ISSN 1821-8474 VOL. 10, MARCH, 2021 ii African Journal of Pedagogy EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief: Thadei T. Nwareke Faculty of Education and Legal Studies Kampala International University in Tanzania Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Consulting Editors 1. Josephat Rugemaliva Kampala International University in Tanzania Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 2. Emmanuel Eneyo Southern Illinois University Edwardsville United States of America 3. Gabriel Olubunmi Alegbeleye Babcock University, Ilisan, Ogun State, Nigeria. 4. Harry Akusah University of Ghana Legon, Accra Ghana 5. Yusuf Lawi Kampala International University in Tanzania Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Vol. 10, March, 2021 iii African Journal of Pedagogy The African Journal of Pedagogy (AJEP) is a Tanzania-based journal of the Faculty of Education, Kampala International University, Dar es Salaam, that publishes high-quality solicited and unsolicited articles in all areas of education. Articles to be published in the African Journal of Pedagogy are usually subjected to peer-review. Such articles must be written in good English language. Types of articles which are acceptable The African Journal of Pedagogy accepts two forms of articles for publication. These are: 1) Report of empirical studies: These should describe new and carefully confirmed findings, and details of the research methods should be given so that others can verify the work. The length of a full paper should not exceed 6,000 words (i.e. 15 A4 pages). 2) Reviews or theoretical papers: Submissions of reviews and perspectives covering topics of current interest may be accepted for publication. The length of a reviewed paper should not exceed 6,000 words (i.e. 15 A4 pages). Method of Submission of Articles Articles should be submitted as e-mail attachments to the Editor-inchief through: Dean of Education and Legal Studies <deaneduc@kiut.ac.tz>, who will acknowledge receipt of the article and assign a manuscript number to the article within three working days. iv African Journal of Pedagogy Every article must follow the under listed guidelines: 1) It must be typed in MS-word, using ‘Times New Roman’ font 12. The spacing should be 1.5, but the tables and figures should be single spaced. 2) The title page should include the topic, corresponding author's full address and telephone/fax numbers and should be in an email message sent to the Editor-in-chief, with the file, whose name should begin with the first author's surname, as an attachment. 3) All manuscripts are peer-reviewed by qualified scholars carefully chosen. The reviewers’ comments are usually made available to authors within two weeks. The authors are expected to submit the corrected copies within a period of one month. 4) The Title should be a brief phrase reflecting the contents of the paper. The Title Page should include the authors' full names and affiliations, the name of the corresponding author along with phone, fax and e-mail information. Present addresses of authors should appear as a footnote. 5) The Abstract should be about 200 words. It must contain the background to the problem, purpose of the study, methodology, findings, conclusion and implications for policy/recommendations. Usually, references are not cited in the abstract. Keywords of 3-5 words can be stated below the abstract. 6) A list of non-standard Abbreviations should be added. In general, non-standard abbreviations should be used only when the full term is very long and used often. Each abbreviation should be spelt out and introduced in parentheses the first time it is used in the text. 7) The Introduction should provide a clear statement of the problem, the relevant literature on the subject, and the proposed approach or solution. 8) The methodology should be complete enough to allow possible replication of the research. It should contain the research design, population, sampling procedure, sample size, Vol. 10, March, 2021 9) 10) 11) 12) v instrumentation, test for reliability, validation, method of analysis and level of significance. Slight variations are allowed. The results should be presented with clarity and precision. It should be presented under the directional/research questions or hypotheses. It should be written in the past tense when describing author's findings, but references to previous findings should be written in the present tense. The results should be explained. The Discussion should relate the research findings to the findings of earlier researches that are relevant to the study. Justification should be made for deviation from expectation and previous studies. Tables should be kept to a minimum and be designed to be as simple as possible. No table should exceed a page. Each table should be on a separate page, numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals and should bear a title. Tables should be selfexplanatory without reference to the text. References should be in the latest American Psychology Association (APA) bibliographic format. vi African Journal of Pedagogy CONTENTS Sustainable Leadership: The Voices of Stakeholders of Secondary Schools from Deprived Contexts in Two South Africa Provinces Ntombizandile Gcelu & Amy Sarah Padayachee............................. 1 - 14 Providing Access to Education in Nigeria through Open and Distance Education: The right of the adult learner Apena, Temilola Taiwo ................................................................ 15 – 26 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning: Engaging Students to Maximize Free E-Learning Resources Ayotunde Adebayo ...................................................................... 27 - 46 Adult Education Development in Nigeria: Roles of Adult Education Facilitators in Oyo State Fatimo Moromoke Azeez & Raufu Oloore Yusuff ........................ 47 – 61 Impact of Scaffolding Strategy in the Teaching of English Language Writing Skills among Secondary School Students in Ogun State, Nigeria Titilayo Elizabeth Popoola & Olufunke Mojisola Osikomaiya ................................................... 63 – 77 Knowledge and Level of Awareness of Child’s Rights among Lower Primary School Teachers in Osun State, Nigeria Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O.................................................... 79 – 104 Revolutionised Pedagogies in Response to Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) in Institutions of Higher Learning Nonzukiso Tyilo ....................................................................... 105 – 118 Conflict among Private Secondary Schools Staff in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State Christianah Oluwakemi Alabi .................................................. 119 – 131 Vol. 10, March, 2021 vii Teacher-Student Relationship as Correlates of Students’ Achievement in English Language in Senior Secondary Schools in Osun State, Nigeria Beatrice Bunmi Adeyemi & Felicia Bosede Bamire ................ 133 – 150 Public–Private Partnership in Education: A Diagnosis Fabunmi, Martins & Bambi, Babatunde Ishola ........................ 151 – 170 Instructional Materials as a Correlate of Grade 6 Learners’ Mathematics Performance in Buffalo City: South Africa K.O. Adu; J. N. Pylman & E.O. Adu ......................................... 171 – 188 Influence of Pre-Service Obafemi Awolowo University Civics Teachers’ Teaching Strategies on Performance in Teaching Practice Exercise in Osun State Secondary Schools Babatunde Adeniyi Adeyemi & Muraina Olugbenga Omiyefa .................................................. 189 – 203 Level of Students’ Exposure to Sexual Activities during Covid-19 Pandemic Lockdown in Oyo State, Nigeria Oluwaseun Temitope Lawal; Taiwo Oladunni Gbenga-Akanmu; Ifeoluwa Samuel Oluyimide & Titilayo Olufolake Abiola ......................................................... 205 – 218 The Role of Library during Pandemic: Nigeria as Case Study Rosnold Ogie Omoba & Florence Adeola Omoba .................... 219 – 232 viii African Journal of Pedagogy SUSTAINABLE LEADERSHIP: THE VOICES OF STAKEHOLDERS OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS FROM DEPRIVED CONTEXTS IN TWO SOUTH AFRICA PROVINCES Ntombizandile Gcelu & Amy Sarah Padayachee University of the Free State gcelun@ufs.ac.za & amysarahp@gmail.com Abstract The context of deprivation affects a vast majority of schools in South Africa. Whilst education reform in South Africa has sought to redress past imbalances, the issue of leadership in schools of deprived contexts is still left hanging in the balance. The power dynamics associated with such schools has contributed to further social and financial inequalities. This study explores the voices of secondary school stakeholders in the Free State and Eastern Cape provinces in response to how sustainable leadership can be promoted in schools within deprived contexts. Asset Based Theory provided theoretical guide for the study. The study deployed Participatory Research Design which actively engages participants to share their experiences, ideas and expertise surrounding the leadership dynamics in schools within deprived contexts. The findings reveal that stakeholders contend that there are many collaborative initiatives being practiced in secondary schools which promote sustainable leadership. It is recommended that stakeholders should regard all persons as assets and as such, enhance collaboration to promote sustainable leadership in secondary schools. Index terms- Deprivation, Leadership, Secondary Schools, Sustainable Leadership Introduction The issue of deprivation in school contexts is widespread in South Africa, with the effects of such rearing its ugly head particularly in secondary schools. Schools within deprived contexts remain deeply rooted in the inequalities of educational reform and redress. The 2 Sustainable Leadership: The Voices of… cultural capital that enriched secondary schools project in society, promotes the standing of their learners. However, schools with deprived contexts have little or no access of acquiring the cultural capital that these schools expect from learners. Hernandez & Grineski (2012) contend that “due to deprivation, community members may lack cultural capital, leaving them with limited time to invest in the education of their children.” The capacitation of stakeholders to find a niche for sustainable leadership has been placed on the global education map for a significant amount of time. The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Education Goal (UN General Assembly, 2015) has pledged to enable education of quality and value, thereby enhancing the concept of lifelong learning for all. The incorporation of stakeholders as valuable assets to deprived communities may serve as an instrument to foster change and transform leadership in schools for sustainability. This is supported by Burns, Vaught and Bauman (2015) who state that sustainable leadership goes beyond transformational leadership and highlights collaboration, inclusiveness, relationships, common purpose and change rooted in values. According to Myende (2018), it is regrettable that due to the reality of their contexts, many deprived schools have difficulties in building sustainable relationships with stakeholders. However, many scholars argue that success of schools’ initiatives to build partnerships lies in leadership (Chikoko, Mthiyane & Naicker, 2015; Muijs et al., 2004). Myende (2018) further argues that “leadership in general and the school principal in particular may play several roles including direct participation or support for teachers who collaborate with the community.” A study conducted by Myende (2019) on creation of sustainable leadership reveals that “for partnerships to be functional and sustainable there is a need to ensure that there is collaborative planning and decision-making, effective two-way communication, eagerness to address power issues, and the creation of a culture that promotes participative leadership.” Due to the varying administrative, curriculum and management responsibilities assigned to principals, they may not always be present to facilitate the daily functioning of schools. In deprived contexts, such issues are intensified, contributing to further setbacks in the day-to-day functioning of schools. For this reason, there is a need for capacitation of stakeholders to form partnerships to sustainably move the school Ntombizandile Gcelu & Amy Sarah Padayachee 3 forward in the absence of the principal. It is therefore important to note that the role of the principal is instrumental to sustaining leadership such that despite his or her absence, the school may continue to function effectively. Furthermore, the role of the principal can also be related to the relationships that may exist within the school community. These initiatives can therefore enable collaborative initiatives in which schools, despite their deprivation, can be managed effectively. Literature underpinning the study Deprivation of schools in the context of the study To understand the extent to which the researchers define the term ‘deprivation,’ it is necessary to paint an overall picture of the circumstantial evidence of such schools in the two provinces under the investigation of this study. Literature suggests a myriad of factors that may contribute to the term ‘deprivation.’ These include, but are not limited to; poverty, access to services, low income, poor facilities and lack or resources. The schools chosen for this study are characteristic by the rural localities, poor and underdeveloped infrastructure, poor access to Fourth Industrial Revolution tools leading to a large digital divide and low levels of income and employment. School leadership School leadership is pivotal to the effective functioning of schools. In schools within deprived contexts, the leadership of the school is more especially required to balance the power struggles and challenges with which they are faced. The pinnacle of the endeavour of school leadership is to create a vision and mission for stakeholders which foster partnerships and enact the mobilisation of resources (Clarke, Stevens & Wildy, 2006). South African school leadership focuses on the role of the principal in carrying out leadership and management functions. Yet literature reveals that school leadership is contextualised as a collective body of school stakeholders who collaborate by embracing democratic leadership, thereby creating opportunities that will capacitate sustainable leadership (Harris, 2005). The understanding of an Asset Based Approach is significant in highlighting that the essence of school leadership is found in the sustainability of social, human and cultural capital (Emery & Flora, 2006). 4 Sustainable Leadership: The Voices of… School partnerships for sustained leadership A number of authors have indicated the effectiveness of collaboration initiatives in schools in different ways. For example, Halonen, Atkins, Hakulinen, Pesonen and Uitti (2017) identify a clear definition of roles and flexibility as the prerequisite for effective collaboration, while other studies postulate that collaboration can result in better, more effective management of natural resources and environmental quality (Yaffe, 2002). It generates wiser decisions, produces more durable decisions, fosters action and promotes change (Yaffee, 2002). Collaboration involves complementary skills from team members, shared working approaches and mutual accountability among all members (Katzenbech & Smith, 2003). Baggs and Schmitt (1988) as cited by Gardiner (2005) reframe the relationship between collaboration and teamwork by defining collaboration as the most important aspect of team care, but certainly not the only dimension. Bhengu and Svove (2018) argue that it is important that school-community partnerships are established and maintained such that they serve as a tool for education leadership. Findings from these extant studies indicate that when stakeholders collaborate, the results tend to be positive. The above speculations about collaboration by different authors mean that teaching in a collaborative environment allows stakeholders to divide the tasks at hand, making management and leadership activities more manageable. The concept of shared leadership to promote sustainability in schools is supported in literature. Sanders (2007) asserts that it is unnecessary to rely solely on principals to lead schools, but rather all stakeholders should be accountable for the functioning of the school and participate in sustainable initiatives. The authors of this current study are of the view that a lot has been said about the effectiveness of collaborative initiatives but very little has been said about how these existing collaborative initiatives can be enhanced to improve sustainable leadership. Many authors contend that schools globally have built partnerships to equip themselves with resources and also gain support far beyond the threshold of the school (Epstein, 2011; Gonzalez and Thomas, 2011; Sanders, 2007). These partnerships are reflective of relationships that are built on an understanding of the greater good of the school community particularly that of schools in deprived contexts. Although schools in this contexts rely heavily on partnerships with Ntombizandile Gcelu & Amy Sarah Padayachee 5 parents and families of their learners, there is still a need for such schools to extend the borders of their partnerships to pave the way for sustainability. In this regard, schools may partner with “government institutions, universities, businesses, other schools, non-governmental institutions, and other individuals” (Bhengu and Myende, 2015; Myende and Chikoko, 2014). At grass roots, leadership as described by Hands (2010), illustrates that schools which practise open systems of leadership allows stakeholders to accumulate a large knowledge base by the sharing and exchanging of ideas. In the context of schools in deprived situation, the idea of an open system of leadership could yield many initiatives for sustainable leadership. Whilst existing literature widely discusses the relevance of sustainable leadership and partnerships in schools within deprived contexts, there seems to be little literature available that represents the voices as stakeholders as assets in school communities. The gap that this study aims to close is the inclusion of the voices of stakeholders which reflect their experiences, knowledge and expertise that may contribute effectively to the concept of sustainable leadership. Problem Statement Although the issue of school leadership remains a well-researched topic in scholarly communities, there remains gaps in research that addresses leadership in deprived contexts. It is within this context that there is a need to explore how sustainable leadership can be promoted in schools within deprived contexts. The researchers argue that to find solutions to complex issues in schools, schools need leaders that take action based on sustainability values as stated by Burns, Vaught and Bauman (2015). The researchers in this study identified the need to make sure that leaders lead and their leadership is sustained even when they are no longer in those schools. The main objective of this study focused on acknowledgement of and the use of expertise of every asset in the school community to promote sustainable leadership. The objective therefore guided the primary research question: How can we transform leadership in schools for sustainability? 6 Sustainable Leadership: The Voices of… Theoretical Framework An Asset Based approach served as the theoretical pivot for this study. The Asset-Based Approach served as the foundation of this study because the researchers sought to recognize and build on a combination of the human, social and physical capital that exists within the school communities. The researchers envisaged making use of the unseen assets which play a decisive role in school community within all the school stakeholders (Ebersohn & Eloff, 2006). The researchers concur with the view that it is essential to recognize the capabilities of people who, for example, have been labelled as not educated, being too young or too old or with disabilities (Kretzman & McKnight, 1993). This use of an Asset-Based Approach does not turn a blind eye to the constraints that largely affect deprived schools, nor does give a false impression that schools within deprived contexts do not require additional resources and support from external stakeholders. Rather, it leads to the assumption that external support and additional resources can be more beneficial to the school community if the community first acknowledges, identifies and utilises its own wealth of resources, and further procure plans for the utilisation of resources gained from external sources (Ebersohn & Eloff, 2006). Methodology The study employed Participatory Research Design (PAR) which allowed participants to engage actively and build their own knowledge (Herr and Anderson, 2014). This research design involves the particular participants with clear recognition of power issues and the goal to transform the society. According to Mertens (2008), PAR emphasizes the methods that recognizes the voices of the most oppressed. Participatory research enabled the researchers to engage with all stakeholders in the school community and also with people living in the same community where the schools are situated to explore how sustainable leadership could be promoted in the deprived context. The research was conducted in phases. Phase one began in 2019 where the academic researchers began conducting research with participants in two Provinces in South Africa, namely; Free State and Eastern Cape provinces. Schools were purposively selected. The researchers selected one school in each province that is in a deprived context with signs of collaboration in their school community. Participants were purposively Ntombizandile Gcelu & Amy Sarah Padayachee 7 selected and comprised a principal, a teacher in the school management team (SMT), a post level one teacher, two leaners (female and male), a parent in the school governing body (SGB) a parent who has interest in the development of the school from the same community and the headman or chief from the same community. Participants were engaged in the research process, to plan and to try and improve their situation in school through systematic process of critical reflection on the current situation. In the second phase, participants continued with research that promoted sustainable leadership in schools. All discussions, evaluations and reflections were audio-recorded. The first phase took place during the first quarter of 2019. At the end of every quarter the research team reflected and evaluated what they have experienced previously and all the reflections will be audio-recorded. Focus group interviews were held after every end of the phase to determine the learning about the project and their views and experiences. After every quarter there was an evaluation and audio-recorded reflections or written reflections. According to Maree (2012), all data collected by electronic or digital means must be transcribed and this is best done by oneself as one will probably include some non-verbal cues in the script; silence may communicate embarrassment or emotional distress, or a simple pause for thought. Hence, data was personally transcribed. Themes emerged out of the data generated. Permission was sought from the relevant university and provincial departments of educations of education. Ethical considerations were taken, ensuring participants rights to anonymity and confidentiality. Findings and discussion The study identifies the need to ensure that leaders lead and their leadership is sustained even when they are no longer in those schools. In response to this, the study reveals that there are initiatives that already exist in schools. Theme 1: Mentoring improves collaboration for sustainable leadership All stakeholders in both schools showed that through team work they enhanced collaborative initiatives that already exist by valuing everyone as an asset and that contributed to sustaining leadership. When they were asked how, their verbatim responses were as follows: 8 Sustainable Leadership: The Voices of… School A Teacher Post level 1: “As teachers we engaged in team teaching, whereby teachers help one another relating to subjects that they teach”. School B Teacher1: “Young and new teachers are mentored by experienced teachers and this has been going on for past 5years in our school and we are now used to it.” School A SMT Member: “We work together making sure that whatever decision we make as SMT, all the teachers and parents are made aware of for example teachers, parents and even learners use the mentoring strategy that we started as SMT, even learners mentor other learners.” School B Parent 1: “And it’s not the responsibility of the teacher that he/she should be the only one, I shouldn’t as a parent pass my child to the teacher saying go, you are beyond me.” School A Teacher 1: “Sometimes I am certain that during the evening classes the parents, whether in the SGB or not we see an example of collaboration. They don’t sleep, they are not those who stay alone and wait at home, they help us and even come with advice that when these children leave you here, they get to these conditions in the community, we advise this curb the problem so the children are safe”. School A Learner 2: “In our school as learners we have scheduled mentoring programs where learners who are good in Maths do revision for other learners and the parents are ones monitoring the program.” The study reveals collaboration in both schools is important to strengthen holistic development, including planting vegetables in the school that they used to feed learners in the school. Teachers are trying to collaborate with the Department of Agriculture and South African Social Security Agency to involve more parents (+/- 50) to plant the whole yard not just a portion of a huge yard they have in the school. Ntombizandile Gcelu & Amy Sarah Padayachee 9 The Department of Agriculture visited one of the schools and took the samples of the soil in the school plot. The school is currently awaiting the results about the soil and further advice on which crop would grow well in that type of soil and the machinery and equipment that may be required for the particular land. The teachers promised to help the school by being more involved, to which they contend that they are trying to improve and take matters to another level of leadership by ensuring functionality and sustainability. They also keep the motivation by recognising those who did something good at the assembly, to motivate others to do the same, and to motivate the one who did right to continue. In both schools, the participants agreed that the mentoring program is key in establishing sustainable leadership as there are mentors among the teachers with different life experiences to offer teachings from. Theme2: The need for harmonious relationships to facilitate sustainable leadership All participants in the project agreed that collaboration of stakeholders in whole school aspects created working in harmony and that contribute to sustainable leadership. Teachers revealed that engaging in teacher development in which they work on team building to solve misunderstandings that occur among the teachers and use this as a strategy to promote peace. Furthermore, teachers are committed to coming up with ideas of fund raising fund raising in that way helping the SGB with the learners in the school being the participants in any activity meant to raise funds. School B Teacher 1: “Also there is a teacher development with which they are trying team building to solve misunderstandings that occur among the teachers and promote peace.” School A SMT Member: “Usually when the schools open, the principal calls some members of the community to come and motivate the learners. Also the people from the clinic come to advise students on teenage pregnancy, SAPS come for security and safety like preventing drug abuse. Furthermore, the parent outlined that the school has 10 Sustainable Leadership: The Voices of… collaboration among parents, teachers and learners; parents voluntarily come to school and stay in with the learners.” Teachers reported that they work together with the South African Police Services assigned to the school in dealing with drugs. There are regular meetings and workshops with Police, SGB and educators. There are also staff meetings that take place once a week every Friday, where teachers discuss and evaluate areas of concern for the week and even look at how improvements can be made. School B Parent1: “Parents of the school community assist in school in many ways, for example when learners are having extra classes of peer coaching in subjects like Maths/Science? English parents have schedules to assist teacher in making sure of the safety and security of learners. School B SMT Member: “It has been decided by the principal, deputy and teachers that they have principalship so that principal and the deputy design a template as evidence that they collaboratively run the school.” The main finding of the theme that stands out is that the daily functioning of the school is not necessarily the sole responsibility of the principal or Head of Department (HOD). Rather, it is undertaken by anybody knowledgeable in that particular area who can contribute effectively to the leadership of the school. The implications of such a finding holds true to the fact that teachers are initiators of collaborative initiatives that pave the way forward for sustainable leadership. Conclusion Schools can only succeed when they have leaders who acknowledge that they cannot manage the functioning of schools single-handedly. A salient theme of the study shows that through collaboration among stakeholders there were also other gains such as acquired knowledge, team development and the smooth running of the school. Schools need leaders who build relation within and outside the school, leaders who acknowledges and use other stakeholders’ capabilities. There remains a Ntombizandile Gcelu & Amy Sarah Padayachee 11 need for stakeholders who lead in such a way that they create inclusive, collaborative and reflective leadership that is sustainable. Leaders who make use of all the assets in the school community and outside the school. Recommendations Although this study indicated that collaboration among stakeholders was effective in those schools, there are still some gaps on how leadership can be sustained through collaboration. Collaboration does not occur in a vacuum, it involves leadership, which is the backbone of any school success. It may have been more illustrative for the researchers to broaden the scope of the study in this regard. It is therefore recommended that sustainable leadership be used in conjunction with collaboration to effectively manage schools in deprived contexts. Acknowledgements • Thuthuka Bursary Fund (TTK1805033258390) (UID118158). • Schools in the Free State and Eastern Cape provinces who participated in the study. References Baggs, R.N. and Schmitt, E.B. 1988.Collaboration between nurses and physicians. Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 20,145-149 Bhengu, T. T., & Svosve, E. 2018. Transforming education through school-community partnerships: Lessons from four rural early childhood development schools in Zimbabwe. Africa Education Review, 1-20. Bhengu, T. T., Myende, P. E. 2016. Leadership for coping with and adapting to policy change in deprived contexts: Lessons from school principals. South African Journal of Education 36(4): 1– 10. Burns, H., Diamond-Vaught, H. and Bauman, C., 2015. Leadership for sustainability: Theoretical foundations and pedagogical practices that foster change. International Journal of Leadership Studies. Chikoko, V., Naicker, I., and Mthiyane, S. 2015. School leadership practices that work in areas of multiple deprivation in South 12 Sustainable Leadership: The Voices of… Africa. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 43(3), 452-467. Clarke, S., Stevens, E. and Wildy, H., 2006. Rural rides in Queensland: Travels with novice teaching principals. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 9(1), pp.75-88. Ebersohn, L. and Eloff, I. 2006. Life Skills and assets (2nd Edition) Pretoria: Van Schaik. Emery, M., & Flora, C. 2006. Spiralling-up: Mapping community transformation with community capitals framework. Community development, 37(1), 19-35. Epstein, J. L. 2011. School, Family, and Community Partnerships: Preparing Educators and Improving Schools, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Westview Press. Gonzalez, J.V. and Thomas, C. N. 2011. Building connections with parents & communities. Leadership 40(5): 20–21. Halonen, J.L., Atkins, S., Hakulinen, H., Pesonen, S. and Uitti, J. 2017. Collaboration between employers and occupational health service providers: A systematic review of key characteristics. BMC Public Health, 17:22. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5217434/pdf/ 12889_2016_Article_3924.pdf.DOI 10.1186/s12889-016-3924 Accessed 15 January 2018 Hands, C. M. 2010. Why collaborate? The differing reasons for secondary school educators’ establishment of schoolcommunity partnerships. School Effectiveness and School Improvement 21(2): 189–207. Harris, A. 2005. Teacher leadership: More than just a feel-good factor? Leadership and policy in schools, 4(3), 201-219. Hernandez, A. A., and Grineski, S. E. 2012. Disrupted by violence: children’s well-being and families’ economic, social, and cultural capital in Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. Revista panamericana de salud publica, 31(5), 373-379. Herr, K. and Anderson, G.L., 2014. The action research dissertation: A guide for students and faculty. Sage publications. Katzenbech, J.R. and Smith, D.K. 2003. The Wisdom of Teams. New York: HarperCollins. Kong, S.C. 2018. Parents' perceptions of e-learning in school education: Implications for the partnership between schools and parents. Ntombizandile Gcelu & Amy Sarah Padayachee 13 Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 27(1), 15-31. doi: 10.1080/1475939X.2017.1317659 Kretzman, J. P. and McKnight, J. L. 1993. Building Communities from the Inside Out. Chicago: Acta Publications. Maree, K., 2012. First Steps in Researcvh. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Maringe, F., Masinire, A. and Nkambule, T., 2015. Distinctive features of schools in multiple deprived communities in South Africa: Implications for policy and leadership. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 43(3), pp.363-385. Mertens, D. M. 2005. Research and Evaluation in Education and Psychology. Integrating-Diversity with Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods (2nd edition). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Muijs, D., Harris, A., Chapman, C., Stoll, L., and Russ, J. 2004. Improving schools in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas–A review of research evidence. School effectiveness and school improvement, 15(2), 149-175. Myende, P. and Chikoko, V. 2014. School-university partnership in a South African rural context: Possibilities for an asset-based approach. Journal of Human Ecology 46(3): 249– 259. Myende, P. E., 2018. Leadership for school-community partnership: A school principal's experience in a deprived context. Leadership that works in deprived school contexts of South Africa, pp.121142. Myende, P.E., 2019. Creating functional and sustainable School– Community Partnerships: Lessons from three South African cases. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 47(6), pp.1001-1019. Sanders, M. G. 2001. The role of “community” in comprehensive school, family, and community programmes. The Elementary School Journal 102: 19–34. Sanders, M.G. 2007. Transcending boundaries. Principal Leadership 8(2): 38–42 UN [United Nations] General Assembly. 2015. Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for SustainableDevelopment.A/RES/70/1.http://www.un.org/ga/se arch/view_doc.asp?symbol¼A /RES/70/1&Lang¼E; accessed on 11 April 2016. 14 Sustainable Leadership: The Voices of… Yaffee, S. L. 2002. Ecosystem Management Initiative, School of Natural Resources & Environment Available at http://seas.umich.edu/ecomgt/lessons/stages/gettingstarted/benefits.of.collaboration.pdf Accessed 7thJuly 2017. PROVIDING ACCESS TO EDUCATION IN NIGERIA THROUGH OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION: THE RIGHT OF THE ADULT LEARNER Apena, Temilola Taiwo (Ph.D.) Department of Educational Foundations Faculty of Education National Open University of Nigeria, Lagos t_apena@yahoo.co.uk 08033922807 Abstract Education is an imperative aspect of human life which takes place from cradle to grave. It determines who and what one becomes in life, it is the key to success, fame and longevity in an individual and determines the level of development of a nation. Open and distance education appears to be a good avenue for adults who are out of school for one reason or the other, the disadvantaged and the neglected to mainstream back and fulfill their life ambition or get placement at work. This article therefore seeks to examine the various ways in which the Open and Distance Learning Education has been used to address the problem of access to the right to education in Nigeria. This article also examines the essentials of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) and in particular, how Nigeria has used the ODL mode of study (through the National Open University of Nigeria) as an instrument of social justice in surmounting the challenges of accessibility to education in Nigeria. The work examines the successes and failures of using the ODL system in protecting the right of access to education. A survey research was carried out on adult learners. 120 learners were selected from across the federation through a multi stage sampling technique. Three research questions were raised. Instrument titled Access to Education Questionnaire (AEQ) was used to elicit information from respondents with reliability coefficient of 0.76. The bio-data was analysed with percentage distribution while the research questions were analysed with simple mean and standard deviation. The result showed that ODL has greatly improved the problem of access in the southern part of the country. It also revealed 16 Providing Access to Education in… the importance of ODL to the people and the development of the nation. It was gathered from the result that ODL implementation has been very successful given the number of enrolment and study centres. Regardless of this revelation, awareness seem still low in some other part of the country and access is still a problem because of factors like finance, perception, computer illiteracy, internet connectivity, insecurity and epileptic power supply. It is therefore recommended that National Open University of Nigeria should still embark on different kinds of awareness campaigns to achieve more in both north and south. It is also recommended that stakeholders like government, religious bodies, NGOs, clubs and well-meaning Nigerians should invest more in open and distance learning for the development of the nation. Key words: Access, Adult learners, Open Distance Education, Human Right. Introduction It is the right of every citizen to be educated to any level an individual desires. Spring (2000) opines that the denial of education is consequential on well-being; education contributes to health; it provides citizens with the tools for resisting totalitarian and repressive governments and economic exploitation. It includes access to basic education by people who are out of school, access to education to avoid discrimination at all levels of the educational system, to set minimum standards of education and to improve the quality of education. The right is agreed to by many treaties and conventions like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the International Covenant on Economic and Social Rights (ICESCR), the Covenants on the Rights of the Child (CRC) as well as the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Right (ACHPR) and some other conventions. These provisions by all means protect citizens’ right to education. International Human Rights Law holds the state primarily responsible for the implementation of the right. Sokefun & Aje (2015) asserts that it is incumbent on the state parties to ensure the realisation of the right to education through policy, administrative and legislative measures. It is the right of government to provide basic education for individuals from primary to college levels, to set minimum standards of education, maintain unity of syllabus and to improve quality of education generally. Citizens on their own part have Apena, Temilola Taiwo 17 the right to resist discrimination at any level of education, study hard and adhere to rules and regulations (Wikipedia, 2019). George Siemens (2004) in Picciano (2017) described learning as a process that occurs within hazy environments of moving main issues that may not ordinarily be manageable which is super essential than what is currently known. This is intuition but for that one that is sought, there must be allowance for realisation and attainment as far as any individual desires. There should be no limitation of any kind, be it social, religious or geographical. Access is a very important aspect of the right to education thus, a denial of the right of access to education is a fundamental violation of the right to education. 60 percent of about I60 million Nigerians from 300 ethnic groups with diverse cultures and religions live below poverty line which makes access to primary, secondary or the tertiary education increasingly difficult. Open and distance learning according to ICDE President Tian Belawati, rector of Indonesia’s immense open institution Universitas Terbuka is about access to university. He reported that in Indonesia higher education participation is just about 28% and affirmed the remaining 72% do not yet have access. Out of the percentage of participation, 12% are enrolled with the Open University while the rest are with conventional universities in the country. This is a great achievement of the mode as against the face to face participation. Mathew & Ebelelloanya (2016)’s study on benefit and challenges of technology usage for online learning in Africa revealed that ODL is beneficial in terms of interaction and student engagement; access to latest information; content sharing and communication. The revelation is marvelous and should be extended to others yet to gain access especially the vulnerable and the disadvantaged group in Nigeria including the effort of making technology available to them in their various location for easy access. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights also states that Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human 18 Providing Access to Education in… personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. The UNESCO 160 Convention on Discrimination, 1981 Convention on the right of women and 2006 Convention on Persons with Disability corroborated this statement. Adult have as much right to education as children or even more because most of the time their survival, relevance and happiness depend on it. The Sustainable Development Goals 1 (no poverty), 2 (zero hunger) and 3 (good health and well-being for the people) can only be sustained by goal 4 (quality education) at all levels. Most of the time, education of the adult is sought out of self-need and desire unlike children who are being forced to learn. This is responsible for the high rate of attrition that often occur in Open and Distance Education and why their learning has to be flexible. The National Open University of Nigeria is building on the foundation laid both at the primary and secondary levels as provided by law. Thus, helping individuals to fulfill their life ambitions, achieve their aims and participate in state matters. The institution in its peculiar manner is flexible, accessible and cost effective. About eighty-four (84) centres are spread across the federation, more is yet to come in the near future for the sake of accessibility. The Open Distance Education offered is self-study and self-pace which is part of flexibility. This article therefore seeks to examine the various ways in which the Open and Distance Learning Education has been used to address the problem of access to education in Nigeria. It assesses the essentials of Open and Distance Learning in Nigeria and also investigates the successes and failures of using the ODL system in protecting the right of access to education. Statement of the problem Education is the bedrock of the development of any nation, its quality also determines the level of development of such country. Its benefits to an individual, community or group and the country as a Apena, Temilola Taiwo 19 whole cannot be underestimated. It serves as vision to man because an illiterate can neither read nor write and as such is blind to instructions. Education liberates the oppressed from the oppressor, promotes relevance and gives voice. Quality education is the right of every citizens in any country regardless tribe, colour or race from primary to higher level. The capacity and capability of the government to provide quality education for its people depend largely on its sincerity, political stability and economic condition. Nigeria population of about 180 million was faced with the challenge of admission into undergraduate positions in institutions across the country which necessitated the birth and rebirth of the National Open University of Nigeria to solve the problem of access. This paper sought to examine the various ways in which the Open and Distance Learning Education has been used to address the problem of access to the right to education in Nigeria. Research question 1. In what ways has ODL addressed the problem of access in Nigeria? 2. Of what importance is ODL in Nigeria? 3. How successful is the use of ODL in protecting the right of access in Nigeria? Methodology Descriptive research design was adopted for the study. Population and Sample The target population of the study was estimated at about 60,000,000. 120 learners were selected from the three geo-political zones through a multi stage sampling technique. Five ODL study centres were randomly selected from each of the three southern geo-political zones. Ten respondents were further selected from each centre. Thus, there were 50 respondents each from South West, South East and South South zones of the federation and a total of 120 from the three zones. Instrument A self-developed instrument titled Access to Education Questionnaire (AEQ) was used to elicit information from respondents. The 20 Providing Access to Education in… questionnaire has two sections: A and B. Section A contains the demographic information of the respondents such as age, number of years in retirement, gender and so on while section B is a close ended questionnaire with few open ended questions designed in line with the research questions in mind having reliability coefficient of 0.76. Three research questions were raised to guide the study. Procedure for Data collection The instrument was administered to characters at the North central part of Nigeria three weeks before the real study was carried out. The southern part of the country was used for the main study. The instrument was administered with the help of three research assistants, one for each zone. Some of the responses were ready the same day while others were ready some days later. 120 copies were distributed to the respondents, a good number of it was retrieved in good condition while a few others were rough but were still managed. Analysis The result was analyzed using Likert scale of preferences in descending order, rated strongly agree attracting a score of four; agree; a score of three, disagree; a score of two, and strongly disagree a score of one. The bio-data was analysed with percentage distribution while the research questions were analysed using simple mean and standard deviation. Results Research question 1: In what ways has ODL addressed the problem of access in Nigeria? 21 Apena, Temilola Taiwo Table 1. Result of the way ODL addressed the problem of access in Nigeria. S/N Item SA A U D SD Mean 1. ODL has helped a lot of candidates who could not be admitted into conventional institutions. Many people who are gainfully employed and do not have time for full time learning have been able to get additional qualifications and upgraded through online learning. The flexibility of ODL has been advantageous to a lot of people. Learners study without stress or fear of victimization since there is less interaction with facilitators. Economy of the mode is incomparable 81 (69.8) 29 (25.0) 1 (0.9) 3 (2.6) 2 (1.7) 4.58 Std. Dev 0.825 20 (17.2) 50 (43.1) 29 (25.0) 10 (12.3) 5 (4.3) 3.59 1.031 36 (31.0) 40 (34.5) 16 (13.8) 18 (15.5) 6 (5.2) 3.71 1.209 37 (31.9) 33 (28.4) 18 (15.5) 17 (14.7) 11 (9.5) 3.59 1.326 26 (22.4) 34 (29.3) 26 (22.4) 19 (16.4) 11 (9.5) 3.39 1.263 2. 3. 4. 5. Source: Field survey, 2020 Table 1 above shows that more than half of the respondent agreed to the fact that ODL has addressed the problem of access greatly in Nigeria. The mean of each of the items under this research questions are greater than 3.00 which is above the benchmark of 2.5. Ajadi, Salawu & Adeoye (2008) and Jegede (2016) supported the result by explaining the success of ODL in Nigeria stating the achievements of National Open University of Nigeria terms of enrolment and expansion which continues to increase even till today. 22 Providing Access to Education in… Research question 2: Of what importance is ODL in Nigeria? Table 2. The result of the importance of ODL in Nigeria S/N Item SA A U D SD Mean 1. ODL provides wider access to education generally It ensures equity and equality of opportunities in education. It enhances education for all and life-long learning. ODL provides flexible, but qualitative education. It reduces the cost, inconveniences, hassles of and access to education and its delivery 39 (33.6) 48 (41.4) 13 (11.2) 8 (6.9) 8 (6.9) 3.88 Std. Dev 1.158 36 (31.0) 52 (44.8) 13 (11.2) 4 (3.4) 11 (9.5) 3.91 1.055 39 (33.6) 50 (43.1) 13 (11.2) 5 (4.3) 9 (7.8) 3.94 1.074 35 (30.2) 54 (46.6) 8 (6.9) 4 (3.4) 15 (12.9) 3.87 1.092 30 (25.9) 37 (31.9) 22 (19.0) 12 (10.3) 15 (12.9) 3.50 1.289 2. 3. 4. 5. Source: Field survey, 2020 Table 2 revealed the affirmation of respondents to the importance of ODL in Nigeria as over 50% of the attested to the fact. The importance of ODL in Nigeria cannot be over emphasize. This fact is corroborated by Apena (2017) in the study on retirees and loneliness in Ibadan. The author explained how open and distance learning helped the retirees in keeping them engaged and achieved their life ambitions. Research question 3: How successful is the use of ODL in protecting the right of access in Nigeria? 23 Apena, Temilola Taiwo Table 3. Result on successful use of ODL in protecting the right of access in Nigeria S/N 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Item ODL has created learning opportunity in Nigeria particularly for those that seem to have lost hope of improving themselves It has enhanced more access to education. It provided the entrenchment of global learning culture. ODL has provided instructional resources via an intensive use of ICTs. It has drastically addressed the issue of admission of qualified candidates SA A U D SD Mean 53 (45.7) 41 (35.3) 7 (6.0) 4 (3.4) 11 (9.5) 4.10 Std. Dev 1.098 28 (24.1) 37 (31.9) 28 (24.1) 14 (12.1) 9 (7.8) 3.48 1.275 27 (23.3) 43 (37.1) 21 (18.1) 8 (6.9) 17 (14.7) 3.55 1.197 29 (25.0) 37 (31.9) 16 (13.8) 16 (13.8) 18 (15.5) 3.54 2.278 27 (23.3) 63 (54.3) 11 (9.5) 6 (5.2) 9 (7.8) 3.83 1.041 Source: Field survey, 2020 Table 3 revealed that ODL is very successful in Nigeria with the mean of all items being above 3.00. Apena (2019) agreed to the result by explaining that as at 2019 NOUN had over 80 study centres and 515,000 students across the federation. This is a huge success in the history of open and distance learning in sub-sahara Africa. Discussion of findings The result of the first research question revealed that the way ODL addressed the problem of access in Nigeria is quite significant on the people in Nigeria. Biao (2012) supported this by saying that ODL has opened up learning opportunities to many inhabitants like it never did irrespective of their geographical location. Biao (ibid) also asserted quoting (Dixon, 1987) that a wide range of learning 24 Providing Access to Education in… opportunities that both aim to assist learners in gaining access to knowledge and skills they would otherwise be denied and to give learners the optimum degree of control over their own learning is brought about by ODL. The result of the second research question which was on the importance of ODL was positively responded to with the mean of above 3.0. as corroborated by Ajadi, Salawu & Adeoye. Mahlangu (2018) also opined that ODL allows learners to mitigate challenges of access. The result of the third research question also showed that the success of ODL usage in protecting the right of access in Nigeria has significant implication. Sokefun & Apena (2018) corroborated this result through their findings that there was a decreasing access to education given the population of applicants and the available institutions in Nigeria that could accommodate them. Conclusion The result of the study showed that a lot of people already have access to education. It also revealed the importance of open and distance learning and the success of ODL in Nigeria. Much still need to be done because awareness is still low in some part of the country and so there is need for increased awareness in such places. Despite the number of centres and population of student currently in NOUN, the problem of access still persist because of factors like finance, perception, technophobia, internet connectivity, insecurity and epileptic power supply. Government need to improve its efforts in terms of security, funding of education, communication and power. All these areas put together have great influence on the tone and pace of national development and image. Recommendations • It is therefore recommended that National Open University of Nigeria should continue on different kinds of awareness campaigns. • More centres should be opened in remote areas of the country for increase in accessibility because more people still needs to be reached. • It is also recommended that stakeholders like government, religious bodies, NGOs, clubs and well-meaning Nigerians should Apena, Temilola Taiwo 25 invest more in open and distance learning in order to help individuals to achieve their ambitions and to boost national development. References African Charter on Human and Peoples' Right (ACHPR) aubanjul@africaunion.org Ajadi, T. O., Salawu, I. O. & Adeoye, F. A. (2008). E-learning and distance education in Nigeria. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology TOJEL ISSN:1303-6521 Vol. 7 Issue 4 Article 7 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED503472.pdf Apena, T. T. (2017). The perception of retirees on Open and distance education as a panacea for poverty and loneliness in Ibadan, Nigeria. Journal of Educational Foundations and Development. Vol. 06 ISSN: 2476-8375 Pp. 34-41 Benin City Apena, T. T. (2019). The National Open University and Adult Education Practice in Nigeria: Past, present and future Journal of Educational Thought Vol 8, No. 1. Faculty of Education (University of Lagos) Pp. 42-53 Biao, I. (2012). Open and distance learning: Achievements and challenges in a developing sub-education sector in Africa. Open access peerreviewed chapter. DOI: 10.5772/48080 Covenants on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989 https://ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx International Covenant on Economic and Social Rights (ICESCR) Jegede, O. (July 15, 2016). Open and distance learning: A keynote Address at the 3rd University of Ibadan Annual Distance Learning Centre Distinguished Lecture and Stakeholders’ Forum Held at International Conference Centre, University of Ibadan, Thursday 14th and Friday 15th July 2016 Mahlangu, V. P. (2018). The good, the bad, and the ugly of distance learning in higher education. Open access peer-reviewed chapter DOI: 01.5772/intechopen.75702 Mathew, I. R. & Ebeleloanya, J. (2016). Open and distance learning: Benefits and challenges of technology usage for online teaching and learning in Africa oasis.col.org/handle/11599/2543?show=full 26 Providing Access to Education in… Picciano, A. G. (2017). Theories and frameworks for online education: Seeking an integrated model. Online Learning, 21(3), 166190.doi: 10.24059/olj.v21i3.1225 Sharma, Y. (September, 2015). Open and distance learning https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=201509 17175108463 Sokefun, J. & Aje, O. (2015). The open and distance learning as an instrument of protecting the right of access to education: The Nigerian experience Proceedings of International Academic Conferences 2704639, The International Institute of Social and Economic Sciences https://ideas.repec.org/p/sek/acpro/2704639.html Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (2015) https://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Hu man_Rights (Wikipedia, 2019). Yusuf, M. O. (2006). Problems and prospect of open and distance learning in Nigeria. Turkish Journal of Distance Education TOJIDE Vol.7 No. 1 Article 2 ISSN 1302-6488 https://file.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED494408.pdf 1981 Convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/cedaw.a spx 2006 Convention on Persons with Disability: A training Guide. Professional Training Series No. 19 (OHCHR, 2014) https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention THE ROLES OF TEACHERS IN E-LEARNING: ENGAGING STUDENTS TO MAXIMIZE FREE E-LEARNING RESOURCES Ayotunde Adebayo Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Lagos Akoka, Yaba, Nigeria Abstract The concept of e-learning is influencing an educational shift in the manner in which students learn and how teachers pass on knowledge to students. There is a paradigm shift from the traditional top-down teaching style where students are passive to a more collaborative and interactive methodology where teachers and students both create the entire learning process. The role of teachers is actively changing from the traditional style of lecturing to being a guide to how students learn. These changes in the learning process can be attributed to three different concepts of constructivism, constructionism and collaboration. Constructivism hinges on the notion that individuals actively construct new knowledge in the process of interacting with the elements of the environment. This view suggests that everything an individual sees, hears, reads or feel is mirrored against one’s knowledge – which in turn can lead to the creation of new knowledge. Constructionism suggests that learning is more effective when something is constructed for other individuals to experience thereby facilitating the learning process. This can range from a conversation to a website posting or presentations. From the perspective of being an instructor, one focuses on distinct experiences that would produce the best learning points from the perspective of the learner, as opposed to just reproducing information one thinks the learner should know. Collaboration hinges on the fact that the role of a teacher changes from being the primary source of knowledge to be an effective guide to co-creating the learning process with the learner. Keywords: Teachers in E-Learning, Students’ Engagement, E-Learning Resources 28 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning:… Introduction The emergence of the digital revolution has influenced the way in which corporate organisations carry out their business dealings. Within the global landscape, the advancement of technology has supported the effective management of education the process of learning is now simplified primarily due to the robustness of the internet. The advent of digitalisation has further simplified the learning process for students, as they can participate in multiple educational courses online from all over the world. Corporate organisations have leveraged the benefits of elearning due to the interactivity of the internet – and the ability of elearning applications to simplify the learning process for individuals (Allen, 2016). Also, the complexities associated with the process of learning have somewhat being reduced due to the advancements of technology. As such, students and teachers can now be connected through digital applications, which replace the need for students to physically be present at educational institutions to undergo the learning process. Technology usually acts as an enabler for people implementing processes within corporate and education institutions. It application in education institutions has now enhanced the process of e-learning, especially by eliminating the geographical barriers of tertiary institutions dispersed globally (Cooper, 2015). With the influences of technology on e-learning, Clark and Mayer (2016) believe that the longterm consequences for e-learning are the global network and the open market nature for university education. Moreover, there has come to play intense competition among higher education institutions, which has brought many universities under sudden pressure to implement strategic initiatives that would enhance competitive advantage through the delivery of excellent learning aided by technology. This situation has led to various studies that focus on understanding the roles of teachers in e-learning and how e-learning resources can be maximised to drive student performance. The concept of e-learning has become critical for both corporate organisations and educational institutions due to its strategic benefits towards aiding the process of learning for many individuals. This has gradually made e-learning to become a large market for web-based education and support services for educational activities. It is worth Ayotunde Adebayo 29 mentioning that the technological changes experienced today have created shifts in the process of teaching and training individuals. This paper, thus, seeks to understand the roles of teachers and how to engage students to maximise e-learning resources. 2. The Influence of E-Learning on Education E-learning has brought about various changes in the educational landscape, which has consequently led to the immense growth in the use of web-based learning and the application of various internetenabled technologies to facilitate learning within tertiary institutions. Tibi (2017) opines that e-learning looks to be a promising concept that would enhance the learning experience of students globally. Despite the promising nature of the e-learning market, Slade (2018) believes that failures of some e-learning providers demonstrate the fragile and unstable nature of the e-learning market. Although, the barriers of physical locations coupled with the increasingly busy schedules of learners reflect the importance of e-learning ranging from the benefits of technology and its influence on the practical application of teaching methods and the learning process of students within tertiary institutions. The need to develop and implement e-learning strategies is critical as these would equip educational institutions to possess the ability to respond quickly to changes within the education market. Elkins et al. (2018) argue that there is a current change towards students being collaborative and self-organised. Hence, universities must implement e-learning strategies to help align with the shifts and, by that, create positive changes with the role of teachers in the application of e-learning initiatives within universities. Due to the broad spectrum of the e-learning concept, terms such as online learning and distance learning have been used in conjunction with the e-learning team to provide clarity based on the need to deliver high-quality education to students. The term “e-learning” is defined by Cooper (2015) as a technology that supports learning by delivering contents through electronic media. When making comparisons between e-learning and computer-based learning through training, e-learning differs from the latter through its focus on communication and virtual interactions between students and teachers. The internet acts as an enabler that supports effective interactions between teachers and students through 30 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning:… mediums such as emails, videoconferencing, teleconferencing and the like. (Allen, 2016; Tibi, 2017) Jolliffe et al. (2012) suggest that the e-learning concept has been commercialised such that academic institutions view this concept as a strategy to facilitate internet-based learning trend, boost student learning experience and support the achievement of competitive advantage by universities within the education landscape. This view aligns with Herman and Nilson (2018), who argue that the presence of internet has created massive shifts in the way academic institutions provide learning experiences. This is evident as universities now provide students with the opportunities to earn degrees and other certificates by learning online. The growth of e-learning is attributed to various changes relating to how students learn, technology and business training demands (Seufert, 2001; Clark & Mayer, 2016; Slade, 2018). In line with these changes, e-learning can be viewed as the incorporation of various factors pertinent to different disciplines, taking the forms of shift from training to learning, technology changes, organisational training changes and societal changes (Ehlers, 2006; Jolliffe, Jonathan, & David, 2012; Elkins, Pinder, & Everhart, 2018). Among these highlighted changes, Elkins et al. (2018) assert that the shift from training to learning hinges on specific issues bordering on the need for selfdirected learning, self-organised learning as opposed to training, customised and flexible training in line with different teaching styles and individual preferences, the need to build a learning community with a focus on collaborative learning, and the need to focus on learning-to-learn 3.0 A New Model for Teachers and Learning The concept of e-learning is influencing an educational shift in the manner in which students learn and how teachers pass on knowledge to students. There is a paradigm shift from the traditional top-down teaching style (where students are passive) to a more collaborative and interactive methodology where teachers and students both create the entire learning process (Stern, 2013). The role of teachers is actively changing from the traditional style of lecturing to being a guide to how students learn. These changes in the learning process can be attributed to three different concepts of constructivism, constructionism and Ayotunde Adebayo 31 collaboration (Ndon, 2011; Ekins, Hupcey, & Williams, 2011; Poe & Martha, 2012). 3.1 Constructivism Constructivism hinges on the notion that individuals actively construct new knowledge in the process of interacting with the elements of the environment. This view suggests that everything an individual sees, hears, reads or feel is mirrored against one’s knowledge – which in turn can lead to the creation of new knowledge (Ekins, Hupcey & Williams, 2011). The concept of constructivism is a student-focused approach where students co-create their learning experience. This concept views students as active learners. Stern (2013) suggests that constructivism focuses on the notion that learners are distinct individuals who view learning as a personal responsibility. This view, to some extent, aligns with Elkins et al. (2018) who suggest that constructivism hinges on the notion that learners are motivated by completing tasks that are challenging in nature. However, Ndon (2011) indicates that constructivism emphasises the importance of the culture and background of the learner, which in turn influences how facilitators help learners in understanding the contents of learning resources. The concept of learning in itself is an active social process that underpins the interactions between the learner, teacher and the tasks being carried out (Tibi, 2017). 3.2 Constructionism Constructionism suggests that learning is more effective when something is constructed for other individuals to experience thereby facilitating the learning process. This can range from a conversation to a website posting or presentations (Stern, 2013). For instance, an individual can read articles on websites several times and forget the concepts – but in a situation where one was asked to describe these ideas from a personal perspective, this could provide a better understanding that is integrated into one’s ideas. An aspect of constructivism is “social constructivism” – which focuses on how groups create or construct knowledge from each other (Alzahrani & Woolard, 2013). This concept emphasises collaboration by creating a small culture of shared values – where one is continuously learning about how to integrate within many levels of the culture 32 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning:… The role of teachers within the social constructivist environment seeks to help learners enhance their knowledge and manage the behaviour of students during the learning process. According to the Association for Constructivist Teaching, the role of teachers within the social constructivist environment is one that values the reflective modes of learners – whilst encouraging social interactions to boost knowledge sharing and creation (Deveaux, 2020). This view also aligns with Muller, Bucheister and Boutte (2017) who also believes that constructivist teachers enable the responses from learners to drive the learning experiences, change instructional methods and modify contents of resources. This suggests that teachers have limited roles, thereby encouraging students to engage actively in collaborative learning practices. 3.3 Collaboration From the perspective of being an instructor, one focuses on distinct experiences that would produce the best learning points from the perspective of the learner, as opposed to just reproducing information one thinks the learner should know. Collaboration hinges on the fact that the role of a teacher changes from being the primary source of knowledge to be an effective guide to co-creating the learning process with the learner. Herman and Nilson (2018) suggest that the collaboration of teachers and students enables students to understand their learning needs through the facilitation of discussions and activities that jointly leads students towards achieving learning goals. The role of teachers in a collaborative learning environment is one where they provide opportunities for learners to collaborate and solve tasks. Ndon (2011) opines that teachers are facilitators whose responsibility is to provide a positive environment through experiences and activities by creating opportunities for collaboration and problem solving on challenging tasks. The role of teachers within a collaborative environment supports the notion that teachers focus on students learning experiences as opposed to the performance of teachers. In an elearning environment, teachers manifest the same roles in both a constructivist environment and a collaborative environment. This means that the teacher guides the role of learners and facilitates the transfer of valuable information to learners. This also ensures that Ayotunde Adebayo 33 teachers enhance the learning process in which students or learners are encouraged to be accountable, responsible and self-directed (Jolliffe et al., 2012; Muller et al., 2017). Similarly, Clark and Mayer (2016) opine that the activities that support collaborative learning can engage students such that they participate, interact, and collaborate towards achieving a common learning objective whilst enhancing personal satisfaction and providing a sense of belongingness. These activities can be witnessed in a collaborative e-learning environment. For instance, in a collaborative e-learning environment, students are encouraged to possess the responsibility for learning – which in turn aligns with the social constructivist method. 3.4 Benefits of E-learning to Both Teachers and Learners The emergence of e-learning has adequately addressed the needs of the increasing population of students who choose not to take part in physical classroom environments. These students include those that cannot attend classes physically due to their busy schedules, those who cannot find a specific class in their choice of institution, those who reside in remote locations and those who prefer to study independently. Seufert (2001) suggests that the basic requirement needed for students to take part in e-learning activities is the availability of a computer and internet access. Allen (2016) acknowledges this view and further suggests that students must be highly motivated for them to participate in e-learning activities and achieve learning goals successfully. E-learning resources provide a good way for students to learn by overcoming the barriers of time or location – allowing unrestricted access to online resources from anywhere and at any time. Ehlers (2006) opines that e-learning is highly convenient such that students can align their educational activities with their busy schedules. This view is aligned with that of Slade (2018), who maintains that the primary incentives for students are the ability to access online resources from any internet-enabled computer – anytime, anywhere. Clark and Mayer (2016) believe that e-learning provides an opportunity for enhanced learning to students as they obtain an in-depth understanding of course contents which helps supports positive and meaningful online interactions. Such discussions can enable the creation of new knowledge required to enhance the skills and 34 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning:… capabilities of learners. Allen (2016) suggests that e-learning emphasises the importance of acquiring essential skills, such as being independent, time management skills, technology skills, and writing skills. Ekins et al. (2011) argue that students possess different behavioural attributes, and as such, this can impact their ability to learn within a physical environment. For instance, some students may need more time to reflect and think before they communicate and participate effectively in a classroom. In this light, the e-learning provides an environment where all students, regardless of their behavioural attributes, can reflect effectively on what is being learnt and participate in online discussions that can lead to the creation of new knowledge. Alzahrani and Woolard (2013) agree with this view, as they suggest that shy students often thrive within online environments where anonymity is an essential feature. This view suggests that shy students would take their time to understand and reflect on what is being learnt and communicate effectively in online discussion forums that can support knowledge acquisition. The e-learning environment also provides a means for students to interact with teachers, thus providing a two-way path for knowledge transfer. Jolliffe et al. (2012) suggest that e-learning enables student-tostudent interaction which underpins knowledge sharing and ensures competence development of learners. The views of Clark and Mayer (2016) support this notion, as they posit that e-learning is a studentfocused learning environment that encourages students to be active in online discussions, thereby facilitating the overall learning process. These discussions create a sense of being connected to an online community – and so, enhances the synergy created between students, which in turn improves their ability to share knowledge freely. The robust nature of e-learning platforms has supported a more innovate style of teaching where there is increased variety, including the adoption of numerous teaching styles. Fallon and Brown (2002) opine that the adoption of different teaching styles aligns with the different learning approaches for students. In essence, e-learning provides a creative learning experience for students. This view is in line with Cooper (2015) in his claim that the increased variety of learning activities amongst e-learning platforms makes them innovative, thereby facilitating the overall learning process of students. Ayotunde Adebayo 35 Furthermore, e-learning platforms are highly beneficial to teachers, as they have more time to examine the work of students critically (Poe & Martha, 2012). Due to advancements in technology, Slade (2018) suggests that teachers can document and record both student-to-teacher interactions and teacher-to-teacher interactions online. Also, e-learning platforms enable teachers to electronically manage the grades of students online, thereby reducing the possibility of errors associated with manual computations. Tibi (2017) argues that the e-learning platform enables institutions to accommodate more students, yet reducing the possible demands on physical infrastructure on campus. Also, Stern (2013) argues that the quality of e-learning resources influences the level of satisfaction gained by students, and it in turn affects the level of student retention within online environments. In a bid to achieve competitive advantage within the educational landscape, colleges and universities are beginning to adopt the use of e-learning to increase the number of student enrolments, and since it appeals to current students, it improves student retention (Herman & Nilson, 2018). 5.0 Engaging Students in E-learning A shift from the physical learning environment to online studies requires the need to adjust the style of teaching and learning. As Ekins, Hupcey and Williams (2011) argue, e-learning is characterised by various practices, values, norms and expertise. Research has shown the relationship between the grades of students and the maximisation of online resources, including the emotional, psychological and intellectual investment made by learners when studying within the e-learning environment (Pittaway & Moss, 2014). These characteristics are somewhat an essential consideration for designing e-learning content and training for teachers who seek to engage students to maximise elearning resources fully. The term engagement has become a buzzword that appears to have a variety of meanings, especially within the university environment. Krause and Coates (2008) suggest that student engagement is a holistic term used to describe a collection of behaviours exhibited by students during the learning process. They further explain this from a perspective of the time, energy and resources students dedicate to learning activities within the university. Redmond et al. (2018) define engagement as the extent to which 36 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning:… students are active during the learning process. These definitions focus on the personal engagement of individuals with learning as opposed to an emphasis on student-to-student interactions or student-to-teacher interactions. In line with this view, there are possible expectations that teacher engagement can support and facilitate interactions with students whilst enabling student engagement as a whole. Poe and Martha (2012) opine that students who participate in e-learning must be engaged with their mode of learning through a style of independence. However, overall engagement in academics for students can be facilitated through the creation of a sense of social engagement within the online environment. The need to create social relationships in line with academic engagement is critical as this facilitates learning through positive interactions. Pittaway and Moss (2014) argue that the creation of social relationships helps build trust amongst students and teachers, and certainly, it creates an environment that facilitates knowledge sharing and transfer. This view aligns with Redmond et al. (2018), who posit that student engagement is influenced by the design of the online learning environment, which in turn affects the overall learning experience of students. The different concepts of engagement are as a result of the different views and perceptions of scholars on what engagement stands for, including the actions of students and the mutuality of socio-cultural and cognitive behaviours (Cooper, 2015; Elkins, Pinder & Everhart, 2018). There is a need for institutions to create learning environments that foster positive learning. As explained by Deveaux (2020), institutions are required to create conducive learning environments where students can find it easy to learn, though the ultimate responsibility for learning lies with the student. This view suggests that students must view the concept of learning as a personal responsibility in a bid to succeed. However, interactions between teachers and students through online discussions are essential for effective student engagement. As Cooper (2015) explains, students should feel the presence and support of teachers online by praising the efforts of students on the participation of learning activities. This also includes commenting on online posts initiated by students within the online learning forums. Further, the design of online learning content must be interactive and straightforward – such that, those who take online courses for the first Ayotunde Adebayo 37 time should be able to navigate through the learning activities online. Krause and Coates (2008) argue the importance of teachers engaging students through performance evaluations on students learning progress. Ndon (2011) agrees with this view and explains that teachers should communicate the benefits of learning activities and provide valuable feedback to students on their learning progress. This helps the interests of students in learning activities – and as such, enhances the overall student satisfaction. 5.1 Online Student Engagement Framework With the emergence of blended courses and e-learning, teachers in universities are experiencing a drop in the participation of students in learning activities. This situation has led to the need to fully engage students in a bid to achieve the desired learning goals and objectives. Fallon and Brown (2002) argue that the design and the method of teaching in an online environment must take into consideration the different approaches to interactivity, which includes students’ interaction with e-learning contents, interaction with peers and teachers. They further argue that the design of an e-learning course is a key factor in ensuring the superiority of interactivity. Research carried out by various scholars has shown a trend of online learners predominantly being non-traditional students who seek to strike a balance between learning commitments and the demands of personal and work-life (Cooper, 2015; Elkins, Pinder & Everhart, 2018; Slade, 2018). Redmond et al. (2018) argue that the commitments and external pressures of students have led to an increase in student attrition – which in turn reflects the essential need to focus on online student engagement. Stern (2013) believes that a major prerequisite for online student engagement is the effective engagement of teachers. This situation reveals the complexities associated with the concepts of online teaching and learning. There are various studies done that focus on face-to-face student engagement – however, these levels of engagement revolve around three types which include behaviouralcentred engagement, emotional-centred engagement and cognitivecentred engagement (Pittaway & Moss, 2014; Weimer, 2016). However, Redmond et al. (2018) presents a method of engagement for teaching and learning within the online environment that focuses on 38 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning:… five distinct elements, including social, cognitive, behavioural, collaborative and emotional engagement. Behavioral Engagement Cognitive Engagement Social Engagementt Collaborative Engagement Student Engagement Emotional Engagement Figure 1 Online Student Engagement Framework. Source (Redmond, Abawi, Brown, Henderson & Hefferman, 2018) The framework above reflects several dimensions of interconnected elements that influence the engagement of students in online learning environments. Redmond et al. (2018) opine that this framework can be implemented by academics to leverage on student learning engagement and their process of studying online courses, whilst reflecting on the implications of the overall e-learning program design, teaching practices and course contents. The online student engagement framework emerges from the perspective of a social constructionist where both real-time discussions (synchronous learning) and discussions in alignment with learners schedule (asynchronous learning) occurs as a way of facilitating personal and group learning. The individual elements of the student engagement framework are not an isolated engagement process – but rather a model used to reflect the dynamic nature of online student engagement. These elements are further discussed below. 5.1.1 Social Engagement The concept of social engagement refers to time and energy dissipated by students in social activities within the educational institution. This includes the participation of students in both academic and nonacademic activities that happens outside of the online learning environment, such as participating in social functions, including social discussions (Alzahrani & Woolard, 2013). This method focuses on Ayotunde Adebayo 39 creating a positive relationship that reflects a purpose with other students. Within an online environment, social discussions are carried out in a way that students talk about themselves within a specific context, and such interactions may extend to the use of social media. Krause and Coates (2008) suggest that social engagements provide opportunities that are also as important as the intellectual investments made by students when studying online. This view further reiterates the fact that social engagements are key when students are needed to collaborate on joint assessments and learning activities. In an online learning environment, social engagement can be shown through activities that help develop online communities – such as discussion forums. This helps build peer-to-peer relationships and student-to-instructor relationships through friendships or interactions that extend beyond the typical boundaries of study requirements. Social engagements are important for e-learning as they help build the trust needed to create a sense of belonging for students within the online learning community. This trust is also needed to support the easy sharing and transfer of knowledge from teachers to students within the online learning environment. 5.1.2 Cognitive Engagement Redmond et al. (2018) explain cognitive engagement as a process of active learning. Fallon and Brown (2002) opine that cognitive engagement is the primary form of student engagement. This view is also favoured by Krause and Coates (2008), who suggest that cognitive engagement involves students being engaged in the learning process to understand difficult concepts and acquire challenging skills. This view also aligns with the notion that students reflect and carry out actions to promote personalised learning. As Weimer (2016) explained, cognitive engagement involves students concentrating on learning, ultimately becoming engaged learners. This concept suggests that cognitive engagement involves students being motivated to learn, adopting selfregulated practices coupled with values and beliefs to expend the needed effort required to learn (Young, 2010; Sinatra, Heddy & Lombardi, 2015). The concept of ‘cognition’ is layered into different levels that are regarded as deep and surface cognitive engagement (Redmond et al. 2018). Within the online learning environment, surface cognitive 40 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning:… engagement refers to specific influences that proffer possible solutions without prejudice. This view is in alignment with Sinatra et al. (2015) who posits that surface cognitive engagement focuses on consensus without the need to explain concepts. In this regard, Weimer (2016) suggests that students who operate at this phase can be distracted and as such, they may employ strategies that seek to avoid tasks. Students in this phase also view the completion of tasks as not being important in itself, but rather useful in the achievement of the learning goal. On the other hand, students who show deep cognitive engagement reflect a more detailed and complex process. For instance, Stern (2013) suggests that student’s online posts show detailed reasoning by comparing ideas and possible solutions and creating new knowledge from various sources. This view is supported by Sinatra et al. (2015) who posits that deep cognitive engagement in students is reflected by students who can justify their online posts, support their ideas with facts and combine various information from different sources to show critical reasoning. Students operating at a deep cognitive level possess a high level of mental investment in learning and desire to go beyond the traditional requirements of learning (Poe & Martha, 2012). This argument suggests that students who operate within this phase value challenges that can facilitate skill development through deep cognitive stimulation. Students who operate within the deep cognitive engagement phase sustain this level of engagement through determination. Consequently, they find applicability in new information by linking it with existing knowledge. Teachers can influence cognitive engagement levels in line with learning activity requirements and tasks within the online environment. According to Ndon (2011), students try to align the recently acquired knowledge with previous beliefs – thereby demonstrating growth in understanding and the level of development associated with cognitive reasoning. This view is supported by Alzahrani and Woolard (2013) who believes that learners who operate within the deep cognitive engagement phase demonstrate self-regulation characteristics and implement metacognitive initiatives that focus on planning, monitoring and evaluating their level of cognition during the application of knowledge on assessment tasks. The strategies implemented by students to support cognitive engagement include critical thinking, combination, justification and metacognition Ayotunde Adebayo 41 (Redmond et al., 2018). These strategies are applied to different learning situations – where learning can be centred on a specific discipline or understanding specific concepts. 5.1.3 Behavioural Engagement The concept of behavioural engagement is centred on three phases which include (Pittaway & Moss, 2014; Redmond et al., 2018): • First Phase – aligning oneself to the established rules and norms. This also includes contributions to online forums and ask questions from teachers and peers • Second Phase – actively participating in learning activities • Third Phase – actively participating in extracurricular activities within the university. Considering the different phases highlighted above, behavioural engagement is described as the process of carrying out the work and adhering to the rules. The concept of behavioural engagement is described in relation to terms such as academic engagement, skills engagement and verbal and non-verbal focus (Pittaway & Moss, 2014; Redmond et al., 2018; Weimer, 2016). Cheng, Liang, and Tsai (2013) liken the concept of behavioural engagement to students exhibiting self-regulating behaviours, with possible indicators such as the improvement of academic skills, and the identification of opportunities for possible exploitation. Students who exhibit behavioural engagement show positive conducts by participating effectively in learning tasks and demonstrating positive attitudes (Cheng, Liang, & Tsai, 2013). In support of this assertion, Herman and Nilson (2018) suggest that behaviourally engaged students participate freely within the online learning environment and demonstrate high determination through self-regulation towards learning. Behaviourally engaged students encourage and support fellow students to adhere to the rules, participate freely in the learning process and reduce behaviours that can limit the achievement of learning goals during the process of accomplishing tasks (Krause & Coates, 2008). According to Weimer (2016), students who are engaged behaviourally often demonstrate deep interests in learning and linking its importance towards potentially adding value to the overall learning process. The scholar further 42 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning:… suggests that these students find help when they need it, whilst assisting other students who need it. 5.1.4 Collaborative Engagement The concept of collaborative engagement is likened to the development of networks that underpins learning through the collaboration between students, teachers and the institution. Both social and emotional engagement reflect the importance of connecting with others in educational and extracurricular settings– as this is beneficial from the perspective of academic learning. Krause and Coates (2008) link the concept of collaborative engagement with peer-to-peer learning. This idea is supported by Alzahrani and Woolard (2013) who likens the collaborative engagement concept with the experiences existent within educational institutions and the enhancement of the overall educational experience for students. The process of collaborating with peers is associated with engagement for value-driven academic purposes. For instance, collaboration would include peer-to-peer interactions in the form of discussions, study groups and group learning tasks. Poe and Martha (2012) argue that the interaction between peers can help create an environment of trust that fosters knowledge sharing within the online environment. This view is supported by Jolliffe, Jonathan and David (2012). They aver that the unhindered sharing of knowledge within an online learning environment can improve the productivity of learners and support the creation of new knowledge that can facilitate the overall learning experience of students. The idea of peer-to-peer collaboration is important, especially within the online learning environment because students are more likely to the geographically dispersed. Collaborating with the institution is associated with the development of a positive learning environment that facilitates learning for students. Within the online environment teachers often create foundational requirements for collaborative engagements through group activities and assessments. Collaborative engagement involving students and professionals is associated with the development of both personal and professional networks that focus on learning (Muller, Bucheister & Boutte, 2017). These are particularly useful in assisting continuous professional learning through the development of skills that supports professional growth. Ayotunde Adebayo 43 5.1.5 Emotional Engagement The concept of emotional engagement focuses on the emotional behaviours students demonstrate towards learning. This concept, often regarded as the influential components of engagement, is associated with the feelings of students towards learning. As Sinatra et al. (2015) explain, the emotions of students can quicken the activation of devotion and engagement, and by that emotions could be positive or negative. The positive aspects of emotional engagement can be demonstrated by students who view learning as a roadway towards the achievement of success. Emotional engagement also emphasises the reactions of people to learning within the educational environment, involving students and teachers or the institution as a whole. Redmond et al. (2018) opine that emotional engagement can extend beyond the reactions of students and teachers, but also involving the courses being learnt and the tasks being carried out by students. This suggests that emotional engagement focuses on the interests of students, their values and beliefs. The emotional engagement levels of students can be seen through their behaviours, levels of interest, and their enthusiasm towards learning. Emotional engagement is likened to concepts such as psychological engagement, which in itself is critical towards applying the use of emotion to effectively adjust to the roles of students as online learners (Redmond et al. 2018). Pittaway and Moss (2014) argue that emotional engagement can be likened to personal engagement where students must navigate their emotions and use them to achieve learning objectives. They further suggest that teachers should determine the most appropriate ways to leverage emotions in a bid to learn and teach students effectively. Within the e-learning environment, the predominant indicators of emotional engagement include the management of student and teacher expectations, commitment to learning and determining the motivational factors that influence the ability to learn (Alzahrani & Woolard, 2013; Redmond et al., 2018; Deveaux, 2020). Conclusion The objective of the paper was to shed light on the roles of teachers in e-learning and how to engage students such that they effectively maximise free e-learning resources. As seen in this paper, the new model of teaching and learning that transcends into the e-learning 44 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning:… environment stems from essential concepts such as constructivism, constructionism and collaboration. The online student engagement framework discussed centred around five critical areas which include social, cognitive, behavioural, collaborative and emotional engagement. The discussion so far demonstrates that there are complexities associated with the concept of learning and teaching online. With technology advancing and changing the landscape of e-learning, teachers and educational institutions must provide a positive learning environment for students in a bid to facilitate the mode of learning and ensure the achievement of learning goals. Effective tools, techniques and strategies must be developed to overcome the barriers associated with the facilitation of effective learning within the online learning environment. The changes in learning requirements experienced over time due to the impact of technology on students’ learning process, and this paper has demonstrated that the ultimate responsibility for learning within an online environment rests with the student themselves. Despite this, institutions and teachers should create online learning environments that foster teaching and learning, create opportunities for students to easily engage in activities online, improve the need for peer-to-peer connections and teacher-to-student connections, whilst developing strong skills in multiple academic disciplines and professional specialisations. As the number of e-learning student enrolment increases, there is need for institutions and teachers to guide students and continually investigate the nature and quality of student engagement in a bid to support the maximisation of e-learning resources and achieve success in learning outcomes. References Allen, M. (2016). Michael Allen's Guide to e-Learning: Building Interactive, Fun, and Effective Learning Programs for Any Company (2nd Edition; ISBN-13: 978-1119046325 ed.). Wiley. Alzahrani, I., & Woolard, J. (2013). The Role of the Constructivist Learning Theory and Collaborative Learning Environment on Wiki classroom , andthe Relationship between Them. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED539416.pdf Cheng, K., Liang, J., & Tsai, C. (2013). University students’ online academic help seeking: the role of self-regulation and Ayotunde Adebayo 45 information commitments. The Internet and Higher Education, 16, 70-77. Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). e-Learning and the Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia Learning (4 edition ed.). Pfeiffer; . Cooper, S. D. (2015). A Guide To Better eLearning: Everything you need to know to start creating effective online learning content (Kindle Edition ed.). Amazon Digital Services LLC. Deveaux, F. (2020). Aesthetic Education as a Bridge to Multicultural Counseling: A social constructivist approach. Journal of the Association for Constructivist Teaching, 1-25. Ehlers, U. (2006). Handbook on Quality and Standardisation in ELearning ( 2006 edition; ISBN-13: 978-3540327875 ed.). Springer. Ekins, S., Hupcey, M., & Williams, A. (2011). Collaborative Computational Technologies for Biomedical Research. . John Wiley & Sons. Elkins, D., Pinder, D., & Everhart, W. (2018). E-Learning Uncovered: Articulate Storyline 360 (2nd Edition ed.). CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. Fallon, C., & Brown, S. (2002). e-Learning Standards: A Guide to Purchasing, Developing, and Deploying Standards-Conformant E-Learning (1 edition; ISBN-13: 978-1574443455 ed.). CRC Press. Herman, J. H., & Nilson, L. (2018). Creating Engaging Discussions: Strategies for "Avoiding Crickets" in Any Size Classroom and Online (ISBN-13: 978-1620365601 ed.). Stylus Publishing, LLC. Jolliffe, A., Jonathan, R., & David, S. (2012). The Online Learning Handbook: Developing and Using Web-based Learning (1st Edition; ed.). Routledge. Krause, K. L., & Coates, H. (2008). Students’ engagement in first year university. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 33(5), 493-505. Muller, M., Bucheister, K., & Boutte, G. S. (2017). Multiple perspectives on cognitive development: Radical constructivism, cognitive constructivism, sociocultural theory, and critical theory. The Constructivist, Fall, 1-37. 46 The Roles of Teachers in E-Learning:… Ndon, U. (2011). Hybrid-Context Instructional Model: The Internet and the Classrooms: The Way Teachers Experience It. USA: Information Age Publishing Inc. Pittaway, S., & Moss, T. (2014). Initially, we were just names on a computer screen: Designing engagement in online teacher education. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 39(7), 3745. Poe, M., & Martha, L. A. (2012). Teaching and Learning Online: Communication, Community, and Assessment. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press. Redmond, P., Abawi, L. A., Brown, A., Henderson, R., & Hefferman, A. (2018). An Online Engagement Framework for Higher Education. Online Learning Journal, 22(1), 183-204. Retrieved August 10, 2020, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1179626.pdf Seufert, D. (2001). E-LEarning Business Models, Strategies, Success Factors and Best Practice Examples. Institute for Media & Communication Management , 1-19. Sinatra, G., HEddy, B., & Lombardi, D. (2015). The challenges of defining and measuring student engagement in science. Educational Psychologist, 50(1), 1-13. Slade, T. (2018). The eLearning Designer's Handbook: A Practical Guide to the eLearning Development Process for New eLearning Designers (1 edition ed.). CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform; . Stern, J. (2013). Introduction to Online Teaching and Learning. LA, USA: West Los Angeles College. Tibi, M. (2017). Computer Science Online Learning: The Impact of Structured Discussion Forums (ISBN-13: 978-3639717310 ed.). Scholars' Press. Weimer, M. (2016, June 22). What Does Student Engagement Look Like? Retrieved from Faculty Focus | Higher Ed Teaching & Learning: https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-andlearning/student-engagement-look-like/?ut Young, M. R. (2010). The art and science of fostering engaged learning. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, 14(S1), 1-18. ADULT EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: ROLES OF ADULT EDUCATION FACILITATORS IN OYO STATE Fatimo Moromoke AZEEZ Department of Adult and Non-formal Education Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo. Oyo State. fatiromoke1@gmail.com Raufu Oloore YUSUFF Department of Adult and Non-formal Education Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo. Oyo State yusuff.oloore@gmail.com Abstract This study investigated Adult education development of Nigeria: roles of Adult education facilitators. Descriptive survey research design was adopted. The population of this study comprised of all the NCE students in Colleges of Education in Oyo State. Random sampling technique was used to select 2 Colleges of Education. In each College of Education, 75 NCE 3 students offering Adult education for the past two years were purposively selected to sample their opinions. A sample size of 150 respondents was used for the study. Self-designed questionnaire titled “Adult Education Facilitators Questionnaire (AEFQ)” was administered. The questionnaire was validated by experts in the field of Adult education, all necessary adjustments were done the reliability, Cronbach Alpha was adopted and co-efficient of 0.75 was obtained. Simple percentage was used to answer three research questions. The findings revealed that majority (120 averagely) of the respondents strongly agreed that Adult education educators diagnose the students’ problems, implement Adult education national policies and recruiting and training of students to realize their potentials. Also, it was found that were inadequate qualified facilitators, poor facilities of ICT and condition of service. It is recommended that Adult education educators should be trained through conferences and seminars; need for adequate 48 Adult Education Development in… coordination, cooperation and collaboration among the agencies of Basic education, need for improvement in the knowledge of 1nformation and Communication Technology (ICT) and facilitators' salaries and allowances should be upgraded. Key Words: Adult education, Development, National Commission for Mass literacy Adult, Non-Formal Education Adult education facilitators. Introduction Learning is understood as a relatively permanent modification in one’s behavior or knowledge. Adults learn under the influence of educators and facilitators in order to bring about change and development in one’s personality, attitude and approach towards the community and oneself. In order to bring about effective adult learning, it is vital for the educator / facilitator to understand what adult learning actually is and what are the means and strategies to influence effectiveness in adult learning. Adults, when they are engaged in learning do bring about vast collection of experiences and occurrences within the setting that helps in the facilitation of learning (Rural Health, 2009). According to Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014), the goals of Mass Literacy, Adult and Non Formal education shall be to: 1. Provide functional literacy and continuing education for adults and youths who have never had the advantage of formal education or who did not complete their primary education. These include the nomads, migrant families, the disabled and other categories or groups, especially the disadvantaged gender. 2. Provide functional and remedial education for those young people who did not complete secondary education. 3. Provide education for different categories of completers of formal education system in order to improve their basic knowledge and skills. 4. Provide in service, on the job, vocational and professional training for different categories of workers and professionals in order to improve their skills. 5. Give adult citizens of the country necessary aesthetic, cultural and civic education for public enlightenment. The above Fatimo Moromoke Azeez & Raufu Oloore Yusuff 49 objectives serve a number of purposes, ranging from individual’s personal growth to societal development To attain these goals, the federal government established a National Commission for Mass literacy Adult and Non-Formal Education which monitors and evaluates the mass literacy programmes and facilitates communication between the commission and the state agencies. However, in recent years, inadequate number of Adult Education facilitators in the field, poor motivation of Adult Education facilitators, discontinuity of programmes and insufficient of teaching materials for Adult Education facilitators have been major factors that constitute hitch to the efforts of the Adult education facilitators. According to Oyo State Adult and Non Formal Education AANFE (2012), there was an enrolment of 37,249 adult learners in the 33 Local Government Areas of the state. Meanwhile, there were only about 77 facilitators, which is quite insufficient in relation to the population of the learners. It is not an over-statement, to state that same condition is applicable to other states of the federation, in which case the facilitators can hardly achieve much no matter their efficiency (Sampere, 2013). Who is facilitator? According to Eduwen (1997), a facilitator is a person, tutor, teacher and community agent who taught with the primary objective of modifying the behaviour of the learner towards the right direction. Nzeneri (2008) sees a facilitator as a person who consciously and systematically administers the teaching-learning activities, programmes and processes with the primary aim of assisting others to learn. In relation to Adult Education, Reuben (2010) defines Adult Education facilitator as someone who is full-time or part-time or even voluntary professional educator working exclusively with adults in different settings. He further defines an Adult Education facilitator as a leader, a consultant, a community educator, or a specialist who works with the adults. Facilitation connotes the idea of assisting, freeing, aiding, guiding and empowering learners in the learning process. It is worthy to note the existence of two categories or adult educators; the professionals (those trained in the principles and practices of adult educator/andragogy) and non-professionals (those 50 Adult Education Development in… involved in facilitating adult learning without prior training in the field). The progamme level includes those who diagnose, organise, plan, administer, train and evaluate functions. Professional leadership involves people who develop new knowledge, prepare curricular material, introduce modern techniques of doing the job, train adult educators and coordinate the activities of agencies with Adult education interest. This implies that professional Adult Education facilitators should possess certain qualities which will make them real facilitators or learning rather than content transmitters (Anurugwo, Alatare, and Mbara, 2014). Roles of a Facilitator Anurugwo, Alatare and Mbara (2014) identify some characteristics of an Adult Education facilitator to include being empathetic, loving and tolerant. In addition, an Adult Education facilitator creates conducive learning environment, have a high regard for learner’s self-planning competencies. He is not authoritative but views himself as equal with adult learners; he is conservative but open to change and new experiences that may emanate from the learners. Further, he maintains cordial relationship with the adult learners and creates a mechanism for mutual planning. They add that an Adult Education facilitator should be well grounded in pedagogical skills related to the unique characteristics of adult learners. The extent of acquisition of such knowledge and skills would determine the level of his effectiveness in discharging his duties. Obiozor and Obidiegwu (2013) attest to the point out roles generally performed by Adult Education facilitators such as helping to find out or diagnose the learning needs of the individuals (what they intend to achieve), for particular learning task. In addition, they assert that an Adult Education facilitator establishes and manages an organizational structure where there will be an effective development and operation of Adult Education programme. In other words, an Adult Education facilitator arranges individual, group or institutional programme resources so as to assist participants satisfy their educational needs. He also formulates objectives to meet the assessed needs and also designs programme of activities to achieve the objectives. Fatimo Moromoke Azeez & Raufu Oloore Yusuff 51 Moreover, a facilitator’s plans helps him to think ahead, formulate observable and quantifiable objectives, develop performance and evaluative criteria for assessing effectiveness and competency in Adult Education process (Anurugwo, Alatare and Mbara, 2014). Adult Education facilitator institutes and supervises procedures required for effective operation of Adult Education programme. These procedures include recruiting and training of teachers and leaders, managing facilities and administrative processes, recruiting and training students, financing and interpreting programme and policy. Furthermore, An Adult Education facilitator evaluates the entire progamme (input, process and output) to ascertain whether the objectives have been attained and the extent/ level of attainment. This guides his plans and decisions in subsequent progammes. He also motivates the learner by creating a learning climate, he has to create both physical and psychological environment in which the participants can work and learn. The U.S. Department of State (n.d.) identifies the following programmes under Adult Education programmes: a. Senior School Diplomas: In this program, adult learners acquire the knowledge and education of school up to class 12. They do not pursue further to complete their graduation or any other program. They have just completed their schooling. The courses covered include Maths, writing, Science, Social Science, interpreting literature and arts. b. College - Level Examination Program (CLEP): This program serves those students who have completed their schooling. The program allows students to earn college credit for that knowledge which they have acquired outside the classroom. c. External Diplomas for Adults: Adults obtain their credentials in this manner. This program asks students to show/depict their capabilities in assignments completed at home or during their visits to offices. d. Adult education Opportunities Abroad: People also tend to go to foreign countries to complete their education. Programmes are of various kinds from certificate, associate and graduate level programmes. e. Evening Programs: Adults who are employed and have families often enroll into evening programs to complete their 52 Adult Education Development in… education. Evening programmes are convenient because their education can be completed in lesser duration of time. f. Enrichment Courses: Adults also get enrolled to pursue these courses such as personality development, courses to enhance ones communication skills, stress management, time management and so forth. These are low in cost and classes take place in recreational centers, neighboring schools and churches. g. Public School System Adult Education Programmes: There are public schools in various districts and communities that offer programs for adults in accordance with their needs and abilities. h. Colleges offering Adult and Continuing Education Programs: There are various colleges and institutions that offer programs in art, music, continuing education and so forth. Adults should get enrolled into such kind of programs with which they would like to pursue their careers. For example, if an adult would like to become an educator and teach children then he would opt for a program in teaching or education. Anurugwo, Alatare, and Mbara, (2014) identified some of the issues and challenges facing Adult Education facilitators in the 21st century. The reluctance exhibited by most school administrators in admitting those who passed out from adult and non-formal education literacy programme is quite discouraging. If adult learners are denied opportunity to continue, the efforts of the facilitators would be in vain. State Agencies for Mass Education are therefore challenged to ensure continuity in the non-formal education sector. The issue of clarification of functions in no small measure affects the facilitation of Adult education programmes. This has led to duplication of functions among the various agencies involved in Basic Education. Ezele and Tejere (2005) and Hussain (2013) have proved that facilitators are not usually paid in time and remunerations are very poor. It was equally observed that most state were unable to pay the 7500 naira stipulated in the benchmark meant for the remuneration of the facilitators (Oyo State AANFE, 2012; Olufunke and Wuraola, 2013). Fatimo Moromoke Azeez & Raufu Oloore Yusuff 53 There is need for vast in the knowledge of 1nformation and Communication Technology so as to remain relevant in the modern society. Oluwole (2016) however identified and suggested that these challenges can be solved when facilitators' salaries and allowances should be upgraded. This would motivate them to perform better, competent facilitators should be recruited. And that unqualified persons (those who are not specialist in Adult education should not serve as facilitators. Moreover, they should have a minimum qualification of NCE as stipulated in policy issues and practices Statement of the Problem In recent time, the public perception on those who involve in adult and non-formal education literacy programmes is quite uncertain discouraging. Duties of Adult Education facilitators are a bit uncertain. This may be attributed to various factors such as inadequate and unskilled number of Adult Education facilitators, poor condition of service attached, duplication of functions among the various agencies involved in Basic education and poor mobilisation of human and material resources and poor use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in the adult and non-formal education programmes. These challenges have become concern to education stakeholders. Thus, need for this study. This therefore investigated Adult education development of Nigeria: essence of roles of Adult Education facilitators. Research Questions The following research questions were raised and answered 1. What roles do Adult education educators perform? 2. What are the problems encountered by Adult Education facilitators in the course of their duties? 3. In what ways can these difficulties facing Adult Education facilitators be solved? Methodology This study used descriptive survey research design. The population of this study comprised of all the NCE students in Colleges of Education in Oyo State. Random sampling technique was used to select two Colleges of Education. In each College of Education, 75 NCE 3 students offering 54 Adult Education Development in… Adult education were purposively selected using Sampling Technique. A sample size of one hundred and fifty respondents were used for the study. The instrument used for this research was self-designed questionnaire was titled “Adult Education Facilitators Questionnaire (AEFQ)”. It consisted mainly of close-ended structures which required the respondents to select the best option. It was structure on Four points Likert Scale i.e. SA = Strongly Agree, A= Agree D = Disagreed a community relations lead to the effectiveness management and SD = Strongly disagree. The questionnaire was validated by experts in the field of Adult education in the University of Ibadan, all necessary adjustments were done before it was administered valid for collecting data in this study. In order to determine the reliability of the questionnaire, a pilot study was piloted using test- retest method of reliability with an interval of three weeks in order to establish the stability of the questionnaire over time. Reliability co-efficient of 0.75 was obtained. All copies (100%) of the questionnaire were retrieved and simple percentage was used to answer three research questions. Results Research Question 1: What roles do Adult education educators perform in the schools? Table 1: Roles Performed by Adult Education Educators S/N Items SA (%) A (%) D (%) 1. Adult education Educators diagnose the students problems 120 (80.0) 20 (13.3) 10 (6.7) SD (%) 0.0 (0.00) 2. They implement and interpret Adult education national policies in the classrooms They motivate the learners by creating friendly environment 140 (93.0) 0.0 (0.00) 10 (6.7) 0.0 (0.00) 150 (100.0) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) They involve in recruiting and training of students to realize their future potentials They make methodological selection of teaching techniques for teaching 80 (53.30) 70 (46.70) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 100 (66.6) 50 (33.3) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 3. 4. 5. 55 Fatimo Moromoke Azeez & Raufu Oloore Yusuff Table 1 shows the roles of Adult education educators in Colleges of Education in Oyo State. The roles include to diagnose the learners problems, implement Adult Education national policies, motivate the learners by creating friendly environment, recruit and train learners to realise their potentials, and make methodological selection of techniques for teaching. Research Question 2: What are the problems encountered by Adult Education facilitators in the course of their duties? Table 2: Problems encountered by Adult Education facilitators S/N Items SA (%) A (%) D (%) 1. Inadequate qualified Adult education facilitators in our schools. 120 (80.0) 0.0 (0.00) 30 (20.0) SD (%) 0.0 (0.00) 2. Poor availability of Information and Communication Technology that does not facilitate effective learning 150 (100.0) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 3. There is poor condition of service for Adult education facilitators Unsuitable educational facilities affect Adult education facilitators in their service Discontinuity of Adult education programmes 140 (93.0) 100 (67.00) 10 (6.7) 50 (33.33) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00 150 (100.0) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 4. 5. Table 2 shows some problems encountered by Adult education facilitators in Colleges of Education in Oyo State. Among these problems are inadequate qualified Adult Education facilitators in our schools, poor/non availability of ICT to facilitate effective learning, poor condition of service, unsuitable educational facilities. All these problems affect Adult Education Facilitators in their service and discontinuity of Adult education programmes. 56 Adult Education Development in… Research Question 3: In what ways can these difficulties facing Adult education facilitators be solved? Table 3: Solution to difficulties facing Adult Education Facilitators S/N Items SA (%) A (%) D (%) 1. More experienced facilitators on Adult education should be recruited State Agencies of Mass Education should promote continuity of Adult education There is need for proper planning and implementation of Adult education programmes Adult education facilitators to be trained for knowledge upgrading through seminars and workshops Good salaries and condition of services must be given to Adult education facilitators. 50 (33.33) 145 (96.3) 150 (100.0) 100 (67..00) 5 (3.7) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) SD (%) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 120 (80.0) 30 (20.0) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 150 (100.0) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 0.0 (0.00) 2. 3. 4. 5. Table 3 displays the solution identified by the respondents to challenges facing Adult education facilitators in Colleges of Education in Oyo State. Among the solution are that more experienced facilitators on Adult education should be recruited, State Agencies of Mass Education should promote continuity of Adult education programmes and need for proper planning and implementation of Adult education programme Discussion of Findings From Table 1, the findings revealed that 120 (80.0%) and 20 (13.3%) respondents strongly agreed and agreed that Adult education educators diagnose the students’ problems while 10 (6.7%) disagreed. Also, 140 (93.0%) strongly agreed while 10 (6.7%) agreed that implement Adult education national policies. All the respondents strongly agreed that He motivates the learners by creating friendly environment. Also, 80 (53.30%) agreed that recruiting and training of students to realise their potentials while 70 (46.70%) agreed with the motion. That facilitator makes methodological selection of techniques increment in teachers’ salary always promote teacher capacity, 100 (66.6%) strongly supported while 50 (33.3%) agreed. These are in line with Obiozor and Obidiegwu (2013) who attest that adult facilitator Fatimo Moromoke Azeez & Raufu Oloore Yusuff 57 helps to find out or diagnose the learning needs of the individual learner (what they intend to achieve), for particular learning task. Table 2 reveals problems encountered by Adult education facilitators in Colleges of Education in Oyo State. The data shows 120 (80.0%) and 30 (20.0 %) respondents strongly agreed and disagreed that qualified Adult Education facilitators in their schools were inadequate. All the respondents 150 (100.0%) strongly agreed by admitted that poor availability of ICT that does not facilitate effective learning. Also, 140 (93.0%) strongly agreed while 10 (6.7%) agreed that there is poor condition of service to Adult Education. Also, 100 (66.6%) agreed that unsuitable educational facilities affect Adult Education facilitators in their service while 50 (33.33%) agreed with the assertion. Lastly, all respondents 150 (100.0%) strongly supported the statement that discontinuity of Adult Education programmes. This study agrees with Anurugwo, Alatare, and Mbara, (2014) who identified the issue of clarification of functions in no small measure affects the facilitation of Adult education programmes. This has led to duplication of functions among the various agencies involved in Basic education. In addition, Ezele and Tejere (2005) as well as Hussain (2013) have proven that facilitators are not usually paid in time and remunerations are very poor. It was equally observed that most state were unable to pay the #7500 naira stipulated in the benchmark meant for the remuneration of the facilitators (Oyo State AANFE 2012, Olufunke and Wuraola 2013). Table 3 indicates some solutions identified by the respondents to difficulties facing Adult education Facilitators in Colleges of Education in Oyo State. As seen in the table, 100 (67.00%) agreed that more experienced facilitators on Adult education should be recruited while 50 (33.33%) agreed. On the statement that State Agencies of Mass Education should promote continuity of Adult education 145 (96.3%) strongly agreed while 5 (3.7%) respondents disagreed. All the respondents 150 (100.0%) strongly agreed that there is need for proper planning and implementation of Adult Education Programme and that good salaries and condition of services must be given to Adult education educators. 120 (80.0%) strongly agreed that Adult education educators to be trained for knowledge upgrading through seminars and workshops while 30 (20.0%) agreed. 58 Adult Education Development in… This study corroborates Oluwole (2016) who suggested that these challenges can be solved when facilitators' salaries and allowances should be upgraded. This would motivate them to perform better, competent facilitators should be recruited. He as well maintains that unqualified persons (those who are not specialist in Adult education should not serve as facilitators. Implication of Adult Education in the National Development The ultimate goal of community education is to develop the process by which members of the community may learn to work together to identify problems. Operations of community education require a process where learning can be used for individual, community, national and global betterment. There can be no national development without visible changes in the lives of the people of the society. Coping with changes can be a difficult task on adults because they are self-directing and independent. Adult Education programmes are needed to help them adjust to changes in order to make them subjects of such changes. Thus, Adult Education indispensable in a nation that desires to experience development, as it helps to prepare the members for the desired changes and at the same time, enables them to accommodate the plethora of changes that arise in their environment. Moreover, there is need to enlighten the people to discard their old values, attitudes and beliefs that could hinder the attainment of desired changes that are geared towards development. Mass mobilization and education of the adult members in order to achieve meaningful participation in the process of change is of utmost importance. Ahiakwo (2004) points out that national development must start from the community. This is because the culture and traditions of the people are rooted in the communities. Community education which is a programme of Adult Education, is of crucial importance as it serves the entire community by providing for the educational needs of all community members. The purpose of adult literacy education, a programme of Adult education, is to help move people from whatever level of consciousness they operate in presently to the level of consciousness wherein they can ask questions about things around them and change their lives. Change in the right direction in the lives of people in the community stimulates development potentials in them Fatimo Moromoke Azeez & Raufu Oloore Yusuff 59 which in the long run, will have a multiplier effect on social, economic and national growth Conclusion Education is a weapon of development. No society can advance unless there are efficient men and women who can operate its social institutions. Adult education is a major means of reaching and sharing the latest and most pertinent knowledge with less privilege people who cannot complete their formal education. The activities of any given society are managed by adult members of such society, be it at community or national level. For such adult members to effectively carry out community or national tasks delegated to them, they need to acquire knowledge, skills, competencies and values. The more educated adult members of a society are, the better the society will be. Education of the adult group is vital to any development process. The development trends of the world reveal that leading industrial nations laid much importance on Adult education. Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the following are recommended: • There is need for regular training for Adult Education educators through conferences, seminars, workshops, this would enhance their skills in their profession. • There should be adequate direction, cooperation and partnership among the agencies of Basic education. • There is need for vast in the knowledge of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) so as to remain relevant in the modern society. • Facilitators' salaries and allowances should be upgraded. This would motivate them to perform better. • Competent adult and non-formal education facilitators should be recruited. • The government should employ adequate number of staff to meet the ever increasing demand for adult and non-formal education in the country. 60 Adult Education Development in… References Adult education programs US Department of State. (n.d.) Retrieved May 31, 2016 from www.unitedstateadultprogrammes.gov. Anurugwu, A. O., Alatatre, S. & Mbara, K. U. (2014) Management of Adult education Programme: The roles of facilitators. In African Journal of Historical Sciences in Education. 10.1. Oluwole, O. B. (1986) Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. Retrieved May 31, 2016 from http://www.uc.pt/fmuc/ gabineteeducacaomedica/recursoseducare/livro46 Knowles, M. (2013) The Adult Learning Theory-Andragogy-of Malcolm Knowles. Retrieved June 4, 2016 from http://elearningindustry.com/the-adult-learning-theoryandragogy-of-malcolm-knowles Rural Health Education Fo f, l;ggggaundation. (2009) A Guide to Facilitating Adult Learning. Retrieved June 1, 2016 from http://www. rhef.com.au/wpcontent/uploads a_guide_to_ facilitating_adult_learning.pdf Ahiakwo, S. G. (2004) Ideologies for Direction and Administration. Enugu: Afiezonibu Publishers. 55 - 59 AANFE (2012) Inter – ministerial briefing: Oyo State agency for adult and Non formal education. Administrative of management of Adult education in Nigeria. Retrieved from http://caponic.blotport.com/2010/11 www,aeutla.net/ docs/adult educationEduwen, F. O. (1997) Fundamental of Adult education. Benin City: Ogundare Publishers. Ezele, N. E. & Tejere, S. R. (2005) Adult and Non- formal Education in Nigeria. Emerging issues. Paper from the NNCAE Annual Conference. Ibadan: Nigeria November 27 Dec. 1 2005. Hussain, M. S. (2013) Challenges and emerging perspective in Adult education delivery in Nigeria. Europeans Scientific Journal. 9, 13. Rueben, O. A. (2010) An introductory approach to the study of Adult education. Onitsha: Ecumax Limited Olufunke, N. M. and Wuraola, A. C. (2013) Finding solution to challenges facing Adult education in Nigeria. International Journal of Learning and Development 3.4:23. Fatimo Moromoke Azeez & Raufu Oloore Yusuff 61 Obizor, W. E. and Obidiugwu, U. J. (2013) Globalization of Adult education: Theories and strategies for instruction. Aka: Onestreet Consulting Limited. 62 Adult Education Development in… IMPACT OF SCAFFOLDING STRATEGY IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE WRITING SKILLS AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA Titilayo Elizabeth POPOOLA, Ph.D Department of Communication and General Studies College of Agricultural Management and Rural Development Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta titilayopopoola@gmail.com +2348028834037 Olufunke Mojisola OSIKOMAIYA, Ph.D Arts and Social Sciences Education Department Faculty of Education National Open University of Nigeria, Abuja oosikomaiya@noun.edu.ng +2348033923732 (Corresponding author) Abstract The study deploys survey design and quasi experimental research design of 2x2 factorial matrix to examine the impact of scaffolding strategy in the teaching of English language writing skill among senior secondary school students in Ogun State. One research question was raised and two hypotheses were generated. A structured questionnaire consisting of 12 items Likert scale and 2 essays writing in English language was used for data collection. The instrument was developed and validated. Using Cronbach Alpha technique at 0.05 level, a reliability index of 0.83 was yielded. Twenty eight Senior Secondary School students participated in the study. Data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings discovered that scaffolding improved students reading, writing and spoken skills (x=4.23), also there was a significant differences in the performance of students between the pre test and post test (t = 8.404; P>0.05). In addition, gender did not affect students' performance in writing skill in the pre and post test groups (F=0.675; P> 0.05 and F=2.57; P> 0.05). Nevertheless, students’ performance improved in post test, therefore, teaching and learning is 64 Impact of Scaffolding Strategy in the… better carried out with the use of scaffolding strategy. Based on the findings, it is recommended that teaching-learning activities can be improved upon with the use of scaffolding strategy and that teachers at all levels should be encouraged to use innovative techniques such as scaffolding in imparting knowledge. Keywords: Impact, Scaffolding, Strategy, English Language, Writing skills, Secondary, School Students, Teaching and Learning 1. Introduction Language is an indispensable medium of communication and is very important for human existence. Writing, one of the communication skills is crucial for successful literacy in English language learning. Writing is the most popular and prevalent method of creating connections among people (Popoola, 2019). It is a medium of building links between individuals and within communities. It also serves as the flexible foundation for almost every type of communication media. As a matter of fact, the print, video, audio, speech and interactive web media all began with writing. The influence of writing makes it possible for individuals to learn from yesterday, gain knowledge about today and design for tomorrow. Learning the art of writing is a process (Hugo, 2017) that must be effectively carried out in stages before a learner can attain the required level of competence for the exchange of meanings, ideas, opinions, belief with others. Reading and writing are interwoven; the two are what determine students’ level of literacy in English language learning. Writing skills depend firmly on reading skills. Reading is interpretation of written symbols, the symbols being interpreted are written ideas of the writer. It should be noted that, writing is not a skill that can easily be learnt in isolation without the support of those who are already competent in it. For learners to grasp these skills; there is need for teachers’ assistance. The assistance offered to learners to gain mastery of a task or skill is a strategy known as Scaffolding. Scaffolds allow the teacher to raise the students beyond the current level to new learning. Scaffolding strategy refers to the different types of method (interactive) used by the teacher in achieving learning objectives in learners. The idea of scaffolding rests on the fact that the learning Titilayo Elizabeth Popoola & Olufunke Mojisola Osikomaiya 65 process is not an isolated concept; it can be best done through social interaction (Khare, 2018). That is, it can be achieved through support from teachers and peers who are versed in the particular field. Scaffolding in teaching rest on the Social Constructivist theory, which states that learning is a product of social interaction, which can only take shape through support from a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) (Vzygotsky, 1978). Scaffolding is a teaching process where presentation and demonstration by the teacher are contextualized for the learner. Learners are aware of the direction in which the lesson is heading, and they can make choices about how to proceed with the learning process. Furthermore, in scaffolding, presentation and demonstration by the teacher are contextualised for the learners. Thus, it involves the use of different interactive instructional techniques that move students gradually toward deeper comprehension and greater independence in the learning process (Popoola, 2019; Osikomaiya, 2020). Raymod (2000) defines scaffolding as the role of teachers and others in supporting the learner’s development and providing support structures to get to that next stage or level. Scaffolding strategy makes use of recruitments, simplification of tasks, encouragement and support, assisted performance, share effort and demonstration that aims at fostering independence. It is a teaching strategy that allows the teacher to lift the students beyond the current level to new level of learning. To achieve this, the teachers provide successive levels of temporary assistance that enable the students reach higher levels of comprehension and skill acquisition that they would otherwise not be able to achieve without the offered help. Such help is usually provided at the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) of the students, which is the gap between what they can do on their own and what they can only achieve with the assistance of more knowledgeable persons in the field. For the ZPD to be determined, the student will be given a task that is slightly above his present level. Once the help that he needs has been determined, the needed support (scaffold) will be provided. Like physical scaffolding, the supportive strategies are gradually removed when the students have mastered a given task. That is, the teacher incrementally shifts more responsibility of the learning process to the student, when comprehension is achieved. Scaffolding strategy is a very important factor in effective teaching and allows teachers to make use of various forms of instructional scaffolding in the course of teaching. 66 Impact of Scaffolding Strategy in the… Learning is a process of knowledge construction where the teacher supports, guides the learning activities through the adoption of appropriate scaffold or support to achieve the learning objectives of the subject (Rasku-Puttonnen, Etelapelto, Hakkinen and Arvaja, 2002). Instructional scaffolding has to be varied and at the same time specific with the teacher's reason for prompting students in view. Scaffolding before, during, and at the end of the writing process will take on different characteristics and structures, based on the students’ level of perception at each stage (Benko, 2012). The instructor/teacher may start with modelled essays or short stories in order to build the background knowledge of the students; this is in line with Krashen (1993). Krashen establishes that reading is more effective in teaching writing than the teaching of plain grammatical structures in the class. Although, several other research works are being carried out, the results in the use of scaffolding strategy is rather inconclusive but the findings recorded in various content areas are pointers to the benefits students stand to gain when taught to write composition and essays using scaffolding strategy. The results of various studies have shown that scaffolding is a very important tool in the development of writing skill in second language learners of English. Yulia, Nur, and Ekaning (2015) in their study reveal that there was significant improvement in the writing ability of the experimental group while the control group had no record of improved writing skill because they were not given scaffolding supports. Studies have also shown that Scaffolding acts as a motivational factor in the development of writing skill (Moin and Mohammad, 2019). In a study on the use of several interactive techniques and instructions (scaffolds) on how to write a journal, the undergraduates from the three colleges that participated showed remarkable improvement in writing at the end of five weeks (Wei and Tajularipirin, 2011). 2. Theoretical Framework This research is based on Social Constructivist Theory of learning, which states that knowledge is a social construct that is based on social interaction (Dewey, 1999). The learner designs and interprets his new experience on his own, based on his previous knowledge. The learner is an active participant in the learning process who brings his prior Titilayo Elizabeth Popoola & Olufunke Mojisola Osikomaiya 67 experience to bear on his new experience in order to interpret meaning. The experience varies, based on personal experience and culture. According to Vzygotsky (1978), cognitive development is a product of instructed learning at the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), where learners construct meaning based on social interaction with More Knowledgeable Others (MKO) in the learning environment. To attain the expected level of knowledge, constructivism emphasises the use of tasks in knowledge acquisition through interaction in a learning environment (Jonassen, 1994). That is, social interaction is at the core of social constructivism theory of learning. Brunner (1960) believes that teaching and the method of impacting knowledge must be carried out in such a way as to incite the learners to individual discovery. Social Constructivist scholars view learning as an active process where learners learn to discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves. In fact, for the social constructivist, reality is not something that we can discover because it does not pre-exist prior to our social invention of it. Chum (2000) argues that reality is constructed by our own activities and that people, together as members of a society, invent the property of the world. The Social Constructivist theory maintains that, knowledge and advancement in it cannot be done alone without the support of people who are more knowledgeable to guide the process. Social development theory is an activity-based in which writing tasks is arrived at by the students assisted by the teacher. 3. Statement of the Problem Numerous students in secondary school contend with the problem of low language proficiency and perform weakly in writing task/assignments. Students’ written communication in English language bears evidence that secondary school students can hardly write independently. The above circumstances have been attributed to ineffective methods of teaching writing used by teachers. The obstacle to the effective use of scaffolding instructional strategy, most often have always been the learners who do not see any reason for such a prolonged method of teaching writing skill. The learners feel that teaching should be a one act activity that should not take much of their time; but writing is a technical skill with rules that must be mastered before competence can be attained. This study, therefore, sets out to 68 Impact of Scaffolding Strategy in the… examine the impact of scaffolding strategy in teaching English Language writing skills among secondary school students in Abeokuta South, Ogun State, Nigeria. 4. Research Objectives This study examines the impact of scaffolding strategy in teaching English Language writing skill among senior secondary school students in Abeokuta South, Ogun State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study seeks to: 1. explore the impact of scaffolding strategy in teaching English Language writing skill among Senior Secondary School students; 2. examine the difference between pre and post test performance of English language writing skill among Senior Secondary School students; and 3. find out the interactive effect of scaffoldings strategy and gender on students’ performance in English Language writing skill among Senior Secondary School students 5. Research Question and Research Hypotheses 5.1 Research Question What is the impact of scaffolding strategy in the teaching of English Language writing skills among Senior Secondary School students? 5.2 Research Hypotheses Ho1: There is no significant difference between the pre test and post test performance of Senior Secondary School students in English Language writing skill. Ho 2: There is no significant gender difference between the pre test and post test performance of Senior Secondary School students in English Language writing skill. 6. Method The survey research design and quasi-experimental (pre-test, post-test) design, involving a 2X2 factorial matrix, were deployed for the study. The population of the study comprised all secondary school students in Abeokuta South Local Government Area of Ogun State. Simple random technique was used to select a school within Abeokuta South Local Titilayo Elizabeth Popoola & Olufunke Mojisola Osikomaiya 69 Government Area. From the school, 28 students were randomly selected. The study lasted six weeks. Structured questionnaire and achievement test were designed to collect data for the study. The achievement test comprised two narrative essays where students were subjected to the reading of a story book (scaffolding) per week (treatment) which they summarised at the end of each week. The reading of novels and summary writing were for a period of four weeks. The teacher corrected each summary and discussed the errors with the students. Then the students wrote correction of each summary in the class. The students wrote two essays for the pre test and post test essay through which their performances were examined and compared. Data collected were subjected to both descriptive (mean, percentages, standard deviation) and inferential statistics such as t-test and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The research was carried out using the following procedure: Stage1: Week 1 (Visitation/selection week): Visitation to the selected schools and selection of participants. Twenty-eight Senior Secondary (SSI) students I were randomly selected for the study. The participants’ age fell within the range of 14years to18 years old. At the end of the exercise, 2 essay topics were written by the participants as pre-test exercise. Stage 2: Week 2 (Introductory week): The researchers briefed the participants on the role expected of them. Then, each participant was given a novel to read per week and they were asked to summarise the novel after reading (this activity lasted 4 weeks). The marking/correction was carried out by the researchers in the class with the participants, and a re-writing (inform of correction) of the summary was done by the students on weekly basis. Stage 3: Week 3-5(Activities weeks): Reading of a new novel by each participant on weekly basis. The participants wrote a summary of the novel read on weekly basis. Marking, corrections were done with the participants by the researchers (participants interacted and were guided by the researcher (scaffolding). Then re-writing (inform of correction) of the summary was done by each participant. 70 Impact of Scaffolding Strategy in the… Stage 4: Week 6: At the sixth week, the students wrote two narrative essays as their post test. The essays were marked, analysed and compared. 8. Results Table 1: Personal Characteristics of the Respondents Variable Frequency Percentage Sex: Male 15 Female 13 Total 28 Age: 14-16 years 17 16-18 years 11 Total 28 Sources: Field survey, 2019 53.57% 46.43% 100% 60.71 % 39.29% 100% Table 1 shows that (53.57%) of the respondents were male while female constitute 46.43%. Respondents below 16 years of age constitute 60.71% and those above 16 are 39.29%. The result on the age of the students indicated that, the respondents were within the required secondary school age for students. The data is represented below using pie charts: Sex of Participants Femal e 46.43 % Male 53.57 % Titilayo Elizabeth Popoola & Olufunke Mojisola Osikomaiya 71 Age of Participants 14-16 16 & above 39.29% 60.71% Research Question: What is the impact of scaffolding in teaching English Language writing skill among senior secondary school students in Abeokuta South, Ogun State, Nigeria? 72 Impact of Scaffolding Strategy in the… Table 2: Impact of Scaffolding Strategy in Teaching Writing Skills Sources: Field survey, 2019 The results on table 2 present a very good assessment of the students’ perception on the impact of scaffolding to the development of writing skill in them. Majority of the respondents’ affirmed the impact of scaffolding strategy as indicated by their responses: reading of literature (scaffolding) addressed my English language needs (x = 4.44), using scaffolding improves my reading, writing and spoken performance (x = 4.23), scaffolding, that is, reading of literature is advantageous because it aids their writing skill (x = 4.17) and reading literature allows me to do better in writing skills (x = 4.14). The finding proves that the students too attested to the impact that scaffolding strategy has on their writing skills. Research Hypotheses One: There is no significant difference between the pre-test and posttest performance of senior secondary school in English Language writing skill. 73 Titilayo Elizabeth Popoola & Olufunke Mojisola Osikomaiya Table 3: Test of Significant Difference of Performance between Pre test and Post test Variables Error N Mean Performance Pre test 4.363 Post test 28 28 Std Deviation 6.93 16.89 Mean 0.824 0.943 t-value Decision P-Value 8.404 Significant 0.001 5.014 Source: Field survey, 2019; P-value is significant at 0.05 levels Result in table 3 indicates a significant outcome (t = 8.404; P< 0.05). This outcome implies that there is a significant difference between the pre test and post test performance of senior secondary school in English Language writing skill. This proves that scaffolding helped the students to move from their Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to a better understanding and development of writing skill. Two: There is no significant gender difference between the pre and posttest performance of senior secondary school students in English Language writing skill Table 4: Gender Difference between the Pre test and Post test Performance of Students Tests of Between-Subjects Effects Dependent Variable: Students Achievement in English language writing skills Group Source Type III Sum of df Mean Square F Squares Corrected Model Intercept Pre-test gender Error Total Corrected Total Corrected Model 5.231b 1 5.231 .674 .419 3110.374 5.231 201.733 3315.000 206.964 1 1 26 28 27 3110.374 5.231 7.759 400.874 .674 .000 .419 27.857b 1 27.857 2.587 .120 1 1 26 28 27 10056.429 27.857 10.769 933.811 2.587 .000 .120 Intercept 10056.429 27.857 Post Test gender Error 280.000 Total 10340.000 Corrected Total 307.857 a. R Squared = .003 (Adjusted R Squared = -.026) b. R Squared = .003 (Adjusted R Squared = -.010) Source: Field survey, 2019 Sig. 74 Impact of Scaffolding Strategy in the… Table 4 presents the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) showing significant gender difference between the pre and post test performance of Senior Secondary School students in English Language writing skill. The result indicates a non-significant outcome for pre-test categories (F = 0.674; P> 0.05) and for post test categories (F = 2.587; P > 0.05). This outcome implies that there is no variability in students’ academic achievement in English language writing skill based on gender in both group (pre test group and test post group). 9. Discussion of findings The students performed better during the post-test than the pre-test. This, therefore, indicates that teaching-learning activities are better carried out with scaffolding as a teaching strategy. This corroborates the findings that learning is a product of social interaction (Jonassen, 1994; Brunner, 1996; Dewey, 1999; Osikomaiya, 2013 and Popoola, 2019). Scaffolding strategy is effective in the teaching of writing skill; this is supported by Yulia, Nur, and Ekaning(2015) and Popoola (2019) who concluded that Scaffolding strategy helps in the development of writing skill/writing ability of the students. Ayedun, Adenuga, Osikomaiya (2007) posited that Literature-in-English helps in training the students to develop and enhance listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Also, the motivational effect on the students' learning has been of great help to them, this aligns with Brunner, (1996) which emphasised that when teaching is well done, it motivates students to higher achievement. The use of specific pre, during and post reading activities in a scaffolding experience led to a successful reading and enhanced students’ achievement (Fournier and Graves, 2002). 10. Conclusion This study has demonstrated that the use of instructional scaffolds is more effective in fostering students’ writing skill, which means that, the students in the study perceived scaffolding strategy as being relevant to the development of the improvement of their writing skill. Scaffolding strategy assisted the students to have a better understanding and development of writing skill which is a very important literacy skill. In addition, the study concluded that gender has no influence on learners’ performance on writing skill, that is, gender is not a factor in scholarship. Titilayo Elizabeth Popoola & Olufunke Mojisola Osikomaiya 75 11. Recommendations Based on the findings, the following recommendations were made: i. The teaching and learning of English writings can be improved upon with the use of scaffolding strategy. ii. Teachers at all educational levels should be encouraged to use innovative ways of imparting knowledge, because learners enjoys learning when they are adequately involved. iii. Seminars, trainings and conferences should be organised for English language teachers to intimate them with how to effective use scaffolding strategy in teaching English language. iv. Scaffolding should be recommended to all English Language teachers in the teaching of essay writing/ composition writing. References Ayedun, J.E., Adenuga, F. T. & Osikomaiya, M. O. (2007). The teaching and learning of Literature in secondary school: to be or not to be. African Journal for Contemporary Issues in Education, 1(2), 135-140. Applebee, A.N. & Langer, J.A.(2009). What is happening in the teaching of writing? English Journal, National Council of Teachers of English. 98(5), 18-28. Benko, S. (2012). Scaffolding: An ongoing process to support adolescent development. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 56 (4), 291-300. Bergen, A., Metz, K. & Campione, J. (1996). Social interaction and individual understanding in a community of learners: the influence of Piaget and Vygotsky, in A. Tryphon J. Voneche (Eds) Piaget-Vygotsky: the social genesis of thought, Hove: Psychology Press. 145-170. Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Chum, M. M. (2000). Contextual cueing of visual attention. Trends in Cognitive Science. 4(5), 65-81 Dewey, J. (1998)(ed). How we think. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 76 Impact of Scaffolding Strategy in the… Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding language, scaffolding learning: teaching second language learners in the mainstream classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Hugo, A. (2017). Teaching English as a first additional language in the intermediate and senior phase, Just and Company LTD. South Africa. Jonassen, D.H. (1994). Towards a constructivist design model. Educational Technology, 34(4), 34-37. Khare, K. (2018). Contextualising learning using scaffolding-A teacher’s hat. Retrieved April 13th, 2020 from https://medium.com.a teachers-hat.com. Krashen, S. (1993). We learn to write by reading. But writing can make you smarter. Ilha do Desterro 29, 27-38. Retrieved March 22 from https://periodicos.ufsc.br Moin, H. & Mohammad, R. (2019). Scaffolding effect on writing acquisition skills in EFL context. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ), 10(4), 288-298. Retrieved June 29, 2020 from DOI:10.24093/awej/ https:/www.researchgate.net Osikomaiya, M.O. (2020). Effects of scaffolding instructional strategy and gender on students’ attitude to reading comprehension. UNISWA Journal of Education. 2(2), 19-40. Popoola, T. (2019). Scaffolding strategies on writing skill among Senior Secondary Schools' students in Abeokuta North Local Government Metropolis, Ogun State: Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Department of Communication and General Studies, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State Rasku-Puttonnen, H. & Etelapelto, A, Hakkinen P, & Arvaja, M. (2002). Teachers instructional scaffolding in an innovative information and communication technology-based History learning environment. Teacher Development, 6(2), 269-287. Raymod, R. (2000). Education and Society. London: Routledge and Kegan Ltd. Webb, N. & Farivar, S. (1999). Developing productive group interaction in middle school Mathematics, in A.M. O’Donnell & A. King (Eds.) Cognitive Perspectives on Peer Learning, Mahwah: Erlbaum, 117-149. Titilayo Elizabeth Popoola & Olufunke Mojisola Osikomaiya 77 Wei, H., & Tajularipirin, S. (2011). The effect of scaffolding technique in journal writing among second language learners. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(4), 934-940. Retrieved on April 13th, 2020 from doi:10.430/jltr.24.934-940 Yulia, V., Nur, M. & Ekaning, D. (2015). Effect of scaffolding technique on students' writing achievement. Education Journal of Social Sciences, 3(1), 227-233. Retrieved April 13th from Doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.17977/jph.v313.486433 78 Impact of Scaffolding Strategy in the… KNOWLEDGE AND LEVEL OF AWARENESS OF CHILD’S RIGHTS AMONG LOWER PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN OSUN STATE, NIGERIA Agboola, O.S & Owoade, E.O. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria Faculty of Education, Institute of Education, Tel: +2348065008779 Email: omowunmisola@yahoo.co.uk Abstract The study investigated the source of information of child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun-State. It determined the level of awareness of child’s right among lower primary school teachers. Furthermore, it also determined the level of knowledge of child’s right among lower primary school teachers and examined the influence of variables such as educational qualification and years of experience on teachers’ knowledge and awareness on child’s right. These were with a view to providing empirical information on child’s right among lower primary school teachers and to promote child’s right campaign among teachers. The study adopted a descriptive survey research design. The population for the study comprised of lower primary III teachers in Osun –State. Multistage sampling procedure was used to select the sample for the study. Three Local Government areas were selected from each of the 3 senatorial districts in the state using simple random sampling technique. Fifteen primary school were selected from each local government area using simple random sampling technique, making a total of 145 schools. Three primary III school teachers were selected from each school using purposive sampling technique. This gives a total of 405 teachers that was used for the study. The instrument used for data collection was titled ‘Assessment of Knowledge and Level of Awareness of Child’s Right among Lower Primary School Teachers Questionnaire (KACRAQ). KACRAQ used was to determine the source of information of child’s right and to determine the level of awareness and knowledge about child’s right. Data collected were analysed using simple frequency percentages and chi-square statistics. 80 Knowledge and Level of Awareness… The results obtained showed that family displayed the highest source of information on child’s right (59.6%). The results further showed that the level of awareness of child’s right among lower primary school teachers is low (46%) which shows extreme level of awareness of child’s right. Likewise, the results showed that there was high level of knowledge of child’s right among lower primary school teachers (65.9%). Moreover, the chi-square statistic revealed that there was significant influence of educational qualification and years of experience on teachers’ level of awareness of child’s right (x2 = 0.02, p > 0.05). The study findings indicated that lower primary school teachers are moderately aware and knowledgeable about child’s right. It also concluded that lower primary school teachers’ educational qualifications have a significant influence on the level of awareness of child’s right. Keywords: Awareness, Child right, Knowledge, Lower Primary School, The Convention on the Rights of the Child, Introduction Education is the pillar for every nation to develop and empower. It is "a process of development that comprises of human being's passage from early stages to maturity, the process through which he gradually adapts himself or herself to his physical and spiritual environment in various ways" Mehta and Poonga (1997). Early childhood education, one if the main sub-fields of education, is the education given to children before entering into the primary school. This type of education is a formal education which takes place in an educational institution. It includes the crèche, the nursery, and the kindergarten. Pre -primary education is the basis for the growth of every child and is the fundamental pillar of Nigerian education (NPE (2004). Early childhood education, in a broad sense, refers to the programmes and settings that serve young children from birth through eight years Bredekamp and Copple (2002). The early years is a cycle in a young child's life when relations are formed between the home shelter and the school's requisitions; between playing with a few friends in the neighbourhood and being connected to many others. It is the phase of human growth which falls between birth to eight years (0-8 years). The time from early childhood to eight years is an important stage in the Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O. 81 growth of many basic skills such as social skills, emotional and cognitive skills which are necessary for effective development. It is a time in which environmental enrichment or deficiency has its utmost influence, because growth and development are taking place at a rapid level, adverse experiences such as absence of suitable food, health care, nutrition or motivation, unwholesome living situations and unethical working circumstances can significantly delay development. Favourable conditions likewise encourage development such as healthy living environments, proper nutrition, standard health care etc. With this in mind, psychologists and educators have allowed early childhood education an important topic of research since it is focused on the future of the education system. Any impairment or harm at this point could have a considerable impact on the child's subsequent intellectual ability and adaptation. This is because, early childhood period is the time when children develop basic values, attitudes, skills, behaviours and habits, which will be long lasting (UNESCO, 2008). A number of changes and development are developed in the early years in respect of knowledge, intellectual and in the relationship between the child and many others. The terms of the National Policy set out the government's priorities and recommendations for achieving early childhood education goals. Government responsibilities for early childhood education include promoting adequate number of qualified pre-primary teachers, contributing to the creation of suitable curricula, supervising and monitoring the standard of such institutions and creating early childhood sections in existing government schools. Early childhood education programme enhances better language acquisitions, better performance in Arithmetic and Social skills (Sacks and Ruzzi, 2005). It is the bedrock of other higher levels of education as it enhances school readiness, better school performance and social outcomes, higher graduation rates, lower crime and delinquency as well as decrease in welfare dependency (Sacks and Ruzzi, 2005; Olubor, 2009). Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement. Rights are often considered fundamental to civilisation, for they are regarded as established pillars of society and culture. A child is a human being between the stages of birth to puberty, or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty. The legal definition of child generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as person younger 82 Knowledge and Level of Awareness… the age of majority. According to the United Nations (UN) (1990) and Organisation of African Unity (OAU) (1990) charter on rights and welfare of the child, a child means every human being below the age of 18 years unless, under the law applicable to the child, maturity was attained earlier. Under global law, a child can simply means all human being that is under the period of 18. This is a commonly accepted definition of a child, and it is also derived from the UN Convention on the Rights of a Child (UNCRC), an international legitimate instrument that is believed and consented by most countries. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child was put into effect by the United Nations Universal Assembly in 1989. On 16 April 1991, Nigeria approved the Convention on the Rights of the Child and endorsed other international agreements which generally influence the rights of children. The Federal Government of Nigeria in December, 2003 conceded the Child Rights Act (CRA). In 2003, the Nigerian Government enacted the Child’s Rights Act (CRA), to bring into law the primary role enshrined in the United Nations convention of the Rights of the Child and the African Union charter on the welfare of the child. The act main focus is on the promotion and protection of the child. It provides extensive provision prohibiting and prescribing appropriate penalties for all manner of Child Rights violation and abuses in their various forms and complexity (Babalola, 2011). The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child and the African Union Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child therefore provide for the protection of the child from all forms of abuse. From the convention on the Right of a Child, the children’s right are summarised into four (4) which are Survival, Development, Protection and Participation. 1. Development rights include the right to education, early childhood care and growth, social security, leisure, recreation and cultural activities. 2. Protection right requires independence from all types of abuse, violence, cruel or corrupting treatment, neglect, superior security in special situations such as emergency states and armed conflicts, for disability etc. 3. Participation rights include respect for a child's beliefs, liberty of communication, access to proper information, liberty of expression, morality and beliefs, recreation e.t.c Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O. 83 4. Survival right embraces the right to life, the utmost achievable health standards, nutrition, adequate living standards, a name and race. However, despite these safeguards, most children are denied access to education, deprived of their right to be heard and subject to innumerable forms of bodily, psychological and sexual abuse. Welfare Theory of Children’s Right This study is anchored on Jeremy Bentham (1987) Children's Rights Welfare Theory also known as Interest Theory. The theory's primary argument is that the principal role of rights is to further the rightsholder's basic interests. Thus, the main issue of the theory of interest is to describe the social prerequisites or situations necessary to lead a minimally good life for human beings. The theory claims that what is being available for everyone as regards human rights is based in what is perceived to be basic, essential qualities of human well-being that are considered necessary to all, even children. According to the Interest theory, rights are supposed to protect the basic human interest. The theory argues how each individual right-holder plays a fundamental role to reverence the rights of each other and that preserving one's legitimate interest demands others to be willing to acknowledge and respect those interests, which in turn allows mutual recognition and respect for the legitimate interests of others. Therefore, the rights of the child are legitimate because they secure the necessary requirements for such a well-being of all children. Federle (1994) also claims that rights theory of interest describes children's rights because of their incapacity. She believes that children are entitled because they are helpless and would need protection. According to Wall (2010), the interest theory is more accessible to children's rights, since it is easier to represent children as having basic necessities. The theory of interest considers rights to be a mechanism of developing the holder interest (Wall, 2010). Rights, he notes, are simply what it takes to build up to be a safe and successful person. The Interest Theory therefore operates as a basis for children to assert their rights. The interest theory of rights is well connected to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) and is therefore relevant to this research because it explains the basic or minimum conditions that all children around the globe should be 84 Knowledge and Level of Awareness… granted in order to develop their full capacity. The theory also provides useful details as to what rights can be applied to: for example, the rights to life, survival and development, rights to protection and the rights to participation. These rights are to safeguard the essential interests of children, regardless of the multiplicities that exist across societies and culture around the world. Furthermore, attention should be given to fact that the uniqueness of children's rights is to provide for the basic or equal rights that all children should always be given irrespective of the environment they found themselves in. In Africa, there has been different scenario of child sexual abuse, trafficking of children, child marriage and child neglect, and studies have shown that lack and traditional ethnic systems are the root reasons of these occurrences by Sossou and Yogtib (2008). Akor (2009) stated that children are subjected to dehumanising conditions by hawking in several parts of Nigerian society, whether children are on vacation or not. They hawk different product to get money for their tuition fees, as some parent’s claim they do not understand this is prohibited under the Child Rights Act. In the meantime, some children are detained at home and mostly used as house helps, rather than giving them the chance to explore their world. Akwara, Soyibo and Agba (2010) are of the opinion that children’s right is been taken for granted. In their study, they discussed the dangers posed by taking for granted the right of a child and efforts made in Nigeria in protecting the child for sustainable development in society. From their study it was discovered that not much is being done while children are the major future of any society and nation. It was also noted that one of the survival instruments that most people usually have at their disposal are their child or children. Lachman, Poblete, Ebigbo, Nyandiya-Bundy, Bundy, Killian, Doek (2002) claim that child exploitation, child slavery and other child-related ills cannot be avoided so long as there is poverty. Some parents and guardians often use their children to earn a living. Child mistreatment often mentioned to as child labour or child trafficking is another prevalent issue confronting children. It includes using children to do hard work on farms that outweigh their age, and some are made to hawk goods for long hours without food. Child exploitation is an organised method of using children to work for their health and safety with little or no payment and consideration (Newton, 2001). These Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O. 85 children rarely take advantage of education and inevitably drop out of school. They are mentally, psychologically, morally and intellectually impaired by the time these children become adults. Children are victims of assault, physical abuse, trafficking, or other types of children's sexual exploitation. Sexual exploitation is a common under-reported form of child maltreatment due to the secrecy that characterises these cases. Children who are sexually abused encounter sensitive difficulties with a sense of guilt and shame (Corwin and Olafson, 1997). The occurrence of sexual abuse in different places abounds everywhere and interferes with a child's standard, healthy development. The notion that children should be treated less harshly and dealt with in a less authoritarian manner has long been an important theme in educational writing, and dates back to Rosseau and beyond. In the light of the way children have actually been treated in this concerned and caring world over the past decades, Ennew and Milne (1989) observe that unfortunately for many children, life is indeed a living hell. Nonetheless, meanwhile the Constitution of Nigeria allows that the legislative authority on issues concerning children belongs absolutely to states, the federal law is inadequate as a means of extending safety to many Nigerian children. Thus, various states are expected to embrace it. Nigeria is constitutionally obliged to take important steps to help raise consciousness of children's rights, as set out in the UN Convention. Under Article 42 of the Convention, it was written that States Parties shall use appropriate and constructive means to ensure the ethics and requirements of the Convention is broadly acknowledged to their people. According to Stamatovic and Zunic-Cicvaric, (2019) the school is a suitable place for pupils to learn about child rights and where these rights are to be respected. What constitutes a good school is not the availability of instructional materials or its aesthetic value; mostly importantly it is the teachers. The school as one of the basic institutions for child development, next to families should be used for increasing awareness on child rights. A teacher’s role in the life of a pupil is vital and a good teacher occupies a very significant place in the minds and hearts of young learners. After parents, it is the teacher who influences a child most, and contributes to the shaping of his or her personality. The teachers’ duty to protect children does not come to an end once they are out of 86 Knowledge and Level of Awareness… the school premises. Creating a safe learning environment, identifying pupils who are suffering with problems or at risk and then taking appropriate action, are vital to ensure that children are safe at home and at school. Therefore, primary school teachers are expected to equip themselves to know more about the children’s problems, child rights and the mechanisms to protect their rights. The teacher as a leader, as a torchbearer, as a mentor and as a guide must also take on the role of a caretaker, a protector and a catalyst in the protection of child rights. They should ensure that all children are protected from all forms of exploitation, abuse, neglect, inhuman and degrading treatment. Hence, the use of primary school teachers for the study and their relationship with the concept of child right is important because a good number of children go through the education system and spend a large part of their childhood there. In addition, some children spend more time in school than with their own families. Since it is compulsory, all children go through the education system, (or most of them do so), therefore teachers who frequently interact and teach these children should play a major role in protecting their right has they represent the adult society and also to fulfill their pledge through the Convention to young people. Statement of the Problem Children are rightful citizens who are entitled to have same rights as any other individual. It is a common fact that children are unable to manage their affairs and protect their rights without the help of adults. It is for this reason that children are regarded as belonging to the vulnerable group (AjaNwachuku, 2017; Bekink and Bekink, 2005). Studies have shown that many children are denied of their rights to survival, protection, development and participation. They are inexplicably denied of their basic and fundamental right, perhaps due to their status as minors. School teachers are one of the focal agents in ensuring child’s right not only within the school premises but also outside. The extent to which teachers who interact with these children are aware about child right is not known; hence this study. Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O. 87 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to assess the knowledge and level of awareness of child right among lower primary schools’ teachers in Osun state. Therefore, the specific objectives are to; i. investigate the source of information of child’s rights among lower primary schools’ teachers in Osun State; ii. determine the level of awareness of child’s rights among lower primary school teachers in Osun State; iii. determine the level of knowledge of child’s rights among lower primary school teachers in Osun State, and iv. examine the influence of variables such as educational qualification and years of experience on teacher’s knowledge and awareness of child’s rights in Osun State. Research Questions i. What is the source of information on child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun State? ii. What is the level of awareness of child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun State? iii. What is the level of knowledge of child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun state? iv. Do variables like educational qualification and years of experience have an influence on teachers’ knowledge and awareness of child’s rights in Osun state? Research Hypothesis H01: There is no significant influence of educational qualification and years of experience on Primary school teacher’s knowledge and awareness of child’s right in Osun State. Research Methodology A descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. The population for this study were all lower primary III teachers in Osun State. Fifteen primary schools were selected from 3 local government areas in each of the 3 senatorial districts in the state, using simple random sampling techniques. One hundred and thirty-five schools were selected in all and four hundred and five teachers were altogether used for the study. To determine the sample for the study, multi-stage 88 Knowledge and Level of Awareness… sampling procedure was used. The research instrument that was used to collect data from the respondent was developed from Child’s Right Act and was titled Knowledge and Awareness of Children’s Rights Assessment Questionnaire (KACRAQ). It was divided into four sections, Sections A to D. Section A dealt with the socio-demographic data of the respondents such as sex, age, religion, academic qualification, years of experience. Section B was concerned with the sources of information on child’s right. It consisted of 11 different sources such as family/parents/guardian, television/radio, newspaper/magazines, internet/website, government agencies. Section C dealt with the awareness of children’s right. It consisted of 17 statements relating to the components of child’s Right. Section D addressed teacher’s knowledge about children’s right. It consisted of 20 statements about the rights of the children with a true or false response. Validation of the Research Instruments The research instrument was validated by professionals in Early Childhood Education field. The detailed check and modification by these experts which includes appropriate sectioning of the questionnaire, rearrangement of some statements about teachers knowledge about child rights, copies were produced for the administration in the lower primary schools that was used for this particular study. The research instrument was trial tested on 40 teachers outside the scope of the study. The reliability test based on the pilot study, the Cronbach alpha value is 0.763, and this means that the questionnaire can be considered reliable among the sample population. Table 1: Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha 0.763 Cronbach's Alpha Standardized Items 0.722 Based on N of Items 37 Based on the number of items in the questionnaire which was a total of 37 items, the Cronbach’s alpha value based on the number of standardized item is 0.722, while the Cronbach alpha value is 0.763. Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O. 89 Administration of the Research Instruments The administration of the research instrument lasted for a duration of 8 weeks, the research involved 145 primary schools in Osun State. The instrument that was used to get relevant information for this study is a questionnaire. The researcher employed a research assistant that was tutored on the questionnaire and who to administer it to. Procedure for Data Collection The researcher and the research assistant went to the selected schools for the study, sought the permission of the head teachers explain the purpose of coming and also the purpose of the study before administering the research instrument to the teachers. Two weeks was used in each senatorial district to collect the data for the study. The researcher explained the different sections of the research instrument and gave instructions on how to fill the research instrument to the respondents. After the explanation, each teacher was given a copy of the instrument and this was returned appropriately after it was completely filled. Data collected was analysed using descriptive statistical techniques that is percentage and frequencies and inferential statistical techniques. Results The Socio-demographic data covered by the study were name of school, age, sex, academic qualification of education, year of experience and religion of the respondents. Table 2: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents in Osun State Characteristics Frequency Percentage (%) N Data location (n=405) Ife Central 109 26.9 Ilesha East 32 7.9 Iwo 52 12.8 Osogbo 80 19.8 Ikirun 13 3.2 Olorunda 37 9.1 Ede North 22 5.4 90 Ife East Ede South Age (in years) (n=405) < 18 18-25 26-33 34-41 ≥ 42 Sex (n=405) Male Female Academic qualification (n=405) OND NCE HND B.Ed/B.A. Ed/ B.Sc. Ed B.A./ B.Sc PGDE Masters Others Year of experience (in years) (n=405) <5 5-10 11-15 ≥ 16 Religion (n=405) Christianity Islam Traditional Knowledge and Level of Awareness… 49 11 12.1 2.7 6 41 133 93 132 1.5 10.1 32.8 23.0 32.6 65 340 16.0 84.0 14 208 26 126 23 2 5 1 3.5 51.4 6.4 31.1 5.7 0.5 1.2 0.2 107 125 64 109 26.4 30.9 15.8 26.9 321 83 1 79.3 20.5 0.2 From Table 2, the total number of respondents that were used for this research were 405 teachers and were made up of 109 (26.9%) Ife-Central, 80 (19.8%) Osogbo, 52 (12.8%) Iwo, 49 (12.1%) Ife-East, 37 (9.1%) Olorunda, 32 (7.9%) Ilesa-East, 22 (5.4%) Ede-North, 13 (3.2%) Ikirun and 11 (2.7%) Ede-South ranging from nine local governments within Osun State. The age interval of the respondents in various Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O. 91 schools indicates that 32.8% of the respondents fall between the age gap of 26-33years, 32.6% fall in between the range of 42years and above, 23% fall between 34 and 41years, 10.1% of the respondents are within the age gap of 18-25years and only 1.5% of the respondents fall into the category of age gap that is less than 18years. The results show that more female teachers were used for the research study. There were 340 (84.0%) females and 65 (16%) of males. In order to provide the situation analysis of child rights awareness and knowledge among primary school teachers in lower primary schools in Osun State, it is important to gather the working experience and Teachers who are the main respondents were requested to indicate the working experience and duration of stay in schools in the district. Data depicted from table 1 showed the responses realised. 15.8% of the teachers that are within 11- and 15years displayed lower responses while those who have been in teaching between 5 and 10 years showed highest responses by 125 (30.9%), followed by the 16 years and above by 109 (26.9%) and below 5 years at 107 (26.4%). Study shows that 79.3% of the respondents are Christians, 20.5% of the respondents are Muslim while 0.2% of the respondents are traditional worshippers. A study of this nature requires information on respondents’ academic qualification in order to gauge if it has an influence in creating awareness and observation of child rights among the stakeholders in schools. Respondents were requested to indicate their academic qualification. The data collected was summarized as follows in Table 2. The academic qualification of the respondent used for this study varies from Ordinary National Diploma (OND), National College of Education (NCE) to Masters and others. From the study, it showed that trained teachers from NCE displayed the highest number of responses 208 (51.4%), 126 (31.1%) of B.Ed./B.A. Ed/ B.Sc. Ed, 26 (6.4%) of Higher National Diploma (HND). Few percent of teachers at lower primary schools possess Master’s degree of qualification at 1.2%. Research Question 1: What is the source of information on child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun State? Result of the sources of child’s right is presented in figure 4.1 and provides answers to the question 92 Knowledge and Level of Awareness… 70 Percentage 60 50 59.5 47.2 40 30 20 10 34.1 33.6 22.2 25.7 23.0 26.4 12.3 8.9 1 0 Sources of information Figure 1: Sources of information of child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun state The findings of the study showed that participants learned about child’s rights from teacher training, internet, homes, media, religious organisations, and so on. Figure 1 provides information on the sources of information on child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun State. As shown in the figure, the study showed that a higher percentage of respondents had information of child’s right through the family with a percentage of 59.5%. Television and radio sources (47.2%), churches or mosques (34.1%), teachers training with 33.6%, government agencies with 26.4%, internet with 23% and newspapers with 22.2%, colleagues (25.7), neighbours with 12.3% and legal document with 8.9%. 93 Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O. Research Question 2: What is the level of awareness of child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun State? The answer to this question is presented in Table 3 Respondents level of awareness of child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun state EA- Extremely aware, MA- Moderately aware, SA- Slightly aware, NA- Not aware S/N 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Components of Child’s Right Right to survival and development Right to name Freedom of association and peaceful assembly Freedom of thought, conscience and religion Right to private and family life Right to freedom of movement Right to freedom from discrimination Right to dignity of the child Right to leisure, recreation and cultural activities Right to health and healing services NA f (%) 27(6.7) SA f (%) 43(10.6) MA f (%) 171(42.2) EA f (%) 164(40.5) 35(8.6) 19(4.7) 41(10.1) 46(11.4) 147(36.3) 163(40.2) 182(44.9) 177(43.7) 16(4.0) 39(9.6) 149(36.8) 201(49.6) 29(7.2) 51(12.6) 150(37.0) 175(43.2) 22(5.4) 56(13.8) 154(38.0) 173(42.7) 48(11.9) 63(15.6) 152(37.5) 142(35.1) 21(5.2) 51(12.6) 167(41.2) 166(41.0) 27(6.7) 57(14.1) 170(42.0) 151(37.3) 19(4.7) 45(11.1) 126(31.1) 215(53.1) Right to parental care, protection and maintenance 22(5.4) 36(8.9) 115(27.7) 235(58.0) 26(6.4) 36(8.9) 113(27.9) 230(56.8) 18(4.4) 60(14.8) 164(40.5) 163(40.2) Right of child to free, compulsory and universal primary education Right of child in need of special protection measure 94 14. Knowledge and Level of Awareness… Right of the unborn child to protection against harm, Contractual rights of child 55(13.6) 51(12.6) 146(36.0) 153(37.8) 61(15.1) 108(26.7) 161(39.8) 75(18.5) 16. Responsibilities of the child and parent 23(5.7) 36(8.9) 145(35.8) 201(49.6) 17. Parent, etc. to provide guidance with respect to child’s responsibilities Average Results 27(6.7) 42(10.4) 116(28.6) 220(54.3) 29.1(7.2) 50.7(12.5) 147.4(36.4) 177.8(43.9) 15. The average results in the table 3 shows the descriptive statistics of the level of awareness of child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun State. Considering the average results, it can be deduced from the table that 43.9% of the respondents are extremely aware of child’s right, 36.5% of the respondents are moderately aware of child’s right, 12.5% of the respondents are slightly aware of child’s right and 7.2% are not aware of child’s right. In conclusion, 177.8 (43.9%) indicated that the level of awareness of child’s right among lower primary school teachers is extreme. However, there is still need to increase the awareness about child’s right in most of the lower primary schools in Osun State. For the level of awareness of child’s rights, teachers were required to show their opinion on the level of awareness on different classes of child’s rights. A literature on Child Development by the Department of the Ministry of Women Affairs and Youth development, Federal Republic of Nigeria describes the simple and fundamental ethics of the rights of a child and this form the basis of this study as regards awareness of the child right. To aid the interpretation of the frequency distributions of the action characteristics, the characteristics were coded into a single attribute: aware (combining the responses “extremely, moderately, slightly and not”). Different classes of rights were directed to the teachers and the following responses acquired: According to table 3, the opinion of the respondents on awareness of Life and Survival Rights among teachers indicated that the 40.5% of the respondents were extremely aware of the right to survival Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O. 95 and development, 44.9% were extremely aware of right to name, 43.2% of the teachers were also extremely aware of the right to private and family life, 41% are extremely aware of the right to dignity of the child, 53.1% of the respondents were extremely aware of the right to health and healing services, 58% are extremely aware of the right to parental care, protection and maintenance, 37.8% of the respondents believed that every unborn child has a right to protection, 54.3% showed that parents are to provide guidance with respect to a child’s responsibilities. From table 3, the analysis of responses on the level of awareness on development rights indicated that the respondents were aware of the right. The right of child to free, compulsory and universal primary education showed that there is high level of awareness of developmental rights among primary school teachers in Osun State (56.8%), followed by freedom of thought, conscience and religion with 49.6% and 42% of the respondent were moderately aware that every child has right to right to leisure, recreation and cultural activities. From table 3, the analysis of responses on awareness of Protection Rights indicated that 37.5% of the respondents were moderately aware of the right to freedom from discrimination and 36(11.2%) are not aware of this rights. 40.5% of teachers are moderately aware of right of a child in need of special protection measures. From table 3, awareness of Participation Rights indicated that the Responsibilities of the child and parent displayed the highest level of awareness among the respondents as represented by 49.6%, 42.7% are extremely aware of right to freedom of movement while 43.7% are extremely aware of the right to freedom of association and peaceful assembly. Research Question 3: What is the level of knowledge of child’s right among lower primary school teachers in Osun State? The answer to this question is presented in Table 4 Knowledge questions on child right laws were 20 in number with true and false options for each question. To score knowledge of respondents for each question, a correct response was scored one while a wrong response was scored zero. The individual knowledge score for each 96 Knowledge and Level of Awareness… respondent was added together to arrive at the maximum and minimum knowledge scores. Maximum score for all the knowledge questions was 20 while the minimum score for the knowledge questions was 3. The median knowledge score was 15.02±2.20SD (where SD is the standard deviation). Respondent’s knowledge was then further classified as high, moderate and low knowledge using the following scoring system/criteria: Low knowledge: < 50% of the maximum knowledge score (low knowledge was individual knowledge scores of 9.9 and below) Moderate knowledge: 50%- <75% of the maximum knowledge score (moderate knowledge was individual knowledge scores of 10-14.9) High knowledge: ≥ 75% of the maximum knowledge score (high knowledge was individual knowledge scores of 15-20) Table 4: Respondents Categorised level of knowledge among lower Primary School Teachers in Osun State Characteristics N (%) Low knowledge 4 (1.0) Moderate knowledge 143 (35.3) High knowledge 258 (63.7) Table 4.3 shows the categorised level of knowledge of respondents based on child right. 258 (63.7%) had high knowledge of child right, 143 (35.3%) had moderate knowledge of child right while 4(1.0 %) have low knowledge of child’s right. It is therefore concluded that lower primary school teachers in Osun State are knowledgeable about child’s right. Research Question 4: Does academic qualification and years of experience of the teacher have an influence on teacher’s awareness and knowledge of child’s right in lower primary schools in Osun State? Table 5 provides answers to this question. Hypothesis One: there is no significant influence of educational qualification and year of experience on primary school teacher’s knowledge and awareness of child’s rights in Osun State. To determine this hypothesis, the procedures outlined in the data analysis 3.7, 97 Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O. indicating procedures Kruskal-Wallis H-test statistics were followed. The result is provided in table 5 below. Table 5: Reports of H-test analysis indicating the influence of educational qualification and year of experience on primary schools teachers knowledge and awareness of child’s right in Osun State S/N Null Hypothesis Test Sig. Decision ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION VS KNOWLEDGE OF CHILD’S RIGHT 1. The distribution of Independent Samples of 0.191 academic qualification Kruskal-Wallis Test is the same across categories of knowledge scores ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION VS AWARENESS OF CHILD’S RIGHT Retain the null hypothesis 2. 0.05 Reject the null hypothesis 0.394 Retain the null hypothesis 0.021 Reject the null hypothesis The distribution of academic qualification is the same across categories of awareness scores Independent Samples of Kruskal-Wallis Test YEARS OF EXPERIENCE VS KNOWLEDGE OF CHILD’S RIGHT 1. The distribution of Independent samples of years of experience is Kruskal-Wallis Test the same across categories of knowledge scores YEAR OF EXPERIENCE VS AWARENESS OF CHILD’S RIGHT 2. The distribution of academic qualification is the same across categories of awareness scores Independent Samples of Kruskal-Wallis Test Results in Table 5 indicated no significant influence of academic qualification on primary school teachers’ knowledge (p>0.05) but there was significant influence of academic qualification on the awareness (p<0.05) of child’s right among primary school teachers in Osun State. Moreover, results in table 5 also indicated no significant influence of 98 Knowledge and Level of Awareness… years of experience on primary school teachers’ knowledge (p>0.05) but there was significant influence on the awareness (p<0.05) of child’s rights among primary school teachers in Osun State. Discussion of Findings The study found out that family provided the highest source of information on child’s right (59.5%) among lower primary school teachers in Osun State. This suggests that a good number of lower primary school teachers in Osun State knew about the right of a child from homes. The family was a good source of information on child’s right because this is the first school every one passes through for learning and development. The finding of this result disagrees with the result of a survey carried out at the Research and Development Centre of Education of the Philippine Institution of learning, the findings showed that the basis of understanding primarily on human rights is the school, and then television/radio and family/parents. It is interesting to know that family/parents are recognised or identified as the greatest suitable source of knowledge on human privileges. Secondly, this study discovered that 43.9% of lower primary school teachers are extremely aware of child’s right 36.4% were moderately aware, 12.5% were slightly aware while 7.2% were not aware of child right. This corroborates the study by Tamilnadu Sathiyaraj and Jayaraman (2013) which showed that 27% of primary school teachers have high level of child rights awareness while 46% show average level of Childs right awareness and 27% of the teachers had low level of child right awareness. Thirdly, it has been discovered from this study that almost all the lower primary school teachers are well-informed about the rights of a child. This finding is similar to a study by Samridhi and Oye (2015), that most of the primary school teachers have good knowledge about the rights of a child particularly survival rights, development rights, protection rights and participation rights. The finding of this study is also in accordance with a study by Sunita et al., (2016) the result showed that 53.2% of the school teachers had adequate knowledge about child rights while 46.8% had inadequate knowledge about child’s right. Furthermore, a study by Arora and Thakur (2015) showed that almost all the teachers in private school and government schools were Agboola, O.S. & Owoade, E.O. 99 well educated and knowledgeable about the rights of a child which also buttress the findings of this study that there is high level of knowledge of child’s right among lower primary school teachers. Lastly, the study has also found that educational qualification of lower primary school teachers have a significant influence on the teacher’s level of awareness of child’s right( p<0.05) and also discovered that years of experience as an influence on teachers level of awareness.(p< 0.05). Other related works that have been done by Sathiyaraj and Jayaraman (2013) showed that there is no significant difference among teachers with respect to gender compare to the result gotten from this research work which showed a statistically significance of variable such as educational qualification on the teachers’ level of awareness of child’s right among lower primary schools in Osun State. Conclusion The study is of great importance in the present time because its findings are totally relevant in this modern period. The knowledge of Childs right among school teachers is of immense importance for the welfare the society as well as nation at large. The study concluded that lower primary school teachers in Osun state are aware and knowledgeable about child’s right. Recommendations a. Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council should incorporate child rights into school curriculum and organize trainings and workshops for teachers. b. The government should ensure that legislation for the protection of child right is enforced. Also, advocacy and sensitization on child’s right should be done through the radio, television, newspaper. c. The government should ensure that child’s right act is not violated and should be respected by all and sundry. Media should be sensitised and encouraged to advertise and encourage programmes and jingles that will protect the right of a child. Communication industries and Media houses should create awareness about societal concerns in a balanced way so 100 Knowledge and Level of Awareness… that some relevant aspects such as children’s rights are not left unaddressed. d. One of the significant topics that should be considered in the teacher education program needs to be the child rights. It is important that teachers should lay more emphasis on children’s rights subjects like civic education, social studies sciences etc. e. Other notable personality in the society such as medical doctors, lawyers, religious leaders among others need to step up campaigns and organize programmes in order to promote awareness about the rights of a child among children and a these campaigns can be in form of using branded and customised publicity things such as jotters or notebooks, baseball caps, T-shirts, brochures, scarves, pens, umbrellas, calendars, wrist bands etc. References AjaNwachuku, M., 2017. Participatory Rights of the Nigerian Child – Remembering the Past, Appreciating the Present and Forecasting the Future’. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences, 7(7), 356-368. Akinwumi O. S. (2009). Legal impediments on the practical implementation of the Child Right Act 2003. Int. J. Legal Information. 37 (3): 10. Retrieved from http://scholarship.law.cornell. edu/ijli/vol37/iss3/10 Archard, D. W. (2002). Childrens rights. Stanford Encyclopaedia of philosophy; Lancaster, UK. Akor, G. (2009). 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International Journal of Children's Rights, 16(1), 523-543. doi:10.1163/157181808X312122 REVOLUTIONISED PEDAGOGIES IN RESPONSE TO CORONAVIRUS DISEASE (COVID-19) IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING Nonzukiso Tyilo University of Fort Hare, South Africa Abstract This paper is a desk review that examines the Higher Education Institution’s response to COVID-19 pandemic in revolutionising their pedagogies. The pandemic challenged the teaching and learning in institutions pandemic particularly when lockdown regulations were implemented and universities adopted remoted learning. Not all the institutions had started robustly with online learning even before the outbreak of COVID-19 and this challenged them as the need for revolutionise pedagogy emerge from the government. The paper adopted transition theory. This theory was chosen because it views transition as a process where each person responds differently to the change. From the literature reviewed, it was observed that although there are challenges that institutions encountered in revolutionising pedagogies in responding to COVID-19 pandemic. However, the pockets of good practice emerged where life time lessons may be drawn from this unprecedented situation even beyond COVID-19 pandemic. This paper recommends that the adoption of revolutionised pedagogies should be normalised beyond COVID-19. An urgent need to revision of teaching and learning policies to articulate the adoption of blended learning and the implications for assessment strategies and procedures. Continued provision of data to students and lectures to embrace blended learning fully. Continued support for staff and students for blended pedagogies. Institutions to create teaching and learning festivals to celebrate the teaching excellence through blended learning where opportunities are provided for staff and students to share their practices. 106 Revolutionised Pedagogies in… Keywords: Blended learning, COVID-19 pandemic, Online learning, Remote learning, Revolutionized pedagogy, Social distance, Transformation, Virtual learning Introduction This paper aims to explore how Higher Education Institutions have revolutionised their pedagogies in response to COVID-19 pandemic. The unprecedented time of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has challenged the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (SoTL) and the institutions had to drastically respond in an attempt to save the academic year. Some institutions were overwhelmed by the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic because blended learning approaches were not commonly used as the teaching was mainly face-to-face with little or no online learning engagement. In South Africa, the historically disadvantaged institutions to be precise were the most affected as teaching and learning delayed due to COVID-19 pandemic. In responding to the COVID-19 pandemic, the Honourable Minister, Dr. Blade Ndzimande, provided leadership in institutions in terms of how the Post School Education Sector should respond to the COVID-19 epidemic. This leadership was coupled with efforts made to support the institutions and the students to ensure that no institution is disadvantaged and no student is left out. The challenged to face-to-face contact with students posed by the epidemic called for revolutionised pedagogies to ensure that the academic year is saved. For example, remote or online learning was adopted in order for lecturers to reach all the students despite their locations. The abrupt transition from face-to-face contact to remote learning in the spirit of a revolutionised pedagogy challenged teaching and learning process in some institutions. In examining the institutions’ response to the COVID-19 pandemic, this paper focusses on the outbreak of the pandemic; how education sector responded and how pedagogy was revolutionised in the context of COVID-19. COVID-19 Pandemic Over the years, there have been massive outbreak life-threatening diseases that were declared natural disasters that affected people’s health as well the education sector. For example, in 2002 and 2009, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and H1N1 outbreak, respectively, affected many people worldwide as a result in some Nonzukiso Tyilo 107 countries like, China, France, Japan, Italy, and so on. Consequently, schools were closed (Cauchemez et al., 2014). Towards the end of 2019, the world experienced COVID-19 pandemic that rapidly spread throughout the world with some people succumbing to it. According to Munster et al. (2020), although the mortality is not as that high as compared to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and SARS, the risk level of infection is high as some of infected people might show mild or no symptoms. Hence, asymptomatic people pose higher risk in the transmission on the virus (Bai et al., 2020). As the spread of COVID19 is usually through respiratory droplets when an infected person sneezes or coughs, with no specific treatment up to date, there are universal precautions adopted in preventing its transmission. For example, people are required to maintain social distance so that if one coughs or sneezes, the virus is not transmitted due to the distance that people maintain from each other (Weeden & Cornwell, 2020). In addition, people have to wash their hands or sanitise hands regularly, wear masks and avoid overcrowded spaces. Numerous strategies were devised in order to contain the rapid spread of the virus. The lockdown regulations were implemented worldwide in an attempt to flatten the curve and prevent further infections. Fowler, Hill, Levin and Obradovich (2020) believe that lockdown is an effective mechanism to contain the virus from spreading. When the lockdown regulations were in place, just like with H1N1 pandemic, schools were closed and this affected teaching and learning worldwide (Huang et al., 2020). Education Sector in the Context of COVID-19 The COVID-19 outbreak called for government’s intervention and institutions’ response across the world to ensure that the teaching and learning continues while on the other hand the virus is contained from spreading. Education sector has been adversely affected by COVID-19 outbreak as interpersonal contact is discouraged and people are encouraged to keep the distance at 1.5 mitre. This situation compelled universities to close, and students left their campuses for their homes. The closure of universities called for alternative modes of teaching and learning to ensure that the academic year is saved. In China, in an attempt to contain the virus, face-to-face activities were banned by their government and a more flexible online learning where learners would continue learning while at home was adopted (Huang et al., 108 Revolutionised Pedagogies in… 2020). This was also the case with South African government that implemented lockdown to contain the virus and flatten the curve. Globally, over 1,500,000,000 students from primary to tertiary level could not attend school due to COVID-19 (UNESCO, 2020). This challenged the education sector to come up with strategies that address this national pandemic while teaching and learning is not compromised. The situation called for a revolutionised pedagogy where a shift from traditional normal face-to-face mode of teaching to remote learning was not optional anymore. Revolutionised pedagogy In many instances when institutions are faced with challenges, online learning is often found to be an alternative in order to ensure that teaching and learning continues. Some institutions with a history of student protests, online learning has been an alternative. However, this approach never applied to all the institutions, and their contexts differ with how students are engaged in an online space (Ali, 2020). In some instances, the revolutionised pedagogies often respond to particular situations without acceptance and compliance from all the stakeholders. More often than not, the curriculum and assessment practices do not always address the fact that face-to-face teaching is replaced with virtual opportunities when learning. To ensure that the academic year is saved in the context of COVID-19, transforming pedagogies needs to be prioritised. Although Ali (2020) identifies numerous deficiencies with online learning, attempts made to use technology for online learning is supported more especially with the outbreak of COVID-19. China ensured that no compromise is made when it comes to teaching and learning process during COVID-19 pandemic (Zhang, Wang, Yang & Wang, 2020). The Sub-Saharan countries also advocated for online learning in responding to the COVID-19 pandemic (Olaitan et al., 2020). Hence, online learning has been perceived as a pedagogy that institutions adopt to ensure that no teaching and learning continues (Jandrić, 2020). Online/Remote Learning Online learning is a learning experience that uses different devices that are connected to the internet in synchronous or asynchronous contexts. Online learning enables teaching and learning to be effective Nonzukiso Tyilo 109 as students have opportunities to study anywhere (Singh & Thurman, 2019). Online learning requires student to be independent and autonomous as they interact with the information available in their virtual platforms. Within the virtual platform, opportunities for interaction may be created for students as long there is access to internet for students to engage (World Bank, 2020). Furthermore, Teräs and Kartoğlu (2017) are of the view that online learning may encapsulate numerous innovative pedagogical processes that encourage students to engage in the teaching and learning process and assessment. When teachers/lecturers revolutionise their pedagogy, they may be influenced by various philosophical underpinnings. For example, to revolutionise pedagogy, learning environment should not only contain textual files and lecturer’s recorded videos that are uploaded for student use via learning management system. However, lecturers may create opportunities for students to engage and reflect on particular units of the course. Hence, Herrington, Reeves and Oliver (2010) mention that revolutionised pedagogy creates reliable learning framework which integrates cooperative knowledge construction and complex authentic learning. Although online learning is perceived as a way of revolutionising pedagogy, UNESCO (2020) finds it to be challenging. This is because if online learning fails to observe and adhere sound pedagogical principles, it may not add value to students’ learning (Hodges et al., 2020). This, at times, maybe as a result of implementing online learning quick fixes with no clear instructional methods that may be adopted to enhance student learning (Selwyn, 2020). Theoretical framework The paper explores how Higher Education Institution have revolutionised their pedagogies in response to COVID-19 pandemic. For this paper, the transition theory was adopted as the theory that focuses on how people adapt to change Schlossberg (1981). When people are presented with new innovations, their responses often vary in how they deal with such changes. As mentioned in Schlossberg (2008), the transition is a process that involves (i) approaching change; (ii) taking stock; and (iii) taking charge. This means that when people are presented with new opportunities, they need to have a clear and deepened understanding of what they should do, therefore, they need 110 Revolutionised Pedagogies in… to be mentally prepared for the change. In addition, this means that transition is not a once-off or an ad-hoc process, it is a process that requires people understand it for them to take charge of the change being proposed. As transition is a process, people therefore perceive the transition differently (Schlossberg, 1981). People’s perceptions about transition are considered important, because they often influence a person’s response or reaction to a particular transition. The transition theory acknowledges that people may not progress in the same way when in a transitional phase because transitional process is a unique journey. Evans et al., (2010) are of the view that transition is depending on the person’s perceptions and the attitudes people possess. As transition is a process, Schlossberg (1981) argues that people experiencing transition have strengths and weaknesses. In this light. four major factors known as Four S’s are used to analyse one’s capacity to transition (Goodman, Schlossberg, & Anderson, 2006). The Four S's are (i) situation, (ii) self, (iii) support, and (iv) strategies. These four factors are believed to be helpful in predicting how a person will cope with a particular change (Schlossberg, Lynch, & Chickering, 1989). From the ‘situation’, one needs to look at the numerous factors around the transition and how one relates to the factors. This requires a neutral and an objective mentality and this helps people embrace the transition (Schlossberg, 2008). Once one understands the situation, the second level is ‘self’, and this is about both personal and demographic characteristics that may impact transition. Self is important because it focuses on a person’s capacity to handle transition. For transition to be effective, one needs ‘support’. The support may include resources people need to cope with the transition. Once people have received support, they now need strategies for them to cope with the transition (Goodman et al., 2006). This theory aligns with this paper because it views transition as a process where different people respond differently to the changes that they have been presented with. In the context of COVID-19, although all the institutions are expected to revolutionise their pedagogies, the progress made vary from institution to institution. There are factors that contribute to such variations, for example, in South African context the culture of historical black and disadvantaged institutions; allocation of resources and available support for people to adapt. In addition, even when the institutions strive for excellence Nonzukiso Tyilo 111 when they respond to COVID-19 pandemic, not all the people involved may progress at same level even though there has been an equitable provision of opportunities for all. Methods This is a desk review that assesses literature about how the education sector has revolutionised pedagogy in responding to COVID-19 pandemic. Various sources have been reviewed in relation to the phenomenon under study. The selection of the relevant sources reviewed was informed by their relevance to the phenomenon being studied. Hence, relevance themes that guided the research were used when literature was reviewed. Therefore, the review of the literature was thematic. The intention was to find out what has been with regards to the phenomenon under study. In addition, the literature reviewed proffered me with an opportunity to make some observations in relation to the institution’s response to COVID-19 pandemic. Observations and Discussions The reviewed literature that relate to studied phenomenon reveal some challenges and pockets of good practice about COVID-19 pandemic ordeal and the response of the education sector. Revolutionised pedagogy for COVID-19 in the education sector The education sector encountered enormous challenges due to COVID19 outbreak. In trying to minimise the spread of the virus, lockdown regulations were applied worldwide. Even in South Africa the government implemented regulations to manage people’s interaction. This resulted in the closure of institutions to maintain the social distancing. This disrupted the academic activities as the universities started to operate on a remote mode. As the universities are from different contexts, the revolutionised pedagogy through the adoption of online learning was not an easy task for all the universities. Some institutions who have been using an online space continued with their programmes with minimal disruptions, while those who are historically disadvantaged with students drawn from far-flung communities were adversely affected. This has influenced the effective implementation of online learning in an attempt to save the academic year and learners’ lives. For example, with some institutions the concerns were raised 112 Revolutionised Pedagogies in… around infrastructural support, staff preparedness, student connectivity and access to computers and data. With infrastructural support, World Bank (2020) reports that for effective implementation of any programme, people involved need to be provided with the necessary support. The support may be the resources available and the capacity building initiatives that empower both lecturers and students for the proposed change. This resonates with the transition theory (Schlossberg, 1981) that advocates for support in order for people to adapt to the proposed change or transition. The support provided as mentioned in the transition theory enables people to come up with relevant strategies enabling them to adopt the proposed change. As a result, in the context of this lecturers may be willing to embrace the revolutionised pedagogies in responding to COVID-19 pandemic. Once lecturers are ready to adopt online learning, students may have opportunities to learn the essential skills of the 21st century (Ertmer & Otternbreit-Leftwich, 2019). However, although the institutions may have resources that are needed for online learning they may be inadequate if the lecturers are not ready (Vrasidas, 2015). Hence, Yunus (2007) asserts that provision of adequate training and support should be prioritised for lecturers to be able adopt online learning for the benefit of the students. Even before the outbreak of COVID-19, some staff members struggled with online learning and this this affected their confidence in integrating technology in their lessons. Hence, Huang & Liaw (2005) argue that staff members’ positive attitude and willingness to implement ICT contributes to the effective teaching and learning. Another important factor contributing to successfully revolutionised pedagogy is the student accessibility to laptops and data for online learning. Using technology when learning may not be a problem with students because they are too attached to technology, the only problem may be inaccessibility to laptops and data (Shava, Chinyamurindi, & Somdyala, 2016). According to the World Bank (2020), both staff and students require proper guidance with how online learning can be adopted more especially as a response to COVID 19 pandemic with lockdowns being implemented and face-to-face classes being replaced with online learning. This is because, as O’Sulluvan (2018) indicates, despite that students are often called Nonzukiso Tyilo 113 digital natives, there are limitation in terms of how the technology can be used for teaching and learning. In South Africa, the COVID-19 worsened the existing inequalities in the education sector (Mahaye, 2020). Some students had challenges with not having technology and other necessary resources used to access online lessons. This has impacted the ‘saving academic year’ and ‘no student is left behind’ as some universities struggled with online learning due to students’ inability to access computer and data. Despite the noted challenges, there were some pockets of good practice. Pockets of good practice In responding to the COVID-19 pandemic, an opportunity for government to address the inequalities in the education system emerged. A space was created for all the universities to adopt online learning despite the noted challenges and the differences that exist among institutions. The adoption of online learning therefore calls for differentiated assessment methods that cater for this pandemic. Online learning was viewed as the universal pedagogy for all the institutions while the lockdown regulations are in place to contain the virus from spreading and flattening the curve (Mahaye, 2020; Olaitan et al., 2020). Various plans were in place to ensure that no student is left is left behind because COVID-19. For example, in South Africa, the Department of Higher Education (DHET) ensured that all students received the necessary support for them to continue with remote learning. As mentioned in the DHET (2020), devices were given to students to ensure that all the students have equal learning opportunities and enable them to have access to the course material. As institutions differ, some institutions delivered learning materials to their respective students in a form of USBs or printed materials. In addition, the lecturers and students received data, and the educational sites were zero-rated for students to get the required information (Department of Higher Education, (DHET) 2020). In addition, COVID-19 strengthened the use of already available learner management system (LSM) as a platform to be used for teaching and learning not as a repository for course material and student notices. Hence, Onwusuru and Ogwo (2019) believe that lecturers may continue with dispensing learning resources and instructions to students without any limitations 114 Revolutionised Pedagogies in… as all the students regardless of their geographical proximities can have access to the available course related resources. The institutions in support of online learning took support initiatives to another level through ongoing online trainings conducted more especially for staff to effectively implement online learning. The trainings enable lecturers to use LSM effectively to maximise student learning as they engage with the peers during the teaching and learning process. The unprecedented period of COVID-19 pandemic may have challenged education system, but it created a platform for institutions to take online learning to another level. This process laid a solid foundation for blended learning pedagogies post-covid because online learning should not only be a responsive pedagogy when there is a challenge. Conclusion Although online learning has been in use in some countries and some universities, the outbreak of COVID-19 presented a different picture. As universities were required to revolutionise pedagogies to accommodate all the students during the lockdown through remote learning not much progress was made. As a result, when the lockdown regulations were implemented not all the institutions executed their plans as there were many challenges that they encountered. Some challenges were from students’ access to laptops and data, while some students due to their geographical location the network was a challenge. This affected teaching and learning and resulted in the extending the academic year to 2021 to ensure that no student is left out. Despite the challenges identified, government’s opportunity to address the inequalities emerged and the data was provided for students and lectures while students also received laptops. In addition, some institutions packaged the resources in a form of USB or printed material to cater for those with data and network challenges. Recommendations This paper recommends that the revolutionised pedagogies should not only be used in the context on COVID-19. The institutions should ensure that the blended learning is adopted fully and implemented at all levels. The teaching and learning policies, assessment policies and other policies that are related to the SoTL should revised to ensure that there is a clear articulation of blended learning throughout. The provision of Nonzukiso Tyilo 115 data to students and lectures should continue beyond COVID-19 for the institutions to embrace blended learning where a mix of face-to-face and online learning space is normalised. More gradual and continuing capacity building initiatives for staff to be strengthened for staff to be able to revolutionise their pedagogies as they plan for their lessons and empower them with collaborative tools to use when teaching. References Ali, W. (2020). Online and Remote Learning in Higher Education Institutes: A Necessity in light of COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Higher Education Studies, 10(3), 16. https://doi.10.5539/hes.v10n3p16 Olaitan, A. Abdullahi, T. A. Tolorunju, I. A., Akinjo, R. I. & Ogunjemilua, O. D. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 on Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202007.0027.v1 Bai, Y., Yao, L., Wei, T., Tian, F., Jin, D.-Y., Chen, L., & Wang, M. (2020). Presumed asymptomatic carrier transmission of COVID-19. Journal of the American Medical Association, 323(14), 1406– 1407. Cauchemez, S., Van Kerkhove, M. D., Archer, B. N., Cetron, M., Cowling, B. J., Grove, P., Hunt, D., Kojouharova, M., Kon, P., et al. (2014). 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Cloud-based portal for professional development of technology educators in Nigeria and Nonzukiso Tyilo 117 the emerging virtual workplace. International Journal of Arts and Technology Education, 11(01): 1 – 17. O’Sullivan, D. (2018). Schools' role in addressing the Digital Native Fallacy. Retrieved from http://www.bcs.org/content /ConWebDoc/55719 Schlossberg, N. K. (1981). A model for analyzing human adaptation to transition. The Counselling Psychologist, 9(2), 2. Schlossberg, N. K., Lynch, A. Q., & Chickering, A. W. (1989). Improving higher education environments for adults. Responsive programs and services from entry to departure. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Selwyn. N. (2020). After COVID-19: The longer-term impacts of the coronavirus crisis on education. Melbourne: Monash University. https://educationfutures.monash.edu/all%2D%2D-present/aftercovid19. Accessed 19 August 2020 Shava, H., Chinyamurindi, W., & Somdyala, A. (2016). An investigation into the usage of mobile phones among technical and vocational educational and training students in South Africa. South African Journal of Information Management, 18(1), 1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajim.v18i1.716 Singh, V., & Thurman, A. (2019). How Many Ways Can We Define Online Learning? A Systematic Literature Review of Definitions of Online Learning (1988-2018). American Journal of Distance Education, 33(4), 289-306. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2019. 1663082. Teräs, H., & Kartoğlu, Ü. (2017). A grounded theory of professional learning in an authentic online professional development program. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 18(7). https://doi.org/10.19173 /irrodl.v18i7.2923. UNESCO. (2020). COVID-19 Educational Disruption and Response. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/covid19/education response. Vrasidas, C. (2015). The rhetoric of reform and teachers‟ use of ICT. 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Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13(55), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13030055 CONFLICT AMONG PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS STAFF IN OYO WEST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF OYO STATE Christianah Oluwakemi ALABI, Ph. D Department of Curriculum and Instruction Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo alabichristianah@gmail.com Abstract This paper examined conflict resolving among private secondary schools staff in Oyo West local government area of Oyo State. A descriptive survey research design was adopted in carrying out the study. The population of the study comprised all principals and teachers in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. The study sampled 10 private secondary schools through simple random sampling technique. Each of the schools’ principals purposively selected and 11 teachers were randomly selected through simple random sampling from each school. A total of 120 respondents were sampled. A self-developed instrument titled “Conflict Resolving and Peace Making Questionnaire” (CRPMQ). A content and surface validity of instrument was done by the experts in Teacher Education after which modifications were done. Also, a reliability coefficient of 0.85 was obtained using Cronbach alpha. For this study, the researcher used Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis to analyze the three hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. It was found that all the resolving strategies (problem solving at 0.61; collaboration at 0.45 and participatory at 0.57) were significant in making peace in private secondary schools. It was recommended that school administrators and other stakeholder particularly staff need to embrace peace to enhance smooth running of the school system. Also, private school administrators need to develop themselves professionally and administratively and school administrators to involve the staff in decision making in the school. 120 Conflict Among Private Secondary… Keywords: Resolving strategies, Conflicts, Secondary school, Problem solving, Collaboration, Participation, Teaching-learning processes. Introduction Conflict situation is one in which needs, interests, wants, or values of one individual are incompatible with someone else's. Usually, conflict involves an emotional reaction to a situation or interaction that signals a disagreement of some kind. Tuckman (2004) asserts that conflict can be observed as occurring along cognitive, emotional and conciliatory behavioural dimensions which helps in understanding the complexities of conflict and why conflict seems to proceed in contradictory directions. As a set of perceptions, conflict also consists of the actions that one takes to express their feelings, articulate perceptions, and get needs met in a way that has the potential for interfering with someone else's ability to get his or her needs met (Amasa, 2013). The purpose of conflict behaviour is either to express the conflict or to get one's needs met. Obviously, the nature of a conflict in one dimension greatly affects its nature in the other two (Kilonzo and Ivita, 2019). Organisations are associative social systems where participants engage in organised activities to attain collective goals and personal goals and interpersonal interactions are fundamental to these organisational activities. Although a relatively large proportion of peoples’ daily interactions at work are positive. Dijkstra (2006) suggests that negative events, such as episodes of interpersonal conflict, hold more potency than positive events with regards to their effects on individual well-being. Research by Okotoni and Okotoni (2003) has showed that intimacy and closeness do not seem to exclude disagreement or conflict and that conflict cannot be eliminated when people work or live in close proximity and is why conflict is not ruled out in friendships despite the fact that most people consider the level of compatibility before choosing friends. Fisher (2007) argues that it is significant therefore to note that no matter how much one party might tolerate the other or ignore conflict situations; conflict develops progressively such that even if there is tolerance, one party is likely to react strongly to a situation and respond to conflict in a more hostile manner at a certain point in time. He thus acknowledges collaboration among Christianah Oluwakemi Alabi 121 workers as a means of peace-making in every organisation. This mean that conflict in most cases uproot the very impediments that undermine the organisational development and if absent, the management of the organisation might be off-track in managing the affairs of the organisation. Some schools associate conflicts in their schools with poor working conditions and lack of clear work and remuneration policy by the government. Schools face a lot of difficulties in providing the necessary facilities and even teaching materials. According to Okotoni and Okotoni (2003), schools do not have basic facilities including staffroom and teaching materials while some head teachers lack even offices to carry out official duties. Also, Garton (2006) indicates that teachers work in highly de-motivating conditions due to poor pay by the government coupled with lack of clear increments in salaries. Van Manen (2001) points that head teachers are unable to adopt and respond to complexities in their institutions that fast. Some boards get impatient because they expect quick positive change, and when changes fail to occur that fast, the principal is accused of being low performer ( Adeyemi, 2009), principal is quickly ejected out of the school and a new one brought in.. Ojielo (2002) shares the above views and indicates that some head teachers display poor leadership qualities that create conflicts in schools. Garton (2006) indicates that inexperienced head teachers sometimes run into serious problems when they fail to use their scarce resources properly. Resources available in the school may be used on trivial projects while major ones remain unattended. He further reveals that some head teachers have been locked out of their schools due to poor financial accountability; some head teachers are not transparent in their financial matters of their school. Philips (2010) adds that the head teachers do not discuss financial issues of their school with their boards. When financial issues are brought in the agenda of the board meeting, it is usually the last item of the agenda when the member was tired and unable to discuss the item in detail, he further asserts. Members authorise use of school finance hurriedly without counter checking the implications. This gives a leeway to some head teachers to misappropriate school funds. Parents go to such schools and evict such head teachers withdrawing their children and sponsorship to the school. 122 Conflict Among Private Secondary… Moreover, some head teachers are not transparent and accountable in financial issues of the school. They do not let people see value for money and how the money collected in school is used. The findings of Gray, Miller and Noakes (2005) indicate that head teachers create conflicts in their schools as a result of wrong application of managerial skills in planning, budgeting and expenditure control. This leads to misallocation of resources resulting to lack of essential commodities and services. Some teachers go into teaching profession as a last resort when other alternatives are absent. They work to earn a salary with the hope that they will soon leave the profession. Foster and William (2012) affirm this view and indicate that unmotivated teachers will not produce good results because complaint, laxity, grumbling and fighting the head-teacher characterises their work. The head teacher will always be in the center of blame. He or she will not get anything done without running into trouble with the teachers. Kingala (2010) agreed that men and women who have no calling to teaching vocation take up the training as teachers but have no interest in looking after the young people. These teachers find themselves inside the classroom doing a job they do not like but because they need money, they stick. It is also argued that due to lack of interest in teaching, the teachers become increasingly brutal to the students. Such teachers also become patronize to the politicians and receive protection. A teacher in this category causes trouble to the head teacher because he is sure of protection from the politician. Some engage in immoral acts with students or incite them against the school administration. Philips (2010) indicates that there are teachers who take up the noble teaching profession yet they have no interest in it. These teachers display incompetence, laziness and lack interest in students’ work. They lack self-discipline and are biased and inconsistence negative interdependency. Consistent in their application of punishment meted out to students who break school rules. These teachers have no respect for school administration and sometimes incite students against the principal. Some administrators perceive causes of conflicts in their school as due to lack of commitment to work in their schools. There are things that principals do in their schools that posed a serious challenge to school management. Some of these include absenteeism, perennial lateness, dishonesty, inaccessibility and being autocrat or dictatorial (Kingala, 2010).He further reveals that Christianah Oluwakemi Alabi 123 some head teachers have been negative interdependency. Head teachers may fail to perform well in educational administration because of frequent absenteeism in their schools. Fundamentally, problem solving is aimed at building the peace capacity of people so that they do not learn to solve their conflicts through peaceful dialogue but also live in peace (Kingala, 2010). Similarly, Momodu (2013) posits that peace education is a behavioural and attitudinal change mechanism which aims at: pre-empting conflict (build-up); preventing conflict outbreaks; resolving conflict and promoting a culture of peace. Basically, resolving strategies aims at systematically inculcating the culture of peace in the minds of individuals with a view to deconstructing the culture of violence from their minds by equipping them with the knowledge, skills and abilities, which would assist individuals to interact peacefully and to collaborate to achieve collective as well as personal goals. Based on the above, it is clear that peace education can be positively used to eliminate behaviours and attitudes that engender conflict and violence in any social system including the secondary school system. This is because it has the potential to modify unwanted human behaviours that are peaceful coexistence by fostering holistic social, psychological and intellectual development of human beings, with a view to helping them achieve their goals and aspirations in life (Gumut, 2006). Statement of the Problem In recent times, the secondary school system in Nigeria is a microcosm of the Nigerian society which is replete with conflicts of various degrees and intensity. Conflict remains one of the greatest challenges confronting the success of the teaching and learning process in secondary schools in Nigeria. Here, there is need for comprehensive approach/strategies which will address concrete issues with regards to conflict and its resolution through peaceful means. This is because a comprehensive approach to conflict in schools will proactively address the issue of conflicts which impede progress and development in the school. In this regard therefore, This study examines plausible strategies needed for resolving conflict among private secondary schools staff in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. 124 Conflict Among Private Secondary… Hypotheses The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance: H01. There is no significant relationship between problem solving and peacemaking among staff in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. H02. There is no significant relationship between collaboration and peacemaking among staff in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. H03. There is no significant relationship between participatory method and peacemaking among staff in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. Methodology A descriptive survey research design was adopted in carrying out the study. The population of the study comprised all principals and teachers in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. The study sampled 10 private secondary schools through simple random sampling technique. The principals of each of the schools were purposively selected and 11 teachers were randomly selected from each school. A total of 120 respondents were sampled. The research instrument adopted was a self-developed questionnaire titled “Conflict Resolving and Peace Making Questionnaire” (CRPMQ). A content and surface validity of instrument was done by the experts in Teacher Education after which modifications were done. The instrument was divided into 3 sections. Section A deals with the respondents’ personal data such as name of schools, age, sex and class. Section B consists of 30 items which is on causes of conflict, effects and using resolving strategies to solve conflicts among staff. The instrument is based on four - point rating scale such as Strongly Agree (SA) =4 points, Agree (A) = 3 points, Disagree (D) = 2 points and Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1 point. A total of 120 copies of questionnaire were administered. Also, a reliability coefficient of 0.68 was obtained using alpha Cronbach. For this study, the researcher used Pearson Product Moment Correlation analysis to in relation to the three hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. 125 Christianah Oluwakemi Alabi Data Analysis Table1: Distribution of Respondents (Teachers and Students) by Sex Variables Sex Frequency % Cumulative Grand Total Principals Male 7 70.00 Female 3 30.00 100 Teachers Male 86 71.67 Female 24 28.33 100 Total 120 100 Table 1 indicates the distribution of respondents’ sex. The males selected were 93 (77.50%) while the females were 27 (22.50%). It is shown that male are more than their female counterparts. Table 2:Distribution of Respondents by Age Age group Frequency 21-29 21 30-39 10 40-49 75 Above 50 14 TOTAL 120 % 17.50 8.33 62.50 .11.67 100.00 Table 2 represents the age distribution of the respondents. Between 21 -29, were 21 (17.50%), between 30-39 were 10 respondents with representing 8.33.00%. Also, 40-49 age group had 75 (62.50%) while above 50 years, there were 14 (11.67%). Table 3: Religion Affiliation Distribution of Respondents Religion Frequency % Christianity 46 38.33 Islam 54 61.67 Total 120 100.00 Table 3 shows the religion affiliation of the respondents used in this study. Among the respondents, 46 (38.33.0%) respondents were Christians while 54(61.67.0%) were Muslims. 126 Conflict Among Private Secondary… Table 4: Respondents (Principals and Teachers) Educational Qualifications Educational No of respondents in the % Attainment range NCE/OND 40 33.33% B.A/ B.Sc /B. Ed 53 44.17% M. A/M.Sc/M. Ed 27 22.50% Total 120 100.00 In Table 4, educational qualifications of the respondents shown. NCE certificates holders were 40 (33.33%) respondents. 53 (44.17%) were those with first degree, 27 (22.50%) were those with Master degree. Results Testing of Hypotheses Research Question 1: There is no significant relationship between problem solving and peacemaking in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. Table 5: Pearson Correlation between Problem Solving Strategy and Peace Making Variables N M Sd R p df R Problem Solving Strategy 120 13.03 2.42 0.61 119 Sig. 0.05 Peace Making among staff in private secondary schools 8.34 5.53 Table 5 shows a correlation between problem solving strategy and peace - making in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. The correlation co-efficient of 0.61 tested 0.05 level of significance indicates that there was affirmative relationship between the between strategy of problem solving strategy and peacemaking among principal and staff in private secondary schools. 127 Christianah Oluwakemi Alabi Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship between collaboration strategy and peacemaking in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. Table 6: Pearson Correlation between Collaboration Strategy and Peace Making Variables N M Sd r p Df R Collaboration Strategy 120 10.42 2.18 7.21 Peace Making among staff in private secondary schools 0.45 198 Sig. > 0.05 6.53 From table 6, the outcome shows correlation co-efficient as 0.45 at 0.05 level of significance between collaboration approach and peacemaking among staff in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. Since the outcome of the coefficient is positive, it implies that there was relationship between collaboration tactic and peacemaking among staff in the area of study. Hypothesis 3: There is no significant relationship between participatory method and peacemaking in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo. Table 7: Pearson Correlation between Participatory Strategy and Peace Making VARIBLES Participatory Strategy Peace Making among staff in private secondary schools N M Sd R p 120 12.48 3.61 0.57 > 0.05 15.31 4.72 Df R 198 Sig. From table 3 the outcome displays the correlation co-efficient as 0.57 at 0.05 level of significance between participatory method and peacemaking among staff in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. Since the outcome of the coefficient is positive (r. 08, p.>0.82). It implies that there was relationship 128 Conflict Among Private Secondary… between participatory method and peacemaking in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area ofOyo State. Discussion of Findings The correlation co-efficient of 0.52 tested at 0.05 level of significance indicates that there is affirmative relationship between problem solving and peacemaking in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. This means that the school principals or administrators need to provide solution to problems on ground which will make work easier in order to promote peace in the school system. It when this is done that peace is maintained. This is in line with submission of Kingala (2010) that some head teachers have been negative interdependency. Head teachers may fail to perform well in educational administration because of frequent absenteeism in their schools. Fundamentally, problem solving is aim at building the peace capacity of people so that they do not learn to solve their conflicts through peaceful dialogue but also live in peace. The outcome shows correlation co-efficient of 0.46 at 0.05 level of significance between collaboration and peace - making in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. Since the outcome of the co-efficient is positive, it implies that there is relationship between collaboration and peacemaking in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area of Oyo State. It is paramount that teamwork or togetherness should be permitted in the school system, this would promote peace within the system (principal and staff). This study is in line with the study of Fisher (2007) who contends that no matter how much one party might tolerate the other or ignore conflict situations, conflict develops progressively such that even if there is tolerance, one party is likely to react strongly to a situation and respond to conflict in a more hostile manner at a certain point in time. He thus pointed to collaboration among workers as a means of peacemaking in every organisation. The outcome correlation co-efficient of 0.82 at 0.05 level of significance between participatory method and peacemaking in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Area. It implies that there was relationship between participatory method and peace making in private secondary schools in Oyo West Local Government Christianah Oluwakemi Alabi 129 Area. Participation of staff in the organisation activities is very essential, thus, progress and unity are promoted in the school system. This is study is in line with the submission of Afolabi, Adeniran, Alabi and Awolola (2016) that a participatory and supportive style of leadership will enhance conflict resolution That is a leader influences and directs individuals and groups; he also requires many qualities and skills in order to effectively and efficiently manage conflicts. Recommendations Based on the finding the following are recommended: • There is need for the school administrators and other stakeholders particularly staff need to embrace peace to enhance smooth running of the school system. • There is need for private school administrators to develop themselves professionally and administratively. This will promote competency. • There is need for the school administrators to involve the staff in decision making in the school. • Government should make provision for sponsoring principals and organizing conferences for them to serve as a means for professional growth as well as incentives to the principals. • There is need for collaboration between the school administrators and teachers on school activities. • Principals must be specific in outlining school’s objectives. He /she must make sure that teachers are committed in their job to ensure that the objectives are achieved. References Adeyemi T. O. (2009). Principals’ management of conflicts in public secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria: Educational Research and Review; 4, 418-426. Afolabi, R. A., Adeniran, S. O.,Alabi, C. O. & Awolola, O. I. (2016) Critical Examination of Leadership Styles and Teachers’ Productivity in Public Secondary Schools in Oyo town. Oyo State Journal of Mathematics Association of Nigeria, 4(1) 163-174. Amasa, P. N. (2013). Conflict Resolution between Heads and Teachers: The Case of America. Longman publishers. 130 Conflict Among Private Secondary… Dijkstra, M. T. M. (2006). Workplace conflict and individual well-being: Ph. D Thesis, Dissertation, Potchefstroom University. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014). National Policy on Education, Abuja: NERDC Press. Fisher, R. J. (2007). Interactive conflict resolution: New York, Syracuse University Press. Foster, W. and William, G. (2012). Education leadership and the struggle for the mind. Nashville: Peabody College of Vander bill University, University Press Inc. Garton, R. A. (2006). School administration challenge and opportunity for leaders: Washington, Brow Company Publishers. Gumut, V. (2006). Peace Education and Peer Mediation: Introduction to Peace and Human Behaviour in Organizations. Cincinnati: South Western Publishing Company. Kilonzo, O. R. and Ivita, S. J. (2019) Causes of Conflict in Public Secondary Schools in Mukaa Sub County, Makueni County.IOSR Journal of Research & Method in Education: Volume 9, Issue 4 Ser. I. 1959 -2320 Momodu, A. J. (2013). Mainstreaming peace education in secondary school curricula in Nigeria. International Journal of English and Education, 2, 2 Nelson, L., Van Slyck, M. & Cardella, L. (1999). Peace and conflict curricula for Nigeria tertiary institution. Journal of English and Humanities, Vol. 6, 2, June, 2011 Oshita, O. O. (2006). (Formal). Peace education in Nigeria: Partnerships and prospects. Journal of the Society for Peace Studies and Practice, Vol. 1, No. 1, June 2006, Sterling-Holding Publishers Ltd, Ibadan, Nigeria Salomon, G. & Nevo, B. (2002). Peace education: the concept, principles and practice around the world, New York, Lawrence Etabaum, pp. 3-14 Wordu, E. N. (2006). Fundamentals of Adult Education. Port Harcourt: Johnny Printing Press. Wright, Q. (2007). The nature of conflict. In B. John and D. Frank (Eds.) Conflict: readings in management and resolution, Macmillan, USA. Girard, D. & Koch, S. W. (2006). Dealing with Unwanted Behaviour: New York, Hans-Gunter Rolf. Christianah Oluwakemi Alabi 131 Gray, P., Miller, A. & Noakes, J. (2005). Challenging behaviour in school: New York, Routledge Press. Kingala, A. (2010). Conflicting role of a principal: A paper Presented Kenya secondary schools Heads Association Annual conference: Nakuru, Unpublished Manuscript Okotoni, O. and Okotoni, A. (2003). Conflict Management in Secondary Schools in Osun State, Nigeria: Nordic Journal of African Studies 12(1): 23-38 (2003). Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria. Philips, F. (2010). Regarding the ethics edge in the management of our secondary schools: African conference; Johannesburg South Africa: Associated Press. Republic of Kenya (2011). Report of the task force on student discipline and unrest in secondary schools: Nairobi: Government Printers. Tuckman, B. W. (2004). Conducting Educational Research (4th Ed). Harcourt Brace. College Publishers. Van Manen, M. (2001). The tact of teaching. London Ont: The Althouse Press. www.iosrjournals.org 132 Conflict Among Private Secondary… TEACHER-STUDENT RELATIONSHIP AS CORRELATES OF STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN OSUN STATE, NIGERIA Beatrice Bunmi ADEYEMI (PhD) General and Entrepreneurial Studies Unit, Olusegun Agagu University of Science and Technology, Okitipupa, Ondo State, Nigeria. E-mail : adeyemibeatrice163@yahoo.com Felicia Bosede BAMIRE (PhD) Department of Educational Management Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. Email: fbamire92@gmail.com Abstract The study investigated teacher-student relationship as correlates of students’ achievement in English Language. Specifically, it examined the composite effect of teacher-student relationship on the students’ achievement in English Language, assessed the extent to which teacherstudent relationship variables jointly contribute to students’ achievement, and determined the relative effects of teacher-student relationship on students’ achievement. The study adopted ex-post-facto research design of the correlational type. The population consisted of students and English Language teachers from all the public secondary schools in Osun State. A sample of four hundred and eighty respondents was selected using multistage sampling procedure comprising of 30 English Language teachers and 450 students. Two instruments were used for data collection: Peer Attachment (for students and teachers), and Proforma (for students only). Data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The results showed a significantly (r (446) = 0.159, p<0.05) positive relationship between teacher-student variables (trust, communication and alienation) and students’ achievement in English Language. The teacher-student variables also jointly contributed significantly (F (3,446) = 14.535, P<0.05) to students’ achievement in English Language. Furthermore, each of the teacher-student variables 134 Teacher-Student Relationship as… (trust: t=3.236, p<0.05; communication: t=3.634, p<0.05; and alienation: t=3.361, p<0.05) contributed significantly to students’ achievement in English Language. It was recommended that trust, communication and alienation between teachers and students must be taken into consideration in improving students’ achievements in English Language in senior secondary schools in Osun state, Nigeria. Keywords: Teacher-Student Relationship, Student Achievement, English Language Introduction Teachers’ instructional delivery in the classroom without the knowledge of the relationship or interaction between teacher and students is a serious challenge in the educational system. A relationship is a way in which two or more people are connected through their interactions, which can either be positive or negative. A positive relationship is needed between the teachers and students to ensure academic achievement of students, teacher’s instructional delivery and classroom interaction with students which have a huge effect on the students’ learning achievement (Kolawole & Oluwatayo, 2005). According to Adeyemi (2018), academic achievement is the level of academic skills demonstrated by students through oral and written discussion. Evidence abounds in studies that positive and strong relationship between teachers and students is fundamental to positive academic outcomes of students in schools, particularly at the senior secondary school level. Teacher-student relationship is the mutual interaction between teachers and students within and outside the classroom (Akinsolu, 2010). It is therefore expedient for students to be fully motivated and engaged by the teacher who spends a tangible amount of time with them over the years. The main responsibility of the teacher is to foster an inclination for learning in a favourable learning environment. Positive relationship between teacher and students is therefore an important factor in trying to foster a favourable learning climate in the classroom. Brown (2010), Rimm & Sandilos (2012) and Cooper & Miness (2014) asserted that students with positive relationship with teacher tend to be more stable in class, persistent in their learning, more motivated to learn, and participate Beatrice Bunmi Adeyemi & Felicia Bosede Bamire 135 better in class discussion. Building and maintenance of positive teacherstudent relationship by the teacher is central and key so that students might become motivated, fully engaged and academically successful. Researchers such as (Wu, Hughes & Kwok, 2010; Fan & Wolters, 2014; Skipper & Douglas, 2015) have shown that teacher-student relationships can significantly impact positively or negatively on students’ academic and social outcomes. Teachers are very important in setting the tone of the classroom environment. A warm and happy classroom environment helps in initiating healthy and positive interaction for better and focused learning. A teacher helps to make the environment positive or negative as he is responsible for social behaviour in the classroom. Thus, learning in the classroom depends to a large extent on the pattern and level of inter-personal relationship that exists between the teacher and students. Gholami and Tirri (2012) observed that students who perceived that they do not enjoy a positive and supportive relationship with their teacher tend to struggle academically and behaviourally in school. According to Fan (2012), school performance correlates with the quality of teacher’s inter-personal relationship with students and that the quality of classroom relations is dependent on the activities of both the instructor and the students. This is in agreement with Solaja, Faremi and Adesina (2015) who submitted that best adjustment of school climate, parental involvement, peer interactions and teacherstudent interactions are the ultimate goals of education. Positive teacher-student relationships are characterized by mutual acceptance, understanding, warmth, closeness, trust, respect, care and cooperation. The academic or professional relationship between teacher and students in the classroom plays a huge role in child’s academic success and social development. Establishing a positive relationship with students allows them to feel more comfortable and safer in the classroom environment. Research showed that positive relationships between teacher and students contribute to students’ academic success. Hamre, Pianta, Downer, Decoster, & Cappela, (2013) and Pianta, Hamre & Allen (2012) described a positive teacher-student relationship as one that exhibits closeness, warmth and positivity. Students are more likely to participate actively in class and challenge themselves academically in a classroom environment where there is a 136 Teacher-Student Relationship as… strong relationship between teacher and students. The most powerful weapon that teachers have in order to ensure a favourable learning environment is positive relationships with their students. When students perceive that their teachers are very supportive their level of academic achievement is always high. The role of an English language teacher can be seen as distinct from other teachers. This is because language functions mainly as a means of developing communication and establishing relationship, as it is a compulsory subject for all students in secondary schools. Teaching English Language is a practice that fundamentally aims at developing a positive rapport between teachers and students. Teaching languages is an appropriate context for establishing a good teacher-student relationship because it offers opportunities for daily contact between the teacher and students. Teachers’ interest often has more significant influence on the learning process than any other factor because the teacher can create an environment of trust, warmth, acceptance, good communication, non-alienation and high-level achievement for students. However, a positive relationship between teacher and students is always difficult to establish as it can come from either the teacher or the students. Trust, good communication, non-alienation, acceptance, respect and teacher’s interest as well as student’s interest in learning are very essential for establishing positive relationship. Kaplan (2000) opine that teachers should provide their students with “sympathetic understanding” in Dewey’s description. Mc Combs & Miller (2007) also emphasized the supportive and caring role of the teacher and recommended that “students must experience schooling practices in which they are active partners with caring adults” Although teacher-student relationship may be affected by other factors such as teacher and student personality as well as cultural factors that is in place in the school, the quality of learning processes within the classroom depends also on the quality of teachers. The interaction of these two elements will eventually influence the quality of the students produced by the school. Teachers are leaders that manage the cognitive, affective and psychomotor development of their students, hence their ability to fulfill this particular role determines both academic and non-academic outcomes of the students. Among the non-academic outcomes that teachers need to develop are the Beatrice Bunmi Adeyemi & Felicia Bosede Bamire 137 trust between teachers-students and non-alienation of students in the classroom as well as teachers’ sound communication skills as cases of teachers’ incompetence, poor communication skills and alienation of students abounds in schools. Teacher-student relationships greatly influence student’s ability to adjust to school, do well at school and relate with peers effectively (Wubbels, Brekelmans, Mainhard, den Brok & van Tartwijk, 2016). It also influences class management and learning process, student’s cognitive, social and emotional growth as well as their mental well-being (Slee & Skrzypiec, 2016). Durnford (2014) defined trust as emotion of belief and commitment without fear, hesitation and doubt while inter-personal trust is the emotion of trust towards an individual. Developing trust with students in the classroom is essential for building strong teacherstudent relationship. Unfortunately, many teachers lose the trust bestowed upon them by students when they involve themselves in assaulting their students through deceit thereby violating their human rights. Low level of students’ trust in the teacher leads eventually to difficulties in absorbing the instruction delivered by the teachers. Building genuine and trustworthy relationships between teacher and students is pivotal in student’s capacity to learn and this requires kindness on the part of teacher, acting with humour, caring and having the interest of students at heart as human-beings (Kosnick & Beck, 2011). No wonder that teachers wear many hats such as friend, protector, mentor, disciplinarian, role-model, solicitor, judge and gatekeeper to students’ academic success. For the teacher to build trust with students, he needs to discuss the importance of trust with the students; give students responsibilities, develop classroom atmosphere of trust, be tolerant and be consistent. In order to develop trust in teacher-student relationship in the classroom, teachers must first establish that students have trust and belief in them. Consequently, trust and believe in the class- teacher needs to be reciprocated by a genuine care for the students. Klem & Connell (2004) and Brown (2010) opine that students who have trust in their teachers and strongly believe in what he teaches do perform better than those students who have low or no trust in their teachers. Also, teachers must not present themselves as superior beings, in other words, teachers must be prepared to drop the “I am the boss” or “Do as I say” attitude. However, teacher must exert 138 Teacher-Student Relationship as… their position and authority in a student-friendly manner and be approachable at all times. In Osun State, Ijaduola (2008) and Solaja, Faremi & Adesina (2015) reported that teachers should possess a sense of justice and fairness in dealing with students in order for trust to be established between the teachers and students. Effective communication is equally very important for a teacher in instructional delivery to students. Communication is the transmission of a message that involves the shared understanding between the contexts in which the communication takes place (David, 2015). It involves listening and speaking as well as reading and writing, hence a teacher needs to be highly skilled in all these aspects for effective teaching. A teacher who has good communication skills makes teaching understandable hence, transmission of instruction, classroom management as well as interaction with students in the class become easier. English Language plays a crucial role in communication and is no doubt the foremost and most important tool of communication all over the world. Effective communication skills which motivate the students towards their learning process is therefore needed to be able to teach the students in accordance to their ability in the classroom (SngBee, 2012). Effective communication makes teacher-student interaction easier and convenient for both the teacher and the students in the classroom. Teachers need to communicate in a polite and respectful way to students, although, his first appearance must send a message to show that he is in control by exerting authority in the class. Yet, this should not include being overbearing, authoritarian, or rigid. Teacher must be able to establish and maintain boundaries, at the same time, they should not be unapproachable or inaccessible to their students. Effective communication is paramount in teaching and learning of English language as both verbal and non-verbal cues are important in class discussion. Body language, voice inflection as well as facial expressions are all key aspects of communication (Brown, 2010). Also, a teacher should always take cognizance of the students’ behaviours in class in order to ensure their words and actions are well communicated to the students. According to Akinwale & Okotoni (2018), communication style plays an important role in the smooth running of schools and enhances school effectiveness in Osun State. The concept of alienation is also an important factor in teacherstudent relationship. It has shaped our understanding of student’s Beatrice Bunmi Adeyemi & Felicia Bosede Bamire 139 identification with school. Brown, Higgens and Paulsen (2003) defined alienation as a separation or distance among two or more entities that involves a sense of anguish or loss, resulting in a student viewing life and school as fragmentary and incomplete. Alienation has been linked to gang activity, violence, vandalism, absenteeism, truancy, and other forms of deviant behaviour (Brown et al., 2003). This eventually leads to dropping out of school and a life-long pattern of social alienation as adults, as reported by UNICEF (2019) that 35.6% of students dropped out of school in Nigeria in 2019. Alienation is related to depression, hopelessness, stress, self-harm conduct or risky behaviours (Fleming, Dixon, & Merry, 2012; Kathy, 2015). Gonzalez & Padilla (1997) found that the sense of belongingness was significantly associated with the grade point average (GPA) of students in school. Kathy (2015) and Fleming, Dixon & Merry (2012) submitted that being alienated impedes students’ explorative endeavours in the classroom. Willms (2013) found that 25% of students in the 43 countries studied reported a low sense of belonging and 20% of them reported low participation in class activities. Gonzalez & Padilla (1997) and Wentzel & Brophy (2014) found a positive relationship between student alienation and academic achievement. The study by Ayodele and Bada (2007) in Ondo State showed that many students drop out of school as a result of their being alienated by teachers or fellow students. These impede students’ explorative endeavours in the classroom which are capable of resulting to absence of knowledge gain in the teaching learning process. Teacher-student relationship variables of trust, communication and alienation are therefore very important to effective learning particularly in English Language in secondary schools. However, there is virtually no single study that has investigated the effect of trust, communication skill and alienation on the academic performance of secondary school students in Osun state, these variables are very important factors to be considered for improvement in students’ academic performance, hence this study. Statement of the Problem There has been a consistent record of remarkable failure in English Language in public examinations especially the West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) in Nigeria and particularly in 140 Teacher-Student Relationship as… Osun state. Students’ performance in English Language has drastically declined with mass failure being recorded over the year. For instance, out 36,685; 32,482 and 36,171 candidates that sat for May/June WASSCE in 2016; 2017 and 2018 in Osun State secondary schools, only 16,681 (45.5%); 14,128 (43.5%); and 14,776 (40.9%) passed English Language at credit level respectively (WAEC Result Statistics, 20162018). There has been public outcry on how best to improve the students’ performance in English Language as it is a basic prerequisite for entrance into any tertiary institution in Osun state and in Nigeria generally. This has been attributed to several factors such as teaching strategies, textbook utilization, teaching styles as well as teacherstudent relationship variables (Adeyemi, 2018, 2020). These factors are important to students’ achievement in all subjects including English Language at the senior secondary school level. While several studies have been carried out on teacher-student relationship as it affects students’ engagement and students’ attitude in the school, less emphasis has been placed on teacher-student relationship variables such as trust, communication and alienation which have been found to be important in students’ academic achievement in secondary schools, particularly in Osun state (Roserio & Herriro, 2014; Varga, 2017; Adeyemi, 2020). Hence this study. Research Questions The study sought to answer the following research questions. 1. What is the composite effect of teacher-student relationship variables such as trust, communication and alienation on students’ achievement in English language? 2. To what extent will teacher-student relationship variables such as trust, communication and alienation jointly contribute to students’ achievement in English Language? 3. What are the relative effects of teacher-student relationships variables such as trust, communication and alienation on students’ achievement in English language? Methodology The study adopted ex-post-facto research design. The population of the study consisted of students and English language teachers’ in senior Beatrice Bunmi Adeyemi & Felicia Bosede Bamire 141 secondary schools in Osun State, Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling procedure was used to select 480 respondents for the study. Two senatorial districts were selected from the three senatorial districts in the state using simple random sampling technique. From each of the two selected senatorial districts, fifteen senior secondary schools were selected using simple random technique. From each of the schools, fifteen students and one English Language teacher were selected. Students were selected using simple random sampling technique while the teachers were selected using purposive technique. The entire sample size consisted of 30 English language teachers and 450 students. Two instruments were used for data collection: Inventory of Parent & Peer Attachment (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987) for students and teachers and Proforma for students only. The Inventory originally had 177 items, out of which 25 items relevant to this study were chosen. It was an adapted instrument. It has four sections. Section A was designed to collect demographic data of the teachers and students. Section B was on Trust with 10 items, Section C was on Communication with nine (9) items while Section D was on alienation with six (6) items. In Sections B, C and D, students were expected to express their views on how their teachers relate to them by indicating Yes or No and teachers were expected to express their views on how their students relate to them by indicating Yes or No. The inventory was subjected to face validity by experts in Test and Measurement while its reliability was established using 30 Senior Secondary II English Language students outside the scope of the study using Cronbach’s alpha with a reliability coefficient of 0.87. The second instrument, the Proforma was designed to collect students’ second term scores in English language to indicate their performance. Data collected were analysed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation and regression analysis. The dependent variable is students’ achievements in English Language while the independent variables are the teacher-students relationship variables (trust, communication and alienation). Results The results of data analysis are presented according to each of the research questions as follows: 142 Teacher-Student Relationship as… 1. What is the composite effect of teacher-student relationship variables such as trust, communication and alienation on students’ achievement in English language? Table 1: Relationship between teacher-student relationship variables and students’ achievement in English Language Trust Communication Alienation Students’ Achievement Trust Pearson Correlation 1.000 Sig. (2-tailed) ** Communication Pearson Correlation 0.241 Alienation Students’ Achievement 0.241** -0.030 0.187** 0.000 0.523 0.000 1.000 0.065 0.216** 0.172 0.000 Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 Pearson Correlation -0.030 0.065 Sig. (2-tailed) 0.523 0.172 ** Pearson Correlation 0.187 Sig. (2-tailed) N ** 0.216 1.000 ** 0.159 0.001 ** 0.159 0.000 0.000 0.001 450 450 450 1.000 450 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level Table 1 reveals the relationship between teacher-student relationship variables (trust, communication & alienation) using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) matrix. Though, a positive and significant relationship was found between trust and communication (r=0.241, p<0.05), trust had a non- significant negative relationship with alienation (r = -0.030, p> 0.05). However, there is a positive and significant relationship between each of the teacherstudent variables and students’ achievements (trust and students’ achievement (r (446) = 0.187, p<0.05); communication and students’ achievement (r (446) = 0.216, p<0.05); alienation and students’ achievement (r (446) = 0.159, p<0.05). It can therefore be deduced that there is a positive and significant relationship between all the teacherstudent relationship variables (trust, communication and alienation) and students’ achievement in English Language. 143 Beatrice Bunmi Adeyemi & Felicia Bosede Bamire 2. To what extent will teacher-student relationship variables such as trust, communication and alienation jointly contribute to students’ achievement in English Language? The regression analysis of variance (ANOVA) results on the extent to which teacher-student variables (trust, communication and alienation) jointly contribute to students’ achievement in English Language are shown in Table 2. Table 2: Joint contribution of teacher-student relationship variables to students’ achievement in English Language Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. 14.535 .000 Regression 10451.944 3 3483.981 Residual 106906.787 446 239.701 Total 117358.731 449 b The F-value of 14.535 showed that the means between teacherstudent relationship variables and students’ academic achievement in English Language are significant (p<0.5). Thus, teacher-student relationship variables (trust, communication and alienation) jointly predicted students’ achievement in English Language significantly (F (3,446) = 14.535, p<0.05). It can be concluded that the joint influence of teacher-student relationship variables (trust, communication and alienation) contributes to students’ achievement in English language. 3. What are the relative effects of teacher-student relationship variables such as trust, communication and alienation on students’ achievement in English Language? 144 Teacher-Student Relationship as… Table 3: The relative effects of teacher-student relationship variables on students’ achievement in English Language Model (Constant) Unstandardized Standardized Collinearity Coefficients Coefficients Statistics Std. ß Error ß t Sig. Tolerance VIF 42.522 3.351 12.689 0.000 Trust 0.305 0.094 0.151 3.236 0.001 0.940 1.064 Communication 0.369 0.102 0.170 3.634 0.000 0.937 1.067 Alienation 0.121 0.152 3.361 0.001 0.994 1.006 0.408 Table 3 shows the regression coefficient of each teacherstudent relationship variables (trust, communication and alienation) to students’ achievement in English Language. The results of the standardized coefficients showed that the three teacher-students relationship variables: trust (β=0.151, t (446) =3.236, p<0.05); communication (β=0.170, t (446) =3.634, p<0.05) and alienation (β=0.152, t (446) =3.361, p<0.05) contributed positively and significantly to students’ achievement in English Language. The implication of this result is that each of the variables trust, communication and alienation in any teacher-student relationship play a key role in improving students’ achievement in English Language in the schools. Discussion of Findings The results of the study showed that all the teacher-students relationship variables (trust, communication and alienation) have positive effect on senior secondary school students’ achievement in English Language in Osun state, Nigeria. This finding corroborates the studies by Brown (2010), Rimm & Sandilos (2012) and Cooper & Miness (2014) that students who have positive relationship with the teacher tend to be more stable in class, persistent in their learning, more motivated to learn, and participate better in class discussion. They consequently have higher academic achievements than those students who do not enjoy good interaction with their teachers. This implies that teacher-student interaction is a very key factor that is capable of enhancing students’ achievement in English Language because Beatrice Bunmi Adeyemi & Felicia Bosede Bamire 145 students’ errors can easily be noticed and corrected in the course of interaction with their teacher. Learning therefore, has taken place in a student-friendly manner. The study also indicated that the variables of teacher-student relationship jointly contributed to students’ achievement in English Language. This shows that there is a collective influence of the variables of teacher-student relationship on students’ achievement in English Language. This agrees with the findings of Brown (2010) who indicated that trust, communication and alienation are very important factors for students’ achievement in English language. According to Gonzalez & Padilla (1997), Klem & Connell (2004) and Brown (2010), students who have trust in their teachers and strongly believe in what they teach do perform better than those students who have low or no trust in their teachers. Similarly, the result showed that variables of teacher-student relationships such as trust, communication and alienation have positive and significant effect on students' achievement in English language in Osun state, Nigeria. Trust was found to be positively and significantly related to students’ achievement in English Language. This is consistent with the results of the studies by Klem & Connell (2004) and Brown (2010) that students who have trust in their teachers and strongly believe in what he teaches do perform better than those students who have low or no trust in their teachers. The results also showed that communication has a positive and significant relationship with students’ achievement in English Language. This finding was supported by SngBee (2012) that good communication skill is not only important for teachers but also for students’ academic success because the method and style of communication enhances the level of understanding and learning in the classroom. David (2015) also corroborated this view by submitting that communication is a dominant factor affecting the academic achievement of students during teaching and learning process, and Brown (2010) emphasized that good communication skills strengthen the relationship between teacher and students by improving the level of understanding between them. Though the results showed a negative relationship between trust and alienation, the combined positive effect of trust and communication outweighed the negative effect of alienation such that the relationship between alienation and students’ achievement turned 146 Teacher-Student Relationship as… positive. Whereas, Gonzalez & Padilla (1997) and Wentzel & Brophy (2014) found that a positive relationship exists between student alienation and academic achievement, Kathy (2015) and Fleming, Dixon & Merry (2012) reported that alienation impedes students’ explorative endeavours in the classroom while Jimenez & Rose (2010) and Wubbels et al. (2016) agreed that teachers who build better relationship with students help them to gain better learning achievement. Willms (2013) found that 25% of students in the 43 countries studied reported a low sense of belonging while 20% of them reported low participation in class activities. Gonzalez & Padilla (1997) also found that the sense of belongingness was significantly associated with the grade point average (GPA) of students in school. Thus, trust, communication and alienation are very important factors for students’ achievement in English Language in senior secondary schools in Osun State, Nigeria Conclusion Based on the findings from the study, it was concluded that as trust and communication become established between teachers and students in the Senior Secondary Schools, students’ achievement in English Language improves. However, when alienation abounds in the relationship between the teachers and students, poor performance of students in English Language becomes notable. The variables of trust, communication and alienation in teacherstudent relationships are very important predictors of students’ performance in English Language in senior secondary schools. The three variables of trust, communication and alienation contributed significantly to students’ achievement in English Language in secondary schools in Osun State. Recommendations It was recommended that policy strategies aimed at improving students’ academic achievement in English Language should ensure that the teacher-student relationship variables of trust and communication should be strengthened and improved upon for high students’ achievement in English Language, while teacher-student alienation should be discouraged. Beatrice Bunmi Adeyemi & Felicia Bosede Bamire 147 Considering the joint teacher-student relationship variables of trust, communication and alienation would help in predicting and forecasting students’ performance in English Language in the schools. It is imperative that teacher-student relationship variables of trust, communication and alienation therefore have to be taken into consideration for better performance of students in English Language in Osun State senior secondary schools. References Adeyemi, B. B. (2018). Textbook utilization and students’ involvement as predictors of academic achievement in English Language in senior secondary schools in Osun State, Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies, (JETERAPS), 9(4): 178 - 183. Adeyemi, B. B. (2020). Parental styles and undergraduate students’ performance in use of English in a tertiary institution in Ondo State, Nigeria. European Journal of Education Studies, 6(11): 239 – 247. Akinsolu, A.O. (2010). Teachers and Students’ Academic Performance in Nigerian Secondary Schools: Implication for Planning. Florida Journal of Educational Administration & Policy 3(2): 86-103. Akinwale, A. S. & Okotoni, C. A. (2018). 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Student engagement at school: A sense of belonging and participation: Results from PISA 2000, France: Organisationfor Economic Cooperation and Development. Wentzel, K. R. and Brophy, J. E. (2014). Motivating students to learn London; Routledge. Wu, J.,Hughes, & Kwok (2010). Wubbels, T., Brekelmans, M., Mainhard, M.T.,den Brok, P.,& Van Tartwijk, J. (2016). Teacher-student relationships and student achievement. In K.R. Wentzel & G.B. Ramani (Eds.), Handbook of Social- emotional, motivation, and cognitive outcomes (pp. 127-145). New York, NY: Routledge. PUBLIC–PRIVATE PARTNERSHIP IN EDUCATION: A DIAGNOSIS 1 FABUNMI, Martins & 2BAMBI, Babatunde Ishola 1 Department of Physical Sciences Education 2 Department of Vocational Education Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Adamawa State, Nigeria Corresponding Author: tundesluv2004@gmail.com, 08063462190 Abstract This study reviewed literature on the concept and adoption of public– private partnership (PPP) in Education. There is no gainsaying to the fact that the educational system in Nigeria is been described as falling by various scholars and educational institutions. These has brought about the sharp rise in the demand for private schools in the country which is attended by children from wealthy or average homes while the less privileged children are left with public schools that are devoid of essential facilities and teaching materials especially in the rural areas. This has also led many parents, individuals and communities to become “duty-bearers”; charged with responsibility to provide, facilitate, and support basic education for public school children as a result of the ever present corruption in the Nigeria economy. This situation is what has now necessitated the need for this study as the researcher sees the unique characteristics of Public–Private Partnership (PPP) as a way forward for the educational in any developing country. Thus, the paper seeks to explain the concept of Public–Private Partnership (PPP) in Education. Importantly, the paper discussed the concept of PPP, PPP in Nigeria, Characteristics of PPP, Models of PPP, Benefits/Advantages of PPP, Potential Risks of PPP and Misconceptions about PPP. The paper also highlighted literature on the concept of PPP in Education, PPP framework in Education, Challenges of PPP in Education, key features on the regulatory and legal framework of PPP in education as well as task areas of PPP in Education with implications for Policy and Management discussed as well. 152 Key: Public–Private Partnership in Education:… Public-Private Partnership, PPP Model, PPP in Nigeria, PPP in Education, Task Areas of PPP in Education Introduction The standard of education in Nigeria, within the last decade, has been described by various scholars and educational institutions as falling. This description is mainly because of the alarming rate of out of school children and also the inefficiency of the educational system in the country to attain its specific goals. These goals, according to the National Policy on Education (2013), include to: ensure and sustain unfettered access and equity to education for the total development of the individual; ensure the quality of education delivery at all levels; and promote functional education for skill acquisition, job creation and poverty reduction amongst others. Moreover, there is a dearth of quality schools in most rural areas, to the extent that parents, individuals and communities have become “duty-bearers”; charged with responsibility to provide, facilitate, and support basic education for public school children. Also, the principle of equity emphasised that education should be available for all children regardless of background and circumstances; unfortunately this has not been so especially in northern part of the country. The United Nation International Children Education Fund (UNICEF) and other proponents of rights-based schooling (nongovernmental organisations, NGOs) work in disadvantaged communities to help provide quality basic education for children. These efforts in disadvantaged communities involve difficult and costly investments but yielded valuable lessons on facilitating rights-based schooling. It thus becomes clear that factors limiting children’s access to schooling in Nigeria cut across multiple sectors, requiring measures to address poverty, poor health, safety and/or protection, gender bias, housework, child labour, and discriminatory cultural practices (Agile, 2018). Also, in areas where there are schools with less affected social vices, there seems to be a lack of/or inadequate class facilities such as chairs and tables, offices, conveniences, borehole system, instructional materials, textbooks and the like. In addition, the administration not only seems poor but grossly inefficient (Dum, 2016). This has led to many calls for government agencies to properly supervise, inspect and provide the needed fund for these public schools to achieve their aims Fabunmi, Martins & Bambi, Babatunde Ishola 153 various stakeholders. Unfortunately, the problem persists as the problem facing the educational system in the country is an anecdote of the corruption system in the entire country. The authors in this study maintain that education is the key to ending this stinker in the country. Hence, the need to study how the Nigerian educational system could be revitalised towards the maximisation of its potentials and attainment of its sets goals. This has now led to the quest in this study to explore the unique characteristics that Public–Private Partnership (PPP) possess in achieving educational goals; has been seen in other developing and developed countries of the world today. Globally, the impetus for the adoption of PPP resulted in part due to the failure of civil servants to effectively deliver and maintain public services and corruption in public procurement. In developing countries, the main driver for private participation has been the inability of tax revenue to close the financing gap for infrastructure needs. Private provision of economic services is also regarded by all to possess the ability to provide better value for money and leads to benefitting from private sector management expertise. This combination of government revenue and private expertise in proving essential services is what is termed as public-private partnership as it will be discussed in this study. Concept of Public – Private Partnership A public–private partnership (PPP), according to Kumshe, Magaji and Bani (2015), is a government service or private business venture which is funded and operated through a partnership of government and one or more private sector companies. AbdulGaniyu, Abdullahi, Zawawi, Sodangi and Hammad (2014) also state that public private partnership is a partnership that leverages private funding and the strengths of private entrepreneurship and management, for the maximum provision of public services in a climate of scarce resources. Ugwu (2012) also opine that public- private partnership (PPP) is an arrangement where private parties participate in or provide support for the provision of infrastructure or public sector provided facilities. These schemes are sometimes referred to as PPP, P3 or 3P. PPP involves a contract between a public sector authority and a private party, in which the private party provides a public service or project and assumes 154 Public–Private Partnership in Education:… substantial financial, technical and operational risk in the project (Kumshe et al., 2015). In practice, the operation of PPPs varies depending on the degree of ownership of assets and capital expenditure by the private partners. For instance, Jomo, Chowdhury, Sharma and Platz (2016) state that in the case of management contracts, the private partners have very limited or no capital expenditure. On the other hand, in the case of a Design, Build, Own, Operate (BOOT) contract, the private partners are responsible for the design, building, operation and financing of a capital asset. In such a PPP, private partners receive payment from either the government (at regular intervals) or user charges, or both for delivering the services. Thus, there can be many variants of PPP schemes depending on the separation of asset ownership and risk-bearing between the public and private sector actors (Roehrich, Michael & Lewis, 2014). The International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2004) makes explicit description of PPP by situating it as project in one hand, and as a strategy of service delivery on the other. It describes PPP as a wave that is sweeping the world, rooted in a complex but contractual relationship between government and private sector organisations. In some types of PPP, a private operator, under contract, operates a publicly-owned asset for a specified term (notably operate and maintain initiative); while ownership of the asset remains with the public entity. In other types (notably the private finance initiative), capital investment is made by the private sector on the basis of a contract with government to provide agreed services and the cost of providing the service is borne wholly or in part by the government (Ugwu, 2012). Government contributions to a PPP may also be in kind (notably the transfer of existing assets). Obozuwa (2011) avers that a PPP arrangement provides assets and delivers services by allocating responsibilities and business risks among the various partners. He states further that, in this arrangement, government remains actively involved throughout the projects life cycle. The private sector is responsible for the more commercial functions such as project design, construction, finance and operations Hence, in the context of public private partnership, institutions are conceived as set of formal and informal rules that govern the actions of the actors in the PPP framework. This institutional Fabunmi, Martins & Bambi, Babatunde Ishola 155 infrastructure contain unwritten codes of behaviour that encourage cooperation and conflict resolution as well as formal enforceable legal rules that guarantee the contractual obligations are enforced. It describes a government service or private business venture which is founded and operated through a partnership between government and one or more private sector company (Ugwu, 2012). However, PPP is not the procurement of an asset but the payment of a stream of services under specified terms and conditions. The existence of PPP framework in a country will only encourage private investors to provide financial investment infrastructure as required. Public-Private Partnership in Nigeria Public Private Partnership is not really a new concept in Nigeria. Iloh and Bahir (2013) opine that the post-1999 reform project initiated by President Obasanjo represents an economic shift from socialist character of the Nigerian economy to a full-blown free market economy with neo-liberal policies like deregulation, privatisation, monetisation and right-sizing of public bureaucracy featuring the policy agenda of the government. Prior to the institution of these reforms, state utilities were in a state of dysfunction crippled by corruption, inefficiency and indebtedness with many having no audited account for decades. The first anniversary on the restoration of civil rule in Nigeria indicates that federal government alone had about 600 state enterprises in various sectors of the economy. Most of these enterprises were in a parlous state and unimpressive record of long year’s underperformance. However, given the fact that one of the major reasons for this strategy is the constraint on public sector revenues, it is not expected that resource rich countries like Nigeria would find PPPs attractive. However, Nigeria has been struck by the ‘Dutch Disease’, which is a condition where a significant portion of citizens in a resource rich country suffer more than countries without any resources. Nigeria’s national earnings from oil and gas have risen tremendously over the last three decades, from 26.3% in 1970 to 83.5% in 2000. On the contrary, public services and infrastructure have continued to be deteriorating fast in the opposite direction. Awarded contracts have either been bedevilled by the twin curse of time and cost overruns or are clearly abandoned by contractors due to non-payments by 156 Public–Private Partnership in Education:… government. Under this condition, the PPP seem to be a very effective tool to overcome these anomalies. To this effect, the federal government under the administration of President Umar Yar’Adua created the Infrastructure Concession Regulatory Commission (ICRC) in 2005. The strategic objective for the Infrastructure Concession Regulatory Commission, (ICRC) was to accelerate investment in national infrastructure through private sector funding by assisting the Federal Government of Nigeria and its Ministries Departments and Agencies (MDAs) to implement and establish effective Public Private Partnership‘s (PPP) procurement (Kumshe et al., 2015). The act provides for the participation of private sector in financing the construction, development, operation, or maintenance of infrastructure or development projects of the federal government through concession or contractual arrangements; and the establishment of the Commission to regulate, monitor and supervise the contracts on infrastructure or development. The scope of the federal government’s programme for PPP is the creation of new infrastructure and the expansion and refurbishment of existing assets at the federal level However, in order to implement a successful PPP process, there are pre-requisites which must be on ground to facilitate the process; top among them is the availability of competent construction contractors. The range of tasks undertaken before final service provision requires the construction of an asset before service delivery (Martimort & Pouyet, 2008). In a study by Babalola and Odunowo (2010) of the critical success factors for PPPs in Nigeria, it was found that PPP legislation, cost-benefit analysis and creating the right environment were critical for PPP success. In the transport sector, it has been argued that legislation, regulation, creating conducive environment, forging partnerships with the private sector and other stakeholders in policy formulation, reform and implementation were critical success factors in urban transport PPP in Nigeria (Oni, 2003). Financial institutions in Nigeria were also assessed on their PPP risk bearing capacity and were found to be risk-averse and would rather seek to transfer risks to other parties (Akinyemi, Ojiako, Maguire, Steel & Anyaegbunam, 2009). However, beyond risk transfer, the business environment and legislations, there are a number of other requirements needed for PPPs Fabunmi, Martins & Bambi, Babatunde Ishola 157 to thrive. Top of the list is political stability, which is one of the most distinguishing factors between developing and developed countries. Too often, new leadership tends to discontinue the previous government’s programmes as their first act in office thereby creating additional risks for PPP investors. Following on political stability, there is a need to have strong local banks able to finance large scale infrastructure projects alone or in conjunction with external banks to finance such project. These and many more are some of the factors that have militated against the success of PPP in Nigeria. It has not only slowed down the pace of its adoption into the economy but also sets it aback; as not many PP investors are willing to have their projects delayed or disrupted by an unfavourable government policy or the inability to find suitable banking institutions to partner with. Characteristics of Public-Private Partnership According to Ugwu (2012), the characteristics of public private partnership can be described under the following; 1. It is complementary in nature: This refers to drawing on the strength of each of the dominant partners, the public and private sectors. This is why effective public-private partnership is only possible through mutually designed, analysed and accepted instruments of cooperation and collaboration. 2. The roles and responsibilities of the partners vary from project to project: The key consideration is the allocation of risk between the partners which affects other aspects of the partnership agreements, including rewards and investments. What should obtain in this regard is that the higher the risk, the higher the reward. 3. It does not substitute for strong and effective governance and decision-making by government: In all cases, government remains responsible and accountable for delivering services and projects in a manner that protects and furthers the public interest However, public-private partnership was developed with three broad objectives in mind: To i. deliver significantly improved public services, by contributing to increases in the quality and quantity of investment; 158 Public–Private Partnership in Education:… ii. release the full potential of public sector assets, including stateowned businesses and hence private value for the tax payer and wider benefits for the economy; and iii. allow stakeholders to receive a fair share of the benefits of the PPP. This includes customers and users of the service being provided, the tax payers and employees at every level of the organisation (Ugwu, 2012). Models of Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) The idea that private provision of infrastructure represents a way of providing infrastructure at no cost to the public has now been generally abandoned. However, there is interest in alternatives to the standard model of public procurement. In particular, it has been argued that models involving an enhanced role for the private sector, with a single private-sector organisation taking responsibility for most aspects of service provisions for a given project, could yield an improved allocation of risk, while maintaining public accountability for essential aspects of service provision. The following terms are commonly used to describe partnership agreements in most of the countries that adopted PPP as a measure to ensuring adequate provision of infrastructure in the economy. 1. Private Finance Initiative (PFI): This model provides capital assets for the provision of public services. Developed in the U.K, this model is used for a large number of infrastructure projects and gives the private sector strong incentives to deliver infrastructure and services on time and within budget. PFIs simultaneously allow governments and public authorities to spread the cost of public infrastructure projects over several decades. 2. Finance Only: According to Kumshe et al. (2015), it is a private entity, usually a financial services company, funds a project directly or uses various mechanisms such as a long-term lease or bond issue. 3. Operation & Maintenance Contract (O & M): A private operator, under contract, operates a publicly-owned asset for a specified term. Ownership of the asset remains with the public entity. Fabunmi, Martins & Bambi, Babatunde Ishola 159 4. Build-Finance: The private sector constructs an asset and finances the capital cost only during the construction period. 5. Design-Build-Finance-Maintain (DBFM): The private sector designs, builds and finances an asset and provides hard facility management or maintenance services under a long-term agreement. 6. Design-Build-Finance-Maintain-Operate (DBFMO): The private sector designs, builds and finances an asset, provides hard and/or soft facility management services as well as operations under a long-term agreement. 7. Build-Own-Operate (BOO): The private sector finances, builds, owns and operates a facility or service in perpetuity. The public constraints to Kumshe et al. (2015) are stated in the original agreement and through on-going regulatory authority. 8. Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT) is similar to BOO, but differs from it to the extent that the asset is transferred to the government after a certain period of time, reasonably enough for the private investor to have recouped its investment; contracting out involves the provision of certain technical services by public sector to an external private company (Kumshe et al., 2015). 9. Concession: A private sector concessionaire undertakes investments and operates the facility for a fixed period of time after which the ownership reverts back to the public sector. 10. Build-and-Transfer (BT): A contractual arrangement whereby government undertakes the financing and construction of an infrastructure project and after its completion hands it over to the private sector for operation and management. This arrangement may be employed in the construction of any infrastructure project, including critical facility that will be difficult for both community and individuals. 11. Build-Lease-and-Transfer (BLT): A contractual arrangement whereby the private party undertakes the financing and construction of an infrastructure project and upon its completion hands it over to the Government Agency on a Lease arrangement for a fixed period, after the expiry of which ownership of the project is automatically transferred to the government agency . This will ensure effective monitoring. 160 Public–Private Partnership in Education:… 12. Buy-Build-Operate (BBO): Transfer of a public asset to a private or quasi-public entity usually under contract that the assets are to be upgraded and operated for a specified period of time. Public control is exercised through the contract at the time of transfer. The Canadian Council for Public-private partnership (CCPPP, 2009) admits that these are not a complete listing of the wide variety options in public private partnership. One significant point to note about these models of PPP is that all are based on temporal or renewable agreement and the public sector still retains a thread of relationship with the private organisation. Benefits/Advantages of Public-Private Partnerships According to Ugwu (2012), PPPs provide an opportunity to: i. improve service delivery by allowing both sectors to do what they do best; ii. improve cost-effectiveness; iii. ncrease investment in public infrastructure; iv. reduce public sector risk by transferring to the private partner those risks that can be better managed by the private partner; v. deliver capital projects faster, making use of the private partner’s increased flexibility and access to resources; vi. Improve budget certainty. Transferring risk to the private sector can reduce the potential for government cost overruns from unforeseen circumstances during project development or service delivery; and vii. Make better use of assets. Potential Risks of Public-Private Partnership As with conventional forms of service delivery, there are risks as well as potential benefits associated with public private partnerships. The potential risks include: a. Loss of control by government. b. Increased costs c. Political risks d. Unacceptable levels of accountability e. Unreliable service Fabunmi, Martins & Bambi, Babatunde Ishola f. g. h. i. 161 Inability to benefit from competition Reduced quality or efficiency of service Bias in the selection process Labour issues Misconceptions about Public Private Partnerships According to the view of Kwan (1999), the numerous forms of public private partnership potentially available to government, there is some confusion as to what constitutes a public private partnership. Public private partnerships are often not considered due to erroneous information based on misconceptions. The most common of these misconceptions are: 1. Public private partnerships are the same as privatisation: Only one form of public private partnership, known as Build-OwnOperate (BOO) can be described as coming close to privatisation. All other forms require an on-going partnership between the private and public sectors. Full privatisation merely transforms a public monopoly to a private monopoly such that the benefits of public private partnership are not realised. 2. By entering into a public private partnership government loses control over the provision of services: By entering into a public private partnership, government does not give up its ability to implement its policies or regulate the provision of services. The government establishes the ground rules and has the ability to shape the public private partnership to reflect its own objectives, policies and regulations. While the partner make its profit which is the motive of entering into partnership. 3. Public private partnerships apply only to infrastructure projects: Public private partnerships can be an effective and innovative way of delivering a range of government services and facilities. Examples include provision of data services; refuse collection, education and road maintenance (Adekunle, 2011). 4. The principal reason for governments entering in to public private partnerships is to avoid debt: The principal reasons for government becoming involved in public private partnerships are to benefit from increased efficiency, shorter 162 Public–Private Partnership in Education:… 5. 6. 7. 8. implementation time, greater innovation and ultimately better value in the delivery of services brought about by increased competition. However, the emphasis should be on structuring, creative and cost-effective ways of delivering services, not on creative accounting. The quality of service will decline under public private partnership: The nature of public private partnerships suggests that the quality of service would not only be maintained, but enhanced. It is in the private partner’s interest to invest in the service, become more efficient, and enhance the quality of service to attract more customers or provide additional services to customers. Government staff will lose under public private partnership: Both union and non-union staffs sometimes fear public private partnerships because of potential job loss or reduced wages and salaries. Any public private partnership agreement will need to reflect the labour laws of the state and existing collective agreements. Often, the labour representatives are invited at an early stage of the process to discuss options for service delivery (Kwan, 1999). The cost of service will increase to pay for the private partner’s profit: Governments sometimes resist public private partnerships because they believe that the cost of providing the service will increase to reflect the profits the private partner must realise to stay in business. While the private partner will need to make a profit, the profit must be earned within the existing or a lower price for the service. The private partner’s profit can only be realised through increased productivity or expansion of service, not through higher prices. Government can finance the cost of services at a lower cost than the private sector: This may not always be the case. The objective of the government should be to focus on the overall advantages of the public private partnership arrangement. Public – Private Partnership in Education Public-private partnerships encompass a range of activities. PPPs for education provision—where public funding is given to private schools to deliver education—are being promoted by the World Bank and other Fabunmi, Martins & Bambi, Babatunde Ishola 163 donors as a solution to education quality challenges. A public-private partnership is generally understood as an arrangement between public and private actors for the delivery of goods, services and/or facilities. A PPP in education can therefore be defined as any collaboration between the private sector and the state, whether to produce textbooks, build school infrastructure, or design learning software. However, most often in policy circles the term “education PPP” refers to a partnership with the private sector for the provision of schooling. However, Fabunmi (2020) states that public-private partnership model (PPPM) is quite different from private investments in education. Fabunmi (2020) also opines that PPP in Education is an arrangement where the government collaborates with private sector investors to fund or/and manage an educational project, whereas private investment in education refers to investments made by private individuals and organisations in the education sector with or without government collaboration. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) in education are attracting increasing attention. A number of prominent donors, including the World Bank, are promoting and funding PPPs of varying scale in the developing world, and some governments are pursuing them as a means to solve pressing challenges in public education systems, including slow progress in improving learning. While this policy approach is not new—either in wealthy or lower-income countries—it is taking on a new dimension as low-fee and commercial private schools mushroom in the developing world, creating new incentives for private actors to seek partnership with governments (De Angelis, 2014). Education PPPs share many features of PPPs in other sectors that rely on private providers to deliver a public good or service, depending on their structure. In many other ways however, education PPPs are distinct. Often, they do not feature a long-term binding contract with a single private provider, but can fund a number of smaller providers or individual schools based on more short-term, conditional, or results-based funding models. They may feature a diversity of providers, including both for-profit and non-profit actors; may include both formal and more informal or community schools; and they may or may not charge school fees directly to students, depending on the model. Low-fee private schools (LFPS) have been rapidly expanding in many lower-income countries partly as a response to 164 Public–Private Partnership in Education:… these gaps, including inadequate geographical distribution of public schools, as well as the perceived benefits of private schools; increasingly, they are driven by corporate and international investment (De Angelis, 2014). LFPS (sometimes called “low-cost private schools”) refer to private schools catering to lower-income segments of the population often with a profit orientation, charging fees that are lower than those of traditional private schools. Yet despite these concerns, there is a growing trend of contracting out or subsidizing educational provision in low-fee private schools through PPPs, as in Liberia, India, Pakistan, South Africa, and Uganda. PPPs are promoted as an innovative solution to the challenges in public education delivery. They are claimed to be less expensive and more efficient than public schooling, to provide better outcomes, to increase access for the poorest, to be more rapidly scalable, and to offer greater accountability through the mechanisms of “school choice” and competition. It is in this context and according to this rationale that the characteristics of a desirable PPP framework in Education should comprise the following spelt out by LaRocque (2008). a) Comprehensive in that it covers the range of functions, including financing, capacity building, human resources, accountability and transparency, equity and monitoring to ensure appropriate implementation b) Pro-poor in approach and be designed to recognise the varying levels of capability across districts c) Flexible enough to allow for different approaches across sectors and across districts d) Designed in consultation with partners and stakeholders, including community groups e) Interventions should be demand-driven, focused on beneficiaries’ needs and financially/politically sustainable f) Includes initiatives to build public sector capacity to implement PPPs g) Bureaucratic processes must be transparent h) Designed to ensure quality of delivery i) Framework should be institutionalised, with greater continuity of policy and programs and more transparent processes j) Include monitoring and evaluation framework. Fabunmi, Martins & Bambi, Babatunde Ishola 165 Some forms of PPPs are well suited to the Basic Education sector because the sector is relatively stable and predictable, both in terms of demographics and technology, which provides for longer planning horizons. While PPPs can bring many benefits to the Education sector, they must be done right if they are to succeed. As discussed above, poorly designed and implemented PPP programmes can expose governments to significant financial and policy risks. At the same time, however, PPPs face special challenges in the education sector, particularly in developing countries. These challenges include: i. weak PPP implementation capacity in the education sector in many countries; ii. the wide range of factors (particularly external ones) that affect school outcomes; iii. Lack of consensus among policy makers; iv. Political instability; v. Lack of understanding of the PPP concept. vi. High participation costs Nevertheless, an important component of a PPP framework for the educational sector is an enabling policy and regulatory environment and a strong legal framework. The regulatory framework must create the conditions under which private firms can operate effectively and efficiently, while at the same time ensuring that the sector delivers high quality education and that the wider public interest is protected. Private education remains controversial. Its sustainability will depend crucially on its ability to deliver high quality teaching that produces the educational outcomes desired by parents and students. Market perceptions of the quality of private education are fundamental in this regard, and can be easily damaged. Bad publicity about some private providers who provide poor quality services can harm the reputation of the sector as a whole and affect its ability to attract students – a form of contagion. A strong regulatory and legal framework can help guard against such an outcome. LaRocque (2008) states the following key features to form a regulatory and legal framework of PPP in education, which include; a) entry requirements for new providers are: clear, objective and are not onerous (beyond obvious regulations aimed at assuring safety); 166 Public–Private Partnership in Education:… b) there are no restrictions on providers’ organisational form (that is, allow both for profit and not for-profit providers to operate); c) education and other relevant legislation (e.g. employment laws) do not unduly restrict schools’ ability to operate effectively and efficiently; d) parents are provided with good information on private schools and their performance; e) there is a system of independent quality assurance that guards against low quality providers; and f) there is a range of interventions available to address situations where schools are not performing. Task Areas of PPP in Education The adoption of PPP in education in the country could open up opportunities for international organisations, NGOs and the private sector to facilitate or undertake a much wider range of roles and functions in the educational sector, in addition to ‘traditional’ roles such as operating schools and undertaking capacity building. These could include: 1. managing public schools under contract to governments; 2. offering school review services; 3. establishing and operating school registration, accreditation, quality assurance and information systems; 4. administering publicly financed voucher and scholarship programmes; 5. offering policy advice to improve the regulatory framework for private schools; 6. facilitating the establishment of representative associations for private sector providers and mechanisms for coordinating public and private endeavours in the education sector; 7. providing financing and business advisory facilities for private schools; and 8. developing the market for infrastructure PPPs. Implications for Policy and Management Based on the review of literatures on the concept of public-private partnership (PPP), characteristics of PPP, models of PPP, misconceptions about of PPP, benefits/advantages, potential risks of Fabunmi, Martins & Bambi, Babatunde Ishola 167 PPP and PPP in education. The following are suggested as possible considerations for policy makers and educational managers in Nigeria and other developing countries; 1. Federal government needs to pay more attention to the benefits of public-private partnership in education for the improvement of quality education provision. 2. A clear agreement or memorandum of understanding as a guideline for government and private sector in organising PPP in education must first be established. 3. The private partners should be able to play innovative role in the design, construction and ensure timely completion of educational projects. 4. Capacity building i.e. training of public sector officials that are involved in PPP programmes or are interested in the PPP process should be prioritise. 5. The concession process on the handing over of public schools to private sector managers must be inclusive. All the major stakeholders, including the Nigerian Union of Teachers (NUT), Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN), teachers, nonteaching staff and students on concession must be involved in the process to allay fears of jobless and prohibitive fees. 6. Government should be restricted to little control over these schools except for insisting on admission of a specified number from deprived sections and the fee that will be charge. 7. In the longer term, the sustainability of public-private partnership in educational sector depends largely on robust synergy, improved funding and prudent management of resources for institutional governance. Hence, government should endeavour that adequate funding are provided. 8. PPP in Education could be trial tested by government through employing the services of private sector in reviewing public schools and establishing and operating school registration, accreditation, quality assurance and information systems. Conclusion The issue of achieving quality in all levels of the education sector has always been a great challenge/problem to the sector. For sustainable development and continual progress of individuals in Nigeria, the issue 168 Public–Private Partnership in Education:… of quality education needs to be addressed urgently. As access to quality education, which included excellence in teaching-learning process; excellence in teaching staff and non-teaching staff; excellence in provision of educational resources are a thing of the dream in Nigeria. This vehemently reveals the current poor state of the educational system in the country. However, the benefits offered by Public-Private Partnership (PPP) in Education is seen by the researcher as a way out of our current predicament, if government could join forces with the private sector in an Education PPP; as over the years, the public sector has been known for its efficiency in managing resources for maximising output. Government can provide the needed funds for sustainability while the private sector takes charge in a publicprivate partnership based on any suitable model in achieving the stated national goals on education. References AbdulGaniyu, O., Abdullahi, A. U., Zawawi, N. A. W. &Sodangi, M., Hammad, D. B. (2014). Slow adoption of PPPs in developing countries: Survey of Nigerian construction professionals. Fourth International Symposium on Infrastructure Engineering in Developing Countries, IEDC 2013.Procedia Engineering 77, 188 – 195. Adekunle, A. M. (2011). Public-private partnership as a policy strategy of infrastructure financing in Nigeria‖.Retrieved from www.google.com on 10/05/2018. Agile, H. E. (2018). Expanding access to education opportunity in Nigeria: Matters arising. International Journal of Scientific Research in Education, 11(3), 345 – 356. Akinyemi, B., Ojiako, U., Maguire, S., Steel, G. & Anyaegbunam, A. (2009). Nigerian banks and the perception of risk in PPP project delivery. Journal of Finance and Management in Public Services, 8(2), 1 – 20. Amanchukwu, R. N. (2011). The challenges of quality education and good governance in developing economy.African Journal of Education and Technology, 1(3), 103 – 110. Asiyai, R. I. (2013). Challenges of quality in higher education in Nigeria in the 21st Century.International Journal of Educational Planning & Administration, 3(2), 159 – 172. Fabunmi, Martins & Bambi, Babatunde Ishola 169 Babalola, J. & Odunowo, O. (2010). Assessment of critical success factors of public-private partnerships (PPP) on infrastructure development in developing economy," in second international conference on construction in developing countries (ICCIDC-II). Advancing and integrating construction education, research and practice, Cairo, 623 – 628. Canadian Council for Public-private partnership (2009). About PPP – definitions and models. Retrieved from http://.www.pppcouncil.ca on 16/05/2012. De Angelis, R. (2014). Quality in Indian education: Public-private partnerships and grant-in-Aid schools. Educate, 14(2), 13 – 28. Dum, J. (2016). Social value, children, and the human right to education. DILEMATA, 8(21), 127 – 149. Ekechukwu L. E. (2018). Equality of educational opportunities in Nigeria. World Applied Sciences Journal, 36 (3), 499 – 505. Fabunmi, M. (2020).Public-private partnership models: For the promotion of economic stability and access to quality education in Nigeria. Ibadan: His Lineage Publishing House. Federal Republic of Nigeria, FRN (2013). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC. Iloh, J. O. & Bahir, M. (2013). Public private partnership (PPP) and social service reform in Nigeria: 1999-2007. Journal of Educational and Social Research, 3(10), 101 – 108. International Monetary Fund, IMF (2004). Public-private partnership. Washington: IMF Publications Jomo, K. S., Chowdhury, A., Sharma, K. & Platz, D. (2016). Public-private partnerships and the 2030 agenda for sustainable development: Fit for purpose? Department of Economic & Social Affairs (DESA) Working Paper No. 148. Kumshe, H. M., Magaji, B. Y. & Bani, L. M. (2015). Public-private partnership and Nigeria’s infrastructural development: A panacea for economic growth. International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education (IJHSSE), 2 (10), 87 – 98. Kwan, J. (1999). Public-private partnership, a guide for local government. Retrieved from www.google.com, Retrieved on 10/05/2018. 170 Public–Private Partnership in Education:… LaRocque, N. (2008). Public-private partnerships in basic education: An international review. CfBT Education Trust Martimort, D. & Pouyet, J. (2008). To build or not to build: Normative and positive theories of public-private partnerships. International Journal of Industrial Organisations, 26, 393 – 411. Obozuwa, D. (2011). PPP as a tool for infrastructure development in Nigeria (1) Business Day of October 2011. Oni, S. I. (2003). Cooperation for urban mobility in the developing world (CODATU).http://www.codatu.org/english/publications/procee ding/conference/codatu11/Papers/oni.pdf Roehrich, J. K., Michael, A. & Lewis, G. G. (2014). Are public-private partnerships a healthy option? A systematic literature review. Social Science & Medicine 113, 110 – 119. Ugwu, A. O. (2012). Assessing the viability of public – private partnership (PPP) as an option for infrastructural development in Nigeria: A study of Enugu state 2007 – 2012. Master’s Thesis: University of Nigeria, Nsukka. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AS A CORRELATE OF GRADE 6 LEARNERS’ MATHEMATICS PERFORMANCE IN BUFFALO CITY: SOUTH AFRICA 1 K.O. Adu, PhD; 2J. N. Pylman, PhD & 3E.O. Adu, PhD 123 Faculty of Education University of Fort Hare South Africa. Abstract Instructional materials play a significant role to bridge the gap between the abstract world of Mathematics and the real world. In this paper, the correlation between the utilization of instructional materials and Grade 6 learners’ performance in Mathematics in Buffalo City is explored. Despite the importance of Mathematics as the gateway to the world of science and technology, Mathematics is also regarded as the subject in which many learners underperform. The study adopted a correlational research design and a quantitative approach. The target population for this study was Grade 6 learners in the Buffalo City district. Stratified sampling was used to select 1,225 Grade 6 learners. The findings showed that there is a significant relationship between the availability and utilization of instructional materials and Grade 6 learners’ performance in Mathematics in Buffalo City (r = 0.999; p>0.05). It is recommended that teachers should not only be encouraged on the use of instructional materials but also capacitated and guided on the effective use, management, and selection of relevant and appropriate materials. Key words: Educators, Learners, Instructional materials, Mathematics, Performance Introduction Mathematics is designed to enable learners to develop an interest in science and technology, acquire basic knowledge and skills in science and technology, and apply their scientific and technological knowledge and skills to meet societal needs. To fast-track the socioeconomic and technological growth of any society, there is a need for a solid foundation in Mathematics (Azuka, 2014). Kolawole (2010) 172 Instructional Materials as a... opines that a strong foundation of Mathematics at the primary school level might greatly contribute towards counteracting the inadequacy of this subject at the tertiary level. Despite the emphasis placed on the importance of Mathematics, many learners still find it difficult to cope with the study of Mathematics in schools. Thus, if the set objectives for Mathematics are to be achieved, concerted efforts should be made to provide adequate instructional materials to learners and to encourage the effective use thereof in schools. Every child follows his/her unique way to learn and process information, and the use of instructional materials enable teachers to disseminate concepts and ideas with ease, as they appeal to the senses of the learner at a particular period, and as such facilitating teaching and learning (Munchi, 2008). Despite the emphasis placed on the importance of instructional materials in the teaching and learning of Mathematics, many learners are still under-performing. This may be as a result of the lack of instructional materials or the underutilization thereof by teachers. Nwichi (2013) describes instructional materials as covering a wide range of visual and audio media, from simple chalkboard drawing to complex overhead transparencies and computers. Instructional materials, which are educational inputs, are of vital importance to the teaching of any subject, in the primary school curriculum. Wales (2011) and Nwichi (2013) believe the use of instructional materials and positive learning styles would make discovered facts glued firmly to the memory of learners. Instructional materials can be improvised (SMASE Project, 2010). Mntunjani (2016) noted that improvisation demands adventure, creativity, curiosity, and perseverance on the part of teachers. Such skills are only realized through well-planned training programs on improvisation. The researchers believe that there are some instructional materials that the teacher can provide within the learning environment for teaching Mathematics, such as bottle-tops, counters, matches sticks, charts, etc. Instructional materials like textbooks, charts, graphs, workbooks, and pictures are important artifacts used in the teaching of Mathematics. “Instructional materials should arouse students’ interest in learning Mathematics, help students to study Mathematics actively, K.O. Adu; J. N. Pylman & E.O. Adu 173 develop students’ potential in creativity through the process of learning basic knowledge, improve students’ mathematical thinking when trying to understand the essence of mathematical knowledge, and raise students’ awareness to apply mathematical knowledge in their everyday lives” (Lepik, 2015:6). Instructional materials are an integral part of teachers’ daily activities, and the selection of appropriate curriculum materials will eventually lead to effective use of pedagogy and assist in discharging the subject matter to learners. Teachers play a pivotal role in translating the use and implementation of instructional materials (textbook and other written resources) throughout the year while aiming to achieve the desired learning outcomes (Adu, 2018). Written curriculum materials such as textbooks, worksheets, charts, graphs, calculators, markers, and postcards are available for use with the guidance and assistance of the teacher. In addition to these instructional materials, computer software and geo-boards also make an immense contribution to better the performance of Mathematics across different levels of education (Adu, Duku & Adu, 2016). Of all of the written curriculum materials mentioned above, textbooks are most widely used since it is directly linked to the teaching and learning of any subject (Adu, 2018). Mathematics textbooks are very important because most teachers depend on them for making decisions on what to teach, how to teach, and what tasks and classwork to give to learners at different stages of classroom teaching. An inference that can be made is that Mathematics textbooks can contribute towards solving problems experienced by both teachers and learners. In general, instructional materials such as textbooks, written texts, computer software, digitals, audios, videos, or handson materials, such as manipulatives and geo-boards are built into mathematical and instructional intentions and possibilities for school Mathematics (Adu, 2018). For students to learn mathematical content, instructional materials are essential, as teachers often rely heavily on instructional materials and learners’ readiness for many decisions, such as what assignments to give to learners, how and what to teach, and what exercises to assign to their learners. With learners being able to see, touch, smell, or even taste, learning is made more meaningful. This aligns with the Chinese proverb which states that; “what I see-I 174 Instructional Materials as a... remember, what I hear- I forget and what I do I understand”. Opara (2012) saw instructional materials as information carriers designed specifically to fulfil objectives in teaching and learning situations. Okeke (2015:289) views instructional materials as: All the physical (Synthetic and material that are real and spontaneous) resources meant to be used by the facilitator in the process of teaching and learning. These materials may be used singly or in combination. In some cases, they could be used in an informal or formal way. This shows that teachers vary the methods of utilizing instructional materials during instruction to effect changes in the behaviour of the learners. Certainly, the appropriate use of instructional materials goes a long way in improving teaching and learning, arousing interest, and enhancing students’ affective responses. Obara (2012:16) observes that: Learning experiences that stimulate or appeal to limited senses of receiving information would not be enough for the teacher to convey meaningful information to stimulate the learner for the development of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills or competencies reminiscent of learning. This calls for the use of a variety of instructional materials during the teaching-learning process. The effectiveness of learning depends on what learners look at and listen to which influences their behaviour. The organisation and use of instructional materials are important for maximum teaching and learning as well as help in the retention of learnt concepts. Based on this statement, Mkpa (2015:15) opined that “learners remember 20% of what they hear, 30% of what they see, 50% of what they hear and see, 70% of what they hear, see and talk about, and 90% of what they hear, see, talk about and do”. Wales (2011) and Nwichi (2013) succinctly describe the use of instructional materials as what would make discovered facts glued firmly to the memory of the learners. Ogundiran (2015) also added that a well-planned and creative use of visual aids in the delivery of a lesson could do much to banish indifference, supplement inadequacy of books as well as arouse learners’ interests by giving them something practical to see, do K.O. Adu; J. N. Pylman & E.O. Adu 175 and at the same time helping to train them to think abstractly. Savoury (2014) expounded on this statement when stating that the selection of instructional materials that are related to the basic contents of a lesson, helps in improving learners’ understanding of such a lesson. It also makes the lesson attractive and as such motivating learners to learn. Savoury encouraged the use of pictures, which he states, is fulfilling an important role to help learners in grounding their thoughts and feelings. Savoury further notes that pictures that work more effectively than imagined objects, are to be used as alternatives to real objects where it is impossible to show learners the real objects. Mba (2014) affirms this view when asserting that the learning of real information in lesser time as opposed to verbalization, is more effective with the availability of instructional materials. Mba co n ce d e s that instructional materials especially pictures, can arouse and help further study; and help learners to become more active and interested in the topic being taught when available and used appropriately. Adu (2018) concedes that the ability of teachers to select proper instructional materials and the appropriate use thereof when teaching Mathematics has a lot of influence in activating the thinking process and learners’ performance in Mathematics. Meremikwu (2008) concedes that copious uses of instructional materials help to provide learners with an enabling environment to learn Mathematics as instructional materials make teaching and learning more effective. Esu, Enukoha, and Umoren (2014) affirm this view when stating that instructional materials are necessary ingredients in the development of any curriculum. Grade 6 learner performance in Mathematics continues to be a great source of concern in South Africa, and the Eastern Cape Province where this study was conducted. Results from the Grade 6 Annual National Assessment tests in 2016, show an overall pass rate of 43% at the national level, and a mere 23% for Mathematics for Eastern Cape Grade 6 learners. It is against this background that the use of instructional materials as correlates for Grade 6 learners’ Mathematics performance is explored. Objective of the Paper To examine instructional materials as correlates of Grade 6 learners’ Mathematics performance in Buffalo City. 176 Instructional Materials as a... Hypothesis There is no significant relationship between availability and utilization of instructional materials on Grade 6 learners’ performance in Mathematics. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory This paper is anchored in Kolb’s experiential learning theory. According to Kolb, experiential learning requires qualities such as self-initiative and self-evaluation. For experiential learning to be timely effective, it should employ the completely learning wheel, from goal setting, to experimenting and observe, to reviewing and finally to action planning. This complete process allows students to learn new skills in many subjects more particularly Mathematics, new attitudes and new ways of thinking. Kolb’s experiential theory, which involves four-stages of learning, “do, observe, think and plan”, helps students to participate actively in learning (Akinoso, 2012). Among the various learning style models, Kolb‘s Experiential Learning Model (ELM) has been widely utilized and modified to address the various educational contexts. Kolb proposes a four-stage hypothetical learning cycle. Based on this model, individuals may show a preference for all the stages or may cope better with one particular stage. (Nzesei, 2015) concedes that learning is viewed as a continuous, interactive process in all these stages. The four stages of the ELM are described as: • Concrete experience (CE; experiencing) which favours experiential learning; • Abstract conceptualization (AC; thinking) where there is a preference for conceptual and analytical thinking in order to achieve understanding; • Active experimentation (AE; doing) involving active trial-anderror learning; and • Reflective observation (RO; reflecting) where extensive consideration is given to the task and potential solutions before there is any attempt at action. To understand the importance of instructional materials in relation to the teaching and learning of Mathematics, it is important to briefly K.O. Adu; J. N. Pylman & E.O. Adu 177 explain Kolb’s learning theory. With its prime focus on learning, this theory is underpinned by the following basic tenets: concrete experience (experimenting); active implementation (doing); abstract conceptualization (thinking); and reflective observation. In line with Kolb’s reasoning, the use of concrete instructional materials provide learners with hands-on opportunities to explore and actively engage in the study Mathematics. The manipulation of concrete materials provide learners with opportunities to experiment and learn through trial and error and as such taking control of their learning. Moreover, with every child having its unique way of learning and processing information, instructional materials may enable learners to learn by doing, which is congruent with Kolb’s principle of “active implementation”. The use of instructional materials activates learners’ abstract thinking and their interests by giving them something practical to see (observe); touch (learn by doing) and to reflect on what they are seeing and doing (reflective observation). Authors defined instructional materials differently. According to Abdullahi (2014), instructional materials are these materials that help the teacher to make lessons clearer and understandable to learners. Instructional materials are also described as concrete or physical objects, which provide sound, visual, or both to the sense organs during teaching (Agina-obu, 2016). Drews (2017) posits that teaching and learning resources in the Mathematics classroom are not just concrete materials but can range from concrete to semiconcrete to abstract materials. The author concedes that the manipulation of these resources and resultant experiences give learners opportunities to make connections. Based on these definitions, instructional materials comprise different categories which are inclusive of visual materials for reading and non-reading materials, and audio-visual materials comprising electrically operated and none electrically operated materials. Adu et al. (2016) explained instructional materials as resources or teaching materials, which a teacher utilizes in the course of presenting a lesson in order to make the content of the lesson understandable to the learner. They are of the view that one of the principles of Mathematics education is that the instructional materials to be used for the teaching of learners should be a replica of what is obtained in the learners’ environment 178 Instructional Materials as a... Teachers are expected to be familiar with the use of these critical resources to guide their classroom instructions and daily activities (Stein & Kim, 2009). This calls for the use of varied instructional materials during the teaching-learning process. However, the effectiveness of learning depends on what learners look at and listen to. The organization and use of instructional materials are important for maximum teaching and learning as well as help in the retention of learnt concepts. Iyunade (2014) notes that a systematic way of planning and designing instruction will make the learners learn more effectively, and that, the model for designing instructional materials should include; (a) instruction outcomes should be identified; (b) instruction should be developed; and (c) for instruction to be effective it should be evaluated. It is however observed that the inadequate teaching experience, pedagogy, and andragogy make the adaptation of perfect classroom settings and the use of activities difficult. Thus, for the effective teaching of learners and realization of learning objectives, there is a need for the proper use and mediation of instructional materials. A careful explanation of a subject may not absolutely lead to a better understanding of that particular subject by primary school learners due to their age, however, the use of teaching aids or instructional materials provide clarity on issues that are of learning interest to them (Iyunade 2014). According to Orhun (2013), the use of instructional materials at the primary level has become an accepted fact all over the world. However, what has not been accepted is the “Modus Operandi” of using and management of instructional materials within the classroom. This implies that teachers differ in their mode of implementation and management of instructional materials in primary schools which has been identified as one of the challenges associated with teaching and learning. Ideally, no effective education programme can exist without equipment, facilities, and materials. Teaching and learning of Mathematics differ from one continent to the other, and the use of instructional materials for the teaching and learning of Mathematics is therefore briefly examined from different contexts. In Finland, the textbook is a commonly used instructional material for the effective teaching of Mathematics and Science. However, teachers do make use of supplementary instructional materials during teaching and assessment of learners, K.O. Adu; J. N. Pylman & E.O. Adu 179 including manipulatives. Finnish education officers evaluate these materials before approval is given and prescribed a widely used textbook series for Grade 4 and 8. In Australia, individual schools are responsible for selecting Mathematics and Science textbooks. To achieve good standards stated in the curriculum, the textbooks chosen by the school should adequately cover the contents of the subject. A report on the Teaching Mathematics and Science in Australia showed that Australian students and teachers of secondary schools were relatively well equipped with science laboratories, and reference instructional materials (Australian Government, 2016). Due to the generalist nature of primary education in Australia, most primary schools did not have enough instructional materials (Thomson, Wernert, Underwood, & Nicholas, 2008). The use of calculators in Mathematics is widespread in Australian schools. The Australian national report on TIMSS (2007) Mathematics indicated that 95 percent of teachers at the fourth-grade level allowed the use of calculators in the classroom, mainly to check answers, solve complex problems, and explore number concepts (Mullis, Martin, Foy, & Arora, 2012). Similarly, 99 percent of Australian teachers at the eighth-grade level allowed the use of calculators, mostly for routine computations, checking answers, and solving complex problems. Computers are widely available in Australian schools, with approximately two-thirds of fourth-grade students and nearly 90 percent of eighth-grade students attending schools where there was at least one computer for every 1 to 2 students (Thomson, et.al, 2008). In Canada, the ministry of education in each jurisdiction evaluates, approves, and recommends instructional materials such as textbooks and equipment for teacher and student use. Canadian schools have manipulatives and resources in various forms like audio, video, digital, print, and hands-on-materials. In the United Kingdom, the catalogue of useful visual aids to help with the teaching of learners in public primary schools include visual aids such as pictures, postcards, diagrams, maps, films, strips, models and the identification of materials that are suitable for the content of the subject to enhance a better understanding and make learners more active (Savoury, 2014). Brudett and Smith (2014) study of 57 schools in England and Wales concluded that those learning institutions with 180 Instructional Materials as a... abundant learning and teaching resources, favourable studentteacher ratio, commendable workload, and good reward and incentives for teachers perform better than the institutions that do not provide the same. In Nigeria, to achieve a just and egalitarian society as spelt out in the Nigerian National Policy of Education (1977), schools should be properly and uniformly equipped with instructional materials such as suitable textbooks, qualified teachers and equipped libraries in order to promote sound and effective teaching (Ibe-Bassey, 2008). In Tanzania, visual resources such as pictures, diagram buildings, projectors, teacher themselves, charts, real objects, books, newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, handouts, clock faces, simple abacus, coloured objects, puppets, models, chalkboards, audio resources such tape recordings, radios, CDs and dramatization are instrumental to the development of the child’s mental and cognitive ability. The instructional material commonly used in South Africa are textbooks which are designed to complement the teacher's effort in the delivery of instruction and serve as a guide to complement what they learn in school. According to the United Nations Educational and Scientific Organization (UNESCO) 2016 report, textbooks are particularly relevant to improving the performance of the learners' in Mathematics. Mathematics textbooks, like all textbooks, are required to be in accordance with the subject curriculum. The subject curriculum contains the pedagogical content on offer for each subject for a school year and serves as the basis of the work schedule design (Baranyai & Stark, 2011). It is in this sense that (Adu, 2018) views textbooks as sources for problem-solving, exercises, reference books, and as a teacher in themselves. Meremikwu (2008) concedes that copious uses of instructional materials help to provide learners with an enabling environment to learn Mathematics as the use thereof makes teaching and learning more effective. Esu, et al. (2014) affirm this view when stating that instructional materials are necessary ingredients in the development of any curriculum. These views call for the use of varied instructional materials during the teaching-learning process. Inferences that can be made are that the effectiveness of learning depends on what learners observe, touch, and listen, which confirms the importance of and the K.O. Adu; J. N. Pylman & E.O. Adu 181 organization and use of instructional materials to maximise teaching and learning for the retention of learnt concepts. Despite the importance of instructional materials, Orji (2012) and Ekpe (2010) in a clear departure from the above views, found that instructional materials are not necessarily important if the learners are intelligent and the teacher has a good mastery of the subject matter. Egbu (2012) in support of this view argues that involving learners in classroom activities is what matters most as it makes teaching learnercentred. The researchers concur with Egbu’s sentiment, who observed and experienced that whenever a teacher possesses the mastery of the subject matter and the use of learner-centred methods, such lessons are very lively and learners’ level of retention is very high. Adu (2018) emphasized the role that the environment plays in promoting the use and availability of instructional materials. The type of environment will determine the use of ICT equipment in schools. Some schools in Pretoria and Johannesburg in South Africa are enjoying modern ICT facilities while other areas are not (Adom & Adu, 2018). An inference that can be made is that schools in remote rural areas without access to electricity are vulnerable with regard to the use of electronic gadgets. Many schools in urban areas without adequate security are also vulnerable to vandalism, burglaries, and theft, which are resulting in major stumbling blocks with regard to the use of instructional materials. Mntunjani (2016) asserts that improvised instructional materials may be used as practice devices with which the students can build accuracy, understanding, and efficiency. According to Mntunjani improvised instructional materials involve producing and using alternative resources aimed at facilitating instruction. Ikwuas and Onwiodiket (2013) in support of this notion, state that improvised materials involve the selection and deployment of relevant instructional elements for teaching and learning processes in the absence or shortage of standard teaching and learning materials, for the meaningful realization of specified educational goals and objectives. Mntunjani had earlier noted that the approach of using improvised materials in Mathematics classroom assist in the proper introduction of new skills, develop understanding as well as showing learners the appropriate way of doing things. Ogundiran (2015) concludes that the non-use of instructional materials, lack of funds to acquire some of the materials 182 Instructional Materials as a... that cannot be improvised, lack of adequate room facilities for storage and security facilities, inadequate regular electricity supply to sustain specific audio-visual resources that require specific room temperature are major hindrances to the use of instructional materials. Aggravating this problem, are the lack of adequately qualified subject specialists in the discipline. Ogundiran (2015) highlights some other factors that infringe on the appropriate use of instructional resources such as unavailability of useful materials; inadequate room facilities and budgets, poor planning, poor communication, unfamiliarity with audiovisual materials, and methods of teaching. The challenge is thus not only to encourage the effective use of instructional materials in South African schools, but also to eliminate these challenges that hinder the use of instructional materials. Methodology The study adopted a correlational research design. The correlational design was the most useful and appropriate research design for this research due to: the high levels of uncertainty and ignorance about the subject; The target population for this study was Grade 6 learners in Buffalo City district. Stratified sampling was used to select 1,225 participants which were all Grade 6 learners. The instrument used to collect data for this study is Availability and Utilization of Instructional Materials Inventory (AUIMI) with two sections, section A and B. section A consists of bio-data information; Section B has fifteen (15) items with the following response scales; A = Available, NA = Not Available, if available, U = Use, NU = Not Use. Different dimensions of validity and reliability comprising construct validity; content and concurrent validity were adopted to ascertain the accuracy, meaningfulness and credibility of the instrument. The research instrument was first given to the experts in the field of Mathematics Education and the researcher’s supervisor who assisted with the phrasing and selection of questions. The instrument was also pilot tested to increase the instrument’s validity. The reliability was ensured by pilot testing the instrument, using similar samples and calculating Cronbach’s alpha. Since a coefficient value of 0.89 was obtained, the level of consistency was high and the questionnaire was regarded as valid. Inferential statistics of Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was employed to test the hypothesis raised. K.O. Adu; J. N. Pylman & E.O. Adu 183 Result and Discussion Hypothesis: There is no significant relationship between instructional materials and Grade 6 learners’ Mathematics performance. Table 1: The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Summary of Relationship between availability and utilization of instructional materials on learners’ Mathematics Performance Table 1 shows that there is a significant relationship between availability and utilization of instructional materials on Grade 6 learners Mathematics performance (r = 0.999; p>0.05). The findings revealed that the availability and utilization of instructional materials merged as predictor of Mathematics performance for Grade 6 students, and the hypothesis is therefore rejected. The above finding is corroborated by Orhun (2013), who states that the use of instructional materials at primary level has become an accepted fact in the world over since the use of instructional materials in teaching and learning will enable the learner to develop manipulative skills, positive attitude, and problem-solving skills, acquire and develop functional knowledge. Brudett and Smith (2014) affirm this notion when asserting that those learning institutions with abundant learning and teaching resources coupled with favourable student-teacher ratios, perform better than the institutions that do not provide the same. Access to instructional materials provide learners with concrete experiences and opportunities for experimenting and active 184 Instructional Materials as a... implementation (doing), which is in line with Kolb’s Experiential learning theory. Conclusion The study explored the relationship between instructional materials and Grade 6 Mathematics performance. Authors use different definitions to describe instructional materials, however, all these authors acknowledge the predominant important role of instructional materials with regard to the teaching of Mathematics. The use of varied instructional materials, comprising textbooks; charts; pictures; visual materials as well as concrete or physical objects, could do much to arouse learners’ interest and develop their mathematical proficiency during the teaching-learning process. Whilst the use of instructional materials is essential for the development of learners’ mathematical proficiency, the lack thereof could lead to poor academic achievements in Mathematics. Recommendations It is recommended that teachers should not only be encouraged on the use of instructional materials, but also trained and guided on the effective use, management, and selection of relevant and appropriate materials. The challenge is thus not only to encourage the effective use of instructional materials in South African schools, but also to eliminate challenges responsible for the lack thereof in schools and factors that hinder the effective use of instructional materials. References Abdullahi, A. (2014). Mathematical knowledge for teaching fraction multiplication. 65 Cognition and Instruction, 26(1), 95-143 Adu, K.O. (2018). The use of textbooks by teachers in teaching mathematics at selected primary schools in East London Education District. An unpublished dissertation submitted to faculty of education, University of Fort Hare. South Africa. Adom, G. & Adu, E.O. (2018). Motivation and attitude of grade nine learners towards Mathematics in King Williams Town Education District. Ghana Journal of Development Studies. (GJDS), 15(1): 133-148 K.O. Adu; J. N. Pylman & E.O. Adu 185 Adu, K.O., Duku, N.S. & Adu, E.O. (2016). 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(2008), How Nigerian teachers select instructional materials for instruction. British Journal of Educational Technology, Vol. 19 (1) 2-3. Ikwuas, O.A, Onwiodiket, Y. (2013). Mathematics phobia; diagnosis and prescription. First Annual Lecture: National Mathematics Centre, Abuja. Iyunade, O.T. (2014) Availability and utilization of instructional materials in selected andragogic setting in Ogun State, Nigeria. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 4(4): 268-273 Kolawole, A. (2010). Practical use of ICT in science and Mathematics teachers’ training at DUCE (Master’s thesis, University of Twente, The Netherland). Retrieved 17 July 2020 from http://www.grin.com/en/e-book/179521/practical-use-of-ictinscience-and-Mathematics-teachers-training-at-duce. Lepik, M. (2015). Analyzing the use of textbooks in Mathematics education: The case of Estonia. ACTA PAEDAGOGICA VILNENSIA 35. Mba, T. N. (2014): Adult education and development. Port Harcourt: Pearl Publisher. Mkpa, N. 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A correlation study between learning styles and academic achievement among secondary school students in Kenya. M.Ed. dissertation submitted to the Department of Psychology. University of Nairobi Nwichi, B. (2013), Teacher remuneration and productivity in Nigerian secondary schools. New York: Hill Int. Obara, J. K (2012). The efficacy of instructional media materials’ utilization: Its implication to teaching. Nigerian Journal of Empirical Studies in Psychology and Education. 1, (16) 16 – 22. Ogundiran, S.O. (2015). Instructional materials’ availability and utilization: implications on public primary school students’ academic performance in Ibarapa North local government area of Oyo state. Journal of Educational Review. 8(1)71-80 Okeke, E. C. (2015). Instructional materials for environmental adult education: challenges for curriculum development in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies. 12, (1) 288 – 291. Opara, M. (2012). The use of instructional materials in primary schools. Three days be on the full implementation of university basic education in Imo State. A paper presented at the symposium held on the 24th March 2012 Enugu. Orhun, E. N (2013). Need for using instructional materials in junior secondary schools in Afikpo North. Unpublished NCE Project Ebonyi State College of Education IKWO Orji, E.I. (2012). Effect of cognitive conflict instructional model on students’ conceptual change and attention in temperature and heat (Unpublished M.Ed. thesis). University of Nigeria. Savoury, J. E. (2014), Class organization and administration. London: Nicholas and Coy Ltd. SMASE, (2010). Smasse Training Program. Unpublished Raw Data Stein, M. K. & Kim, G. (2009). The role of Mathematics curriculum materials in large-scale urban reform. In J. T. Remillard, B. A. Herbel-Eisenmann, & G. M. Lloyd (Eds.), Mathematics teachers at work: Connecting curriculum materials and classroom instruction New York: Routledge. Thomson, S., Wernert, N., Underwood, C., & Nicholas, M. (2008). TIMSS 2007: Taking a closer look at Mathematics and science in Australia. Camberwell: Australian Council for Educational Research. 188 Instructional Materials as a... TIMSS. 2011. International results in mathematics executive summary. Boston: Boston College. UNESCO (2006). Challenges of implementing free day secondary schools in Kenya. experiences from district, Nairobi: UNESCO. Wales, F. (2011), Alternate funding of education. New York: Free Press. INFLUENCE OF PRE-SERVICE OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY CIVICS TEACHERS’ TEACHING STRATEGIES ON PERFORMANCE IN TEACHING PRACTICE EXERCISE IN OSUN STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS Prof Babatunde Adeniyi ADEYEMI 08033819274 E-mail: adeyemibabs2003@yahoo.com Dr Muraina Olugbenga OMIYEFA Institute of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife 08030699630 E-mail: omiyef2004@yahoo.com Abstract The study examined the performance of pre-service Civics teachers in teaching practice exercise in Osun State secondary schools. It also determined the prevalent teaching strategies employed by the preservice Civics teachers in the teaching practice exercise and finally investigated the relationship between pre-service Civics teachers teaching strategies and their performance in the teaching practice exercise. Two research questions were asked and answered while a null hypothesis was raised and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The population consisted of pre-service teachers in the Faculty of Education for 2016/2017, 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 sessions. Purposive sampling technique was employed in selecting 135 pre-service teachers who are majorly Civic Education teachers. Two instruments used for data collection are the Inventory on Teaching Strategies employed by PreService Teachers (ITSPST) and Assessment Score on Teaching Practice Presentation (ASSTPP) whose reliability coefficients yielded 0.76 and 0.71 respectively were designed by the investigators and validated by experts. Frequency counts and percentages were used to analyse the research questions while one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypothesis. The results showed that there was a significant influence of teaching strategies on pre-service Civics teachers’ performance in teaching practice exercise (F (15,119) = 14.679, p<0.05). The study recommended among others that teacher 190 Influence of Pre-Service Obafemi Awolowo… training institutions should further equip the pre-service teachers’ adequate content, methodological and pedagogical knowledge to improve their performance during teaching practice exercise and by extension in future teaching. Keywords: Teaching practice, Performance, Pre-service teachers, Civics, Teaching strategies, Introduction Teacher education involves the policies and procedures designed to equip teachers with the knowledge and skills they require to teach effectively. A cardinal structure in the realisation of teacher education programme is the teaching practice. Teaching practice is an integral part or important component of pre-service teacher education because it allows student-teachers to apply the theories to practise. Thus, teaching practice is perceived by educators as part of the training requirements for teachers. Coincidentally, every profession has a period of apprenticeship. In other words, training is a crucial aspect in all professional fields with an attempt of testing and assessing the skills attained by learners before the actual consumption in the world of work. This fact according to Mahende and Mabula (2014) stands as vital to the teaching profession where teacher-trainees need to attend field training to assess their teaching skills and test the theories learned in classrooms in the actual school context. Hence, teaching as a noble profession has a period of apprenticeship known as teaching practice which is aimed at assisting would-be teachers to become professionals in the field for national development. This field exercise which is responsible to orient teacher-trainees in the learning process in colleges and universities is called teaching practice. Conceptually, the term teaching practice represents the range of experiences to which student teachers are exposed when they work in classrooms and schools (Marais & Meier, 2004; Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009). Teaching practice grants student teachers experience in the actual teaching and learning environment. During teaching practice, a student-teacher is allowed to try the art of teaching before actually getting into the real world of the teaching profession (Kiggundu & Nayimuli, 2009; Adeyemi and Adeyemi, 2012). Concisely, the development of practical skills and competencies by the trainees or Babatunde Adeniyi Adeyemi & Muraina Olugbenga Omiyefa 191 pre-service teachers is done through their involvement in teaching practice. This is why teacher training institutions practically engage student-teachers in teaching practice because they view it as an important part of teacher education. Teaching practice is a compulsory course for all aspiring student teachers registered in a teacher preparation programme in Nigeria. The teacher preparatory institutions could be Colleges of Education, Institutes of Education, Teachers’ Centres, National Teachers’ Institute and Faculties of Education leading to the award of Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE), Bachelor Degrees in Education, Professional Diploma in Education (PDE) or Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE). At NCE level, it is a one-semester duration; usually lasting from the beginning to the end of the first semester of the final year of students’ training while at the degree level, it is a six-weeks duration each at the end of the second year and third year before the commencement of the third year and fourth year in their programme respectively. During this period, most programmers focus on; instructional planning, instructional technology, micro-teaching mentoring, studies in teaching methods and posting of students to schools where they can practice their major courses of study (Aglazor, 2017). The student teaching programme at any higher institution of learning is a well-structured programme designed to provide an opportunity to develop and evaluate aspiring teachers’ competence in an actual classroom within the school settings. It is intended to bridge theory and practice. Indeed, the teaching practice exercise is the cumulating point where the relationship among three players; university supervisor, host/co-operating teacher and aspiring teacher interface to determine the quality of experience the aspiring teacher will take away (Aglazor, 2011; Aglazor, 2017). It becomes the bedrock on which the would-be-teachers once certified and employed build their pedagogical and professional image. Corroborating these submissions, Amankwa, Oti-Agyen and Sam (2017) reported that the teaching practice exercise is a good training programme for the development of teachers towards excellence The central goal of teaching practice for students is to provide pre-service teachers challenging, relevant and rewarding field experiences to inculcate essential teaching skills and professional growth. Specifically in Nigerian context, the National University 192 Influence of Pre-Service Obafemi Awolowo… Commission (NUC, 2007) Benchmark, the Teacher Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN, 2010) and the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE, 2012) identified the reasons why teaching practice is a mandatory component of teacher training to: expose studentteachers to real-life classroom experiences under the supervision of professional teachers; provide the forum for student-teachers to translate educational theories and principles into practice; enable student-teachers discover their own strengths and weaknesses in classroom teaching and provide opportunities to enable them address their weaknesses and enrich their strengths; familiarize studentteachers with real school environment as their future workplace; provide student-teachers with an opportunity for further acquisition of professional skills, competencies, personal characteristics and experience for full-time teaching after graduation; help studentteachers develop a positive attitude towards the teaching profession; and serve as a means of assessing the quality of training being provided by teacher training institutions. It is pertinent to note that every student undergoing training in pedagogy in colleges of education and faculty of education in the universities must undertake and pass teaching practice’ and teaching methods and strategies as core courses for the award of Nigeria Certificate in Education and Bachelor Degrees in Education. These are essential aspects of teacher education because they prepare teachers for future teaching roles and assignments. During the teaching practice, the trainee-teachers apply the teaching methods, techniques and principles which they have been taught theoretically in the classroom (Adeyemi, 2019; Akinbode & Abati, 2019) while Achuonye and Ajoku (2003) earlier asserted that, performance during teaching practice provides some basis for predicting the future success of the teacher (Civics teachers inclusive) outgoing popularity and centrality of practice teaching as an important contributing factor towards the quality of teacher education programme. Moreover, an important issue in teaching is the identification of particular behaviour that helps effective teaching and learning to occur. These positive behaviours that aid effective learning are referred to as teaching strategies (Ayua, 2017). Teaching strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson which includes structure, instructional objectives and an outline of planned tactics necessary to implement the strategies (Issac, Babatunde Adeniyi Adeyemi & Muraina Olugbenga Omiyefa 193 2010; Al-Bana, 2020). Issac (2010) further explained that teaching tactics are the behaviour of the teacher which he manifests in the class, that is, the development of the teaching strategies, giving proper stimulus for timely responses, drilling the learnt responses, increasing the responses by extra activities and so on. A teaching strategy, therefore, consists of the educational technique, method or plan of classroom actions or interactions intended to accomplish specific teaching/learning goals (Ayua, 2017). These include lecture, play-way, dramatization/demonstration, project, peer-tutoring, problem-solving, case-based, team-based, simulation, brainstorming, computerassisted/aided instruction, story-telling, enter-educate, cooperative/collaborative learning, team-teaching, adaptive, field-trip, questioning, individualization and so on. Identifying its numerous benefits, scholars (Manurung, 2012; Nzilano, 2013; Ayua, 2017) submitted that exploring various innovative pedagogical strategies help trainee teachers to increase their job satisfaction, teaching efficacy, experience, knowledge, skills and ultimately help to accomplish teaching/learning goals. As pointed earlier, teaching strategies suggest how teaching can be approached. Their essential characteristics include a normative character without the rigidity of a rule, hence, it can be adjusted and adapted to the training events depending on the style, creativity and personality of the teacher; structuring and modelling functions which can be used to link learning situations; component of the strategy (method, means and organizations) usually form a teaching system; do not only identify with the methodological system or basic teaching method but also a training process as a whole; have probabilistic meaning since several variables can intervene in the process; engage the students in specific learning situations; and create an ideal framework for interactions between other components of the training process (Ionescu & Radu, 2001; Al-Bana, 2020). All these characteristics are essential ingredients that creative Civics teachers should always consider during any teaching practice exercise. This is because the ultimate goal of civic education is to produce an effective and responsible citizen which requires knowledge of the democratic principles and the ability and willingness to be informed participants in the process. 194 Influence of Pre-Service Obafemi Awolowo… Creative Civics teachers, therefore, should be able to design joyful teaching where complex things can be explained in simple ways while uninterested learners become interested in the teaching/learning process and at the same time, finding out acceptable examples to clarify unclear topics for learners during teaching to improve teaching performance. Several researchers (Nwanekezi, Okoli & Meziobi, 2011; Manurung, 2012; Nzilano, 2013; Amankwah, Oti-Agyen, & Sam, 2017; Meutia, Elya, & Yusnila, 2018) have conducted quite a few studies to find out effective teaching strategies. For instance, Nwanekezi, Okoli and Mezieobi (2011) as well as Meutia, Elyza and Yusnila (2018) found out that pre-service teacher training averagely developed student teachers’ performance particularly in terms of the exhibition of learning materials, learning objectives, teaching confidence, students’ preparedness, doing apperception, motivation and good lesson plan and delivery among others. It must be noted however that some are effective in different fields of studies. The strategies in general and particularly those earlier highlighted put possibility to apply what have been learned to real practice as to fulfil the needs of learners and other stakeholders. This is why it becomes pertinent for pre-service Civics teachers to explore various innovative teaching strategies to enhance their performance during the teaching practice exercise, hence, this study. Pre-service Civics teachers are students undergoing teachertraining in educational training institutions and saddled with the responsibilities of teaching or inculcating Civic Education (Civics) among learners, on whom the success of a nation’s next-generation depends. Therefore, training institutions like the Faculty of Education of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife (OAU) have a daunting task of training quality teachers who will be able to implement the curricula to achieve its intended outcomes. The teaching practice at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife is organised at the end of the second semester each year for second-year and third-year students pursuing Bachelor of Education, Bachelor of Science in Education and Bachelor of Arts in Education degrees. The exercise is organised by the Faculty of Education. The programme is organised for six weeks of which pre-service teachers are exposed to actual school situation with emphasis on lesson plan preparation, good teaching communication skills, mastery of the subject matter, use of Babatunde Adeniyi Adeyemi & Muraina Olugbenga Omiyefa 195 instructional resources, classroom management and organisation, assessment and evaluation as well as ethical conduct and integrity. This present study, therefore, is triggered by teaching practice experience where the researchers noted that most student-teachers do not usually put into practice most teaching strategies learnt on their programme during their teaching practice which influenced their performance during the exercise. Hence, the three years’ study of student-teachers in Civic Education (Civics) at Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU), Ile-Ife on their use of teaching strategies in improving their performance during teaching practice exercises. Statement of the Problem The importance of teaching practice for pre-service teachers cannot be undermined in higher institutions of learning. It is an avenue for experienced, knowledgeable and experts in the field of study to observe and correct the teacher-in-training in the pedagogy of teaching profession. It seems that most of the pre-service Civics (Civic education) teachers are not putting into practice what they have been taught in the school during the teaching practice and may be difficult to adopt when they become full-fledged teachers. There is, therefore, the need for emphasis for future practice; hence this study Research Questions This study provided answers to the following questions: 1. What is the performance of pre-service Civics teachers of Obafemi Awolowo University in teaching practice exercise in the Osun State secondary schools? 2. What are the prevalent teaching strategies employed by preservice Civics teachers of Obafemi Awolowo University in the teaching practice exercise in the Osun State secondary schools? Hypothesis H01: There is no significant influence of pre-service Civics teachers of Obafemi Awolowo University teaching Strategies on teaching practice performance in Osun State secondary schools 196 Influence of Pre-Service Obafemi Awolowo… Methodology The study adopted the descriptive research design. The population consisted of pre-service teachers in the Faculty of Education for 2016/2017, 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 sessions. The sample size comprised 135 pre-service teachers who were selected using a purposive sampling technique. They were selected because they taught Civic Education (Civics) during the teaching practice exercises. Two instruments were used for data collection. These are; Inventory on Teaching Strategies employed by Pre- Service Teachers (ITSPST) and Assessment Score on Teaching Practice Presentation (ASSTPP) ITSPST which was designed by the investigators to assess pre-service Civics teachers’ teaching strategies. The inventory has 17 teaching strategies that are usually employed in the teaching and learning process. The instruments were given to experts in Tests and Measurement to vet and evaluate the quality, adequacy and relevance. The instruments were later trial tested on 30 Social Studies pre-service teachers using Cronbach Alpha and the reliability coefficients yielded 0.76 and 0.71 respectively. Data collected were analyzed using frequency counts, percentages and one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Results Research Questions 1: What is the performance of pre-service Civics teachers of Obafemi Awolowo University in teaching practice exercise in Osun State secondary schools? To answer this question, pre-service teachers’ respective scores were used to determine their performance level. The mean and standard score of the group score were 17.91 and 8.97 respectively. Scores below the group mean score were considered as having a low performance. Scores within the mean score and one standard deviation above the mean score (i.e. 17.91 - 26.88) were considered as moderate performance while those with scores above 26.88 were considered as high performance. The result is presented in Table 1 below. 197 Babatunde Adeniyi Adeyemi & Muraina Olugbenga Omiyefa Table 1: Pre-service Civics Teachers’ Performance in Teaching Practice Exercise Pre-service Teachers’ Performance Frequency Percentage High 42 31.1 Moderate 67 49.6 Low 26 19.3 Total 135 100.0 Table 1 shows that 31.1% of the pre-service teachers had high performance. Also, 49.6% of the teachers had moderate performance while 19.3% of the teachers were found to have low performance in the teaching practice exercise. There is an indication from this result that the majority of the pre-service teachers that participated in the study had moderate performance in the teaching practice exercise. Research Questions 2: What are the prevalent teaching strategies employed by pre-service Civics teachers of Obafemi Awolowo University in the teaching practice exercise in Osun State secondary schools? Table 2: Teaching Strategies employed by Pre-service Teachers in Teaching Practice Exercise S/N Pre-service Teachers’ Strategies Frequency Percentage 1 Lecture 5 3.7 2 Play-way 13 9.6 3 Dramatization 15 11.1 4 Project 8 5.9 5 Peer-tutoring 17 12.6 6 Problem Solving 5 3.7 7 Simulation games 2 1.5 8 Brainstorming 3 2.2 9 Computer-Assisted Instruction 4 3.0 10 11 Story-telling Enter Educate 3 2 2.2 1.5 198 12 13 14 15 16 17 Influence of Pre-Service Obafemi Awolowo… Cooperative/ Collaborative Team teaching Adaptive Field trip Discussion Questioning Individualization Total 2 1.5 2 0 26 23 5 135 1.5 0.0 19.3 17.0 3.7 100.0 From Table 2, 16 out of 17 teaching strategies were employed by the pre-service teachers in the teaching practice exercise which includes; lecture (3.7%) , play way (9.6%), dramatization (11.1%), project (5.9%), peer-tutoring (12.6%), problem-solving (3.7%), simulation games (1.5%), brainstorming (2.2%), computer assisted instruction (3.0%), story-telling (2.2%), enter educate (1.5%), cooperative/collaborative team teaching (1.5%), adaptive (1.5%), field trip (0.0%), discussion (19.3%), questioning (17.0%), and individualization (3.7%). The most prevalent teaching strategies employed by pre-service Civics teachers were discussion (f=26, 19.3%), questioning (f=23, 17.0%), peer tutoring (f=17, 12.6%) and dramatization (f=15, 11.1%) in their teaching practice exercise. Hypothesis: There is no significant influence of pre-service Civics teachers of Obafemi Awolowo University teaching Strategies on teaching practice performance in OsunState secondary schools Table 3: Analysis of Variance of Teaching Strategies on Pre-service Civics Teachers’ Performance Sum of Mean Squares df Square F Sig. Between 7001.101 15 466.740 Groups 14.679 .000 Within Groups 3783.833 119 Total 10784.933 134 31.797 Babatunde Adeniyi Adeyemi & Muraina Olugbenga Omiyefa 199 The result in Table 3 showed a significant influence of teaching strategies on pre-service Civics teachers’ of OAU performance in teaching practice exercise (F(15,119) = 14.679, p<0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis that states there is no significant influence of pre-service Civics teachers teaching Strategies on their performance in teaching practice exercise is hereby rejected. This result implied that teaching strategies play an essential role in pre-service Civics teachers’ performance. Discussion The result from the study showed that the majority of the pre-service Civics teachers had moderate performance in the teaching practice exercise. This could probably be because teaching practice programme at Obafemi Awolowo University is good in training and developing teachers, hence, the moderately improved performance. This finding supports Amankwa, Oti-Agyen and Sam (2017 who investigated the perception of pre-service teachers towards the teaching practice programme in Ghana and reported that the exercise is a good training programme for the development of teachers towards excellence. This result equally supports the assertions of Nwanekezi, Okoli and Mezieobi (2011) as well as Meutia, Elyza and Yusnila (2018) that pre-service teacher training averagely developed student teachers’ performance particularly in terms of the exhibition of learning materials, learning objectives, teaching confidence, students’ preparedness, motivation and good lesson plan and delivery among others. Results further indicated that the most prevalent teaching strategies employed by pre-service Civics teachers during teaching practice exercise were discussion, questioning, peer-tutoring and dramatization while field-trip is not being used by the pre-service teachers. These could be unconnected to the benefits of these strategies not only in aiding learning retention but also in the attainment of learning objectives within the possible timeframe in the classroom. These results confirm the assertions of Manurung (2012), Ayua (2017) and Al-Bana (2020) that case-based small group discussion, demonstration/dramatization, peer tutoring and effective use of questioning among others are strategies that are frequently used by classroom teachers as they have the potency of improving academic performance among students. 200 Influence of Pre-Service Obafemi Awolowo… Findings showed that teaching strategies had a significant influence on pre-service civics teachers’ performance in teaching practice exercise. This, in essence, justifies the essential roles of teaching strategies (techniques, method and classroom interactions) on pre-service teachers’ performance. This could be due to the benefits derivable from the use of innovative teaching strategies in improving classroom performance. This finding corroborates the submissions of various Scholars (Manurung, 2012; Nzilano, 2013; Amankwah, et al. 2017; Ayua, 2017; Al-Bana, 2020) that exploring innovative pedagogical strategies help trainee teachers to increase their job satisfaction, teaching efficacy, experience, knowledge, skills and ultimately help to accomplish teaching/learning goals Conclusion The study concluded that teaching practice exercise is an avenue for Pre-service teachers to utilize various and appropriate teaching strategies in an ideal classroom under the tutelage of competent and experienced teachers. This is because none of the teaching strategies is perfect in itself. To conduct effective teaching, civics teacher chooses a variety of learning strategies that underpin each other to activate and engage learners during teaching practice. Recommendations Based on the findings, this study recommended that; • Teacher training institutions should further equip the preservice teachers’ adequate content, methodological and pedagogical knowledge to improve their performance during teaching practice exercise and by extension in future teaching. • Pre-service teachers should be encouraged to adopt innovative pedagogical strategies such as enter-educate, cooperative teaching, simulation games and computer-assisted instruction among others to carry all learners along in the teachinglearning situations. • Regular orientation programmes should be organized for both pre-service teachers and supervisors on ways to explore innovative teaching strategies and other tenets of teaching practice to improve teaching performance not only during but also after the teaching practice exercise. Babatunde Adeniyi Adeyemi & Muraina Olugbenga Omiyefa • 201 Students should be encouraged to put their acquired theoretical knowledge into practice during teaching practice exercise. References Achuoneye, K. A. & Ajoku, L. I. (2003). Foundations of curriculum: development and implementation. Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers Adeyemi, B. A. (2019). Teaching Practice: An indispensable mechanism in assessing pre-service teachers in the 21st century. In B. A. Adeyemi, J. O. Adeyanju, F. O. Aladejana P. O. Jegede (Eds.), Education in the 21st Century. Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press. Adeyemi B. A. & Adeyemi, B. B. (2012) Teaching Practice. A viable tool in the attainment of Educational goal. In F. V. Falaye, J. A. Adegbile & A.O.U. Onuka. Contemporary Issues in Curriculum and Evaluation Research. A book in honour of Professor S. O. Ayodele. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press. Aglazor, G. (2011). Global exposure: Pre-service teachers’ perspective on the role of study abroad. Paper Presented at Research Seminar Series by Career and Technical Education Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education, Purdue University. Aglazor, G. (2017). The roles of teaching practice in teacher education programmes: designing framework for best practice. Global Journal of Education Research 16, 101-110 Akinbode, O. S. & Abati, O. A. (2019). Teacher preparation and teaching professional competence among Federal College of Education Graduates in South-West Nigeria. Journal of Education and Human Development 8 (1), 93-105 Al-Bana, J. B. S. (2020). Teaching strategies. Retrieved June 29, 2020 from https://www.researchgate. net/publication/327433965_TEACHING_STRATEGIES Amankwah, F., Oti-Agyen, P. & Sam, F. K. (2017). Perception of preservice teachers towards the teaching practice programme in College of Technology Education, University of Education, Winneba. Journal of Education and Practice 8 (4), 13-20 202 Influence of Pre-Service Obafemi Awolowo… Ayua, G. A. (2017). Effective teaching strategies. A paper delivered on the occasion of orientation and refresher workshop for teachers of Vertex Nursery and Primary School, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria, between 15 and 16 September, 2017 Ionescu, M. & Radu, I. (2001). Didactica moderna. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Dacia Issac, J. C. (2010). Methods and strategies of teaching: an overview. India: Pondicherry University Press Kiggundu, E. & Nayimuli, S. (2009). Teaching practice: a make or break phase for student teachers. South African Journal of Education 29, 345-358 Mahende, G. A. & Mabula, N. (2014). Is teaching practice for grading or improvement? Examining student teachers’ perception and experience at the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. African Educational Research Journal 2 (1), 1-11 Manurung, K. (2012). Creative teachers and effective teaching strategies that motivate learners to learn. Indonesian Journal of Science Education 2 (1), 1-8 Marais, P. & Meier, C. (2004). Hear our voices: student teacher’s experience during practical teaching. African Education Review 1, 220-233 Meutia, P. D., Elya, F. & Yusnila, A. (2018). Pre-service teachers’ performance post microteaching class in field experience program. English 5 (2), 102-112 National Commission for Colleges of Education (2012). Nigeria certificate in education minimum standard for general education. Abuja: National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) National Universities Commission (2007). Benchmark minimum academic standard for undergraduate programme in Nigerian universities. Abuja: National Universities Commission (NUC) Nwanekezi, A. U., Okoli, N. J. & Meziobi, S. A. (2011). Attitude of student-teachers towards teaching practice at the University of Port Harcourt, River State, Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies 2 (1), 41-46 Nzilano, J. L. (2013). Pre-service teachers’ teaching competencies: The experience of practising teaching in secondary schools and teacher colleges. African Journal of Teacher Education 3 (1), 1-21 Babatunde Adeniyi Adeyemi & Muraina Olugbenga Omiyefa 203 The Teacher Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN, 2010). Teacher Registration Council of Nigeria: Mandatory continuing professional development programme. Abuja: Mbawa Communication Press Ltd. LEVEL OF STUDENTS’ EXPOSURE TO SEXUAL ACTIVITIES DURING COVID-19 PANDEMIC LOCKDOWN IN OYO STATE, NIGERIA Oluwaseun Temitope LAWAL; Taiwo Oladunni GBENGA-AKANMU (Ph.D.) Ifeoluwa Samuel OLUYIMIDE Institute of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria lawset005@gmail.com, taoakanmu@yahoo.com, ifeoluwaoluyimide@gmail.com Titilayo Olufolake ABIOLA Osun State College of Education, Ilesa titiabbey6@gmail.com Abstract The study investigated the level of student’s exposure to sexual activities during Covid-19 pandemic lockdown, The study adopted survey research design. The population of the study consisted of all basic nine students in Oyo State. Multi-stage sampling technique was employed for the study. Out of the 625 secondary schools in Oyo state, forty schools were selected randomly. The sample size consisted of 400 students from the forty schools that were selected randomly. Five Male and five Female Basic Nine students were randomly selected in each of the schools to make a total of ten students in a school. An instrument titled Students Sexual Activities Exposure Questionnaire (SSAEQ) was validated and administered on the participants for the study. Four research questions were raised. Data obtained were analysed using frequency count, percentage, mean and standard deviation. The results revealed that movies had the highest percentage(70%) as a factor that influence students’ involvement in sexual activities followed by social media(64.3%) and friends influence (50.5%). It also revealed that 18.8% of students has been exposed to sexual activities before the lockdown, 10.8% started practicing it during the lockdown, 18.0% feel sexually active more than before while 25.0% watch pornography more often during Covid-19 pandemic lockdown. It further revealed that male students at (1.68±0.47) and students between ages 12-15years at 206 Level of Students’ Exposure to Sexual… (1.69±0.46) are more exposed to sexual activities during the lockdown. It can be concluded that Covid-19 pandemic lockdown has contributed to sexual activities exposure of students in Oyo State. Key words: Students; Exposure; Sex; Covid-19; Pandemic; lockdown Introduction The Coronavirus pandemic is such that is relatively new in human history. The pandemic widely known as COVID-19 came almost unexpectedly and has affected different parts of human endeavours educational, economical, financial, religious, psychological, political life, and many more. According to the Premium Times (2020), researches carried out across the world by World Health Organisations, Centre for Disease Control and many bodies showed that the Corona Virus Disease (COVID-19) originated from China in a small city called Wuhan- before spreading to several other countries of the world. Its impacts cannot be overlooked in different countries around the world of which Nigeria cannot be excluded. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, 2020) stated that Covid-19 pandemic came in a time when humanity was not prepared to battle it instantaneously, this explains why the government, medical workers, and other health practitioners across the world put all hands on deck to fight the pandemic. The pandemic led to the closure of different sectors in Nigeria including education sector. The Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC) adds that the conventional face-to-face learning was stopped in Nigeria as the Federal Government of Nigeria closed down schools as a coping measure immediately the disease is declared as a contagious disease. The Federal and State governments came up with the introduction of online classes for all levels of education to sustain learning activities in the country. Hence, it could be observed across the States that this development favoured the students in private schools while many students who attend public schools lack an insufficient technological tool to learn online, which therefore made many Nigerian students have little or no access to formal learning during the pandemic lockdown which might have given the students opportunity to get exposed to different activities as a result of their idleness. Oluwaseun Temitope Lawal; Taiwo Oladunni Gbenga-Akanmu; Ifeoluwa Samuel Oluyimide & Titilayo Olufolake Abiola 207 Toritseju (2020) states that the Covid-19 pandemic has revolutionalised digital and online education across the world but learners in the rural area and ‘unfair’ communities in Lagos state are not being catered for as they are left behind in adapting to the new ways of learning. Hussain (2020) also notes as emphasised by UNESCO that school closures had a severe impact on children from disadvantaged backgrounds while children on the higher status would experience less disruption on their learning as their private schools are effectively equipped with the necessary ICT infrastructure and they can afford learning resources at home. It is therefore necessary to note that the closure of schools could add to the trend of sexual activities among students, which could range from kissing the opposite to cuddling the opposite sex, indiscriminate touching of the opposite sex, sexual intercourse, rape, and many more. UNICEF (2020) adds that children in developing countries where online classes are not effectively visible are most likely to get exposed to several vices like online crime, negative sexual exposure, unclad loneliness, and many more during the pandemic lockdown. Some students could also be exposed to potentially harmful content such as pornographic which could lead them to self-harm (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes, 2020). This is one of the reasons why sexuality education for children should be seen as a necessity, especially in this COVID-19 pandemic period. Students’ Exposure to Sexual Activities Some of the constant factors which may contribute to sexual activities among students range from parent’s family background, parents’ education, occupation, social media influence, addiction to movies, untamed urge for sexual acts, and many more (Akingba, 2002; Adegoke, 2003; Abogunrin, 2003; Nwabuisi, 2004; Esere, 2006). Some other factors like divorce, separation, and interactions among family members could ignite sexual activities among students. Lawal and Ajayi (2018) reported that parental separation with divorce has a negative influence on children and the situation contributes to the exhibition of negative behaviours in our society. They explain further that parental separation and divorce contribute immensely to children's negative emotional feelings which led to their antisocial behaviours. It could also be noted that students who become sexually active enter an arena of 208 Level of Students’ Exposure to Sexual… high-risk behavior that leads to physical and emotional damage (Adebayo, 2020). Some sexual activities range from vaginal sex (penis-in-vagina intercourse), anal sex (penis-in-butt intercourse), oral sex (mouth-togenital contact), fingering or hand jobs (hand-to-genital contact), genital rubbing, masturbation (rubbing the private part by one’s self), rape, and the like (Bernstein & Hansen, 2006). Wenham, Arevalo, Coast, Correa, Cuellar, Leone and Valongueiro (2019) also add that some of the abortion and rape cases recorded during the COVID-19 pandemic among students have its prevalent root from Sexuality Education for children. Statement of the Problem School closure, loss of jobs, reduction in salaries, non-payment of salaries which has created economic hardships, and loss of parental care as a result of COVID-19 pandemic lockdown in Nigeria might have increase student’s risk of sexual exploitation. In West Africa, for example, the 2014-2015 Ebola epidemic was linked to spikes in sexual abuse and teenage pregnancy. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the level of student’s exposure to sexual activities during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. Objectives of the Study The aim of this study is to investigate the level of students’ exposure to sexual activities during COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. The study’s objectives are to; a. determine the factors that contribute to students’ involvement in sexual activities during Covid- 19 pandemic lockdown; b. determine the level of students’ involvement in sexual activities during the lockdown; c. assess the contributions of COVID-19 pandemic lockdown on students’ sexual activities exposure; and d. (d) determine the gender and ages that are more exposed to sexual activities during the lockdown Oluwaseun Temitope Lawal; Taiwo Oladunni Gbenga-Akanmu; Ifeoluwa Samuel Oluyimide & Titilayo Olufolake Abiola 209 Research Questions a. What are the factors that contribute to student’s involvement in sexual activities during Covid- 19 pandemic lockdown? b. Do the students get involved in sexual activities during the lockdown? c. Does Covid-19 pandemic lockdown contribute to student’s sexual activities exposure? d. What gender and age groups are more exposed to sexual activities? Methodology The study adopted a survey research design. The population of the study consisted of all the basic nine students in Oyo State. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed for the study. Out of the 625 secondary schools in the state, forty schools were selected randomly. The sample size consisted of 400 students from the forty schools that were selected randomly. Five male and five Female basic nine students were randomly selected in each of the schools to make a total of ten students in a school. An instrument titled Students Sexual Activities Exposure Questionnaire (SSAEQ) was used for the study. It was composed of four sections. Section A was used to collect information about the student’s genders and ages. Section B contains 10 items of four Likert scales that were used to collect data on factors that might have contributed to students’ involvement in sexual activities. Section C contains 7 items of yes or no that were used to get information on students’ involvement in sexual activities. Section D contains 4 items of four Likert scales that were used to get information on the contribution of the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown on students’ sexual activity exposure. The instruments were pilot tested in ten (10) private schools in Oyo State. The reliability of the instrument was carried out using the Internal Consistency Approach based on Cronbanch’s Alpha. Data obtained from the instruments yielded a correlation coefficient of .750. Data obtained were analysed using frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation. Results and Discussion The sequence of the presentation and the discussion follows the study research questions. 210 Level of Students’ Exposure to Sexual… Table 5.1: Social Demography Characteristics of Respondents Frequency Gender of Respondents Male 200 Female 200 Age of Respondents below 12 years 4 12-15 years 240 above 15 years 156 Total 400 Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 100.0 1.0 60.0 39.0 100.0 1.0 60.0 39.0 100.0 1.0 61.0 100.0 Table 5.1. shows the data on respondent’s demography. It reveals that male respondents were 50.0% while female respondents were 50.0%. In the same vein, ages of respondents range from below 12 years (1.0%) to 12-15 years (60.0) and above 15 years (39.0%). Research Question One: What are the factors that contribute to student’s involvement in sexual activities during Covid- 19 pandemic lockdown? Table 5.2: Factors that contribute to students’ involvement in sexual activities during Covid- 19 pandemic lockdown S/N Descriptive Statements Agree 1 Friends’ influence 2 Social media 3 Movies 4 Parental influence 5 Urge for sexual acts 6 Rape 7 Sexual abuse by people 126 (31.5%) 145 (36.3%) 168 (42.0%) 72 (18.0%) 84 (21.0%) 64 (16.0%) 128 Strongly Agree 76 (19.0%) 112 (28.0%) 112 (28.0%) 64 (16.0%) 68 (17.0%) 64 (16.0%) 52 Disagree 95 (23.8%) 80 (20.0%) 44 (11.0%) 80 (20.0%) 104 (26.0%) 88 (22.0%) 92 Strongly Disagree 103 (25.8%) 63 (15.8%) 76 (19.0%) 184 (46%) 144 (36.0%) 184 (46.0%) 128 211 Oluwaseun Temitope Lawal; Taiwo Oladunni Gbenga-Akanmu; Ifeoluwa Samuel Oluyimide & Titilayo Olufolake Abiola 8 around Poverty 9 Greediness 10 Hunt for survival (32.0%) 52 (13%) 60 (15%) 76 (19%) (13.0%) 64 (16%) 60 (15%) 40 (10%) (23.0%) 96 (24%) 88 (22%) 112 (28%) (32.0%) 188 (47%) 192 (48%) 172 (43%) Table 5.2. with the addition of agree and strongly agree shows the factors that contribute to students’ involvement in sexual activities ranging from movies (70.0%), to friends’ influence (50.5%), social media (64.3%), parental influence (34.0%), urge for sexual acts (38.0%), rape (32.0%), sexual abuse by people around (45.0%), poverty (9.0%), greediness (30.0%) and hunt for survival (29.0%). Research Question Two: Do the students get involved in sexual activities during lockdown? Table 5.3: Students’ involvement in sexual activities during lockdown S/N 1 2 Descriptive Statements I have been exposed to sexual activities during lockdown If yes, through; Kissing the opposite Cuddling the opposite sex Indiscriminate touching of opposite sex Sexual intercourse Rape Yes 125 (31.3%) No 275 (68.8%) 81 (20.3%) 45 (11.3%) 319 (79.8%) 355 (88.8%) 37 (9.3%) 17 (4.3%) 16 (4.0%) 363 (90.8%) 383 (95.8%) 384 (96.0%) Table 5.3. shows that 31.3% of the students are exposed to sexual activities while 68.8% are not exposed to it during the lockdown. The means of exposure are If yes, through; kissing the opposite (20.3%), cuddling the opposite sex (11.3%), indiscriminate touching of the opposite sex (9.3%), sexual intercourse (4.3%), and rape (4.0%). Research Question three: What are the contributions of Covid-19 pandemic lockdown on the student’s sexual activities exposure? 212 Level of Students’ Exposure to Sexual… Table 5.4: Contribution of Covid-19 pandemic to student’s sexual activities exposure S/N Descriptive Statements Agree 1 I have been practicing sexual activities before Covid-19 pandemic lockdown I started practicing sexual activities during Covid-19 pandemic lockdown I feel sexually active more this period I watch pornography more often this period 48 (12.0%) 2 3 4 Strongly Agree 27 (6.8%) Disagree 92 (23.0%) Strongly Disagree 233 (58.3%) 12 (3.0%) 31 (7.8%) 80 (20.0%) 277 (69.3%) 36 (9.0%) 44 (11.0%) 36 (9.0%) 105 (26.3%) 97 (24.3%) 223 (55.8%) 199 (49.8%) 60 (15.0%) Table 5.4. with the addition of agree and strongly agree shows that(18.8%) of the students has been practicing sexual activities before Covid-19 pandemic lockdown while 10.8% of them started practicing sexual activities during the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown. In the same line, 18.0% of the students claimed to feel sexually active more during the lockdown period than before while 26.0% of the students watch pornography more often during the pandemic lockdown. Research Question Four: What gender and age groups are more exposed to sexual activities? Table 5.5.1: Independent T-test Analyses of Students Exposure to Sexual Acts in line with their Gender using Mean and Std. Deviation Group Statistics A1 Exposure to Male sexual acts Female N Mean Std. Std. Deviation Error Mean 200 1.6850 .46568 .03293 200 1.6900 .46365 .03279 213 Oluwaseun Temitope Lawal; Taiwo Oladunni Gbenga-Akanmu; Ifeoluwa Samuel Oluyimide & Titilayo Olufolake Abiola Table 5.5.1. shows that male students are more exposed to sexual activities (1.68±0.47) than female students (1.69±0.46). Table 5.5.2: Independent T-test Analyses of Students Exposure to Sexual Activities in line with their Ages using Mean and Std. Deviation Group Statistics Exposure sexual acts to A2 N Mean Std. Deviation 12-15 years above 15 years 240 156 1.6958 1.6667 .46102 .47292 Std. Error Mean .02976 .03786 Table 5.5.2. shows that students between ages 12-15 years are more exposed to sexual activities (1.69±0.46) than students above 15 years (1.66±0.47). Discussion of findings The findings of the study on factors that contribute to students’ involvement in sexual activities revealed that it ranged from movies (70.0%) to social media (64.3%), friends’ influence (50.5%), parental influence (34.0%,), urge for sexual acts (38.0%), rape (32.0%), sexual abuse by people around (45.0%), poverty (9.0%), greediness (30.0%) and hunt for survival (29.0%). These findings corroborate that of Ugoji (2014) who reported that different forms of media are possible predictors of student’s risky sexual behavior in Nigeria. It also corroborates that of Durowade, Babatunde, Omokanye, Elegbede, Ayodele, Adewoye, Adetokunbo, Olomofe, Fawole, Adebola, and Olaniyan (2017) who concluded that some students engaged in sexual activities through having friends that have engaged in sex. The findings revealed that 31.3% of the respondents have been exposed to sexual activities while 68.8% have not been exposed to it. The means of exposure are through kissing the opposite (20.3%), cuddling the opposite sex (11.3%), indiscriminate touching of the 214 Level of Students’ Exposure to Sexual… opposite sex (9.3%), sexual intercourse (4.3%), and rape (4.0%). The result supported Ajibola, Aremu, and Popoola (2017) who found out in their studies that sexual behavior is high among secondary school students in Southwest Nigeria. The result is also similar to that of Durowade, Babatunde, Omokanye, Ayodele, and Adebola (2017) who found out in Ekiti that the highest percentage of both junior and secondary school students had no sexual activities experience. The result also revealed that (18.8%) of the students has been practising sexual activities before Covid-19 pandemic lockdown, while 10.8% of the respondents started practicing sexual activities during the Covid-19 pandemic lockdown. In the same line, 18.0% of the students claimed to feel sexually active more during the lockdown than before while 25.0% watch pornography more often during the pandemic lockdown. Findings on gender and age group that are more exposed to sexual activities revealed that male students are more exposed to sexual activities (1.68±0.46) than female students (1.69±0.46) and students between the age 12-15 years are more exposed to sexual activities (1.69±0.46) than students above 15 years (1.66±0.47). The result supported that of Durowade, Babatunde, Omokanye, Ayodele and Adebola (2017) who found out in their studies that male students had more exposure of sexual activities than female students. They also found out that the male students got exposed to sexual activities before the age of 14 which is similar to the result of this study. Conclusion It is concluded from this study that movies, social media and friends majorly influence students’ sexual exposures and their involvement in sexual activities. Also the majority of students have been involved in different sexual activities like kissing the opposite sex, cuddling of the opposite sex, and indiscriminate touching of the opposite sex while the minorities are involved through sexual intercourse and some got involved in sexual activities through rape. Covid-19 pandemic lockdown has made some students get exposed to sexual activities, practicing sexual activities, feeling more sexually active, and watching of pornography more often. Most of the male students are exposed to sexual activities and the majority of the students got exposed and involved in sexual activities between the age of 12-15 years. There is no Oluwaseun Temitope Lawal; Taiwo Oladunni Gbenga-Akanmu; Ifeoluwa Samuel Oluyimide & Titilayo Olufolake Abiola 215 doubt that school closure during Covid-19 pandemic lockdown has affected some students negatively by exposing them more to sexual activities due to their idleness. Recommendations - Mass media should organize programmes that will always discuss Internet safety with children of all ages when they are engaged in online activity. - Government agencies should review and approve movies, games and applications before they are produced to the public. - Parents should ensure privacy settings are set to the strictest level for online gaming systems and electronic devices. - Parents should monitor their children’s use of the Internet; by keeping electronic devices in an open, common room of the house. - Parents should always check their children’s profiles and what they post online. - Parents should educate their children to know that anyone who asks them to engage in sexually explicit activity online should be reported to a parent, guardian, or other trusted adult and law enforcement. - Parents should teach their children about body safety and boundaries from the early stage of their life. - Parents should encourage their children to have open communication with them and also question them about activities that take place in school, church, and among their friends. - If a child discloses abuse, local law enforcement agencies should be contacted immediately for assistance. References Adegoke A.A. (2003). Adolescents in Africa; Revealing the problems of teenagers’ in Contemporary African Society. Ibadan: Hadassah Publishing. Abogunrin A.J. (2003) Sexual behavior, condom use and attitudes towards HIV/AIDS among adolescent in Nigeria. University of Ilorin. An Unpublished Ph.D thesis. 216 Level of Students’ Exposure to Sexual… Ajibola, I.; Aremu, O. A. and Popoola, G. O. (2017). Risky sexual behavior of senior secondary school students in an urban community of Oyo State, South West Nigeria. International Quarterly of Community Health Education. SAGE journals retrieved on 28th of August 2020 from https//doi.org/10.1177/0272684x17736154 Akingba J.B. (2002). Abortion mortality and other health problems in Nigeria. Nigeria Medical Journal. 1(4): 465- 471 Bernstein S, Hansen C. J. (2006). United Nation Millennium Project. Public choices, private decisions: sexual and reproductive health and the Millennium Development Goals. Bryman, A. (2011) Children: The invisible soldiers. RaddaBarnen, Stockholm, 1998. Social research methods. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011. UNESCO, (2020). COVID-19: Educational disruption and response. Retrieved from https://www.unesco.org/education/covid-19 on 12th April 2020. Central Intelligence Agency (2017). Nigeria. In the world factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/geos/ni.html Durowade, K. A.; Babatunde, O.A.; Omokanye, L.O.; Elegbede, O.E.; Ayodele, L.M.; Adewoye, K.R.; Adetokunbo, S.; Olomofe, C.O.; Fawole, A.A.; Adebola, O.E. and Olaniyan, T.O. (2017). Early sexual debut: prevalence and risk factors among secondary school students in Ido-Ekiti, Ekiti State, South-West Nigeria. Afr Health Sci, Vol 17(3), 614-622. doi: 10.4314/ahs.v17i3.3 Esere M.O (2006). HIV/AIDS awareness of in-school adolescents in Nigeria: Implications for Adolescents’ Sexuality. Journal of Psychology in Africa 16(2) 255- 258. Lawal O. T. and Ajayi H. O. (2018). Parental- Child Separation as a Correlate of Children Emotional Behaviour: A Case of Nursery/Primary Pupils in Ibadan North East of Oyo State Nigeria. Journal of Nursery and Primary Education Instructors in Nigeria, Vol. 1(1), 27-35 Nwabuisi E.G. (2004) Supports networks and adjustment needs of HIV/AIDS patients in the Zonal ‘hotpots’ in Nigeria. University of Ilorin; An unpublished Ph.D thesis. Oluwaseun Temitope Lawal; Taiwo Oladunni Gbenga-Akanmu; Ifeoluwa Samuel Oluyimide & Titilayo Olufolake Abiola 217 Premium Times Nigeria (2020), Coronavirus: Nigeria hits Record High in Daily Cases. Coronavirus Archives. Retrieved from https://www.premiumtimesng.com Qiao, J. (2020). What are the risks of COVID-19 infection in pregnant women? The Lancet. Vol.395, Issue 10226. RCCE (2020). COVID-19: How to include marginalized and vulnerable people in risk communication and community engagement. Retrieved: Jun 16, 2020 Shaffer, D.R. (2010). Social and personality development (5th ed). Belmont, CA:Wadsworth. Toritseju, A. A. (2020). Covid-19 has exposed the education divide in Nigeria. This is how we can close it. The World Economic Forum COVID Action Platform. Retrieved from rd https://www.weforum.org on 23 August, 2020. Ugoji, F. N. (2014). Determinants of risky sexual behaviours among secondary school students in Delta State Nigeria. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, Vol 19(3), 408-418 UNICEF (2020) Parenting tips on keeping children safe online during COVID-19 Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/pressreleases/covid-19-children-heightened-risk-abuse-neglectexploitation-and-violence on April 18th, 2020 UNFPA (2020). Coronavirus (COVID-19) Guidance Document. UNFPA Asia Pacific Region. Retrieved from www.unfpa.org/pressreleases/covid-19 on April 24th, 2020. UNODC (2020). Official Public Service Announcement on Coronavirus from the World Health Organization. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/covid-19.html on July 8th, 2020 Vimbi P M, (2018). The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly of Distance Learning in Higher Education, Trends in Elearning:https://www.intechopen.com/books/trends-in-elearning/the-good-the-bad-and-the-uglyof-distance-learning-inhighe546r-education Wenham C., Arevalo A., Coast E.; Correa, S.; Cuellar, K.; Leone,T. and Valongueiro, S. (2019). Zika, abortion and health emergencies: A review of contemporary debates. GlobaIisation and Health, 15; 49 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0489-3 218 Level of Students’ Exposure to Sexual… Hussain, A. T. (2020). Education and COVID-19 in Nigeria: Tackling the digital divide. Retrieved from https://worldliteracy rd foundation.org on 23 of August, 2020. THE ROLE OF LIBRARY DURING PANDEMIC: NIGERIA AS CASE STUDY Rosnold Ogie Omoba African Regional Institute for Geospatial Information Science and Technology (AFRIGIST) Obafemi Awolowo University Campus Ile – Ife, Osun State, Nigeria omoba@Rectas.Org Florence Adeola Omoba Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria faoomoba@oauife.edu.ng, faoomoba@gmail.com 08038542343, 08078213239 Abstract Library is an integral part of the system it is serving. Different types of libraries are designed in order to meet the information needs of the society at large. As much as information is needed on a daily basis, resources and services of the library would also be much needed on a daily basis. The traditional library resources and services are of little or no use during pandemic because of the social rules imposed to contain its spread. The pandemic therefore is an extra challenge on the library to put to effective use of digital resources and services, training users on the use of digital materials and making available digital materials lacking. The study looked into efforts of various types of libraries to meet the information needs of users during pandemic. Every core services of librarianship are placed online for efficient use. For example; story hour for the school library, world book day, and so on. This is not the case in Nigeria as every library resources and services were kept on hold, some challenges encountered by both users and libraries are also mentioned. Keywords: Academic library, Pandemic, Library Resources, Library Services 220 The Role of Library during Pandemic:… Introduction Pandemic is not a new phenomenon in the world system. History has it that there was the Great Plague of London in 1665, which killed 20% of the city’s population. Also, there was a Spanish flu in 1918 that infected 500 million people worldwide, killing 50 million. There was also the “Asian Flu” pandemic in East Asia in 1957 after influenza H2N2 strain spread from Singapore to coastal cities around the world, killing 1.1 million people, including 116,000 in the United States. Another pandemic that originated in Asia was the 1968 Hong Kong Flu, which killed one million people worldwide and about 100,000 in the US alone. Five of the worst pandemics in history, for instance, happened in the 18th century. Despite the advancement in the world’s healthcare system, the current century is not exempted from the outbreak of pandemic. Currently, the world all over is combating the scourge of the novel coronavirus, also known as covid-19. It started in Wuhan in December 2019 and has spread across different countries. During the pandemic, many measures were adopted to reduce the spread or to contain it. One of the measures imposed to reduce the spread was total lockdown, which is restriction of people from coming out of their house. During lockdown, it was only essential workers (health workers, security personnel, food sellers) that were allowed to come out. In Nigeria, farmers were included because the pandemic started at the beginning of planting season. Other measures to contain the spread of diseases are social distancing, washing of hands, use of nose masks, closure of schools, places of worship and markets (Puiu, 2020). Thus, virtually all the activities in the community, including schools activities, were brought to a halt. The closure of school automatically translates to closure of school libraries and other academic libraries. However, some schools managed to carry-on with their academic activities by engaging the opportunity of information and communication technology (ICT) facilities. Consequently, libraries serving such schools also have to find a way of meeting the information needs of their users. Library, in the time past, was regarded as a room or building containing collections of books, periodicals, and sometimes films and recorded music for use or borrowing by the public or the members of institutions. It was also known as a room in private houses where books are kept. With the advent of ICT, the definition of library has changed in Rosnold Ogie Omoba & Florence Adeola Omoba 221 the effort to meet with the changing needs of the users and to remain relevant in the products and services made available to users. The application of ICT and its philosophies within the library context to improve and provide new services to users is termed library 2.0. The 21st century library is also a new model of library product and services utilising the latest ICT and is available anytime and anywhere visible on a spectrum of devices, writing collaboration by users and integrated with services outside the walls of the physical library such as portals, visual learning environment and e-commerce application. Modern libraries are therefore being redefined as places to get wider access to information in many formats and from many sources. The technological development in libraries has affected both information space and information practice. Today, there are libraries without walls being logical extensions to libraries (Fox and Urs, 2002). An important development in the second half of the 20th century was the introduction of integrated library systems and online catalogues giving access to information on library collections from anywhere with an internet connection. The idea of the library room changed when much of the visibility of the library environment was on the screen (Wallis, 2007). The distance between author and reader has been shortened while it gives a more direct involvement in the dissemination of information. Libraries provide access to an endless variety of information resources and opportunities for interactive communication. However, the fundamental mission has remained, to facilitate and give access to information and knowledge, but the processes, tools, and techniques have undergone great development. There are different types of libraries. One is the academic library which serves the higher institutions (polytechnics, colleges of education and the Universities). Another type of library is the school library which serves the primary and secondary schools. There are also public libraries, these are governed and owned by the government to meet the information needs of everybody in the community not minding the academic attainment, gender, age, language or culture. Every of the public library users are to find their information needs met. Special library is another type of library which meets the specific needs of the owner. An institute could have a library to meet the information needs of their users. Such institutes could be for Agriculture, Geo- 222 The Role of Library during Pandemic:… informatics, Survey and many others (Salman, Mostert, & Mugwisi, 2018). There are more types of libraries, but the division depends on the users they serve. The division is necessary in order to meet the information needs of all citizens irrespective of age, status, gender, education and so on. This goes to emphasize that libraries are of great importance because everybody in the community is considered in the establishment of libraries. If a citizen does not go into an academic library, he will fit into public libraries or children libraries for children and teenagers. All these libraries play the same role, which is meeting information needs of the users. Therefore, since information is power, during a pandemic every avenue to get accurate information is made available to users. Because physical contact between users and librarians is denied during pandemic therefore, the library had to look for ways of reaching the users. In order to meet the information needs of users at all times and in all places, web is considered to take the information to users because web is accessible from every corner of the world, therefore design of interface has been made to meet needs of users. Among such interfaces provided is ‘My Library’ (Cohen et al., 2000). There are further development of digital libraries, which define personalised library services to web users who expect customisation and interactivity. New trends concerning personalisation, self-service, and mobility have created a web environment that is transforming how users are interacting with information (Benson and Favini, 2006; Bearman, 2007; Coombs, 2007). One of the focal notions of the digital world since 2004 has been Web 2.0, a term popularised (O’Reilly, 2005), though it has remained a controversial term laden with a multitude of different simultaneously similar and contradictory meanings and implications (Madden and Fox, 2006; Anderson, 2007b). Web 2.0 is about many different things ideas, technologies, behavioural patterns, ideals, goals and cultures. With the emergence of Web 2.0, libraries have started employing social software applications (such as blogs, tagging, social networking, and wikis) to engage readers, encourage user-contributed content, and connect with user populations in novel ways. However, little research has been conducted on the applications of Web 2.0 Rosnold Ogie Omoba & Florence Adeola Omoba 223 technologies within public libraries. This study focuses on the applicability of social software in a library setting and examines the use of such innovative techniques as live tagging, social cataloging, and social bookmarking as effective methods in rendering library services during pandemic. It evaluates the potential of social software tools for facilitating collaboration between librarians and library patrons; it addresses the concerns expressed by the library and information science community related to the issues of trust, authority, accuracy, responsibility, and ethics in the context of the Library 2.0 Integrated Library System Management software (ILSMS) is also made available for effective dissemination of information resources and services to users. Among this software are Millennium, KOHA, Visionary Technology Library Solution (VTLS), PMB signet, and many others. Some libraries wrote their programme to fit into the system. Many of these software are expensive to acquire and maintain. Roles of Library during Pandemic Libraries serve diverse roles in human society. The library is instrumental in reconsidering programming such as story times or workshops, especially for groups at risk such as older users; ensuring that all staff have the tools and skills to work remotely (if possible) and that services, as far as possible, can still be provided digitally; ensuring that all staff working from home unless completely necessary. Other roles played by libraries are: promoting use of digital facilities and other tools; potentially investing in more content/licenses; offering an amnesty on borrowed physical books, and increasing the number of ebook users can borrow. Also, libraries play the role of making library spaces and equipment available for other activities, such as printing personal protective equipment; raising awareness of digital offers, both on the front pages of their websites and through putting up posters in the windows of library buildings (Abbas, 2010). In Nigeria, Libraries were almost shut down during the pandemic. Most of the public Academic libraries that have OPAC could not have it running because of poor or lack of power and internet supply. The experience here was like Libraries are of no use during pandemic. Whereas, in other countries of the world, there are accounts of how effective and efficient library resources and services were made available to their users. From all the findings made, it was discovered 224 The Role of Library during Pandemic:… that no type of library rendered any type of service during a pandemic, especially when there was lockdown in Nigeria. There are some functional libraries and Librarians around the world that lived up to expectation during the pandemic. There were so many activities carried out, programmes organized and library physical and electronic resources accessed during pandemic. Creativity was put to use in some libraries and where online teaching was ongoing, online library services and resources were also made available to students. Functional libraries and Librarians around the world and their activities during pandemic Librarians embarked on selective information dissemination (SDI) as means of facilitating interactive information use. SDI is an effective tool adopted by librarians during a pandemic to meet information needs of health workers. The health workers in their efforts to save life during pandemic carry out various researches in order to bring it to an end visit the library online to get materials they would guide them. Librarians in various libraries will also package materials that would meet the needs of health workers. Traditional efforts by libraries to produce collections of books and materials on topical issues have continued, with a strong focus on dealing with stress and worry, and promoting positive mental health, not least the National Library of Medicine in the United States. Many databases subscribed to by the library cannot be afforded by individuals; most of the time, libraries come together to form a consortium so that they could afford it. Libraries around the world of all sorts have been working hard to provide access to collections and services remotely, often investing time and efforts in updating websites and computer systems in order to deal with demand. All types of libraries have promoted their digital services. The International Federation of Library Association (IFLA) submitted a comprehensive report on the 26th May 2020 of activities of libraries all over the world during the pandemic. For example, the bibliotheque nationale de France is organizing virtual exhibition, and the national library of Spain is promoting its digital content that can be used to support education, the national library of Morocco is providing free ebooks and the public library in Aarhus, Denmark has put its digital Rosnold Ogie Omoba & Florence Adeola Omoba 225 content at the front of its website. Highlighting content focused on learning new skills. Further activities are; building on a simplyE app, online book clubs in preparation for world book and copyright day on April 23 2020 was done by some libraries. Virtual party of readings was organised by some libraries to celebrate 2020 children’s day. Development of training materials to help users who are not familiar with digital methods of meeting information needs to meet up with the digital method of meeting information needs. There are also campaigns encouraging people across the country to read more online by libraries. Libraries are promoting local language content around pandemic through social networks, as well as sharing book recommendations. Libraries are also promoting digital contents alongside key health information. Also there are increases in online services promoting bibliotherapy as a means of helping users through crises, and receiving useful coverage in the local press. School libraries were also reported as working hard to provide materials in a format that allow parents to support their children’s education at home. School libraries also provide a remote lending service for researchers giving access to electronic resources. Health libraries are seeing major interest in the information they can make available. Book-themed was organized in order to keep children involved in reading and to help out parents with keeping them entertained. Children from rural areas and artists are being engaged to produce quarantine and a Librarian in Peters Township, Harry Porter, themed “digital escape room” was also organised by some library for children. Some public libraries organised music quiz, writing competition, online poetry slams, online homework help and public debates. There are also programs like ask-a-librarian reference service just for children. Some public libraries have been running not only a series of competitions for users, but also sharing book reviews and other information through social media. Meanwhile, libraries in Salt Lake City are working with guidance on broader community engagement during lockdown due to pandemic (Fallows, 2020). Others are putting existing activities online and inventing new ones. The Library of Congress for example is organising a virtual transcribathon in order to engage people at distance, while the National Library of 226 The Role of Library during Pandemic:… Norway us encouraging users to access its podcasts while in-person events are not possible. The Dutch National Library has teamed up with a writers’ organisation to provide an ‘author on your screen’ service. A range of library crowd-sourcing initiatives is available via Library Journal. IFLA further reports that in academic libraries, there are efforts to provide remote access through an online article request service, digital contacts were also made and call-in hours at Rhodes University, South Africa. The library of the University of Malaya is developing tools to facilitate online discovery and evidence retrieval about the COVID-19 pandemic, preparing a poster to explain its work, while opportunities are set up to contact librarians remotely. The Anatolian University Libraries Consortium (ANKOS) has intensified resource sharing between its members through a single portal, in order to accelerate access to research, and the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology in Saudi Arabia has produced a series of tutorials on how best to use library materials. Some other universities are also providing consultation via Whatsapp and videoconferencing. Academic libraries around the have also been bringing together information about freely available resources. Some libraries are also looking to help out potential users who are not yet registered, and who cannot now sign up in person. For example a library has established means for giving people access to books without contact, while another library is also maintaining online inscriptions. Some Libraries also have expanded access to eLending to the whole population, while Iranian libraries have agreed to recognise each other’s library cards in order to allow people to use the closest library to them. The Culture connect organisation in Belgium, which works with libraries, has also opened up its content to unregistered users, as has Booklist in the United States, which works to provide book reviews and other materials. In many countries, libraries’ offer of free Wi-Fi to users is a key part of their offer. In the United States, there has been a call on libraries to leave networks on so that users can access the internet from their cars if need be. Others are offering access to ‘Zoom’ subscriptions in order to help library users stay in touch with friends. The role of libraries as ‘guardians of the historical record’ is as strong as ever. A post from Ithaka S+R highlights various initiatives to collect and Rosnold Ogie Omoba & Florence Adeola Omoba 227 preserve materials about the pandemic. Meanwhile, Columbia University has launched an archiving programme, and the State Library of Victoria in Australia has asked members of the community to share their COVID-19 stories. The work of libraries to support continuity of research was conducted by helping to lead research into the way in which information spreads on social media concerning COVID-19. With so many services on offer, libraries in a number of countries have been able to work with newspapers, radio stations and other communications channels in order to raise awareness. There have also been welcome steps from major trade publishers such as Macmillan and Penguin Random House to make it easier for public libraries to buy and access eBooks for lending, and Audible is providing access to hundreds of audiobooks. Nonetheless, open access to academic materials, especially directly concerning COVID-19, is not always as universal as claimed. See our section on library partners below for more. Specifically in the library field, in addition to the examples given in the section on associations below, ENSSIB in France has offered open access to its resources. Beyond this, there are many great freely available resources available with educational materials, notably Open Education Resources (OER) Commons, which provides access to materials curated by a team of librarians. UNESCO’s Education Division is also providing links to valuable educational resources, and its Archives have a collection of sound recordings from the past. The National Library of India, meanwhile, has developed search engines for OERs for researchers and children and young adults. In particular, there are resources for teaching media and information literacy online – this is both a traditional area of strength for libraries, and a skill that is particularly necessary in the current circumstances. Many university libraries are also increasing their offer of training on information literacy in order to help students having to carry out their research online. Libraries in Hawai’i, as well as in Loveland, Colorado and elsewhere in the U.S are also offering online courses in information literacy around the pandemic. The Library and Information Research Institute meanwhile, is holding a series of webinars on misinformation, information overload, open access and 228 The Role of Library during Pandemic:… COVID 19 and is building a list of open access resources on the matter, and has participated in events on the subject. Other core library services such as help for people out of job who were given the benefits to apply or look for jobs, are likely to become more and more important during a pandemic. Libraries are already providing printed forms for people needing to apply for unemployment assistance. A public library has made its job-search support service available online for free to help users continue to benefit despite lock-down restrictions. Library associations too are looking at how they can continue their work to support members by placing its conference online and running a series of virtual events and a social media campaign. Also set up are virtual drop-in sessions for librarians for librarians, and a series of videos where information professionals share their experiences. Finally, faced with the need to invest in new content and services in order to support users, the American Library Association has successfully argued for libraries to be included in the economic stimulus package announced by the government there. In addition, some library funders in the United States are offering grantees extra flexibility where it has been impossible to continue with previous projects because of COVID-19. Libraries and Librarians in Nigeria during Pandemic Libraries and Librarians in Nigeria should be able to start to work towards getting the resources and services across to their users during pandemic. The roles of Libraries are so many but none could be performed during a pandemic in Nigeria due to the usual problems faced in developing nations. Since the advent of Information Communication and Technology (ICT) in Nigeria, there has been a drastic low patronage of libraries by users. Majority of users that still come to the libraries do so to make use of the quietness of the library to read their personal books. From the activities of the libraries reviewed, it is obvious that Libraries are of importance during pandemic. Rosnold Ogie Omoba & Florence Adeola Omoba 229 Challenges facing effective resource and service delivery of library during pandemic The libraries have good initiative and ideas of how to be of help and making education not to be grounded. Despite these initiatives and plans, there are so many problems encountered by both libraries and the users that make it impossible to reach the users effectively. Among the problems encountered are; 1. Housing Many librarians are not given accommodation in the staff quarters where there are staff quarters. Accommodating Library staff will enable them to go to the office at will in order to make sure the electronic resources are in good condition and functioning. This is because there are some resources that need constant power supply and updating. Where there is accommodation, internet facility (Wi-Fi and data) will be functional and powerful. 2. Managing remote working With libraries and library associations closing offices – where they have them – many in the library field are facing challenges around how to manage remote working effectively. Clearly the best situation is where it has been possible to plan in advance, ensuring that all staff has the tools and training necessary to work effectively and safely from home, and that you can stay in touch easily. With many in the same situation, there are lots of materials available on the internet already, with a strong focus on regular contacts and maintaining good spirits and motivation. Yet with it unclear how long restrictions will last, it is always worth having plans in place for how to cope with longer-term impacts. 2. Access to internet Many communities do not have access to the internet and even when there is, the bandwidth is very low it is either slow or out of coverage most especially in African countries. 3. Cost of virtual library The huge amount of money required to put up a virtual library prevent the management of libraries from establishing it. Libraries in Nigeria are considered as money sapping ventures, that is, there is no income or 230 The Role of Library during Pandemic:… gain made from the resources and services. If money is made from some resources and services, such money is not enough to manage the library. Therefore, investing large sums of money is not always considered. 4. Internet Provider (IP) Address based Many of the databases subscribed to in various libraries, especially the academic libraries are IP address based. During pandemic lockdown, no user will be able to access such databases, except few lecturers and their children that reside on campus. If another internet provider is used, there will be a request for a password. 5. Economic status of users Many users cannot afford the remote services rendered by the library. No matter how rich the content is, only few will have access to it. All libraries, especially the academic libraries do not have the problems stated above due to accreditation exercises carried out almost every year in higher institutions of learning, therefore, many libraries are with less problems. The public libraries in Nigeria are the Libraries faced with the problems stated. Conclusion The roles of libraries in Nigeria during pandemic are enormous. The Libraries are incapacitated by many factors beyond them and from them. The problems are ever there in all parastatals in Nigeria while little or no attention is given to it. 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