show that in many cases the choice was between baptism and death. The third “solution” to the Jewish problem which was examined in this paper was expulsions. Like with the previous “solutions” this one was also heavily accompanied by violence, and was very common in all of Europe. The deportation was used as a tool by rulers to ease the economic burden of debt on their Christian subjects. There were many other violent elements to the relations between Jews and Christians in the middle ages, which were not part of this study. Such as, prejudice against Jews, viewing them as cruel money lenders, ritualistic persecutions common during the holy week and more. Based on all this evidences it is safe to claim that the violence and persecution of Jews were massive clear and evident. In my opinion these were social and cultural elements that were deeply ingrained in the Christian society of the middle ages, that on the one hand, helped the Christians view their society and themselves as just and fair, and on the other hand, enabled Christians to cruelly prosecute and eliminate everyone the deemed different or threatening, especially the Jews.