C 1172 Castro Rojas, Victoria Further Reading CARTAJENA, I. 2009. Explorando la variabilidad morfométrica del conjunto de camélidos pequeñosdurante el Arcaico Tardı́o y el Formativo Temprano en quebrada Tulán, norte de Chile. Revista del Museo de Antropologı́a 2: 199-212. CARTAJENA, I.,L. NÚÑEZ & M. GROSJEAN. 2007. Camelid domestication in the western slope of the Puna de Atacama, northern Chile. Anthropozoologica 42(2): 155-73. CARTAJENA I., P. LÓPEZ & I. MARTÍNEZ. 2010. New camelid (Artiodactyla: Camelidae) record from the late Pleistocene of Calama (second region, Chile): a morphological and morphometric discussion. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Geológicas 27(2): 1997-212. CARTAJENA, I., M. NÚÑEZ & L. NÚÑEZ. 2010. Phoenicopteridae exploitation in the Salar de Atacama Basin (3.000-2.200 BP), northern Chile, in W. Prummel. J.T. Zeiler & D.C. Brinkhuizen (ed.) Birds in archaeology (Groningen Archaeological Studies 12): 103-15. Eelde: Barkhuis. CARTAJENA, I., P. LÓPEZ, D. CARABIAS, C. MORALES & G. VARGAS. 2011. Arqueologı́a subacuática y tafonomı́a: Recientes avances en el estudio de sitios finipleistocénicos sumergidos en la costa pacı́fico de Chile central. Antı́poda 13: 203-25. VON DEN DRIESCH, A., I. CARTAJENA & H. MANHART. 2004. The late PPNB site of Ba’ja, Jordan: the faunal remains (1997 season), in H.D. Bienert, H.G.K. Gebel & R. Neef (ed.). Central settlements in Neolithic Jordan (Studies in Early Near Eastern Production, Subsistence and Environment 5): 271-88. Berlin: ex oriente. Castro Rojas, Victoria Calogero M. Santoro1 and Isabel Cartajena2 1 Instituto de Alta Investigación, Centro de Investigaciones del Hombre en el Desierto, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica, Chile 2 Department of Anthropology, Universidad de Chile, Santiago de Chile, Chile Basic Biographical Information Marı́a Victoria Castro Rojas was born in Santiago in Chile on July 5, 1944 (Fig. 1). Known as Vicky, she was the second daughter of Luisa Rojas and Juan Castro, a biology and chemistry teacher, who was strongly involved in public education. At an early age, Victoria lost both Castro Rojas, Victoria, Fig. 1 Victoria Castro at her office in the Department of Anthropology, Universidad de Chile, her intellectual refuge (Photo courtesy of Department of Communication of Facultad Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de Chile) her parents. Soon after this, she moved to live with her elder sister Nidia del Carmen with whom she became very close. Probably, this sad lost and the experience in attending a boarding school triggered in her a strong sense of empathy and warmth. One of her outstanding qualities is that she always finds something special and valuable in each student and person. The academic career of Marı́a Victoria Castro Rojas began in 1969 when she became an assistant in archaeology with the Department of Anthropology, Universidad de Chile. Besides her deep vocation in archaeology, her extraordinary teaching skills were greatly enriched by her previous training as teacher in philosophy (1978, Universidad de Chile). It was around this time that she obtained a position with the Department of Anthropology at the Universidad de Chile. In 1982, she became a professional archaeologist, having obtained a bachelor degree in philosophy with a minor in prehistory and archaeology from Universidad de Chile in 1981. In 1998, with an outstanding final dissertation about evangelization and Andean religion in the Southern Andes, she obtained her master’s degree in ethnohistory from the University of Chile. Victoria Castro has received national and international awards and recognition, as well as numerous grants and fellowships that highlight Castro Rojas, Victoria her career trajectory and her constant dedication and conviction in the importance of academic education. In 2000, she was distinguished as the faculty’s best teacher of the anthropology program, which earned her the highest recognition of the Universidad de Chile to their academics. During 2003, she was awarded the Mujer Generación XXI distinction, annually given to 21 outstanding women for their work at the Universidad de Chile. In 2005, she received the Medal to the Academic Merit Valentin Letelier, a recognition by the University of Chile awarded only to those academics who, through their permanent and relevant actions, have made a significant contribution to the institution, through science and education. In 2007, Victoria Castro was appointed emeritus professor at the University of Chile. In 2009, the Sociedad Chilena de Arqueologı́a honored Victoria Castro for her outstanding contributions to archaeology in Chile and South America at the launch of her book De I´dolos a Santos at the XVIII Congreso Nacional de Arqueologı́a Chilena, the national archaeology congress of Chile. It would be remiss not to note that Professor Rojas’ role as the mother of three sons is as important as her contribution to the academic world. Despite the difficulties involved, she has managed to successfully balance her demanding academic responsibilities with family duties. As one of her sons said, “She is simply the best!” Major Accomplishments Marı́a Victoria Castro Rojas has been a key figure in the creation and development of academic and professional institutions. Since the 1960s, she has made outstanding contributions as professor in graduate and professional programs in archaeology, anthropology, museology, ecology, and community training, none of which were in existence when she started her academic career. Since 1973, Victoria has trained several generations of undergraduate students in archaeology and cultural anthropology, who today are the Chilean scientific core who promote innovative research 1173 C in the fields of archaeology, anthropology, ethnology, and ecology. Recently with the creation of graduate programs in the Chilean university system, Marı́a Victoria Castro Rojas has been invited to be a faculty member of both master’s and doctoral programs in these fields. With more than 40 years of highly active and influential research and teaching, Professor Victoria Castro is a highly respected figure in Andean American archaeology. This was not an easy task for a female scholar whose career evolved within a rather tough – and at a times dangerous – institutional and political environment. Throughout her career, Professor Castro created and participated in numerous multidisciplinary projects that have integrated different fields and included both national and international specialists (botanists, ecologist, marine biologist, linguists) to address new questions about the Andean past in the context of the northern Chile Atacama Desert (Castro & Aldunate 2004; Castro & Varela 2004). For this purpose, she has obtained grants from national and international sources. She has been recognized for her great generosity in creating long-lasting collaborative groups with scholars and students from both inside and outside of the country. Professor Castro has a wide range of research interests that span from early Archaic societies to modern local communities. A particular interest in her studies is the social structures, ideology, and technology of farming societies that inhabited the valleys and oases of the Atacama Desert. The complex processes involved in creating cultural landscapes during the Inka estate expansion into the Atacama have been especially significant in her career. In recognition of her work in this area, UNESCO invited her to be part of the international panel of experts for the nomination of the Qhapaq Ñan (Inka Royal Road system) as one the largest human artifact systems in the world. This megaproject was promoted by six countries in South America, all of which were part of the Inka road network. Professor Castro has been involved in the creation of programs for the preservation of archaeological resources, ethnoarchaeology, and cultural studies and has long promoted the active C C 1174 participation of local communities in archaeological research projects (Castro & Varela 1994; Castro et al. 2013). She has been a visible leader in fighting for the recognition of local communities, for the respect and preservation of natural and cultural patrimony (Castro 2008), and for the demands of human and professional rights, even risking her integrity and job position at a time when such views were politically punished. Throughout her career, Victoria Castro has been able to combine and innovate different lines of inquiry, the results of which have been published widely nationally and internationally. She has been very concerned with transferring knowledge to local communities and to the general public and in making community people active agents of their ethnogenesis processes and reconstruction of ethnic identity. Victoria has been tireless in writing and communicating Chile’s pre-Hispanic past within a Latin American context. Aiming to consolidate a different view with regard to the pre-Hispanic past has not always been considered in political, economic, educational, and cultural policies (Castro 2004). Victoria has managed to reach out to audiences beyond her home country by publishing in English and by participating in international events that bring her into contact with peers throughout Latin America. Few archaeologists of the region have been so successful in crossing disciplinary and geographic borders, considering that our modern borders have also been intellectual boundaries. In sum, Victoria Castro is a superb scholar. Cross-References ▶ Andes: Origins and Development of Agriculture ▶ Andes: Prehistoric Period ▶ Archaeology and Politics ▶ Chile’s World Archaeological Heritage and its Management ▶ Cultural Heritage and Communities ▶ Ethnoarchaeology Castro Rojas, Victoria References CASTRO, V. 2004. El origen de la vida en las cosmogonı́as prehispánicas en América. Revista Bitrania 4(1): 1-10. - 2008. La papa (Solanum sp.) contexto social e ideológico en sus zonas de desarrollo originarias. Revista del Jardı́n Botánico Chagual 6(6): 33-43. CASTRO. V. & C. ALDUNATE. 2004. La dieta andina en América Latina, in F. Leighton & I. Urquiaga (ed.) Dietas mediterráneas. La evidencia cientı́fica: 202-10. Santiago: Ediciones de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. CASTRO, V. & V. VARELA. (ed.) 1994. Ceremonias de tierra y agua. Ritos milenarios Andinos. Santiago: FONDART, Ministerio de Educación y Fundación Andes. CASTRO. V., C. ALDUNATE & V. VARELA. 2013. Experiencias en etnoarqueologı́a, in B. Cremonte & M.E. Albeck (ed.) Actas del Taller Internacional de Arqueologı́a del Noroeste Argentino y Andes Centro sur Las Tierras Altas del Área Centro sur Andina, entre el 1000 y el 1600 d.C. (TANOA II). Jujuy: Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Centro Regional de Estudios Arqueológicos (in press). Further Reading ALDUNATE, C., J. BERENGUER, V. CASTRO, L. CORNEJO, J.L. MARTÍNEZ & C. SINCLAIRE. 1986. Sobre la cronologı́a del Loa Superior. Chungara 16-17: 333-46. ALFONSO M., V. STANDEN & V. CASTRO. 2007. The adoption of agriculture among northern Chile populations in the Azapa Valley 9000-1000 BP, in M.N. Cohen & G.M.M. Crane-Kramer (ed.) Ancient health. Skeletal indicators of agricultural and economic intensification: 113–29. Gainsville: University of Florida Press. CASTRO, V. 1990. Artı́fices del Barro. Santiago: Museo Chileno Arte Precolombino. - 1993. Extirpación de idolatrı́as en Atacama, siglo XVII, in Catolicismo y extirpación de idolatrı́as. Siglos XVI-XVIII (Cuadernos para la Historia de la Evangelización en América Latina 5): 347-66. Cusco: Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos Bartolomé de Las Casas. - 2000. Case study: environmental perception and the sacred in the southern Andes, northern Chile, in M. Price & N. Butt (ed.) Forest in sustainable mountain development. A state of knowledge report for 2000: 126-8. Oxford: CABI Publishing. - 2006. Plan de acción regional, Chile. El Qhapaq Ñan Camino Principal Andino, in Plan de acción regional para un proceso de integración y cooperación: 154-82. Lima: BID_UNESCO. - 2007a. A propósito de raı́ces históricas de nuestra crisis ecológica: Cuarenta años después ¿qué hay de nuevo? Revista Ambiente y Desarrollo 23(1): 95-7. Cat: Domestication - 2007b. El más grande artefacto andino. Qhapaq Ñan en el contexto del Tawantinsuyu y de sus contemporáneos americanos, in Programa Qhapaq Ñan como patrimonio de la humanidad. Paris: World Heritage Series of UNESCO. - 2009a. De idolos a santos. Evangelización y religión andina en los Andes del sur. Santiago: Fondo de Publicaciones Americanistas Universidad de Chile – Centro de Investigaciones Diego Barros Arana. Colección Antropologı́a, Dirección de Bibliotecas, Archivos y Museos (DIBAM). - 2009b. La oralidad y su importancia en la transmisión de técnicas y valores, in Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (ed.) Artesanos de arquitectura de tierra en América Latina y el Caribe. La técnica, la tradición oral y formas de transmisión del oficio: 49-65. México: Oficina de la UNESCO. - 2010. Sabores Ancestrales en el norte prehispánico, in C. Sciolla (ed.) Historia y cultura de la alimentación en Chile. Miradas y saberes de nuestra culinaria. Santiago: Catalonia. CASTRO, V. & V. VARELA. 2004. De cómo camina el sol durante junio, e lo que ve en el cielo y de lo que se comenta y se practica en la Tierra. Oralidad y rituales en la subregión de rı́o Salado, norte de Chile, in M. Boccas, J. Broda & G. Pereira (ed.) Etno y arqueoastronomı́a en las Américas: 285-98. Santiago: Memorias del Simposio ARQ- 13 del 51 Congreso Internacional De Americanistas (julio 2003). CASTRO, V., C. ALDUNATE & J. BERENGUER. 1984. Orı́genes altiplánicos de la Fase Toconce. Estudios Atacameños 7: 209-35. CASTRO, V., C. ALDUNATE & J. HIDALGO (ed.) 2000. Nispa ninchis. Decimos diciendo. Conversaciones con John Murra. Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos- Institute of Andean Research. CASTRO, V., V. VARELA, C. ALDUNATE & E. ARANEDA. 2004. Principios orientadores y metodologı́a para el estudio del Qhapaq Ñan en Atacama: desde el Portezuelo del Inka hasta Rı́o Grande. Chungara 36: 461-79. CASTRO, V., C. ALDUNATE & V. VARELA. 2012. Paisajes culturales de Cobija, costa de Antofagasta, Chile. Revista de Antropologı́a Americana 26: 97-128. CASTRO, V., M. ESCOBAR & D. SALAZAR. 2012. Una mirada antropológica al devenir minero de Taltal y Paposo. Chungara Revista de Antropologı́a Chilena 44: 401-17. SCHIAPPACASSE, V. V. CASTRO & H. NIEMEYER. 1989; Los desarrollos regionales en el Norte Grande, in J. Hidalgo, V. Schiappacasse, H. Niemeyer, C. Aldunate & I. Solimano (ed.) Culturas de Chile. Prehistoria, desde sus orı́genes hasta los albores de la conquista: 181-220. Santiago: Editorial Andrés Bello. VILLAGRÁN, C. & V. CASTRO. 2004. Ciencia indı́gena de los Andes del norte de Chile. Santiago: Programa de Biodiversidad- Universidad de Chile, Editorial Universitaria. 1175 C Cat: Domestication Jean-Denis Vigne CNRS, Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, France C Basic Species Information Based on numerous representations of cats in Egyptian art, it has been widely accepted that Egypt was the place where the intensification of the relationship between cats and humans first began. More specifically, several wall paintings dated to the sixteenth century BCE (18th Dynasty, Middle Empire) dedicated to the cat goddess Bastet make clear that hunters of the Nile Valley used cats to threaten wild birds and chase them from reeds (Zeuner 1963). In the tomb of Baket III, a local administrator at Beni Hasan during the 12th Dynasty (c. 1950 BCE), a painting with a cat associated with a human faces a rat suggests that cats were also considered efficient companions for fighting pest rodents (Malek 1993). Additional evidence comes from a tomb in the Abydos cemetery (1980–1801 BCE) that contained 17 complete cat skeletons associated with offering pots. It is not clear, however, if the cats of the Middle Empire can be considered domestic animals (controlled and biologically modified by the interaction with humans) or if they were only captive wild animals used by people. Juliette Clutton-Brock (1981) suggested that even modern cats are “intermediate between domestic and domesticated,” and she excluded it from the “man-made animals” or even from the “exploited captives” and instead created a specific designation of “exploiting captive.” Except for the sophisticated breeds which have been selected during the twentieth century, the behavior and morphology of domestic cats are the least modified by domestication. This is especially true for the skeleton and it is nearly impossible to differentiate archaeological bones of wild cats from those of domestic cats, except the brain case