the Belle Mina Clovis site H. Blaine Ensor The Belle Mina site (1LI92) is a primarily Paleoindian site located on a gently sloping knoll overlooking swampy bottomland and sinks about four miles north of the Quad site and the Tennessee River in Limestone County, north Alabama (Figure 1). The Belle Mina site was discovered in 1989 by Bernice Ham, who noted Clovis points and other artifacts concentrated on a portion of the knoll. Repeated surface collections by Ms. Ham and fellow members of the Huntsville Chapter of the Alabama Archaeological Society were made over the following two years, resulting in a large sample of Clovis artifacts. In an attempt to systematically deine the area of Clovis occupation and identify potential activity areas, two controlled surface collections were conducted under my direction in the spring of 1992. This report details the results of the various surface surveys conducted at the site from 1989-1992 and provides an in-depth analysis and interpretation of the Clovis artifact assemblage from Belle Mina. The successful completion of this project is due to the cooperative efforts of avocational and professional archaeologists, all of whom donated their knowledge and time. The Belle Mina site has been impacted by long term cultivation and erosion as well as road construction. It is likely that the Clovis occupation extended to the north for some unspeciied distance although the topography slopes downward in that direction. Severe erosion on the western edge of the knoll had also impacted a portion of the Clovis occupation area at the time of ield survey. Clovis cultural material diminished to the east and south of the knoll (Figure 2). The area of Clovis occupation identiied at Belle Mina covers approximately 5,200 m2 (65 m by 80 m) or about 1.2 ac, and all artifacts are from the plow zone. A few projectile point/knives dating to later time periods were found over the years around the periphery of the Belle Mina site, so it cannot be unequivocally stated that all of the material collected is of Clovis origin. However, the uniformity of the raw material used by Clovis occupants and its uniform degree of patination, the distinctive biface production technology and resulting H. Blaine Ensor, M.A., 1517 Oak Street, Murphysboro, Illinois, 62966, hbensor@gmail.com Copyright 2014 by the Alabama Archaeological Society 3 4 Journal of alabama archaeology [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 Figure 1. location of Belle Mina and other north alabama Paleoindian sites mentioned in the text. debitage, and a blade manufacturing technology together indicate that the overwhelming majority of prehistoric cultural material collected from the controlled surface collection grid area is of Clovis origin. environmental setting The environmental conditions surrounding the Belle Mina site during Clovis occupation differed from those associated with our modern climate. The ambient temperature of the late glacial period was cooler than that of today and precipitation was more abundant. The Tennessee River probably carried more water, looded more often, and was probably wider and deeper than the Holocene or modern river (Collins et al. 1994). After the onset of modern global air circulation patterns around 12,000 years ago, an essentially modern loral and faunal regime gradually developed (Smith 1986). The Belle Mina site is located in an area of the Tennessee Valley known locally as “the Redlands” due to the reddish soils that predominate. Much of the entire Tennessee Valley of northern Alabama is underlain by Mississippian limestones, which include Tuscumbia limestone and Fort Payne chert (Johnston 1930; Osborne et al. 1988). After the limestone was deposited, numerous openings or sinks developed because of the downward percolation of slightly acidic water from the surface. Often, the sink openings became illed with impermeable materials due to erosion of the bedrock, which impedes the free low of water through subterranean drainage systems. When this occurs, the shallow ponds or “sinks” ill during ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site 5 Figure 2. view looking south from the knoll during surface collections, spring 1992. heavy rains and may overlow into lower areas. These ponds normally start illing in late November and remain full until around May. Numerous Clovis sites have been documented around the margins of these ponds or sinks across the Tennessee Valley in north Alabama (Cole 2006; Futato 1996; Hubbert 1989; Walthall 1980; Waselkov and Hite 1987). Several geologic formations outcrop in the Middle Tennessee Valley that produce chert that was used by Paleoindian people to manufacture stone tools, especially Bangor, bluegray Fort Payne, and Tuscumbia cherts. Chert from the Bangor Limestone Formation in this region is blue-gray to occasionally olive-gray, vitreous, and slightly translucent. It is homogenous in texture and color and highly tractable, meaning that a knapper can easily produce long lakes. Fort Payne chert outcrops across much of the Middle Tennessee River Valley. Its bluegray variety has a distinct macroscopic character that is light gray to dark, bluish-gray with irregularly shaped light blue patches. Chert from the Tuscumbia Limestone Formation is found in the Middle Tennessee River Valley with nodules of medium brown near the cortex and very dark gray at the interior. It is extremely easy to knap because it is very ine-grained, homogenous, and tractable (Meredith n.d.). Clovis archaeology Clovis refers to an Early Paleoindian point type, although the name is often used to refer to entire sites, a culture, or phase found throughout North America. Across the Eastern Woodlands, Clovis sites are usually recognized 6 Journal of alabama archaeology by the presence of the luted projectile point type and its variants. The Clovis tool kit found at Eastern Woodlands and Midwestern Clovis sites is characterized by the use of high-quality chert in the production of stone tools (Callahan 1979; Goodyear 1979; Koldehoff 1983, 1999; Koldehoff and Walthall 2004). In addition to lanceolate luted points, other Clovis stone tools/implements are many and varied. Some Clovis tools are known that are made of bone, ivory, antler, and teeth (Bradley et al. 2010; Haynes 2002). Clovis point caches are fairly common in the Great Plains, but evidence of Clovis structural remains or subsurface features is not common in any region (Haynes 2002). Dating of Clovis samples using accelerator mass spectrometer (AMS) technology has resulted in a time range of 13,500 to 12, 800 cal. yr B.P. for Clovis occupation in North America (Miller and Gingerich 2013), with Southeastern dates from Cactus Hill, Virginia (McAvoy and McAvoy 1997), Sloth Hole, Florida (Hemmings 2005), Topper, South Carolina (Waters and Stafford 2007), and the Johnson site, Tennessee (Barker and Broster 1996). Despite all of this recent work, considerable research will have to be undertaken before an unequivocal determination of the overall age range of Clovis occupation in North America and the Southeast is obtained (Haynes et al. 2007). Paleoindians in the Eastern Woodlands are thought to have organized themselves into small, mobile bands that often traveled long distances to obtain chert (Anderson 1996: Dickson 1980; Goodyear 1979; Haynes 2002; Koldehoff and Walthall 2004; Wilmsen 1968). Macro-bands composed of several different families/bands probably congregated every so often and represented the largest aggregation of Paleoindian people (Anderson 1996). Marriage was most likely exogamous, meaning that one married someone from outside one’s own band. Periodic congregation of band [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 groups probably occurred from time to time in order to promote social ties related to marriage, exchange, and barter, as well as sharing information (Anderson 1996; Hubbert 1989; Wilmsen 1968). Clovis site types recognized in North America include "kill sites," source or quarry sites, residential camps, and limited activity extractive camps (Gardner 1977). Clovis sites are generally located on ridges, knolls, benches, or terraces overlooking low, wet areas such as springs, sinks, bogs, and loodplains. Clovis subsistence was once thought to have focused on hunting now-extinct, Pleistocene megafauna, but emerging regional data suggest that a mixed reliance on big-game hunting (and possibly scavenging), small-game hunting, and plant-food collecting probably formed the subsistence base for Paleoindians (Ferring 2001; Meltzer and Smith 1986; Meltzer 1993; Tankersley 1990). Much of what is presently known about Paleoindian culture in the Tennessee Valley of north Alabama is due primarily to the work of avocational archaeologists. The irst article to be published on Clovis inds in the region was by Harold Kleine (1953), based on work in Franklin County. Some of the most notable work regarding the Paleoindian occupation of the Tennessee Valley in Alabama includes that by Cambron and Hulse (1960, 1961, 1963, 1975), Holland (1965), Soday (1954), Mahan (1954, 1955), Waters (1957), Hulse and Wright (1989), and Cole (2005, 2006). Other contributions have been made by Futato (1996), Hubbert (1989), and Waselkov and Hite (1987). In north Alabama, Clovis and other Paleoindian sites are usually found on the older terraces of the Tennessee River, well back from the modern riverbank, such as at Quad, Stone Pipe, and Pinetree (Hubbert 1989; Hulse and Wright 1989), as well as around upland swamps and sinks (Cole 2006; Futato 1996; Hubbert 1989; Waselkov and Hite 1987). Later Paleoindian sites also occur in upland settings in caves and rock shelters (cf. Cambron and ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site Waters 1959; Clayton 1965, 1967; DeJarnette et al. 1962; DeJarnette and Knight 1976; Driskell 1994; Walthall 1980). Cole (2006) has presented settlement data on Clovis sites in Limestone County which suggest an upland/riverine settlement pattern with Clovis groups moving across watersheds on a seasonal basis. Data from rock shelters on Sand Mountain in northeast Alabama produced the irst evidence of luted points in an upland setting. Cumberland (Middle Paleoindian?) point fragments were found at the Rock House site and also the Boydston Creek Shelter (Clayton 1965, 1967). Quad (Late Paleoindian) projectile points were recovered from the basal layer at Flint Creek Rock Shelter in Morgan County near Decatur (Cambron and Waters 1959) and Dust Cave (Sherwood et al. 2004). This indicates that during later Paleoindian times, a regional settling in of resident populations may have occurred, with social boundaries becoming more distinct with an added emphasis on exploiting different environmental resources. survey Methods and results In addition to the general surface collections made over a period of years by Ms. Ham and others, two controlled surface collections were also conducted by the author and volunteers from the Huntsville Chapter of the Alabama Archaeological Society and students from the University of Alabama at Birmingham during the spring of 1992. A grid was established by using a transit and metric tape. The grid was oriented to magnetic north with grid squares measuring 3 m2 during the irst controlled surface collection and 6 m2 for the second controlled surface collection. Conditions were ideal for collecting during both events in terms of ground exposure and washing of the site surface by rain for the most part. However, just prior to conducting the irst controlled collection, the landowner drove his tractor and 7 cultivator over a portion of the site, which resulted in disturbance to the freshly washed surface in those areas, potentially resulting in reduced visibility. The irst controlled surface collection involved examination of 729 units of 3 m2, each of which was collected for three minutes by a single individual. The second controlled surface collection involved 169 units of 6 m2 , with each unit being collected by a single individual for ive minutes. All artifacts and rock of any type were collected in order to reduce collector bias. All materials recovered from the two controlled surface collections were washed, dried, and sorted by material class and individual recovery unit. The materials from the general surface collections also were washed, dried, and sorted to facilitate analysis. Flake debris and stone tools were sorted and counted for each collection unit while ire-cracked rock and other unmodiied rock from each collection unit were weighed to the nearest tenth of a gram. The data from the two controlled surface collections was entered into an Excel spreadsheet for subsequent contour density analysis. The two surface collection efforts resulted in a total of 17 Clovis-related tools/implements being plotted and the recovery of 236 pieces of Clovis-related laking debris and 5,125 g (11.3 lbs) of ire-cracked rock that was most likely left by Clovis inhabitants. These materials form the basis for a series of artifact/material density maps that were generated using Surfer 9 mapping software (Golden Software 2009) to examine the distribution of Clovis cultural material across the surface of the knoll. It was recognized from the out-set that long-term cultivation, erosion, and other factors have altered the original position of the artifacts, perhaps substantially. However, it was hoped that at least some general parameters of Clovis occupation/activity could be identiied that may relate to differential use of space, settlement size, and perhaps subsurface feature distribution. In addition, the two controlled surface collections 8 Journal of alabama archaeology density map shows the distribution of patinated chert laking debris from the irst controlled surface collection (Figure 4). A very light scattering of laking debris is present over primarily the western and northern portions of the collection grid. A few localized areas within the collection grid show slightly higher lake counts however lake density is very low. A light scatter of ire-cracked rock is noted for the irst controlled surface collection (Figure 5). The ire-cracked rock is broadly distributed across the grid with two areas that appear to contain concentrations, one at the western limit of the collection area and the other just above the southern edge of the grid. Meters north made under optimal collecting conditions served as a guard against signiicant sampling error or bias. The horizontal distribution of Clovis artifacts from the two controlled surface collections is presented in Figures 3-10. All Clovis artifacts included in the distribution analysis were collected from surface or plow zone context. Figure 3 depicts the distribution of unmodiied rock by weight from the second controlled surface collection. It can be seen that rock is concentrated at the northwestern corner of the collection area near the county road. This concentrated area of unmodiied rock is of secondary origin and likely associated with road construction and farming activities. The next [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 Meters east Figure 3. Distribution of unmodiied rock by weight in grams from the second controlled surface collection (100 gram interval). the Belle Mina Clovis site Meters north ensor] Meters north Meters east Figure 4. Distribution of patinated chert lake debris from the irst controlled surface collection (0.25 lake interval). Meters east Figure 5. Distribution of ire-cracked rock by weight in grams from the irst controlled surface collection (10 gram interval). 9 10 Journal of alabama archaeology a slight concentration of laking debris (Figure 6). Fire-cracked rock distribution from the second controlled surface collection shows that the majority of ire-cracked rock weight is concentrated near the center of the collection grid with perhaps smaller concentrations Meters north The results of the second controlled surface collection indicate that the majority of the patinated chert laking debris is located in the southwestern and west-central portion of the collection grid, while an additional area in the northeastern portion of the grid also contains [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 Meters east Figure 6. Distribution of patinated chert lake debris from the second controlled surface collection (0.5 lake interval). ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site showed no concentration of ire-cracked rock in the central portion of the grid. The discrepancy between the results of the irst and second controlled surface collections may be due to ield collection conditions, since surface visibility in the central portion of the grid area Meters north located at the southeastern corner of the grid and at the southern edge of the grid (Figure 7). Interestingly, two distinct clusters of irecracked rock are visible in the central area of the grid. It should be pointed out that the results of the irst controlled surface collection 11 Meters east Figure 7. Fire-cracked rock by weight in grams from the second controlled.surface collection (20 gram interval). 12 Journal of alabama archaeology lake debris collections generally agree with the results of the second, with chert laking debris most common in the southwestern and west-central portions of the grid (Figure 8). The density of laking debris drops off considerably in the eastern half of the grid. These data correspond well with information provided by Meters north was diminished during the irst collection due to disking by the landowner. The results of both controlled surface collections were combined in an attempt to produce a more robust picture of the distribution of laking debris and ire-cracked rock across the collection grid. The results of the combined [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 Meters east Figure 8. Distribution of patinated chert lake debris from both surface collections (0.5 lake interval). ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site to that of second controlled surface collection, with several concentrations noted (Figure 9). It may be important that the highest levels of ire-cracked rock occur generally east of the 30 east grid line and that the highest concentrations of laking debris occur west of the east 40 Meters north Ms. Ham, who indicated that the area that produced the majority of the Clovis artifacts was in the southwestern and west-central grid areas. A possible concentration of chert laking debris is also indicated in the northern portion of the grid. Fire-cracked rock density for the combined controlled surface collections is similar 13 Meters east Figure 9. Distribution of ire-cracked rock by weight in grams from both surface collections (20 gram interval). 14 Journal of alabama archaeology [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 CO AS BF CF UB CO UB UB BF Meters north UB BF UB BF UF CP UB UB BF CF UB CP AS CO AS UD UD UB UD AS UB Meters east Figure 10. distribution of Clovis tools/implements from both surface collections (AS: abraded stone, BF: biface fragment, CF: Clovis/luted point, CO: core, CP: Clovis preform, UB: utilized blade-blade lake, UD: uniface distal-end tool, UF: uniface lake tool). line with slight overlap near the center of the collection grid. A inal density map was produced that shows all Clovis-related tools plotted during both controlled surface collections (Figure 10). Clovis tools and implements are dispersed across most of the controlled surface collection area except for the easternmost 15 m of the grid and the northwestern corner of the grid. The modiied tools/implements occur more or less in the area that contains signiicant amounts of laking debris and ire-cracked rock. Tool categories recovered during the controlled surface collections generally conform to those from the general surface collections and virtually all are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert, although a small number of bluegreen Bangor chert lakes were also recovered. Utilized blades and unifacial retouched blades (hafted distal end scraping tools) are most common, followed by biface fragments and Clovis bifaces in various stages of reduction. Core/ core fragments, abraded stone, and a uniface lake tool also were recovered. ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site analysis and description of Clovis artifacts A total of 640 artifacts probably related to the Clovis occupation area at Belle Mina were studied, excluding ire-cracked rock. Of these, 117 are manufacture-modiied laked stone tools or implements, seven are pecked/ ground stone implements, 16 are use-modiied blades or lakes, and 500 are lake/blade debris (Table 1). All artifacts used in the present analysis come from the general and controlled surface collections (plow zone context) at the Belle Mina site. The majority of the artifacts are made from locally available blue-gray Fort Payne chert, though Bangor chert and, possibly, Tuscumbia chert, were used for some artifacts. Several different analyses are presented below. Each analysis has its own particular requirements and goals; as such it must be discussed individually. Stone tool classiication systems and lake debris classiications/ analyses are presented along with a discussion of ire-cracked rock. It should be noted that an in-depth use or functional study of Clovis implements was not performed. Any mention of function as such is based solely on overall macroscopic form and use of traditional names such as projectile point/knife, scraper, knife, chopper, with the acknowledgement that each tool may have been used for multiple tasks. Terms such as projectile point/knife and hafted end scraper imply speciic uses and microscopic research elsewhere has shown that these categories correlate well the use-wear data. However, some bifaces classiied as uninished may exhibit evidence of use if examined microscopically, since artifacts were often recycled. Unifacially retouched blades and lakes likely were used in a variety of tasks such as cutting, scraping, planing, shredding, and whittling. Again, in-depth microscopic studies are required to fully extract the behavioral information that may be present within the Belle Mina Clovis assemblage. Illustrations and 15 measurements are provided, as well as summary provenience information for most lithic categories. Tool measurements were performed using methods outlined by Futato (1977) for projectile point/knives and Ensor and Galm (1983) for other tools. Projectile Point/Knife Classiication The point types used here are those provided in the Cambron and Hulse (1975) guide to points found in Alabama. Clovis points are usually luted on both faces, have excurvate to occasionally recurvate blade edges, an incurvate, ground base, and the haft area is auriculate and pointed or rounded. Cumberland points are usually luted with recurvate blade edges, exhibit collateral laking, have incurvate basal margins, and an auriculate (eared) hafting area that is expanded-rounded. They may be representative of the Middle Paleoindian period (12,800-12,550 cal. yr B.P.) (Miller and Gingerich 2013), but it has been argued that they could also be earlier (Gramly 2009). Quad and Beaver Lake points have been dated to the Late Paleoindian period (12,550-11,400 cal. yr B.P.) (Miller and Gingerich 2013). Quad points are primarily unluted, may occasionally possess short basal lutes, have broad convex blades above the haft area, possess an incurvate base, and have an auriculate haft area that is usually ground and expanded-rounded. Beaver Lake points are unluted and biconvex in crosssection with recurvate blade edges, an incurvate, ground base, and a haft area that is auriculate and expanded-rounded. Occasionally in this analysis, a combination of point names is used to describe an artifact to relect the fact that a deinitive assignment could not be made and that the point resembled each of the named types in some respects. A total of eleven classiiable Clovis projectile/point knives and one Clovis/Cumberland projectile point/knife were recovered during 16 Journal of alabama archaeology [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 table 1. summary Metric data (mm) for artifacts recovered from Belle Mina. Category # Specimens Measured Mean (1) Clovis projectile point/knife, 14 total specimens Length 4 50.6 Width 12 24.4 Thickness 10 6.1 (2) Projectile point/knife fragment, 6 total specimens Width 4 31.0 Std. Dev. Std. Error of Mean Min. Max. 14.6 4.6 0.9 7.3 1.3 0.3 35.8 18.9 4.6 70.0 34.4 7.8 3.6 1.8 27.4 34.4 1.1 0.6 6.0 8.5 10.4 1.6 6.0 0.8 23.4 5.2 42.5 8.9 (4) Initial stage biface on lake, 1 specimen Length 1 55.7 Width 1 46.6 Thickness 1 13.5 — — — — — — 55.7 46.6 13.5 55.7 46.6 13.5 (5) Primary stage biface on lake, 2 total specimens Width 1 40.6 Thickness 1 8.8 — — — — 40.6 8.8 40.6 8.8 — 6.5 1.3 78.8 29.9 8.3 78.8 65.8 15.1 (7) Primary stage biface, indeterminate, triangular, basally thinned, 2 total specimens Length 1 99.3 — — 99.3 Width 1 46.4 — — 46.4 Thickness 2 14.7 — — 12.8 99.3 46.4 16.5 (8) Secondary stage biface, indeterminate, ovate, basally thinned, 4 total specimens Width 4 36.9 8.9 4.4 23.8 Thickness 4 8.3 0.9 0.5 7.1 43.3 9.4 (9) Secondary stage biface, indeterminate, triangular, basally thinned, 7 total specimens Length 1 66.1 — — 66.1 Width 6 31.3 3.8 1.5 27.3 Thickness 7 8.0 1.1 0.4 6.2 66.1 37.6 9.5 (10) Secondary stage biface, indeterminate, ovate, double-edged knife, 3 total specimens Length 1 40.9 — — 40.9 Width 3 39.0 3.5 2.0 36.6 Thickness 3 7.9 0.7 0.4 7.1 40.9 43.0 8.4 (11) Unifacial distal-proximal scraper on blade/blade-like lake, 21 total specimens Length 13 47.1 11.3 3.1 26.8 Width 21 23.2 4.0 0.9 17.5 Thickness 21 8.8 3.0 0.7 3.1 Edge angle 19 73.7 11.5 2.6 55.0 66.2 31.5 17.0 90.0 Thickness 4 6.9 (3) Unspeciied biface fragment, 15 total specimens Width 3 35.3 Thickness 4 7.3 (6) Primary stage biface, indeterminate, 5 total specimens Length 1 78.8 — Width 5 43.1 14.5 Thickness 5 10.4 2.8 ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site 17 (12) Unifacial distal-proximal scraper on lake, 8 total specimens Length 8 35.4 5.9 Width 8 25.8 3.5 Thickness 8 8.5 1.6 Edge angle 8 75.6 17.4 2.1 1.2 0.6 6.2 25.7 19.1 5.1 45.0 42.7 31.2 10.0 95.0 (13) Unifacial single edge tool on blade, 9 total specimens Length 2 74.7 6.4 Width 8 32.2 5.7 Thickness 9 7.3 1.8 Edge angle 9 33.3 16.2 4.6 2.0 0.6 5.4 70.1 22.3 4.7 10.0 79.2 38.5 10.1 50.0 (14) Unifacial single edge tool on lake, 6 total specimens Length 1 55.5 — Width 3 44.3 11.3 Thickness 5 8.8 2.5 Edge angle 5 38.0 13.0 — 6.5 1.1 5.8 55.5 31.3 6.5 25.0 55.5 51.3 12.7 55.0 (15) Unifacial double edge tool on blade, 7 total specimens Length 3 79.7 24.8 Width 7 25.2 8.5 Thickness 7 7.5 3.5 Edge angle 6 46.7 14.4 14.3 3.2 1.3 5.9 56.8 10.1 3.2 25.0 106.0 35.5 14.0 65.0 (16) Utilized blade/blade-like lake, 10 total specimens Width 7 25.2 Thickness 8 6.3 4.3 2.5 1.6 0.9 17.2 3.5 30.0 10.9 (17) Utilized lake, 6 total specimens, 0 measured specimens (18) Hammerstone/grinding stone, 1 specimen Length 1 81.3 — Width 1 71.4 — Thickness 1 54.0 — — — — 81.3 71.4 54.0 81.3 71.4 54.0 (19) Biface chopper, 1 specimen Length 1 Width 1 Thickness 1 70.8 52.3 45.1 — — — — — — 70.8 52.3 45.1 70.8 52.3 45.1 (20) Abrader, 6 total specimens Length 3 Width 3 Thickness 3 55.8 47.2 28.1 10.1 14.7 11.9 5.9 8.5 6.9 44.9 34.2 15.0 65.0 63.1 38.3 (21) Cylindrical blade core, 1 specimen Length 1 Width 1 Thickness 1 170.0 70.8 59.3 — — — — — — 170.0 70.8 59.3 170.0 70.8 59.3 (22) Other blade core, 5 total specimens Length 2 Width 3 Thickness 3 68.8 37.3 21.0 2.5 8.8 8.1 1.8 5.1 4.7 67.0 31.1 14.9 70.5 47.4 30.2 18 Journal of alabama archaeology the general and controlled surface collections. In addition, two artifacts classiied as Quad/ Beaver Lake points were recovered from the general surface collection. Other Clovis point fragments are present within the projectile point/knife fragment category. Summary metric data for all classiiable projectile point/ knives are included in Table 1. Each specimen is described in terms of overall form or shape, laking patterns, edge grinding, fracture types, raw material, and macroscopic traces of usewear. The following basic measurements were recorded to the nearest tenth of a millimeter for projectile points, where feasible, after Futato (1977): maximum length, maximum width, maximum thickness, and basal width. In addition to Futato’s measurements, lute length and the width and depth of the basal concavity were measured for each point where possible. technological analysis The second step involved a technological analysis that examines certain aspects of Clovis biface manufacturing and use. It is designed to measure technological variability and consists of classifying each bifacial tool/implement into a series of technological states. The theoretical basis of the system derives principally from Collins (1975) and Boisvert et al. (1979). Each biface attributable to Clovis was placed into a reduction stage and product group referred to here as a technological state or condition. The states are produced through the intersection of row and column values for each reduction stage (rows) and technological state or condition (columns). The result is a paradigmatic classiication of intersecting rows and columns with 16 possible technological states or conditions. Each bifacial artifact was classiied according to one of the cell values for purposes of understanding lithic reduction/use behavior at the site. The row values include: initial biface reduction, primary biface trimming, secondary [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 biface trimming, and reworking/recycling. In addition to the row values, column values designate the whole or fragmentary status of a specimen and whether the abandonment of the tool was due to manufacture error, use, or some other reason (Collins 1975). The column values include: unbroken/exhibits no evidence of abandonment during manufacture, unbroken/exhibits evidence of abandonment during manufacture, broken/exhibits evidence that breakage occurred during manufacture, and broken/ cause of breakage not determinable. Breakage and manufacture errors were recorded during the analysis. They are summarized and described under the lithic results section below by reduction stage. Fracture types used in the analysis are described in Tomka (1991), Crabtree (1972), Johnson (1979), and Boisvert et al. (1979). The manufacture of laked stone tools is a subtractive process in that stone is removed from the original objective piece and cannot be replaced once it is removed (Collins 1975). Many researchers view bifacial reduction as a series of stages that are used to characterize the extent of biface manufacture at a site (Bradley et al. 2010; Callahan 1979; Whittaker 1994), although some prefer to view it as a continuum (Andrefsky 1998:180). Acquisition of the raw material from either local or nonlocal sources is the irst step in tool manufacture. Determination of whether or not the raw material used in tool manufacture at a site was procured locally or at a considerable distance is an important factor to be considered when interpreting the nature of the objective pieces being reduced on-site or the completion status of imported tool forms. For purposes of the present analysis, the stage concept is used as a heuristic device to allow discussion of the nature of Clovis biface reduction at the site. However, inferences regarding both core and biface reduction behavior are made using both stone tool/implements and debitage or lake debris among others, since all data available ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site should be used when interpreting the human behavior and site activities responsible for the Clovis artifact assemblage recovered at the site (cf. Andrefsky 1998:234). For the purpose of this study, initial stage bifaces are deined as having not been substantially altered from the original objective piece. These artifacts have been either discarded prior to completion, were unusable, and/or served as lake sources. They are generally thick and possess irregular margins and may exhibit hard hammer and/or soft hammer percussion laking. Intermediate or primary stage bifaces exhibit primary laking and shaping in which the overall form of the objective piece has been substantially modiied (Boisvert et al. 1979; Collins 1975). Soft hammer percussion laking predominates and no secondary retouch is evident. Margins become more regular and additional thinning takes place. Secondary stage bifaces or preforms include inal stage bifaces that have passed through the primary laking stage and represent inal stage bifaces (including projectile point/knives) (Collins 1975). These may be hafted or unhafted, and inished or uninished, due to breakage and discard. Manufacturing operations likely to have been carried out during this stage include serration, edge straightening or grinding, luting, and hafting. Artifacts that have been substantially modiied from their original inished form include specimens that exhibit evidence of recycling or rejuvenation. Recycling is the transformation of one artifact form into another, while rejuvenation or maintenance involves replenishing a worn tool (Collins 1975). Additional information noted during the analysis considered the condition or completeness of a specimen as well as an estimation of where breakage or manufacturing errors occurred in the reduction/use cycle (cf. Boisvert et al. 1979; Collins 1975). 19 Techno-Morphological Analysis The third analytical step involved categorization of all laked/ground stone Clovis artifacts based on overall form and technology. This system involved a macro-morphological sorting of all laked stone specimens taking into account the technological reduction stages noted above. Clovis specimens were sorted using overall form and technology to categorize them into a total of 22 lithic categories, including projectile point/knives. The artifacts were classiied according to the nature of the original blank, such as cobble/tabular piece or lake, as well the placement and extent of laking or grinding. Aspects of morphology and technology are discussed for each category, including the presence or absence of cortex. Intact lithic artifacts were measured to the nearest tenth of a millimeter or gram. Measurements taken for non-projectile points tools, after Ensor and Galm (1983), include maximum length, maximum width, and maximum thickness. The data for all twenty-two categories are presented in Table 1. Category 1. Projectile Point/Knife (n=14) These bifacial tools were designed to be hafted to function as projectile points and/or knives. Enough remains of the original form to allow a typological assessment. Included in this category are hafted bifaces that have been secondarily modiied and reworked or recycled. The majority of projectile point/knives at the Belle Mina site are Clovis-related and lanceolate (triangular) in overall form. The majority appears to have been made on lake blanks, however, there are instances where a inished Clovis point was broken during use and then used as a blank to make a new Clovis point. Twelve inished Clovis points and two Quad/Beaver Lake points are described below. Summary metric data for all Clovis projectile point/knives are 20 Journal of alabama archaeology presented in Table 1 and for individual specimens in Table 2. Specimen 1. This Clovis point is largely intact with only the tip fractured (Figure 11a). It has a slightly recurvate blade edges and an incurvate base. The cross-section is biconvex to lattened and luted. It is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. Flaking is dominated by bifacial soft hammer percussion laking and pressure retouch. Both faces are luted and the lutes cross-cut lateral pressure lake scars. The blade appears to have been resharpened with numerous step fractures present along blade margins that appear to be the result of use. Grinding is present on both lateral haft element margins and also the basal edge. Specimen 2. This broad-bladed Clovis point is largely intact except for the base which has been transversely fractured, perhaps as the result of haft snap. It has excurvate blade edges (Figures 11c). The cross-section is lattened and luted. This point is made of blue-green Bangor chert and possesses no cortical material. It has been bifacially laked using a soft [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 hammer percussor. Broad lake scars travel across the blade to the opposite margin and ine pressure retouch is present along blade margins. Both faces are luted; the lutes cross-cut lateral pressure lake scars and lateral pressure retouch lake scars also cross-cut the lutes in some instances. The blade appears to have been resharpened with numerous step fractures present along blade margins that appear to be the result of use. There is some lateral edge grinding/smoothing present. Specimen 3. This Clovis point is largely intact except for the distal end, which has been fractured, perhaps due to plowing (Figure 11b). It has slightly excurvate blade edges and an incurvate base. One corner of the basal margin also exhibits a modern fracture and lateral grinding is present. The cross-section is lattened and luted. This point is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. This Clovis point exhibits broad bifacial soft hammer percussion scars that travel over half the width of the blade. Closely spaced, contiguous pressure retouch scars are present along lateral blade margins. table 2. Metric data for individual Clovis specimens (mm). Specimen Length 1 70.0 Maximum width Basal width Thickness Side 1 Side 2 Side 1 Side 2 Base Concavity Depth 22.2 21.9 6.6 27.3 29.4 10.2 12.1 2.0 Flute Length Flute Width 2 — 34.4 — 7.8 — — 15.8 15.5 — 3 — 28.0 20.7 6.6 16.4 30.0 13.2 14.2 2.1 4 — 26.1 20.4 5.9 >23.0 24.1 11.4 15.3 3.2 5 — 25.8 — 5.7 — — 9.5 9.8 — 6 — 26.0 20.8 5.3 — — 14.2 17.2 2.7 7 — — 19.8 — 10.9 — 13.2 12.1 1.9 3.1 8 — — 26.8 — — — 18.0 15.5 9 44.0 18.9 17.8 6.2 22.3 25.8 9.6 10.1 10 — — 19.6 4.6 18.9 >28.0 13.2 10.8 11 35.8 19.2 — 5.3 15.0 — 4.0-5.0 — 1.7 — 12 52.5 26.0 18.4 16.7 — — — — 2.5 ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site 21 Figure 11. Clovis type projectile point/knives, (a)-(h) Clovis specimens in Category 1: (a) Specimen 1; (b) Specimen 3; (c) Specimen 2; (d) Specimen 4; (e) Specimen 6; (f) Specimen 8; (g) Specimen 5; (h) Specimen 7; (i) Category 9 secondary stage biface, indeterminate, triangular, basally thinned (incomplete Clovis point). 22 Journal of alabama archaeology Step fractures are visible macroscopically along blade margins and they are apparently the result of use. Both faces are luted, though the point of lute origin is missing due to the fractured basal margin. Specimen 4. This Clovis point is represented by a proximal and medial section with a large portion of the blade missing due to a transverse fracture that occurred during use (Figure 11d). It has slightly excurvate blade edges and an incurvate to recurvate base. Lateral haft element edges are ground, as is a portion of the basal margin. Both faces are luted, though the point of lute origin is missing due to the fractured base. The cross-section is lattened and luted. This specimen is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. This point has been extensively thinned from the basal margin by end-thinning and luting, resulting in a deep basal concavity. Each projectile point/knife face is dominated by luting while closely spaced, contiguous pressure retouch scars are present along lateral blade margins. The lutes cross-cut the pressure retouch scars in some instances, while retouch lakes also intrude over the lutes in other cases. Specimen 5. This Clovis point is also represented by a proximal and medial section with a large portion of the blade missing due to a transverse fracture that resulted from use (Figure 11g). It is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. It has slightly excurvate blade edges, however, the base shape is unknown due to modern fractures that have removed the basal margin. One lateral haft element edge is slightly ground. Both faces are luted, though the lute origin is missing due to the fractured base. The crosssection is lattened and has been extensively thinned, with individual lutes traveling only about one-third or less of the original length of the point. Lateral retouch resulting from pressure laking are cross-cut by the lutes. Step fractures are visible macroscopically along blade margins, likely the result of use. [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 Specimen 6. This Clovis point is represented by a proximal and medial section with a portion of the distal blade missing due to transverse snap (Figure 11e). It is made of patinated bluegray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. It has one excurvate and one straight blade edge. The base shape is incurvate and the basal margin exhibits very light pressure retouch after the luting was accomplished. The lateral haft element edges and the basal margin are ground. One face is dominated by a broad lute while the opposing face is also luted. The cross-section is biconvex and luted. Lateral retouch scars resulting from pressure laking are cross-cut by the lutes. Step fractures are visible macroscopically along blade margins, which are likely the result of use. Specimen 7. This Clovis point is represented by a proximal section with a large portion of the distal blade missing due to a transverse snap that probably occurred during use (Figure 11h). It is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. Grinding was noted along the haft element and basal margin and one area at the intersection of base and blade appears to be polished. It has an incurvate basal margin. The shape of the blade edges is unclear since very little of the blade remains. The lateral haft element edges are ground as is the basal margin. Both faces are luted and the cross-section is biconvex and luted. Few lateral retouch scars are detectable. Specimen 8. This Clovis point is also represented by a proximal section, with a large portion of the distal blade missing due to a transverse haft snap that probably occurred during use (Figure 11f).The point is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. Grinding was noted along haft element and basal margin, which is incurvate. The shape of the blade edges is unclear since very little of the blade remains. The lateral haft element edges are ground as is the basal margin. Both faces are luted with the lutes dominating both faces. The cross-section ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site is biconvex and luted. Few lateral retouch scars are detectable. Specimen 9. This Clovis point is largely intact with only the tip and a small portion of the base fractured (Figure 12a). It has straight blade edges and a straight base. It is basically triangular in form with a biconvex cross-section and 23 is luted. It is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. The point is made from the medial-distal portion of a broken Clovis point. Flaking is dominated by bifacial soft hammer percussion laking and pressure retouch. Both faces are luted and the lutes cross-cut lateral pressure lake Figure 12. Other Paleoindian types of projectile point/knives from Category 1: (a) Specimen 9, Clovis fragment; (b) Specimen 11, Clovis; (c) Specimen 13, Quad/Beaver Lake type; (d) Specimen 12, unluted Clovis; (e) Specimen 10, Clovis/Cumberland type; (f) Specimen 14, Quad/Beaver Lake type. 24 Journal of alabama archaeology retouch scars. Very little grinding is noted on the haft element edges although light grinding is present on the basal edge. Specimen 10. This specimen has characteristics of both Clovis and Cumberland points. It is represented by a proximal end with a large portion of the blade missing due to a transverse haft snap that probably occurred during use (Figure 12e).Other smaller fractures are present on the base and along one proximal margin which preclude an overall deinitive assessment of the original form. The point is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. Grinding was noted along haft element and basal margin, which is incurvate. The shape of the blade edges is unclear since a large portion of the blade is missing. Both faces are luted; a long narrow lute similar to that seen on Cumberland points is present on one face while the other possesses a Clovis-like lute. The cross-section is biconvex and luted. Few lateral retouch scars are detectable. Specimen 11. This small Clovis point is made from a broken Clovis medial-distal point fragment. It is largely intact with only the tip and a small portion of the base fractured, although modern plow damage has also removed a small portion of one lateral margin (Figure 12b). It has an angular shaped blade edge. The overall form of the base is unclear although there is a hint that it may have been incurvate. The cross-section is biconvex and luted. It is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. Flaking is the result of bifacial soft hammer percussion and pressure retouch. It appears that the blade has been resharpened, resulting in the formation of a slightly angular blade shape. Both faces are luted and the lutes cross-cut lateral pressure lake retouch scars. Grinding is noted on the haft element edges and on the basal edge. Specimen 12. This specimen appears to be an unluted Clovis point. It has excurvate blade [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 margins and an incurvate base (Figure 12d). It also resembles Beaver Lake/Dalton somewhat but the laking appears to be more consistent with Clovis, assuming the blade is excurvate. If the blade edge is recurvate, then Beaver Lake would be more accurate. Extensive modern plow damage removed small areas of the blade and basal margins. The point is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possesses no cortical material. Flaking is by soft hammer percussion with some pressure retouch along blade and basal margins. Grinding was noted along haft element and basal margin. The cross-section is biconvex. Specimen 13. This Quad/Beaver Lake projectile point/knife is represented by the base and a proximal portion of the blade. It was transversely fractured, most likely during use. The basal edge and the blade shape are recurvate (Figure 12c). Soft hammer percussion laking is evident on the blade and haft element and the haft element and basal edges are heavily ground. Short lute-like thinning lakes have been removed from the basal margin through a combination of pressure laking and soft hammer percussion. These travel some 12 to 17 mm toward the distal end, resulting in an extremely thin haft element. It is made of patinated bluegray Fort Payne chert, no cortical material is present, and the cross-section is biconvex. Specimen 14. This Quad/Beaver Lake projectile point/knife is represented by the base and proximal portion of the blade. It was transversely fractured, probably during use. The basal edge is recurvate while the blade shape is recurvate to angular in form (Figure 12f). Soft hammer percussion laking is evident on the blade and haft element and lateral pressure retouch is evident along lateral haft element margins. The haft element edges are ground, however, no grinding was detected on the base. A series of narrow, lute-like thinning lakes are present on one face that originate at the base and travel distally some 18 mm. The result is an extremely thin haft element similar to the ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site other Quad/Beaver Lake example discussed above. It is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert; no cortical material is present, and the cross-section is lattened. Lateral grinding/ smoothing of haft element edges is present. Category 2. Projectile Point/Knife Fragment (n=6) Included in this category are projectile point/ knife fragments that cannot be assigned a type name due to breakage. All of these are made of patinated Fort Payne chert and include primarily distal tips and mid-sections. At least two of these are Clovis-related, based on laking patterns, raw material and degree of patination (Figure 13d). 25 Category 3. Unspeciied Biface Fragment (n=15) Non-diagnostic fragments of bifacially laked stone tools make up this category. The stage of bifacial reduction is unknown for many of these small bifacial fragments. All of these are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert except for one which is made of blue-green Bangor chert. Although not all of these fragments can be deinitively assigned to a particular reduction stage, the majority appear to be derived from either primary or secondary stage reduction failures and use-related fractures or modern breakage. Based on raw material, degree of patination, and laking patterns it appears that the majority of these are Clovis-related. This is supported by the patinated biface fragment that Figure 13. Artifact Categories 2, 6, 7, and 22: (a) Category 6, primary stage biface, indeterminate; (b) Category 7, primary stage biface, indeterminate, basally thinned; (c), (e) Category 22, wedge-shaped blade cores; (d) Category 2, reworked Clovis point/knife fragment with overshot laking. 26 Journal of alabama archaeology possesses a clear example of overshot laking (Figure 14g). Category 4. Initial Stage Biface on Flake (n=1) One initial stage biface made of blue-gray Fort Payne chert was recovered from the general surface collection. It is made on a thick, expanding cortical lake blank that was likely produced from a bifacial core. This specimen exhibits a percussion-laked sinuous bifacial edge on one margin, and the lake striking platform was removed by percussion laking. No pressure secondary retouch is present, and it has a plano-convex cross-section. It appears that the biface was abandoned during manufacture. Category 5. Primary Stage Biface on Flake (n=2) This category is represented by two abandoned Clovis bifaces that were likely destined to be Clovis points prior to breakage (Figure 14e). One is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert while the other is made of slightly patinated gray Fort Payne chert. They appear to be made on lakes, and both have been laked using soft hammer percussion with no pressure retouch evident. Edge dulling and platform preparation was noted on one specimen that also exhibits classic Clovis overshot laking on one surface. They have an ovate to sub-triangular plan view and are biconvex in cross-section. Category 6. Primary Stage Biface, Indeterminate (n=5) These bifaces, with the exception of one small proximal biface fragment, appear to represent intermediate stage Clovis preforms (Figure 13a and Figure 14b, d, f). They are all made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and are biconvex in cross-section. The nature of the original blank is unknown, but they were likely made on large lake blanks. All were either [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 abandoned or broken during manufacture. They tend to be ovate to sub-triangular in plan view. These bifaces possess lateral thinning that has been accomplished using soft hammer percussion laking, and no pressure retouch is present. Lateral thinning lakes routinely travel over three-quarters of the width of the blade and two examples exhibit overshot laking (see Figure 14b). Category 7. Primary Stage Biface, Indeterminate, Basally Thinned (n=2) Two primary stage bifaces were recovered that possess basal or end thinning on both surfaces. These bifaces are classiied as primary stage since there is clear evidence of shaping and thinning, although one appears to fall into the earlier portion of this stage (Figure 13b). The nature of the blank is unknown, but it is likely that a large lake blank was used. They represent aborted Clovis preforms and are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert. No cortex is present on either artifact. One specimen is largely intact and has a straight base, slightly excurvate blade edges, and a biconvex cross-section (Figure 14a). It exhibits overshot laking on one surface. The other specimen is somewhat amorphous in shape and contains old and modern fractures (Figure 13b). They have been laked laterally and basally by soft hammer percussion, and no pressure retouch is evident. Category 8. Secondary Stage Biface, Indeterminate, Ovate, Basally Thinned (n=4) A total of four ovate–shaped Clovis projectile point preforms were collected that exhibit secondary laking, including basal or end thinning (Figures 14g, 15a-c). These are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and generally have an ovate plan view and biconvex cross-section. None possess cortex and all ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site 27 Figure 14. Artifact Categories 3, 5-9: (a) Category 7, primary stage biface, indeterminate, basally thinned; (b), (d), (f) Category 6, primary stage bifaces, indeterminate; (c) Category 9, secondary stage biface, indeterminate, triangular, basally thinned; (e) Category 5, primary stage biface on lake; (g) Category 8, secondary stage biface, indeterminate, ovate, basally thinned; (h) Category 3, unspeciied biface fragment with Clovis overshot termination. 28 Journal of alabama archaeology were broken during manufacture. These bifaces have been secondarily thinned using soft hammer percussion and one specimen has a remnant overshot termination scar visible near the margin, and opposite the edge from which it was struck (Figure 15b). In general, a single, relatively broad basal or end-thinning lake has been removed from one face of each specimen. It seems that the large end-thinning lakes were removed using soft hammer percussion from a slightly beveled edge that served as the striking platform. One bifacial example retains multiple basal or end-thinning removals on each side. Category 9. Secondary Stage Biface, Indeterminate, Triangular, Basally Thinned (n=7) In addition to the four ovate Clovis preforms described above, a total of seven secondarily laked, triangular-shaped, late stage Clovis preforms were recovered (Figure 11i, 14c, 15d-i). The nature of the original blank is unclear but, they were most likely made on lake blanks. They are all made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and possess biconvex crosssections, straight to slightly excurvate blade edges, and straight proximal margins. No cortex was observed on any of these specimens, and all show evidence of abandonment during manufacture. One specimen is largely intact except for a modern fracture on the tip, while the remainder shows old breaks. These artifacts have been laterally and basally thinned by soft hammer percussion and pressure retouch. On two specimens, luting was successful on one face before being broken while attempting to lute the other side (Figure 15e, f). It appears that basal thinning and luting attempts were carried out via soft hammer percussion from slightly beveled platforms and there is no evidence of elaborate platform preparation. Three examples possess overshot lake scars (Figures 14c, 15d, g). Figure 11i illustrates a secondarily thinned Clovis biface with a beveled edge at [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 the base that may have been prepared for removal of a lute. Category 10. Secondary Stage Biface, Indeterminate, Ovate, Double-Edge Knife (n=3) Three well-thinned ovate Clovis bifaces appear to have served as bifacial knives or cutting/ scraping tools. They all exhibit soft hammer percussion laking and pressure retouch and are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert. None possess cortex and the nature of the original blank is unclear. The smallest biface is intact and appears to have been considerably reworked (Figure 16a). One specimen has a denticulate saw-like margin although modern plow damage/retouch accounts for some of the jagged appearance as well as a modern distal blade fracture (Figure 16b). Another specimen also has a modern transverse fracture of the blade (Figure 16c). While it is possible that the two largest specimens may have been intended to be Clovis points, there is no indication of abandonment or recycling into a new tool form. Rather, they appear to have served primarily as cutting tools. One specimen possesses small step fractures along one margin that appear to be use-related. Category 11. Unifacial Distal-Proximal Scraper on Blade/Blade-like Flake (n= 21) The collection includes a total of 21 unifacially-retouched scrapers made primarily on blades produced from Clovis blade cores (Figures 17 and Figure 18a-b, e-g). The blades are slightly curved and some are also twisted and retain a smoothed and ground platform. All are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and none possess cortical material. Most are intact, but a few have been transversely snapped along the blade, ostensibly from use. A few of these scrapers are made on blade-like lakes and it is uncertain whether the blade-like ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site 29 Figure 15. Artifact Categories 8 and 9: (a)-(c), Category 8, secondary stage bifaces, indeterminate, ovate, basally thinned; (d)-(i), Category 9, secondary stage bifaces, indeterminate, triangular, basally thinned. 30 Journal of alabama archaeology [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 Figure 16. Artifact Category 10, secondary stage bifaces, indeterminate, ovate, double-edge knives: (a)-(c), Clovis bifacial knives. appearance is due to removal from a prepared blade core or from a bifacial core. The working edge is formed by steep unifacial retouch either by soft hammer percussion or pressure. Most appear to be resharpened, and examples of scraper retouch lakes were found in the debitage sample. These scraper resharpening lakes were removed from a lateral margin and were struck parallel to the distal working margin. Numerous use-related step fractures are present on the distal scraper margins and on the scraper resharpening lakes. Modern fractures are also present along the margins of some of these tools. Many of these scrapers possess unifacial retouch along blade margins that may have served to blunt the margins in preparation for hafting (Figure 17b). Small arrows in Figure 17d, e, j refer to modern fracturing along tool margins. Bending and step fractures are also present along lateral tool margins and it appears that they are primarily the result either of use or haft-wear. Two examples of graver spurs are present on the working end of each tool (Figures 17e, h), however the majority does not possess such spurs. One specimen appears to possess a spokeshave along one lateral margin (Figure 17a). It appears that the scrapers were hafted and may have been inserted into ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site 31 Figure 17. Artifact Cateory 11, unifacial distal-proximal scrapers on blade/blade-like lakes or blade segments: (a) spokeshave along the lateral margin; (b) with unifacial retouching (d), (e), (j) showing recent fracturing along tool margins; (e), (h) with graver spurs; (i), (l) steeply retouched margins on the proximal and distal ends. 32 Journal of alabama archaeology [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 Figure 18. Artifact Categories 11 and 12: (a), (b), (e)-(g), Category 11, unifacial distal-proximal scrapers on blade/blade segments; (a) showing steeply retouched margins on the proximal and distal ends; (c), (d), (h), Category 12, distal-proximal scrapers on lakes, with (d) showing steeply retouched proximal and distal margins. some type of wooden, bone, or antler socket. The majority of these tools seem to have been made on blades drawn from a prepared core. Most of these possess a distal margin that has been steeply retouched, creating a steep working edge angle of between 55 and 90 degrees, with a mean working edge angle of 74 degrees (see Table 1). Three specimens retain steeply retouched margins on both the proximal and distal ends of the tool (Figures 17i, l; 18a). These artifacts were likely re-hafted. Category 12. Unifacial Distal-Proximal Scraper on Flake (n=8) Though similar to those described in the previous category, these scrapers are made on lakes that were probably derived from Clovis bifacial cores (Figure 18c-d, h). The lake blanks, some of which retain ground platforms, are generally straight in proile, although a slight curvature was noted on a few specimens. These scrapers are generally made of patinated blue-gray ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site Fort Payne chert, and one possesses cortex on the striking platform. All but one exhibit steep unifacial retouching along distal margins. The remaining artifact possesses steep unifacial retouching along both proximal and distal margins (Figure 18d). It also appears that this artifact may have been re-hafted after the distal working edge became exhausted. Overall these tools are characterized by a high degree of resharpening and the heavy presence of use-related step laking along distal margins. Working edge angles range from 45 to 95 degrees, with a mean working edge angle of 76 degrees (see Table 1). Small concavities resembling spokeshaves were noted along the margin of two examples. Soft hammer percussion retouch is present along lateral lake margins and it appears that these tools were hafted. Category 13. Unifacial Single Edge Tool on Blade (n=9) Nine artifacts collected at the Belle Mina site are made on blades that appear to have served as unifacial cutting tools (Figure 19c, e). A single lateral margin has been unifacially retouched by either soft hammer percussion or pressure retouch. Extensive plow damage has created modern edge fractures on many of these specimens. All are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and none show evidence of cortical material. Blade proiles are both curved and relatively straight, and grinding associated with platform preparation was retained on some specimens. Edge angles are generally acute and range from 10 to 50 degrees, with a mean working edge angle of 33 degrees, perhaps indicative of primary use as cutting/whittling implements. Macroscopic evidence of use-wear is present in the form of step and bending fractures and edge crushing indicating contact with hard substances. One example appears to possess a spokeshave along one lateral margin. 33 Category 14. Unifacial Single Edge Tool on Flake (n= 6) These unifacial cutting tools are similar to the single edge cutting tools described above, except these are made on lakes most likely derived from Clovis bifacial cores. Most of the lake blanks are slightly curved in proile. All are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and none retain cortex. The modern fractures present along margins are largely the result of plowing. These lakes exhibit acute unifacial soft hammer percussion or pressure retouch along one lateral lake margin. Step laking and bending fractures were noted along lake margins, which indicate use as cutting tools. Edge angles range between 25 and 55 degrees, with a mean working edge angle of 38 degrees. Category 15. Unifacial Double Edge Tool on Blade (n=7) These unifacial cutting tools also are very similar to those described in Category 13 (Figure 19b, d). The main difference is that they have portions of two lateral edges, rather than one, that have been intentionally retouched. Most of the blade blanks are slightly curved in proile. All are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and none retain cortex. The modern fractures present along margins are largely the result of plowing. The blades exhibit acute unifacial soft hammer percussion or pressure retouch along two lateral lake margins. Step laking and bending fractures were noted along lake margins, indicating use as cutting tools. Edge angles range between 25 and 65 degrees, and they have a mean edge angle of 47 degrees. Category 16. Utilized Blade/Blade-like Flake (n=10) A total of 10 blades/blade-like lakes were recovered that showed macroscopic evidence of use (see lake/blade debitage discussion [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 Journal of alabama archaeology 34 Figure 19. Artifact Categories 13, 15, and 21: (a) Category 21, cylindrical blade core; (b), (d), Category 15, unifacial double edge tools on blades; (c), (e), Category 13, unifacial single edge tools on blades. ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site below). Localized areas along blade margins exhibit edge crushing and bending and step fractures, indicating use in a range of cutting/ scraping tasks (Figure 20f, h, i). Category 17. Utilized Flake (n=6) Six lakes recovered from the general surface collection exhibit macroscopic evidence of use. They are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert. Localized areas along lake margins show small bending and step fractures along with nicking, crushing, and smoothing. No measurement data was obtained for utilized lakes. Category 18. Hammerstone/Grinding Stone (n=1) A single quartzite hammerstone was recovered from the general surface collection. It possesses localized areas of crushing and battering indicating that it was used in hammering or pounding tasks. Its smoothed and ground surfaces indicate that it may have also served as a grinding stone. Category 19. Biface Chopper (n=1) One thick biface that exhibits hard hammer percussion laking was recovered at Belle Mina. It is made of quartzite and the nature of the original blank is unclear. The bifacial edge forms an obtuse angle, and it appears to have been hand-held. It was likely used in heavy duty chopping, shredding, or pounding tasks. 35 Category 21. Cylindrical Core (n=1) A single conical Clovis blade core was collected during the general surface collection at the Belle Mina site (Figure 19a). It is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and appears to have patches of cortical material on the surface, indicating that the original raw material form may have been an elongated nodule. This core exhibits extensive platform preparation at its widest end in the form of soft hammer percussion scars directed perpendicular to the axis of percussion. Core shaping and platform preparation allowed the removal of a minimum of six long blades that ranged from 60-120 mm in length and 15-25 mm in width. The distal end of the core has been bifacially laked to form an acute margin, perhaps as a platform for future blade removals or to serve as a pick/chopper working edge. Category 22. Other Blade Cores (n=5) Two small core fragments were recovered that have one or more lake removals. Both are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and neither retains cortex. The nature of the original core is unclear. These specimens were immeasurable. Three small “wedge” blade cores were recovered that appear to be of Clovis origin (see Figure 13c, e). All are made of patinated Fort Payne chert and exhibit two or more blade removals and one has burin-like removals from one core edge (Figure 13c). These cores use acute platforms that were prepared using bifacial laking in an opportunistic manner. Category 20. Abrader (n=6) Six stones were recovered that have smoothed/ ground surfaces indicative of use as abrading stones. Four are made of quartzite, one is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert, and one is made of sandstone. One quartzite specimen has a series of narrow grooves that may have served to sharpen other tools. Flake/Blade debris analysis A total of 500 pieces of lake/blade debris or debitage was recovered from the surface collections undertaken at the Belle Mina site. The lake debris data from the general surface collection (n=264) are summarized in Table 3. All [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 Journal of alabama archaeology 36 Figure 20. Clovis blades: (a) core preparation blade; (b) crested blade; (c)-(e) blade/blade segments; (f), (h)-(i) Category 16, utilized blades; (g) blade fragment; (j) blade segment. ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site 37 table 3. Flake/blade debris from the General surface Collection. Flake Size Blades Flake/blades Flakes Total (%) Burned/Pot-lidded — 8 14 22 (8.3) — 1 (1 inch, >36 mm) 2 (3/4 inch, 25-36) mm) 2 4 12 18 (6.8) 1 3 (1/2 inch, 17-25 mm) 7 3 48 58 (22.0) 1 4 (3/8 inch, 12-17 mm) — — 67 67 (25.4) 7 5 (1/4 inch, 9-12 mm) — — 99 99 (37.5) 12 9 15 240 264 (100.0) 21 Total of these lakes/blades are made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert and 21 displayed evidence or pot-lidding or burning. A total of nine unmodiied blades, 15 blade-lakes, and 240 lakes are present in the general surface collection. The majority of debitage recovered from the two controlled surface collections (n=236) were non-diagnostic, thin lake fragments although some diagnostic lakes and blades were recovered (Table 4). The majority of these (n=210) are made of patinated bluegray Fort Payne chert, while 22 are made of blue-green Bangor chert, and four are made of unidentiied chert. Only the lake debris from the general surface collection was used in the in-depth lake debris analyses. However, the debitage from both controlled surface collections was quantiied by collection unit and forms the basis for the intra-site distributional artifact study presented below. All stone tools were pulled for separate analysis while sorting debitage. Two separate approaches were taken in the analysis of lake debris at the Belle Mina site. First, a size grade analysis was undertaken of all debitage from the general surface collection, following methods outlined in Ahler (1975), Patterson (1982, 1990), and Shott (1994). Second, an attribute analysis was performed on all diagnostic pieces of debitage from the general surface collection (n=111). The two approaches were designed to complement one another and the general stone tool analysis and to help clarify lithic reduction practices at the site. They were also used to provide additional information about lithic resource procurement behavior and overall technological organization. table 4. artifacts from the Controlled surface Collections. Characteristics Controlled Surface Collections Totals 1 2 Fort Payne Chert 119 91 210 Bangor Chert 13 9 22 Other raw material 3 1 4 Flake/Blade Debris 135 101 236 6 1 7 Blade Count Platform-bearing remnant Fire-cracked rock (g) 21 43 64 2,028.7 3,096.3 5,125.0 38 Journal of alabama archaeology Size-Grading A total of 264 lakes/lake fragments were recovered from the general surface collections (see Table 3). All laking debris, including diagnostic and non-diagnostic lakes, was sizegraded through a series of ive nested geologic sieves. Sieve sizes included 1 inch (>36 mm), three-quarters inch (25-36 mm), one-half inch (17-25 mm), three-eighths inch (12-17 mm), and one-quarter inch (9-12 mm), referred to hereafter as Sizes 1-5, respectively. Any lakes smaller than 12 mm were included in the onequarter inch screen size. Counts were recorded for each size grade. Attribute Analysis A second analysis was conducted to capture variability in terms of lake attributes which may be related to different reduction practices (cf. Andrefsky 1994a; Drollinger 1988; Shott 1994). Only intact, platform-bearing remnant lakes (n=111) (here termed diagnostic) were used in the analysis sample. The following discrete variables and their values were recorded for diagnostic lakes following Drollinger (1988): cortex, platform lipping, platform faceting, platform grinding, and dorsal lake scar count. These attributes were recorded for intact lakes within each size grade, which [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 resulted in a general measurement classiication to go along with the discrete attributes. Non-diagnostic or thin lake fragments are partial lakes without a platform. They are small in size and very thin. Portions of the original lake lateral/distal margins are usually present. They may or may not possess cortex, and generally represent the distal one-quarter to one-half of the original lake. Since platform characteristics are not observable, they were excluded from the attribute analysis sample. The variables of platform faceting, grinding, and lipping also were recorded during the analysis of the lake sample. Flake platforms retaining evidence of less than or equal to two facets were coded separately from those containing greater than two facets and from those possessing cortex. Flakes were coded for presence or absence of platform grinding and for the total number of dorsal lake scars. The presence or absence of platform lipping was also recorded. In addition to the lake attributes and presence/absence values recorded, a series of continuous variables were recorded to the nearest tenth of a millimeter. These included platform thickness, platform width, platform angle, lake length, lake width, and lake thickness, wherever possible. Summary statistics for this data set are presented in Table 5. All lake measurements were taken using methods described by table 5. Metric data for debitage from the General surface Collection (mm). Debitage Amount Mean Median Std. Dev. Std. Error of Mean Minimum Maximum Platform thickness 100 2.8 2.0 3.0 0.3 0.6 22.1 Platform width 99 7.9 6.2 5.5 0.6 1.5 42.2 Platform angle 84 63.9 60.0 17.1 1.9 25 110 Flake length 58 27.5 20.1 20.0 2.6 8.3 92.5 Flake width 92 23.2 18.6 14.6 1.5 8.6 77.8 Flake thickness 101 4.1 2.8 3.8 0.4 0.8 25.1 ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site Wilmsen (1972:199-200). Metric hand calipers were used to take linear measurements and polar coordinate grid paper and hand lens were used to obtain platform angles. However, due to the somewhat subjective nature of this method, platform striking angles are likely accurate only to plus or minus ive degrees. Fire-Cracked Rock Fire-cracked rock is a thermally altered stone, either natural or intentional, that exhibits crenated fractures, irregular, jagged edges, severe crazing/issures, pot-lid fractures, and discoloration. There is an absence of ventral or interior surfaces that might be interpreted as a piece of 39 laking debris, shatter, or a core. Fire-cracked rock from the Clovis occupation at Belle Mina is very uniform in color and is derived primarily from water-worn quartzite cobbles indicative of an alluvial source. Approximately 5,125 g (11.3 lbs.) of ire-cracked rock was collected from the two controlled surface collections. The majority of these were small fragments although occasionally a large portion of a irecracked cobble was recovered. These cobbles may have been procured from the Tennessee River south of the site, or older alluvial deposits, as they are composed of metamorphosed quartzite and other rock of metamorphic origin. Figure 21. Percentages of select artifact categories. 40 Journal of alabama archaeology results of analysis Stone Tools/Implements One hundred thirty-three laked stone tools/implements (including utilized blades and lakes) and seven pecked or ground stone artifacts are present in the combined surface collections at Belle Mina (see Table 1). These consist primarily of Clovis projectile point/knives, two Quad/ Beaver Lake projectile point/knives, and other bifaces in various stages of reduction or completion, and a range of unifacially retouched or use-modiied blade/blade-lake or lake tools produced by Clovis occupants. Figure 21 graphs the percentage of the major Clovis lithic categories at Belle Mina. It is shown that unifacial distal scrapers and single/double edge tools dominate the assemblage followed by Clovis projectile point/knives, secondary stage Clovis bifaces, and primary stage Clovis bifaces. Other tool/implement categories are less well represented and include utilized blades and lakes, small biface fragments, cores, biface knives, an initial stage biface, a bifacial chopper, a hammerstone/grinding stone, and abraders. Initial (n=1), primary (n=9), and secondary stage Clovis bifaces (n=11) predominate the bifacial forms, with completed and reworked Clovis projectile point/knives (n=12) also common. Examples of overshot laking and end, or basal, thinning of Clovis preforms are present. A variety of manufacture errors are described and summarized below. Other tools include three, thin Clovis bifaces that likely served as cutting implements and a bifacial quartzite chopping tool that may be related to the Clovis occupation. Fifteen unspeciied biface fragments, most of which are related to the Clovis occupation, and six un-typed projectile point/ knife fragments were also recovered. The majority of unifacially retouched tools at Belle Mina (n=51) are made on blades or [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 blade lakes, as deined by Bradley et al. (2010) and Collins (1999), with only a small percentage made on expanding bifacial thinning lakes. Many of these were evidently hafted with steeply retouched distal ends (n=29), and were used as scrapers or planes in addition to performing other tasks. Others retouched unifaces (n=22) have acutely retouched lateral margins that would have been better suited of cutting/butchering tasks. Use-modiied blades or blade-lakes (n=10) and utilized lakes (n=6) are also present. Distal end scraping/planing tools have steeply retouched distal margins with edge angles ranging from 45 to 95 degrees. Acute edge unifaces on blades and lakes possess working edge angles that range from 20 to 65 degrees. Only a single, large conical blade core was available for study along with three other wedge-shaped blade cores from the surface collections. Careful platform preparation, including grinding, is present on the conical blade core. Platform preparation in the form of bifacial laking is present along one or more margins of the wedge cores. It appears that many of the blade and blade-lake blanks used to make the unifacial tools were produced at Belle Mina from blade and bifacial cores. Fracture types were recorded for all bifaces, and the overwhelming majority of these are related to Clovis biface manufacture. Two of the bifaces, the unluted Clovis point and an ovate bifacial knife, were not fractured, and they did not exhibit manufacture errors. Table 6 provides an inventory of fracture types for each bifacial category that potentially relect Clovis projectile point/knife manufacture. It can be seen that modern fractures (n=11) and fractures of unknown origin (n=12) are most common followed by end shock (n=6), haft snap (n=5), and transverse break (n=5). Overshot or reverse hinge manufacture errors (n=3), perverse fractures (n=3) and law in the material (n=3) are the next three most common errors noted. Individual examples of thermal fracture, knot, ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site 41 table 6. Fracture types associated with Clovis Biface Manufacture. Fracture Type Lithic Categorya Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Unknown 3 2 6 — — — 1 — — — 12 Transverse Break — 1 2 — 1 1 — — — — 5 Perverse Fracture — 1 — — — 1 — — 1 — 3 Hinge Termination — — — 1 — — — — 1 — 2 Knot — — — — — — — — 1 — 1 Edge Collapse or Crushing — — 1 — — — — — — — 1 Flaw in Material — — — — — 2 — — 1 — 3 Haft Snap 5 — — — — — — — — — 5 Thermal Fracture — — 1 — — — — — — — 1 Impact-use Fracture — 1 — — — — — — — — 1 Modern Fracture 3 1 3 — 1 — — — 1 2 11 Overshot or Reverse Hinge — — 1 — — — — — 2 — 3 End Shock — — 1 — — 1 — 4 — — 6 Step Fracture — — — — — — 1 — — — 1 a 1-Clovis projectile point/knife; 2-Projectile point/knife fragment; 3-Unspeciied biface fragment; 4-Initial stage biface on lake; 5-Primary stage biface on lake; 6-Primary stage biface, indeterminate; 7-Primary stage biface, indeterminate, basally thinned; 8-Secondary biface, indeterminate, ovate, basally thinned; 9-Secondary stage biface, indeterminate, triangular, basally thinned; 10-Secondary stage biface, indeterminate, ovate, double-edge knife excessive step fracturing, and edge collapse or crushing were also noted. Two hinge fracture termination errors were present and one Clovis point possesses an impact/use fracture. The most common fracture type present on Clovis projectile point/knives is haft snap. Modern and unknown fractures are also present. The single example of an initial stage biface on lake exhibits hinge terminations. Fracture/error types associated with primary stage Clovis bifaces included transverse break (n=2), perverse fracture (n=1), end shock (n=1), step fracture (n=1), law in material (n=2), and modern/unknown fractures (n=2). Secondary stage Clovis bifaces that have been basally or end-thinned exhibit a range of manufacture/error types including end shock (n=4), overshot or reverse hinge error (n=2), single examples of perverse and hinge fracture errors, law in material (n=1), and modern fractures (n=3). Table 7 summarizes Clovis biface breakage and condition by reduction stage. The majority of fractures (n=23) occurred during manufacture or use. Knapping errors or fractures due 42 Journal of alabama archaeology [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 table 7. Clovis Biface Breakage or Condition by reduction stage. Initial Biface Primary Biface Secondary Biface Clovis Projectile Point/Knife Total Unbroken, no evidence of abandonment — — — 1 1 Unbroken, evidence of abandonment 1 1 — Broken, breakage during manufacture or use — 6 9 8 23 Broken, cause unknown — 1 2 — 3 Reworking present — — 1 3 4 1 8 12 12 33 Breakage or Condition by Reduction Stage Total to use are present on six primary stage bifaces, nine secondary stage bifaces, and eight Clovis projectile point/knives. None of the primary or secondary stage bifaces appear to have been used but were discarded during manufacture. However, many of the projectile point/knives exhibit fractures indicating they were broken during use and abandoned on-site. An initial stage biface and a primary stage biface are broken and exhibit evidence of abandonment during manufacture. A single Clovis projectile point/knife is complete and there is no obvious sign of abandonment. A primary stage biface and two secondary stage bifaces are broken and the reason for the breakage is unknown. Finally, reworking is present on two secondary stage bifaces and three Clovis projectile point/ knives. Flake Debris or Debitage Of the 264 pieces of lake/blade debris, nine are blade/blade fragments, 15 are blade-lakes or blade-lake fragments, and 240 are lakes (see Table 3). The percentage of lake debris 2 caught in each size grade was plotted (Figure 22). It may be seen that the percentage of smaller lake sizes (Sizes 4 and 5) are most frequent, although a substantial number of larger blade-lakes and blade fragments (Sizes 1-3) are present as well. Patterson (1990) indicates that a bifacial reduction sequence related to projectile point/knife manufacture should produce a graph that shows a continuously steeper curve that is heavily weighted toward smaller lake sizes although exceptions may occur. Figure 22 shows that this is not the case for the Belle Mina lake debris data. While the graph does show an overall increase in the smaller lake sizes, the line is not smooth and continuous. It shows small dips and peaks which may indicate that prepared core reduction and core lake/blade blank production occurred on-site in addition to biface manufacture. These data seem to be in agreement with the presence of cores and initial, primary, and secondary stage bifaces at the site as well as discarded and broken Clovis projectile point/knives. Blades were used as blanks for unifacial distal end tools as ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site 43 Figure 22. Percentages of lake size categories from the general surface collection: Size 1: 1 inch (>36 mm); Size 2: three-quarters inch (25-36 mm); Size 3: one-half inch (17-25 mm); Size 4: three-eighths inch (12-17 mm); Size 5: one-quarter inch (9-12 mm). well as single and double edge unifaces as described above. Special blade forms indicative of blade core preparation are also present in the debitage sample. These include another core preparation blade and a crested blade (Figure 22a, b). Some of the blades showed evidence of utilization (Figure 22f, h, i). A special lake type noted was the distal edge tool (scraper) re-sharpening lake, and several of these were noted in the collection. In addition to the presence of blade cores and blades, the occurrence of numerous bladelakes (cf. Collins 1999) suggests that bifacial cores were also used to produce tool blanks at the site (Figure 23a, b, g). It is noteworthy that only 3% of the intact laking debris retains cortex, suggesting that raw material was brought onto the site in the form of trimmed or prepared cores or lake blanks. The results of the lake attribute analysis indicate that faceted versus non-faceted platforms are present in about equal proportions among the ive lake sizes. This suggests that bifacial lakes or blade/lakes probably were removed from both bifacial cores and that all stages of bifacial reduction related to Clovis projectile point/knife manufacture are represented. Platform dulling or grinding was noted on over 80 percent of the lake platforms and they encompass all lake sizes. This indicates that careful platform preparation was conducted throughout the biface reduction sequence. Flake platform width and thickness decrease signiicantly between lake sizes 1-2 and lake sizes 3-5 but do not vary signiicantly within these two groups. Striking platform angles were consistent among the lake sizes with only lake Size 4 platform angles differing signiicantly from the other four lake sizes. The reason for this difference is unclear. The ubiquity of bifacial thinning lakes of all sizes is consistent with biface manufacture and small retouch/rejuvenation lakes suggest that tool rejuvenation and maintenance were conducted on-site. Of particular interest in the lake debris sample is thick end-scraper resharpening lakes and core rejuvenation blades and lakes, indicators of on-site tool blank production and tool maintenance activities. [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 Journal of alabama archaeology 44 Figure 23. Clovis lakes: (a), (b), (g) blade lakes; (c)-(f) expanding lakes; (h) asymmetrical lake. ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site summary of the lithic assemblage Artifacts that are considered by most researchers to be diagnostic of North American Clovis laked stone technology are well-represented at the Belle Mina site. The lithic assemblage from Belle Mina demonstrates that Clovis biface technology routinely employed overshot laking and systematic basal or end-thinning during Clovis luted point manufacture. Virtually all of the laked stone assemblage is made of patinated blue-gray Fort Payne chert, although one Clovis point is made of blue-green Bangor chert. The overall composition of the Clovis tool kit at Belle Mina is dominated by thin bifaces (bifacial preforms and luted projectile point/knives) and unifacial tools made on blades, blade-lakes or biface core lakes, or biface thinning lakes. All stages of biface production are likely present, however primary and secondary stage bifaces and completed or reworked Clovis points predominate. Initial stage bifaces are uncommon and cores are not abundant in the analysis collection. However it appears that cores were more frequent at the site than the analysis would indicate since additional cores were recovered from the site during the original general surface collections but were not available for study. The lake debris analysis also suggests that bifacial core reduction took place with some regularity at Belle Mina. A single hammerstone/grinding stone and six abraders were also recovered at the site that may be associated with Clovis habitation. The presence of distinctive "luting" on Clovis projectile point/knives at the Belle Mina site has allowed relatively easy recognition of the Clovis component. As technological studies have progressed, including experimental replication of Clovis biface technology (e.g., Bradley 1993; Bradley et al. 2010), additional aspects of biface technology have been illuminated and used in the identiication of Clovis components. Among these are the consistent occurrences of overshot (plunging or reverse 45 hinge) laking and also basal or end-thinning in Clovis biface manufacture enabled by careful platform isolation, including preparatory platform grinding/abrasion. All of these are present within the Clovis assemblage at Belle Mina. Identiication of a prepared blade technology (Bradley et al. 2010; Collins 1999) as well as a distinctive "blade-lake" technology as important aspects of Clovis stone tool production has further enhanced our ability to identify Clovis laked stone assemblages. With the discovery of additional Clovis sites, the association of prismatic blade cores and blade tools with Clovis technology in the Southeastern United States has become gradually accepted. The regular use of prismatic blades and bladelakes or biface core lakes derived from prepared conical/wedge-shaped cores and prepared bifacial cores is apparent at Belle Mina. Prismatic blade blanks were used primarily in the manufacture of unifacial tools during the Clovis occupation. These data suggest that true blades played an important role in Clovis subsistence technology at the site. The large blade-lakes or bifacial core lakes struck from bifacial cores (Bradley et al. 2010:57; Collins 1999) also served as blanks for a wide array of tool forms. Blade-lakes were used by Clovis people in the manufacture of bifaces and to make unifacial implements. While bladelakes or biface core lakes do not technically qualify as "true-blades," they nevertheless are indicative of a systematic method of bladelake detachment from a prepared core. In fact, blade-lake production at the Belle Mina site is related to prepared bifacial core reduction, a common Clovis lake production technique employed across the North American continent (Bradley 1993; Bradley et al. 2010; Sanders 1990). Blade-lakes, both retouched and unretouched, were instrumental in contributing to the distinctive "blade-like" appearance of the Clovis laked stone assemblage. It should be noted that prismatic blade manufacture is not limited to Clovis laked stone technology 46 Journal of alabama archaeology since it occurs in later Paleoindian and other Holocene lithic assemblages. However, the systematic use of blade-lakes or biface core lakes derived from prepared cores does seem to be uniquely Clovis at this time. As noted above, the Bella Mina site has provided us with excellent examples of overshot laking and end-thinning related to Clovis point manufacture. Consistent use of intentional overshot laking originating from one or more lateral margins is apparent on Clovis bifaces at Belle Mina. Although overshot laking may occur in other North American Holocene biface technologies (Bradley et al. 2010), its sporadic occurrence is generally thought to be incidental or fortuitous. End-thinning is a technological term related to Clovis biface reduction that involves soft hammer percussion laking. End-thinning lakes originate at the end of the biface and travel parallel to the long axis. Fluting is deined morphologically and applies to the inal end-thinning removal(s) or negative channel lake scars preserved on complete Clovis points. The systematic use of end-thinning does not appear to be restricted to Clovis hafted biface manufacture. This technique also appears to have been used during Dalton point manufacture as suggested by analyses of Dalton bifacial artifacts from the Sloan site in Arkansas (Bradley 1997) and the Olive Branch site in southwestern Illinois (Gramly 2002). This suggests that end-thinning in Dalton biface production may have its origin in Clovis stone biface technology, although the inal morphological lute(s) that are a hallmark of inished Clovis points are rarely preserved on completed Dalton points. the nature of Clovis settlement at Belle Mina Previous lithic studies suggest that variations in lithic assemblages are most amenable to behavioral interpretation when analyzed in terms [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 of the factors inluencing the organization of lithic technology (Binford 1979; Bradbury and Carr 1999; Carr and Bradbury 2000; Wiant and Hassen 1985). The analytical perspective of these studies is distinguished by three major premises: (1) tool production systems comprise the interconnected activities of raw material procurement, tool design, production, use, maintenance, discard, and replacement (Binford 1979; Collins 1975); (2) different tool production systems represent alternative strategies for responding to the problems posed by spatial and temporal incongruities in the distribution of lithic and biotic resources (Goodyear 1979; Parry and Kelly 1987; Wiant and Hassen 1985); and (3) tool production strategies are structured for effective integration with settlement strategies (Binford 1979, 1980). This perspective provides a theoretical basis for identifying the conditions under which the inherent advantages and disadvantages of a particular tool production strategy, relative to other production strategies, would be of suficient importance to favor its use over other strategies. The theoretical orientation followed herein is grounded in cultural and human ecology and the economic choices faced by hunter-gatherers. After Binford (1980), Jochim (1976), Steward (1955), Thomas (1979), and Yellen (1977), hunter-gatherer behavior is viewed as resulting from a series of conscious choices within the environment and from minimization of effort. The decisions made ultimately determined the nature of the subsistence-settlement round of a particular cultural group. The concept of resource scheduling and exploitation, or in general, how a particular group adapts to its natural environment, is the critical area of study. Binford (1979, 1980) and Carlson (1979) have discussed mobility strategies and how hunters and gatherers adapt to their environment. Two basic strategies have been noted. They are referred to by Binford (1980) as foraging and collecting. Binford views these ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site choices as organizational alternatives used by hunter-gatherers depending upon a particular situation. Foragers are usually highly mobile groups that must move often to exploit widely dispersed resources; the entire group generally moves to the resource(s) being exploited. In contrast, collectors generally move resources back to a base camps and, in this sense, are logistically organized. Foraging strategies generally result in a series of residential camps as well as ield locations. Logistically organized systems may have a series of site types focused on the base camp, or where groups aggregate to exploit a dependable resource or set of resources (Binford 1980; Carlson 1979). These two systems are not meant to be rigidly interpreted, since it is likely that Clovis settlement in the Middle Tennessee Valley and surrounding areas may not conform to either of the two ends of the collector-forager continuum (Binford 1980). Rather, this concept is used as an organizational tool to compare and contrast various lithic assemblages and allows inferences regarding how a particular site or group of sites was used within an overall local and regional settlement system. According to Carlson (1979), highly mobile residential strategies are most common where overlapping resource zones can be effectively exploited by small groups, while logistical strategies are more likely to develop where a single resource determines site location as a result of abundance or necessity (Carlson 1979:118). Resolving whether a particular site is collecting or foraging in nature may be less critical than developing an empirical model of assemblage lithic variability that accurately relects the nature of hunter-gatherer activities during the Clovis occupation(s) at Belle Mina. Deinition of artifact assemblages, which can be reliably compared from site to site, leads to the establishment of a regional data base that is amenable to quantitative methods (cf. Kimball 1996; Wright 1996). 47 In building such a database, it is obvious that critical elements of the lithic technological subsystem must be identiied and quantiied. The present research orientation regarding lithic technological organization enumerates ideas that may ultimately prove critical in addressing issues of Clovis settlement in the Middle Tennessee Valley. Traditional means of operationalizing the concept of adaptive lithic technology and particular human social groupings and movement over the landscape (short-term/ long-term occupations) have been couched in terms such as curated (portable) vs. expedient (sedentary) tools (Binford 1973, 1979), formal versus informal tools (Andrefsky 1998), maintainable vs. reliable tool systems (Bleed 1986), eficient or portable technologies (Bousman 1993; Kelly 1988; Sassaman 1992), and extractive vs. maintenance tools (Bousman 1993). Further, studies of tool curation have led to various means of estimating tool use-lives and site occupation spans (Bamforth 1986; Schiffer 1976; Shott 1989). These studies also distinguish between ine-grained and coarse-grained site assemblages (Binford 1980), or long-term (permanent to semi-permanent) base camps and short-term (temporary) extractive camps (see Anderson and Hanson 1988). At the same time, it has also been acknowledged that recurrent site use has resulted in a palimpsest of artifact refuse in many instances (Thomas 1988). Bousman (1993) has synthesized much of the data on hunter-gatherer tool kit composition and provides a general model that summarizes the expectations of idealized forager (mobile) vs. collector (sedentary) groups. The following may be used as a general set of expectations for tool kits associated with the forager-collector continuum (after Bousman 1993). It is expected that extractive tool kits associated with collector behavior will be more specialized and therefore more reliable, while tool kits associated with foraging behavior will be more generalized and maintainable. Collector tool kits are expected to be more diverse (more specialized 48 Journal of alabama archaeology tools), while forager tool kits should display less variability and more homogeneity. It is also expected that collectors would have transported inished tools to maximize eficiency, while foragers would have often transported uninished artifacts to minimize the time and effort spent producing and maintaining tools (Bousman 1993:77). In terms of uselife, it is expected that foragers would strive to use their tools longer, while collectors would use them for shorter periods. Collectors would tend to use their tools for short periods of time when speciic resources are being exploited, while foragers would tend to use theirs every day. Likewise, tool maintenance would usually occur daily at forager sites, while evidence of gearing up such as retooling (replacement of tools), should be present at collector sites (Bousman 1993:78). Other factors, such as scarcity of resources, may affect tool use strategies in that normal replacement rates for extractive tools and degree of maintenance could be altered according to the situation (Bousman 1993). Variables like raw material durability and raw material access are dificult to assess archaeologically and add uncertainties to the generalization noted above. Andrefsky (1994b; 1998:224-225), based on observations of lithic resource abundance, size and form, quality, and tool kit composition, has concluded that raw material quality and quantity carry considerable weight in determining the nature of production of stone tools at a particular site. He indicates that, in general, if all other variables are the same, lithic resource quality and abundance may serve as reliable predictors of stone working practices. His data indicate that low quality materials most often are made into informal, expedient tool designs. High quality materials are most often used to make formal tools such as hafted and unhafted bifaces, prepared cores, and retouched lake tools. When high quality raw material is available in abundance, both formal and informal tools are made in about [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 equal proportion (Andrefsky 1994b:31). These observations would seem important in understanding the nature of stone tool manufacture and use at the Belle Mina site, given that good to high quality blue gray Fort Payne chert was available and accessible in abundance. To conclude, it is worth remembering that we should not expect the lithic remains of the Clovis occupants at Belle Mina to conform exactly to the expectations derived from the model presented here. Rather, the data should be carefully examined according to the expectations and interpreted along with other lines of evidence where they might be available. In order to assess the overall relationships between lithic reduction/raw material acquisition practices at the Belle Mina site with a speciic pattern of hunter-gatherer mobility, a series of hypotheses and test implications were derived from the general theoretical orientation presented earlier. Drawing upon Binford's (1979) and Carlson's (1979) distinction between base camps and residential camps and between logistical (collectors) and extractive (forager) strategies, Lurie (1987:238–240) attempts to link the technological subsystem expected with each to modes of raw material acquisition, options in tool manufacture, and strategies of tool use. Appropriate research questions for the expected data base are modiied from Lurie (1987:238–240). All are designed to differentiate sites by the type of settlement present, for example, to deine them along a continuum from base camp (low mobility) to residential camps (high mobility). hypotheses and expectations The irst two topics presented below are related to raw material acquisition, the next two to manufacturing options, and the last two to tooluse strategies. These topics are addressed to the fullest extent possible with the available data. ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site Raw Material Acquisition 1. The lithic remains from the Clovis occupation(s) at Belle Mina are the result of a base camp where its residents had low mobility. • We would expect to ind tools manufactured from fair to poor-quality materials in areas of limited material availability, since the chances of raw material exhaustion are greater. • More recycling and conservation of material may occur along with restriction of good-quality materials to tools requiring more complex manufacturing techniques. Tools may be smaller, on the average, than at a residential camp. • The use of non-local materials may be restricted to specialized tool forms. 2. The lithic remains from the Clovis occupation(s) at Belle Mina are the result of a residential camp and its residents had high mobility. • We would expect raw materials used in tool manufacture to be of overall high quality, since chances of resource depletion are diminished with increased mobility (greater access to regional resource areas). • Tool size will be, on the average, larger than at base camps, and tool classes will generally be manufactured from higherquality materials than at base camps. • Incidence of thermal alteration will be lower. • A wide variety of non- local cherts may be expected. Tool Manufacturing Options 1. The lithic remains from the Clovis occupation(s) at Belle Mina are the result of a base camp and its residents had low mobility. • A wider range of tool forms will be found along with specialized tool forms • 49 (reliable) and evidence of increased energy in manufacture. Tool forms will be complex and hafted tools such as projectile points will be common while the incidence of informal lake tools should be higher than at residential camps. 2. The lithic remains from the Clovis occupation(s) at Belle Mina are the result of a residential camp whose residents had high mobility. • There will be a more restrictive range of tool forms, with less emphasis on expedient tool manufacture and a higher percentage of formal tools. • Less complex tool forms may be expected along with more multipurpose tools. Tool Use Strategies 1. The lithic remains from the Clovis occupation(s) at Belle Mina are the result of a base camp, whose residents had low mobility. • Tool resharpening and recycling will be more common and tools will generally appear more intensively used. • A high percentage of tools will be broken, the tool assemblage more fragmented, and tools more often burned or otherwise thermally altered. • Maintenance activities or gearing-up activities such as retooling of hafted implements will have a higher incidence. 2. The lithic remains from the Clovis occupation(s) at Belle Mina are the result of a residential camp and its residents had high mobility. • Resharpening and recycling (maintenance) will be notably reduced when compared to base camp assemblages. • Relatively few tools will be broken and the degree of fragmentation will be less 50 • Journal of alabama archaeology than at base camps with less burning and thermal alteration. Retooling of hafted implements will be less frequent than at base camps. With regard to the irst two questions that posit, alternatively, whether the lithic remains from the Clovis occupation(s) at Belle Mina are more likely to be the result of a base camp or a residential camp based on raw material acquisition, it is noted that the overall quality of blue-gray Fort Payne chert used by Clovis residents at Belle Mina appears to be high and was virtually the only material used to manufacture Clovis artifacts at Belle Mina. Bluegreen Bangor chert was also used but this appears to have been infrequent. Fort Payne chert is ubiquitous throughout the western portion of the Middle Tennessee Valley and was exposed at numerous shoals along the river and creek beds within 20 miles of the site. However, there does not appear to be a source of blue-gray Fort Payne chert at the Belle Mina site proper. Since very little cortical material occurs on tools and lake/blades, it seems likely that the Fort Payne chert was transported some distance to the site. The precise mechanism(s) responsible for movement of Fort Payne chert to the Belle Mina are unknown. The overall quality of bluegray Fort Payne chert in the Tennessee Valley is fair to excellent, dependent upon the source (Johnson and Meeks 1994). Since cortex on the small number of cortical lakes recovered from the site does not appear to be water-polished, it is likely that natural pieces of raw material brought to the site are from either secondary outcrop contexts or low energy intermittent stream beds. Since high quality blue gray Fort Payne chert does not outcrop at the site, it appears that Clovis residents were fairly mobile in their efforts to insure that high quality raw material was accessible. Based on the ubiquity of high quality raw material, the Clovis occupation(s) at the Belle Mina site may have been associated with [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 a residential camp as opposed to a base camp. The frequency of thermal alteration cannot be reliably determined for blue-gray Fort Payne chert, as mentioned earlier, and no true “exotic” raw materials were identiied. Any differences in tool size that may exist between the various Clovis sites in the Middle Tennessee Valley are unknown due to the limited data base. With regard to the second set of questions regarding tool manufacturing options, the plentiful supply of high quality blue-gray Fort Payne chert that was available to Belle Mina Clovis residents undoubtedly contributed heavily to the overall composition of the tool kit. As noted by Andrefsky (1994b), when medium to high quality knappable raw material is both abundant and accessible, this normally results in the production of both formal and informal expedient tools such as those found at Belle Mina. The presence of numerous Clovis bifaces in various stages of reduction and numerous projectile point/knives suggests that biface manufacture and resharpening/refurbishing of inished bifaces were performed with some regularity. The abundance of bifacial thinning lakes and rejuvenation-resharpening lakes supports the contention that intermediate to late stage biface manufacture and tool maintenance routinely took place on–site. The strong evidence for blade cores, blade, and blade-lake manufacture indicates that formal (complex) implements were being made. Formal tools such as hafted end scrapers, retouched blades, and projectile point/knives were found in abundance at the site. Certainly a high percentage of specialized or complex and reliable tool forms are present within the Clovis assemblage at the Belle Mina site. A lower percentage of simple informal lake/blade tools are evident. A limited number of pecked and ground stone tools are present with only one hammerstone/ grinding stone and six abraders recovered. Overall tool diversity appears to be moderate with a unifacial and bifacial tool kit capable of conducting a variety of tasks from hunting and ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site processing game to tool manufacture and maintenance. Based on these data, the tool assemblage at the Belle Mina site may represent a longer term habitation where a variety of tasks were conducted. Regarding tool use strategies during the Clovis occupation(s) at Belle Mina, they seem to also point to a longer term habitation. Again, tool resharpening/rejuvenation (maintenance) are evident on projectile point/knives and the presence of bifacial retouch lakes and scraper resharpening lakes indicate that this was a common practice. In terms of tool breakage and fragmentation, a relatively high number of the tools, especially bifaces including projectile point/knives are broken; however the incidence of breakage among formal end-scrapers is lower. Overall, there is quite a bit a fragmentation of the assemblage that is not related to modern mechanical breakage. The presence of ire-cracked rock and a fair number of burned/ pot-lidded lakes suggest that the site was occupied for some length of time and was not just an overnight camp. Finally, the presence of numerous projectile point/knife fragments suggest that re-tooling was a common activity, indicating that the site may have been occupied on a longer versus shorter term basis. summary and Conclusions In summary, stone tools (portable and reliable) made from high quality blue-gray Fort Payne chert were common at Belle Mina. Re-tooling and maintenance activities are strongly represented and there is a well-developed blade production industry. The overall tool kit has a specialized appearance with regard to formal blade tools which may be geared toward hunting/butchering activities. However, informal tools on blades/blade lakes, as well as other lakes, are also present and these were used in domestic activities and in other subsistence pursuits. Occupation at Belle Mina appears to 51 have been seasonal, with occupants residing at the site for a portion of the annual seasonal round. Its location above a low, swampy sink complex suggests that Clovis people at Belle Mina may have been attracted to this low, wet area by plant and animal resources. It is dificult to determine group size based on the available data. The overall extent of Clovis habitation at Belle Mina is unclear, however, it appears to have covered the majority of the grid area on the knoll. The small clusters of ire-cracked rock identiied that measure from 10 to 15 m in diameter may be related to periodic site occupation by different Clovis groups or bands. The presence of ire-cracked rock is indicative of either stone-boiling and/or hearth construction. The coninement of most laking debris to the western portion of the grid and ire-cracked rock primarily to the east of the laking debris is suggestive, but not conclusive, evidence that separate areas existed for lint knapping/stone tool production and other domestic activities such as food preparation. It is also possible that a number of families occupied the knoll simultaneously. Most likely, small groups of people, an extended family or a small band, occupied the site on a seasonal, periodic basis. The material remains suggest a fairly high degree of mobility, yet evidence from Belle Mina also suggests that occupants may have occupied the site for an extended stay prior to moving on. The formal tool kit possesses some characteristics that one might expect to be associated with a base camp, yet the relatively low artifact density, moderate tool diversity, and evidence of mobility in obtaining chert, appears more like a residential camp site. Just how this site type juxtaposes with others in the Clovis settlement system within the Middle Tennessee Valley is a subject for future research. For example, Futato (1982, 1996), Hubbert (1989), and Cole (2006) suggest that Clovis settlement in the Tennessee Valley and Limestone County may have involved a dual lowland (Quad site) and upland (Kilborn site) 52 Journal of alabama archaeology pattern that was seasonal in nature. Cole’s (2006) analysis of Clovis projectile point/knife distribution in Limestone County suggests that Clovis settlement was circular as opposed to linear, and he indicates that Clovis people may have traveled northward up stream valleys from the Tennessee River before crossing watersheds. Data from the nearby Quad site indicate that similar ire-cracked rock/artifact concentrations exist, however it has not been possible to isolate any that may be attributed solely to Clovis. Research into the nature of Clovis group site occupation history at the Quad site has been hampered by repeated occupations over a long period of time. The Heaven’s HalfAcre site, located south of the Tennessee River and some 35 miles west of Belle Mina, has produced strong evidence of repeated Clovis and other Paleoindian occupation around an upland sink complex (cf. King 2007). Sites such as Carson-Conn-Short (Broster and Norton 1996) and Wells Creek in western Tennessee (Dragoo 1973) and Adams in Kentucky (Sanders 1990; Gramly and Yahnig 1991) are substantial Clovis sites that possess tool kits (including a signiicant blade technology) very similar to the one found at Belle Mina. However, these sites are located in very close proximity to raw material sources and overall artifact density and variety is much higher. Clovis blade technology similar to that at Belle Mina is also found in the Central Mississippi Valley at sites such as Lincoln Hills and Martens in Illinois and Missouri (Koldehoff and Walthall 2004). Recent analysis of Clovis material culture indicates that Clovis lithic assemblages across the continental United States and beyond include both blade production technology and a sophisticated bifacial core and thin biface technology (Bradley et al. 2010:177). It is thought that some Clovis lithic assemblages possess elements of both blade and biface technology but others are mainly dominated by bifacial technology. Data from Belle Mina and other Clovis [vol. 57, nos. 1 and 2, 2011 sites in the Tennessee and Mississippi river valleys suggest that both of these technologies are well represented. Various researchers have conducted experiments designed to measure the relative “eficiency” of Clovis blade or lake blank production using prepared blade cores versus bifacial cores (Carr et al. 2010; Collins 1999; Jennings et al. 2010; Whittaker 1994). Some scholars indicate that prepared blade cores produce elongated pieces of debitage that contain more useable cutting edges than other methods. Others, such as Carr et al. (2010) and Jennings et al. (2010), indicate that bifacial core reduction can be at least as eficient as prepared blade core reduction in terms of producing usable tool blanks. Further, Carr et al. (2010) suggest that Clovis bifacial core reduction was the basis of a highly portable technology crucial to Clovis mobility and related subsistence activities and that Clovis blade production was relatively rare when compared with Old World Upper Paleolithic societies. Jennings et al. (2010), on the other hand, indicate that Clovis core reduction was not designed to minimize stone transport costs and that Clovis blade core and bifacial core reduction technologies were equally eficient in producing usable tool blanks. As noted above, data from Belle Mina suggest that both prepared blade core and bifacial core reduction were employed simultaneously by Clovis knappers in the Tennessee Valley, dependent upon speciic needs. The manufacture of blades not only at Belle Mina but other Clovis sites in the Tennessee Valley, Central Mississippi Valley, Texas, and across the Midwest and the Southeast, was an integral and fundamental aspect of Clovis lithic technology. Data from the Belle Mina site and some Clovis distributional data (Cole 2006) suggest that minimally two fundamental Clovis site types exist within the Tennessee Valley of northern Alabama. Large sites such as Quad, Kilborn, and Heaven’s Half Acre may represent base camps where Clovis band groups ensor] the Belle Mina Clovis site congregated on a seasonal basis. Sites such as Belle Mina may represent residential camps used by Clovis groups during their annual seasonal round. Other site types, such as extractive camps or kill sites, likely exist but may prove dificult to ind, recognize, and isolate. The high degree of similarity in biface production technology, prepared blade core technology, and production of reliable tool forms at sites located within the Tennessee Valley indicates that Clovis settlement and subsistence was likely focused on highly productive riverine micro-environments, as well as resource-rich zones in adjacent upland areas (cf. Cole 2006; Futato 1996; Hubbert 1989). It seems apparent that transportation along the rivers and streams aided social contact and reinforced cultural homogeneity and means of reproduction among Clovis people within the Tennessee River drainage basin (cf. Anderson 1996; Cole 2006). Estimates of Clovis population density are dificult to make but have traditionally been considered low when compared with later Holocene cultures. The discovery of large, dense Clovis sites such as Gault in Texas (Collins 2002) and Carson-Conn-Short in Tennessee (Broster and Norton 1996) have altered the traditional view that all Clovis sites are ephemeral, consisting only of isolated luted points and a few lakes. Current data from Belle Mina and others sites within the Tennessee Valley suggest that Clovis people were both opportunistic and adaptable, eficiently exploiting resource-rich ecosystems and areas of lower productivity, as necessary. This is largely in agreement with the preliminary assessment of the nature of Clovis occupation at the Topper site in South Carolina. Smallwood (2010:2424), basing on her analysis of the Clovis biface assemblage from the Topper site, posits that Clovis people at Topper were “technologically lexible” as they adapted to local conditions, which suggests some degree of permanency and lower mobility. Analysis of the Belle Mina Clovis assemblage strongly suggests that Clovis people in the Middle 53 Tennessee Valley had an in-depth knowledge of their local environment and an established seasonal round which implies a certain depth of historical continuity. Only through in–depth research at a range of Clovis sites will it be possible to understand and reine the nature of Clovis settlement in the Middle Tennessee Valley. It is hoped that data from Belle Mina will be useful to future studies of Clovis culture in the Tennessee Valley and beyond. Acknowledgments.The author would like to thank Ms. Bernice Ham for inding the site and bringing it to the attention of the author. The Garrett family is also thanked for granting permission to conduct the investigations on their property. The ieldwork would not have been possible except for the dedicated efforts of avocational archaeologists from the Huntsville Chapter of the Alabama Archaeological Society as well as Anthropology students from the University of Alabama at Birmingham. Individuals who contributed to the ieldwork include Jill Miller, Loli and Bill Howard, David Hathaway, Grady Edwards, Charlie Grifith, Jerry and Leslie Hall, Thomas and Mara Piff, B. R. Gillespie, Cindy Miller, Martina S. Grifith, Del Hiestand, Freddie Stephenson, Greg Preston, Andy Olivier, R. A. James, and Larry and April Hennebeck. Archaeologists Charles Hubbert and Van King also contributed to the ieldwork and provided insight into the Paleoindian occupation of the Middle Tennessee Valley. Abigael Ensor helped with processing of materials from the two controlled surface collections and performed data base entry and editing. Kevin Lomas is thanked for the pen and ink artifact illustrations while Bob Bell conducted the artifact photography, which is greatly appreciated. Jarvis Schultz is thanked for producing the artifact contour maps while Steve Titus and Mike McNerney of American Resources Group provided inancial assistance and moral support. Laura Brown Wood, courtesy of Panamerican Consultants, Inc., created the Figure 1 map. The author gratefully acknowledges all of these contributions and accepts full responsibility for the results of the study. 54 Journal of alabama archaeology references Cited Ahler, Stanley A. 1975 Pattern and Variety in Extended Coalescent Lithic Technology. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Departmentof Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia. 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