South African Journal of Childhood Education
ISSN: (Online) 2223-7682, (Print) 2223-7674
Page 1 of 11
Original Research
The influence of executive function challenges on the
behavioural adaptation of one learner with autism
spectrum disorder
Authors:
Petronella de Jager1
Janet Condy1
Affiliations:
1
Department of Education,
Cape Peninsula University of
Technology, South Africa
Corresponding author:
Petronella de Jager,
petrozanne@gmail.com
Dates:
Received: 18 Apr. 2016
Accepted: 01 Dec. 2016
Published: 22 Mar. 2017
How to cite this article:
de Jager, P. & Condy J., 2017,
‘The influence of executive
function challenges on the
behavioural adaptation of
one learner with autism
spectrum disorder’, South
African Journal of Childhood
Education 7(1), a437. https://
doi.org/10.4102/sajce.
v7i1.437
Copyright:
© 2017. The Authors.
Licensee: AOSIS. This work
is licensed under the
Creative Commons
Attribution License.
In South Africa, many learners with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) attend mainstream and
private schools. This study explores the influence of executive function (EF) challenges
experienced by one learner with ASD on his behavioural adaptation in an inclusive school
environment. An interpretive case study approach was followed to help understand one
unique ASD learner and explain the complexity of the behavioural adaptation challenges that
he was experiencing. Observations and an interview were used as data collection methods.
During data analysis, themes were identified within each section of the transcript. The
processes of coding and categorising were employed to find connections and similarities
between all the data collected. The results indicate that Learner T experienced EF challenges.
Without acquiring and implementing appropriate EF skills, he found it difficult to exhibit
appropriate social behaviour in the inclusive learning environment. The study attempts to
debunk misconceptions people may have regarding the behavioural adaptability of ASD
learners in an inclusive school environment.
Introduction
To keep up with international trends, South Africa has embraced the establishment of an inclusive
educational system (South Africa, Department of Basic Education 2014; South Africa, National
Department of Education 2001, 2002). The White Paper 6 (2001) policy on Special Needs Education
in South Africa has continued to provide an important framework to guarantee the right to quality
education for children with disabilities (United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF]
2012:17). White Paper 6 (2001:17) states that inclusion is about recognising and respecting the
differences among learners while building on their similarities. It is about support for both
learners and educators. The emphasis is on development and teaching strategies with an adaptive
support system that will benefit all learners in need. Unfortunately, although sound in theory, the
White Paper 6 policy is difficult to implement in schools (Donohue & Bornman 2014; Engelbrecht
et al. 2003; South Africa, Department of Basic Education 2015; South Africa, National Department
of Education 2008). The SIAS (2008, 2014) documents were developed by the South African
Department of Basic Education in an attempt to bridge the theory and practice gap. In all these
documents, autism spectrum disorder (ASD) learners are included in the inclusive mainstream
South African educational system.
The aim of this study was to conduct an in-depth experiment of how executive function (EF)
challenges can influence the behavioural adaptation of one 9-year-old ASD learner. The reason
why this study focused on only EF challenges was that, according to Best and Miller (2010),
despite large literature on EF in children it mainly focuses on very young children before the age
of five. As Hughes and Graham (2002) mentioned that investigation is needed to establish whether
contrasts in EF help explain differences in the form and severity of behavioural symptoms, the
research investigated the influence EF had on the behavioural adaptation of a learner with ASD.
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According to De Luca and Leventer (2008), EF development corresponds to the neurophysiological
developments of the growing brain, and as the processing capacity of the frontal lobes and other
interconnected regions increases, the core EF will thus emerge. As EF ‘comprises of a set of
cognitive control processes, which regulates lower level processes (e.g., perception, motor
responses), it thereby enables self-regulation and self-directed behaviour towards goals’
(Miyake & Friedman 2012:8). The lower level of processes are needed for cognitive control of
behaviour by selecting and successfully monitoring behaviours that facilitate the attainment of
chosen goals. They include attentional control, inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive
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flexibility, reasoning and problem-solving. EF skills gradually
develop and change across the lifespan of an individual
(Diamond 2013; Malenka, Nestler & Hyman 2009).
While evaluating the theory on executive dysfunction in
autism, Hill (2004) argued that although many children with
autism have difficulties with EF, it cannot be considered a
defining feature of autism as not all ASD children have
difficulties with EF. As a result, autism treatment has largely
excluded assessment and treatment of EF and focused instead
on the social communication of all individuals on the ASD
spectrum.
Wertz (2012:1) stated that ‘The tendency to ignore EF in
autism has had significant implications for those individuals
on the ASD spectrum who have difficulties with EF (estimated
to be as high as 80%)’. He argued that these individuals do
not progress well with social and communication issues
without also addressing their EF problems.
In 2008 and 2009, the researcher conducted a case study on
two Grade R learners experiencing Asperger’s syndrome as
well as sensory processing difficulties (De Jager & Condy
2011). This prompted her to continue her study of Asperger’s
syndrome learners, especially those entering the Intermediate
Phase of their school career (10–12 year-olds). While exploring
the recent literature, she discovered that a new Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual (5th edition, DSM-V) had been published
(American Psychiatric Association 2013). It was interesting to
note that subsequently the criteria for Asperger’s syndrome
had undergone changes. The new DSM-V diagnoses all
autistic individuals with ASD. Within this classification, ASD
learners are grouped according to the level of support they
need. The three levels comprise ‘requiring very substantial
support’, ‘requiring substantial support’ and ‘requiring
support’ (DSM-V 2013:52). The learner in this study was
categorised as ‘requiring support’.
In the DSM-V (2013), there are two criteria describing ASD.
Criterion A focuses on social communication and social
interaction, and Criterion B focuses on restricted patterns of
behaviour, interests or activities (American Psychiatric
Association 2013:50). This study is confined to the social
interactional behaviours of ASD, that is, Criterion A. Within
this criterion, there are three subcategories of deficit that
were used by the researcher to inductively analyse the data.
Criterion A (DSM-V 2013:50) is described as: ‘Persistent
deficits in social communication and social interaction across
multiple contexts, as manifested by the following, currently
or by history (examples are illustrative, not exhaustive)’. The
three subcategories that fall under Criterion A include:
1. deficits in social-emotional reciprocity, ranging, for
example, from abnormal social approach and failure of
normal back-and-forth conversation to reduced sharing
of interests, emotions, or affect to failure to initiate or
respond to social interactions
2. deficits in non-verbal communicative behaviours used
for social interaction, ranging, for example, from poorly
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Original Research
integrated verbal and non-verbal communication to
abnormalities in eye contact and body language or deficits
in understanding and use of gestures to a total lack of
facial expressions and non-verbal communication
3. deficits in developing, maintaining and understanding
relationships, ranging, for example, from difficulties
adjusting behaviour to suit various social contexts to
difficulties in sharing imaginative play or in making
friends to absence of interest in peers.
As social communication and social interaction are regarded
as inseparable, they can be more accurately considered as a
single set of behaviours with contextual and environmental
specificities (Herold 2013). DSM-V Criterion A-3 makes
mention of ‘difficulties adjusting behaviour’. According to
Weiten, Dunn and Hammer (2011), ‘adjustment in behaviour’
is a psychological process through which, for instance, a
learner will manage or cope with the demands of his or her
school environment and experiences associated within this
environment.
As this study focuses on the influence EF can have on the
behaviour of an ASD learner, the researcher preferred to
use the phrase ‘adaptation of behaviour’. The American
Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
(2013) defines behavioural adaptation as a collection of
conceptual, social and practical skills that are learned and
performed by people in their everyday lives. Conceptual
skills are needed to understand language, number concepts
and self-direction. Social skills are important for interpersonal
and social responsibility, problem solving and the ability to
follow rules. Practical skills are required for activities in daily
living, including personal care, safety and following routines.
The following section describes in more detail the five
subdomains of EF that may influence behavioural adaptation.
These include response inhibition, emotional control, task
initiation, goal-directed persistence and sustained attention,
and flexibility of thinking. Examples are given to illustrate
how the lack of these EF skills may influence behavioural
adaptation in a classroom situation.
Executive function
According to Dawson and Guare (2012), the term EF emanated
from the discourse of neuroscience and refers to the brainbased skills that are required for humans to perform a task or
interact appropriately. They stated that there are two
dimensions of EF skills, involving cognition and behaviour.
This study focusses on the ‘behavioural adaptation’ which
includes the EF subdomains of response inhibition, emotional
control, task initiation, goal-directed persistence and sustained
attention, and flexibility of thinking.
An ongoing study at the Centre on the Developing Child at
Harvard University (2011:3; working paper 11) stated that:
the scientific evidence on the development and consequences of
EF in the early years of life conveys three important messages.
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First, EF skills are crucial building blocks for the early
development of both cognitive and social capacities. Second,
both normative differences in the nature and pace of individual
developmental trajectories and the impacts of significant
adversity will affect how the development of EF evolve for any
given child. Third, several interventions focused on supporting
the development of specific EF skills have demonstrated at least
short-term effectiveness.
Birtwell, Willoughby and Nowinski (2016) concurred with
DSM-V that in addition to communication and social
challenges, an ASD learner can encounter behavioural
challenges. Greenstone (2011) explained that although
educators may be aware of EF skills, they may be overlooking
their important implications in the foundation of both
academic and behaviour problems. The importance of being
aware of the influence of the five behavioural EF skills and
how they might influence an ASD learner’s behaviour during
social communication and interaction will be discussed in
the following section.
Response inhibition
Response inhibition is the ability to think before you act. This
skill is important in resisting the urge to say or do something
before you have had a change to evaluate the situation
(Greenstone 2011). While all EF skills are important, when it
comes to young school-going children, it is important for
them to have the capacity to manage their response inhibition
so that they do not routinely engage in impulsive and risky
behaviour (Guare, Dawson & Gaure 2013).
Richardson (2008) points out that ASD individuals often lack
the ability to suppress or ignore irrelevant or interfering
stimuli or information that transpires during communication
and social interaction. The young 9-year-old ASD learner in
this study was chosen because, as Attwood (2007) states, in
the early years one of the main signs of impaired EF is
difficulties in inhibiting responses (i.e. being impulsive
responses).
Yigal et al. (2010) agreed that individuals on the ASD
spectrum consistently display deficient response inhibition,
which may exhibit itself through context-inappropriate
behaviour. They would show emotions that were inconsistent
with normative appraisal of the context (Locke et al. 2009).
In a classroom situation, an ASD learner may show a lack of
response inhibition by not being able to suppress irrelevant
or interfering information and impulses. Not being able to
control his or her response inhibition impulses can result in
finding it difficult to resist the urge to say or do something
before thinking of the consequences. According to Dawson
and Gaure (2009), experiencing challenges with response
inhibition can influence an ASD learner’s behavioural
adaptation in numerous ways. Examples include not being
able to walk away from confrontation or provocation by a
peer, not being able to resist a fun activity despite a change of
plans and not being able to resist saying hurtful things within
a group situation.
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Original Research
Emotional control
Greenstone (2011) states that emotional control is a vital EF
skill to manage emotions to achieve goals, complete tasks,
and control and direct behaviour. When learners lack the skill
of emotional control in the classroom, they may display
‘sudden/frequent mood changes, be emotionally reactive
and show periods of excessive emotional upsets’ (Greenstone
2011:105).
Controlling one’s emotions is an important factor in everyday
functioning (Gross 2007). Gross agreed that to function in
everyday situations one needs to control one’s emotions
through regulating one’s voice and body in order to achieve
goals and complete tasks. According to Gross (2007), failing
to adequately control one’s emotions can have serious
consequences for one’s well-being and social relationships.
Samson et al. (2014) posit that emotional control is not a
formal criterion for the diagnosis of ASD. Yet clinicians and
parents have long noted the importance of emotional control
in respect of tantrums and anger outbursts on the part of
ASD children. Attwood (2007) states that children with ASD
clearly have problems with understanding emotions within
themselves and others, and with expressing emotions at an
appropriate level for the situation. Greenstone (2011) argued
that a learner who lacks the EF skill to control his or her
emotions will be unable to modify his or her behaviour and
act in a socially acceptable manner. Dawson and Gaure
(2009:207) point out that a learner who lacks emotional
control skills will find it difficult to tolerate criticism from his
or her teacher. He or she will become overly upset when
dealing with perceived ‘unfairness’ and will also find it
difficult to act with restraint in response to teasing or
disagreements.
Task initiation
Richardson (2008) described task initiation as knowing how
to get started, and how to sustain the effort level needed to
complete a task. It is the ability to begin projects without
undue procrastination in an efficient and timely manner
(Dawson & Gaure 2009:16). Thus, when task initiation
becomes a challenge, the timeous start and efficient and
correct completion of the goal or task at hand is at risk.
Dawson and Gaure (2009:222) argued that task initiation
does not apply to tasks we want to do but only to those we
find unpleasant, aversive or tedious – ‘one we have to make
ourselves do’. In a classroom situation, Attwood (2007)
mentioned that an ASD learner is often willing to start a task,
but will use his or her own time frame and strategy that often
do not comply with the instructions given by the teacher.
Greenstone (2011) argued that often the reason for not starting
a task timelessly is that the learner does not show
understanding of where to start, or the steps to follow to
complete the task. Often when an ASD learner experiences a
task initiation challenge, it may be misinterpreted as a lack of
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cooperation, a lack of motivation or reluctance to respond or
following instructions or rules (Wertz 2012).
Goal-directed persistence and sustained
attention
The ability to sustain attention has been used adjacent to
goal-directed persistence because, as Dawson and Gaure
(2012:11) argue, goal-directed persistence includes the skill of
sustained attention that enables an individual to keep paying
attention so as to complete the set task or achieve the set goal.
They (2009:265) define goal-directed persistence as ‘setting a
goal and working towards it without being side-tracked by
competing interests’. Sustained attention is the ‘capacity to
keep paying attention to a goal or task despite distractions,
fatigue or boredom’ (Dawson & Gaure 2009:214).
According to Davide-Rivera (2015), it is often difficult for
those individuals on the ASD spectrum to work towards
goals. They have trouble deciding what to do next, which
often results in their losing focus, no longer paying attention
and thus losing interest in completing a task. Attwood
(2007:256) mentions that an ASD learner can be easily
distracted. When working towards completing a task, he or
she will appear to have a ‘one track mind’ and a fear of failure.
Herbert and Weintraub (2012) argue that in a classroom
situation, not persevering and paying attention to complete
a task is often triggered by social distraction (such as
misunderstanding by peers), sensory stimulation and overload
or competing interests. Refocusing on his or her own interests
may be the result of the ASD learner’s misunderstanding of
the teacher’s instructions or not finding the task engaging or
interesting enough (Herbert & Weintraub 2012).
Flexibility of thinking
According to Kashdan and Rottenberg (2010:865), flexibility of
thinking ‘measure[s] how an individual adapts to fluctuating
situational demands, reconfigures mental resources and shifts
perspectives’. They argue that flexibility of thinking is needed
to balance competing desires, needs and life domains.
Flexibility of thinking enables individuals to generate new
ways of looking at a problem in order to accept change and to
adapt to the unexpected.
Cannon et al. (2011) stress that learners with ASD often display
flexibility of thinking challenges. Elliot (2013) furthers this
discussion by stating that this is an important skill for
academics, particularly when learning complex material in
which making mistakes may be the best way to solve a
problem. He argues that the skill of flexibility of thinking helps
an ASD learner focus and adapt to new situations, improvise
and shift strategies to meet different types of challenges.
Research approach
This study is grounded in a qualitative case study conducted
within an interpretative research paradigm. Yin (2003:18)
defines a case study research as comprising an all-encompassing
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method covering the logic design, data collection techniques
and specific approaches to data analysis. It is a preferred
strategy when ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions are posed, the
researcher has little or no control over events and the focus is
on a contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context.
This inquiry was followed to help understand one unique ASD
learner and explain the complexity of the behavioural
adaptation challenges that he was experiencing in his
classroom. An interpretive research approach is ‘an approach
that focusses on examining how individuals make meaning of
their life experiences’ (Pietkiewiz & Smith 2014:7). It is
informed by the idea that everyone is unique and should be
studied as such. This approach involves a combination of
psychological, interpretative and ideological components (Gill
2014). Together these afford an in-depth understanding that
incorporates attention to the participant’s beliefs and subjective
experiences, feelings and values (Nichols 2011).
This study focused on ascertaining the influences EF
challenges may have on the behavioural adaptation of a
learner with ASDs. It is therefore subjective to the observation
obtained through the personal perspective and interpretation
of the information gathered from observed behavioural
responses of the ASD learner and the interview conducted
with the Grade 3 teacher.
Finding a learner who can fulfil all the requirements needed
to qualify for this study was difficult. The researcher found
that the learners she identified, the schools and parents were
unwilling to be involved in the study. Therefore, this learner
was purposively ‘hand-picked’ on the basis that he was
clinically diagnosed with ASD by a registered educational
psychologist. At the time of data collection, he was a 9-yearold learner in Grade 3 in a private school in the Cape
Peninsula. According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison
(2008:114), in purposive sampling:
researchers’ ‘hand-pick’ the cases to be included in the sample on
the basis of their judgement of their typicality. In this way they
build up a sample that is satisfactory to their specific needs.
By employing observations and an interview for data
collection, the researcher was able to study Learner T’s
behaviour from more than one standpoint (Henning Van
Rensburg & Smit 2007). The focus was on his behaviour, but
the researcher tried to interpret the reasons behind it – to
establish the influences of EF challenges experienced by an
ASD learner on his behavioural adaptation in an inclusive
school environment. As the number of occurrences of certain
phenomenon mounted, using both observations and an
interview as data collection instruments enabled the
researcher to triangulate the information. It was hoped that
this would heighten the dependability and trustworthiness
of the interpretation of the data collected (Zohrabi 2013).
The researcher put aside five school days (between 08:30 and
14:30) for continuous observations during August–September
2013. The researcher decided to conduct the observations
only in the third term as this would have allowed Learner L
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time to adapt to his Grade 3 school environment. His teacher
would then also have had time to get to know him as a unique
individual and help him acquire and manage, for example,
appropriate social adaption skills.
During this time, Learner T engaged with different learning
areas or subjects (Home Language, First Additional
Language, Mathematics, Social and Natural Sciences, and
Life Skills), while interacting with Teacher SM and other
learners in the classroom. Learner T had additional periods
of Computer Work, Physical Education, Library and Art,
when he was required to leave his classroom environment.
During the observation period, minute-to-minute examples
of behavioural adaptation challenges experienced by Learner
T were noted on a preplanned observation schedule. The
responses of Teacher SM to these behavioural challenges
were included and correlated. This meant that the researcher
could build up information from what she had observed and
learnt from Learner T and Teacher SM, thus allowing space
for both their ‘voices’ (Henning et al. 2007:83). By not
only gathering information but also observing Learner T’s
interacting in his environment the researcher could
experience the unique way in which the learner experienced
life situations differently from his peers.
After the five observations, an interview was arranged with
Teacher SM. The interview was tape-recorded to ensure
descriptive validity (Isaac 2015). By reviewing and confirming
the tape-recorded data against the notes taken during the
interview, the validity, accuracy and clarity of the information
was ensured, and it also helped determine how consistent
the participant was in her provision of information.
The interview questions were fit for purpose, designed with
the research question in mind. The semi-structured interview
was conducted after-hours in Teacher SM’s classroom. This
style of interviewing allowed for more flexibility and created
space for the researcher to pursue lines of inquiry stimulated
by the interview (Rule & John 2011). As Teacher SM was not
formally trained in teaching ASD learners, probing questions
were added where necessary. These probing questions
assisted in helping her respond more fully and contributed
more relevant information to the research results.
The researcher used standard procedures to organise, date
and code the data from the observations and the one
interview. This assisted her in establishing links between
the various data collected (Henning et al. 2007). Once she had
identified the themes within each section of the transcript,
she looked for possible connections between them. The main
theme comprised the identified ‘EF challenges’. These five
challenges included response inhibition, emotional control,
task initiation, goal-directed persistence and sustained
attention, and flexibility of thinking. The subtheme which
was the ‘behavioural adaptation challenges’ juxtaposed all
five themes. The next stage involved a more analytical or
ordering process, as the researcher made sense of the
connection between the main theme and subthemes as
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Original Research
they emerged. The main five themes were categorised using
grouping and colour-coding procedures. Every EF challenge
was given a specific colour code, which included ‘green’ for
response inhibition, ‘blue’ for emotional control, ‘yellow’ for
task initiation, ‘red’ for goal-directed persistence and
sustained attention, and ‘purple’ for flexibility of thinking
challenges. The ‘behavioural adaptation challenges’ were
individually identified and linked according to these EF
challenges and colour-coded accordingly.
A tabular form was designed that included the EF challenge
and its definition, the environment that the observation
transpired in, the linked behavioural adaptation challenge
and the response of the teacher to the behaviours.
So as not to fall prey to bias, the researcher made notes
regarding the environment and external elements that may
have had an impact on the research findings. Continuous
writing incidents while observing Learner T were done while
occurrences took place. As the themes emerged, the researcher
linked the support-related data of the interview with Teacher
SM and related research with the observation data. All these
standard procedures helped to ensure that the data collected
rendered a ‘thick description’ of all the occurrences taking
place (Henning et al. 2007:85).
Ethical considerations
The researcher received written consent letters from Learner
T’s parents. A written assurance was given that the names of
the school and the participants would remain anonymous
and confidential. The school is identified as School P, the
learner in the study as Learner T and the teacher as Teacher
SM. In addition, the researcher received ethical permission
from the Cape Peninsula University of Technology to conduct
this study.
Results
In this section, the findings of the observations and the
interview will be discussed. The five EF challenges
experienced by Learner T and the behavioural adaptation
challenges will be presented.
Response inhibition challenge
In an English literacy lesson, Teacher SM mentioned that
they were going to practice words starting with the sound
‘f’ in cursive writing. Learner T responded impulsively by
saying: ‘Oh! We are going to do the ‘f...’ word today.’ This
caused some of the peers to burst out laughing, which
disrupted the focus and concentration of the whole class.
Teacher SM ignored his outburst and after she got the class
to refocus, she mentioned words starting with ‘f’ such as
‘fruit’, ‘friends’, etc. She asked the class to contribute words
as well.
Kana et al. (2007) confirm that the social inability to inhibit
context-inappropriate behaviour is typical of autism. As
Learner T could not resist the urge to shout out the verbal
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response that was inappropriate in timing and to the
circumstance, he displayed response inhibition. By ignoring
his outburst, Teacher SM tried to minimise the impact his
verbal response had on the flow of the lesson. During the
interview, Teacher SM agreed that Learner T would often
verbally respond by saying exactly what he thought without
considering the consequences of his words. Dawson and
Guare (2009) explain that response inhibition is an important
EF skill that helps with the capacity to think before acting.
This capability to resist the urge to say something allows the
child the time to evaluate a situation and how his or her
behaviour may impact it.
Emotional control challenge
During an oral presentation by a peer on ‘Space’, Learner T
got upset because he felt that the peer did not give the correct
information on the topic ‘Space’. He responded by calling the
learner offensive names and calling him an ‘… outright liar
…’. Teacher SM asked him to leave the room to calm down
and that she would speak to him after class about his
behaviour. Learner T’s response to leaving the classroom was
by shouting out ‘… but I can prove to you he is lying’.
Learner T lacked emotional control when he showed his
frustration and disappointment by verbally lashing out at his
peer and Teacher SM in a socially unacceptable manner. In
the interview, Teacher SM confirmed that Learner T did
not recognise that others were allowed to have ideas and
feelings on issues that were different from his. He would
get upset if others did not ‘recognise his point of view, or
frame of reference’. This often led to Learner T displaying
an inappropriate emotional response. Attwood (2007:130)
confirms that a learner with ASD tends to ‘lash out’
emotionally when he or she feels overwhelmed by too much
detail, or is overcome by feelings of being misunderstood.
According to Dawson and Guare (2009), emotional control is
an important EF skill needed to control unpleasant feelings,
such as anxiety, frustration and disappointments, to achieve
goals, complete tasks or control and direct behaviour.
Task initiation challenge
During an addition and subtraction Mathematics lesson, it
took Learner T a while to put down a toy gun that he had
made out of Lego and start working on his maths. He only
started working after Teacher SM asked a few times. Learner
T insisted he was only going to write down the answers.
Learner T responds:
‘I have done all this adding in my head. I don’t need to show you
if I know the answer is correct.’
Original Research
Teacher SM showed him an example of the method of how to
get to the answer. Meanwhile, Learner T kept rocking back
and forth showing his frustration.
Teacher SM explains:
‘I know you know the answer mentally, but now show me on
paper how you arrived at your answer.’
Knott and Dunlop (2007) confirm that a learner with ASD
often delays starting a task, just as he or she would find it
difficult to understand a different point of view, or recognise
an alternative course of action. This results in the learner
avoiding starting an activity in a timeless fashion and
completing it as per instruction.
Learner T only started his activity after he was prompted by
Teacher SM a few times. Once he started, he insisted on only
writing down the answers to the sums. He refused to show
evidence of how he had arrived at the answer. He insisted
that his answers were correct as he had worked them out
mentally. Even when shown what was expected of him, he
struggled to grasp the meaning behind the maths lesson. In
the interview, Teacher SM stated that Learner T would often
only start a task after he had been prompted by her. Frequently
during a discussion or when assigned a task, he would focus
on one detail of the task and then become unable to see the
whole picture or main outcome.
According to Ylvisaker, Hibbard and Feeney (2006), initiating,
or starting an activity or thought process, is typically included
in lists of functions that compromise a person’s executive or
self-regulatory system. If a person has initiation impairment,
it may result in the need for frequent initiation cues from
others.
Goal-directed persistence and sustained
attention challenges
During a Social Science lesson on ‘Families and Homes’,
Learner T made inappropriate verbal and non-verbal
communication by making grunting noises to cut out the
construction noises from outside. He sat and ‘mimicked’ all
the sounds around him while he was working. This caused
him to lose interest in his work, which resulted in him
turning around and poking his peers with a pencil for
attention. He continued to sit and played games with a
Lego gun that he had made. He interrupted his peers
sitting around him by making ‘shooting’ noises. Teacher
SM asked him three times to focus on his own work and
not disturb his peers.
Learner T responded:
Teacher SM explains:
‘When you do maths in the higher grades you get marks for
showing the method and how you got to the answer.’
Learner T responds:
‘Yes, but you know that I know the answer. It’s boring.’
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‘… it’s anyway too noisy outside to do anything that requires
thinking.’
Teacher SM stepped outside and asked the construction
workers if they could be more considerate and keep the noise
to a minimum. She closed the door behind her.
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Learner T could not persevere with the task at hand as the
construction noise and his an obsession with guns prevented
him from staying focused and completing his work on the
home and family task.
In the interview, Teacher SM confirmed that Learner T would
show his discomfort when he experiences sensory overload,
for example, from external noises. He would then lose focus
and resort to inappropriate behaviour by making grunting
noises or disturbing peers. She said that his fixation on the
theme of ‘army and guns’ was having an impact on his
concentration and focus in class.
Dawson and Guare (2010) state that having the capacity to
have a goal, and follow through to the completion of that
goal, can only be achieved if one is not put off or distracted
by competing interests. DSM-V (2013) has identified and
included inappropriate sensory reactions as one of the
diagnostic criteria for ASD. This challenge of inappropriate
sensory reactions can prevent an ASD learner working
towards a goal if competing and distracting interests deter
his or her attention (Dawson & Gaure 2010).
Flexibility of thinking challenge
During a Life Skills lesson, Learner T found it difficult to
adjust to a change of conditions and consequently
communicated in a socially unacceptable way during the
showing of a movie. It rained during a Physical Education
lesson, so Teacher SM allowed the class to watch a movie.
Learner T commented:
‘ … I’ve seen this movie a thousand times. This is boring and
unfair and it’s not raining anymore…’.
Learner T kept chatting to his other peers without making
eye contact. He could not sit still and kept giving facts about
what was going to happen in the movie and why. His peers
complained to Teacher SM that he was spoiling the movie for
them. Learner T continued giving his own views on submarines
that featured in the movie. Teacher SM asked him to stop talking.
Learner T responded:
‘… but I am not telling them about the movie, just about cool
submariners…’
This resulted in some of his peers moving away from him
and the rest of them ignored him completely.
Learner T’s reluctance to adapt to change was observed when
the class had to move to a different environment that was not
part of their normal daily routine. He reacted to the change of
venue and routine by moving about, talking and volunteering
information so as to pre-empt the story in the movie. He
could not understand that his peers did not want him to
communicate with them and were not interested in his views
on submarines. His inability to accept change and be flexible
in his thinking caused him to fail to adapt and respond in a
socially inappropriate way.
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Original Research
During the interview, Teacher SM acknowledged that Learner
T found it difficult to adjust to sudden changes of routine and
would show his reluctance to adapt by behaving immaturely
and in a way unfitting to the new situation. One of the
diagnostic criteria of ASD (DSM-V 2013:50) is ‘… excessive
resistance to change…’ Spratt et al. (2012:75) confirm that ‘…
children with autism often show difficulties in adapting to
change…’.
Conclusion
The results indicate that Learner T experienced EF challenges.
He experienced a lack of response inhibition, which resulted
in the inability to resist the urge to say something or comment
out of turn. This meant that he did not take the time to
evaluate a situation on how his behaviour may impact others.
A lack of emotional control to manage his feelings, such as
anxiety, frustration and disappointments, caused him to lash
out in a socially and emotionally unacceptable manner.
He experienced goal-directed persistence and sustained
attention, and competing interests distracted him from
working and persevering in completing a goal or task. By
finding it difficult to adjust to sudden changes made him act
out in a way that would be unfitting to the situation he found
himself in. This may be the result of his experiencing a lack of
flexibility of thinking.
Without acquiring and implementing appropriate EF skills,
Learner T found it difficult to exhibit appropriate social
behaviour in the inclusive learning environment. Greenstone
(2011:101) confirms that ‘EF skills are critical for both school
and personal success, but have been traditionally underaddressed in academic settings’. She stresses that despite
increased effort in recent years towards zero tolerance for
aggression, oppositional behaviour and bullying, these
behaviours persist in classroom environments. She stated
that good EF skills are required so that pedagogical strategies
can address not only what to learn in the classroom but also
how to learn in the classroom.
For an ASD learner, who experiences EF skills, to be able to
manage in inclusive education classrooms, a few
recommendations are suggested. When an ASD learner is
enrolled in an inclusive education environment, the
teachers need to have access to support resources and
literature to assist them with interventions and skills
training. The ASD learner needs teachers who understand
his or her disability and know how to offer appropriate
support. Teachers need to be made aware of ASD
characteristic traits and to offer a support system when
needed. They need to be made aware that despite the
communication and social challenges associated with ASD,
many will achieve positive outcomes in areas that are not
dependent on social interaction. These may be in the fields
of mathematics, sciences and computers.
As a learner on the autism spectrum may present some
unusual and challenging behaviours, and does not always
respond to the usual methods of discipline, a collaborative
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Page 8 of 11
support system needs to be put in place. This collaborative
problem-solving process includes the support and assistance
of parents or guardians, teachers, class assistant, special
needs educator and health professionals.
Several studies and investigations have been conducted
concerning creating a positive inclusive environment for
learners with special needs (Ainscow 2005; Markussen
2004; Pijl & Frostad 2010; Schwab et al. 2014). These studies
were deemed necessary as it has been found that students
with special needs have fewer interactions with peers,
have more interaction with the teacher and are less
accepted than their peers without special needs (Koster
et al. 2010).
Limitations and recommendations for future
research
This study has some limitations that may be considered for
future research. Although this study was an in-depth case
study investigation of one learner with ASD in a Grade 3
school environment, it focused only on one criterion
describing ASD: Criterion A – social communication and
societal integration. A larger and more comprehensive
study involving Criterion B – restricted pattern of behaviour,
interest or activities and hyper- or hypo-reactivity to
sensory input – may yield additional interesting results
(DSM-V 2013).
Another limitation is that, even though an in-depth case
study approach allowed for a rich description, the study only
focused on the chosen five behavioural domains of EF. A
similar but more comprehensive study having included the
domains of EF that incorporate the cognition skills associated
with EF may extend the findings of this research.
A final limitation of the study is that only Teacher SM was
interviewed. As the importance of a support system is
mentioned in the conclusion, conducting interviews with the
parents and health professionals involved with assisting the
learner with ASD is a recommendation.
Given the importance of young children’s development of
appropriate EF skills in early childhood education, especially
for a learner with special educational needs, it is recommended
to take note of the following. The policymakers of early
education policies that put great emphasis on emergent
literacy and emergent numeracy skills are missing an
important opportunity to increase their effectiveness by
including attention to the development of executive
functioning skills. The healthy development of EF must be
supported with specialised practice and training programmes
for special needs educators as well as educators who teach in
an inclusive school environment. Diamond (2013:22) states:
‘It’s extremely important to help young children have good
executive functioning because EFs early in life have been
found to predict lifelong achievement, health, wealth, and
quality of life’.
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Original Research
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
relationships which may have inappropriately influenced
them in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
P.d.J. was responsible for the research and writing of the
manuscript. J.C. supervised, gave guidance and support, and
edited the manuscript for final approval before submission.
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Original Research
Appendix 1
A copy of the observation sheet and interview questions used during data collection.
1. Observation example sheet
2. Interview question for Teacher SM
Observation sheet for Learner T (Example of multiple copies).
Day: ……. August……September 2013.
Subjects:
Life skills, English Afrikaans, Maths,
Social Sciences and Natural Science
Physical Education, Art and drama,
and Computers
Environmental Setting
Description
External factors
Learner’s response
Behavioural adaptation
challenge
Teacher’s immediate response
and intervention strategy
EF challenges
Response Inhibition, Emotional control,
Task Initiation, Goal-directed
persistence and attention and Flexibility
of thinking
Subject:
Time:
Description:
Venue:
Props:
New:
Verbal:
Physical:
Second party/s:
Class teacher:
Subject teacher:
EF challenge:
Reason:
Subject:
Time:
Description:
Venue:
Props:
New:
Verbal:
Physical:
Second party/s:
Class teacher:
Subject teacher:
EF challenge:
Reason:
General comments:
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR TEACHER SM
Challenge 1: Response Inhibition
Yes
No
Main Question
Does he show the capacity to think before responding?
Probing questions
Control response and think before reacting
Keep cool to think in an emotionally charged situation.
Deterred by interruptions or environmental stimulation if working with
something.
Control the urge to jump to conclusions.
Use sound judgement.
Say something before thinking it through.
Area Challenges and Support
Main question
What adjustments did you have to make to with response inhibition problems?
Probing questions
What support and assistance do you give in helping him think before responding
to a situation?
Does he interrupt and respond out of turn all the time?
What strategies and support have you tried to assist him in these situations?
X
Comments (Positive and Negative)
Comments (Assistance and Support)
Challenge 2: Emotional Control
Yes
No
Main Question
Does he manage his emotions appropriately during social interaction?
Probing questions
Controlling of unpleasant feelings like anxiety, frustration and
disappointments
Join in without getting overly excited or emotional
Tolerate criticism from adults
Deal with perceived ‘unfairness’ without getting overly upset
Adjust behaviour quickly after physical activity or stimulating situation
Area Assistance and Support
Main Question
What adjustments did you have to make to assist him in socially managing his
emotions?
Probing questions
How do you support and assist him with socially managing his emotions.
Assisting with calming down
Help with adjusting behaviour when overly excited or upset
X
Comments (Positive and Negative)
Comments (Assistance and Support)
Challenge 3: Task Inhibition
Yes
No
Main Question
Can he start a project without undue procrastination?
Probing Questions
Does he start a task that is not popular now instead of later?
Can he follow through on instruction without too much delay?
Can he do daily tasks without being reminded?
Can he get right to work when instructions have been given?
Area Assistance and Support
Main Question
What adjustments did you have to make to assist him in starting a given task or
work?
Probing questions
Do you have to remind him constantly to start his work?
Do you have to support him by repeating the instructions individually again so
that he can start his work?
Do you have to remind him daily of routine or daily procedures?
X
Comments (Positive and Negative)
Comments (Assistance and Support)
Challenge 4: Goal-Directed Persistence
Yes
No
Main Question
Can he follow through and complete a goal and not be put off by
distractions or competing interests?
Probing Questions
Does he persist even when finding it hard to achieve?
Does he refuse to start as it is not something he wants to do?
Does he do chores, and stick with it till completion?
Area Assistance and Support
X
Comments (Positive and Negative)
Main Question
What adjustments did you have to make to assist him in completing a set of
goals or a task?
Probing Questions
Do you have to support and assist in helping him complete a set goal or task?
Do you constantly have to motivate him to complete chores or tasks given?
If not given support, does he complete a task on his own?
Comments (Assistance and Support)
Challenge 4: Sustained Attention
Yes
Main Question
Can he keep paying attention to tasks in spite of being distracted?
Probing Questions
Paying attention despite feeling fatigued, bored or being distracted
Sustain attention for duration of task
Paying attention to relevant information
Flexible thinking – change ‘train of thought’
Encode attention – remember when to use it later.
Comments (Positive and Negative)
No
Area
X
Assistance and Support
Main Question
What adjustments did you have to make to motivate him in paying attention?
Probing questions
How do you assist in motivating him to pay attention?
Assisting in keeping him focussed
In helping him only focus on relevant information
Keeping motivated and interested in paying attention
Comments (Assistance and Support)
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Challenge 6: Flexibility in Thinking
Yes
Main Question
Can he adapt to change of conditions, obstacles, setbacks and new
information and change?
Probing Questions
Does he adjust easily to unexpected change to routine?
Can he tolerate redirection from teacher when following of instructions?
Can he share his ideas and equipment without a fuss?
Can he deal with disappointments and manage frustration with minimum
fuss?
Comments (Positive and Negative)
Original Research
No
Assistance and Support
X
Main Question
What adjustments did you have to make to assist and support him in change of
routine or unexpected setbacks?
Probing Questions
Does he need assistance and support to help him with change in routine and
unexpected setbacks?
Does he need constant support when there is a change in routine?
Does he need support to deal with disappointments and to manage his
frustration if things do not go according to plan?
Comments (Assistance and Support)
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