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The zone of "becoming" : game, text and technicity in videogame narratives
The zone of "becoming" : game, text and technicity in videogame narratives
Souvik Mukherjee2008
Videogames have emerged as arguably the most prominent form of entertainment in recent years. Their versatility has made them key contributory factors in social, literary, cultural and philosophical discourse; however, critics also tend to see videogames as posing a threat to established cultural parameters. This thesis argues that videogames are firmly grounded in older media and they are important for the development of the notions of textuality, technicity and identity that literary and cultural theories have been debating in recent years. As its point of departure, the thesis takes the contested role of videogames as storytelling media. Challenging the opposition between games and narratives that is posited in earlier research, the framework of the Derridean concept of supplementarity has been adopted to illustrate how the ludic and the narrative inform each other's core, and yet retain their media-specific identities. It is also vital to consider how the technicity and narr...
Related Papers
ABSTRACT: This article aims at relating a research project about locality of videogame content to the larger body of knowledge in game studies. Based on the belief that video games function as a cultural voice that is not generation-specific, in the same way films are, the research project Local Videogames seeks to create and apply a special model of building game narratives out of local experiences; stories from the collective popular memory of one region as opposed to the familiar and metropolitan narratives. The goal of our article is to place the project and its game production in the perspective of game studies. We attempt to construct this relation in the light of Melcers (2015) study and based on key concepts in game studies: gamification, textuality, flow, meaning-making, and affordance. RESUMO: Este artigo tem como objetivo fazer um relato de projeto de pesquisa sobre localização de conteúdo de video game, como parte da área de estudos de jogos eletrônicos. Com base na crença de que os jogos de video game funcionam como uma voz cultural, que não é específica de uma geração da mesma forma que os filmes são, o projeto de pesquisa Local Videogames procurou criar e aplicar um modelo especial de construção de narrativas de jogo a partir de experiências locais; histórias originárias da memória popular coletiva de uma região em oposição às narrativas familiares e metropolitanas. O objetivo de nosso artigo é situar o projeto e sua produção de jogo na perspectiva dos estudos de jogos. Nós tentar construir essa relação à luz dos estudos de Melcer (2015) e com base em conceitos chave em estudos de jogo: gamificação, textualidade, fluxo, construção de significado e permissão.
2016 •
Videogames have, since the beginning of game studies as a discipline, been placed at a problematic cusp between games and narratives. Stories are important in videogames, especially in those such as Grand Theft Auto IV (2008), Fallout 3 (2008), and other games with a pronounced narrative intention. However, the element of play and multiplicity of the narrative makes it difficult to analyze them with traditional critical tools: it is easy, therefore, to dismiss them from the narrative canon. Another problem that videogame research faces is that game-narratives are ephemeral and the textual artefact of the game is substantially contained in the player’s experience. However, an entire range of paratexts, such as walkthroughs and after-action reports, where players construct narratives while recording their in-game experiences, are available for analysis. This paper points towards the urgency of beginning to study ludic paratexts like walkthroughs and after-action reports to understand ...
I argue that the theoretical debate between ludology and narratology concerning narrative in game spaces is too restrictive. Of course traditional narrative models don't fully apply, as ludology argues, but no reason exists to argue that narrative can only be formulated as it already has. Ludology has argued far too restrictive a sense of time and temporal perspective in games.
University of Huddersfield eBooks
Narrative and Performance: Reconceptualizating the Relationship in the Videogames Domain2008 •
This article develops Kawika Guillermo's ‘machphrasis’ (2016) as a theoretical contribution to discourse considering the deployment of video games in contemporary literary culture. After presenting machphrasis’ academic stakes, I propose that machphrasis can give explanations for some techniques and images endemic to late 20th/21st century writing with regards to video games represented in prose. By appending Guillermo's conceptual work with three additions, I work towards a reproducible poetics of the video game in prose writing. I will show that machphrasis may be used to understand video games in literature as proxies for anticipated technologies, as discursive tools for reckoning with new subjectivities indebted to play, and as the means for generating new ideological positions for those who play games but are excluded from the normative ‘gamer’ group. This contribution prepares current academic discourse for a future literary landscape increasingly beholden to machphras...
2020 •
This paper set out to investigate the critical environment of videogames not merely as technology but also as<br> art. Departing from the premise that functionalist readings of videogames say little about the evolution of the<br> technology in its critical environment, it applied a de Certeaurian critical paradigm and came up with certain<br> findings. As a digital technology, the videogame has been subject to new definitional considerations; it is a new<br> agency of production, consumption and distribution of digital goods and services, sharing, communication,<br> interaction, and socialization.<br> Beyond technology, the videogame has become a new experience of artistic consumption that prioritizes not<br> only individual participation, but also posting of video comments, blog responses, video postings as well as<br> conversations and texts. The videogame is an artistic way of finding new identities and freedoms that<br> stren...
2013 •
Developed from my MA project at the University of Saskatchewan and published in Jeu vidéo et livre / Videogame and BooK (eds. Björn-Olav Dozo and Fanny Barnabé), this paper examines the narratological function of textual objects in videogames. Included in this study are the booklets that accompanied older games, peripherals such as the art book accompanying Skyrim's Special Edition, and diegetic texts such as the Codex in Mass Effect. The paper demonstrates the important role textual objects play in bridging mechanics with narrative.
This paper (the script of my DiGRA keynote 2015 with slides) ventures some intitial steps into an unnatural narratology of videogames. It explores two core definitions of unnaturalness and argues that broad definitions of unnaturalness end in tautological paradoxes that may not yield any conclusive analytical insights. The paper showcases how a more narrow, antimimetic definition of unnaturalness may be used to study unnatural space, time and narration in literary games.
Body and Text: Cultural Transformations in New Media Environments
Transmedia Storytelling: The Many Faces of Video Games, Fluid Narratives and Winding Seriality2019 •
Seriality in popular culture has its own specific pedigree that has evolved over time. Currently, this is characterized by a cross-media bridge formed in the popular culture of the twentieth century. Contemporary narratives now serve as an intertextual, transmedia, anchor while formerly autonomous media become attached under the umbrella of a single narrative. This phenomenon is one of the prime characteristics of one of the youngest media, video games. The usually diadic model of internal (intrinsic/inherent) seriality and external seriality stemming from substance (a string of stand-alone games genetically related by a narrative as prequels, sequels, midquels, spin-off, mash-up etc.) and form (several versions of the same game as enhanced version, collectors version, modded version, reboot, port etc.) has been transformed into a triad after transmedia storytelling became established due to a technological, economic, and social paradigm shift and the development of convergence culture. This chapter investigates both paradigm shifts of convergence and synergy and their effect on the expansion of storytelling forms that have been adapted not only by popular culture but also by the art world, marking the transformation process from seriality to a single hybrid supertext (narrative/storytelling) form.
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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction: From Reading Games to Playing Books
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Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
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In a letter to a friend, typewritten on his famous Malling Hansen writing ball,
Nietzsche observed that ‘our writing instruments contribute to our thoughts’.1
Nietzsche’s comment links technology to what he calls ‘our thoughts’: by
implication, this can also mean what is understood by ‘text’, especially in the
broader Barthesian sense, of something that is not restricted to materiality.
Nietzsche’s comment, made over a century ago, implies that the claim that so2
called ‘new media’ from the last two decades make of having newly established the
link between the text and the machine is, therefore, problematic. Of course, it is
true that technological developments in the last few decades have strengthened
the notion of the machinelike nature of texts. For example, hypertext and
electronic text are composed of machine code that is present as a layer of
machine2readable text beneath whatever text they convey to us. Similarly,
machines are also increasingly being seen as texts and complex machinic systems
like videogames and simulations are beginning to be perceived both as programs
and as texts that can be read. However, as Nietzsche’s observation indicates, the
text2machine relation is not a new development; instead, it is originary. An analysis
of videogames, arguably one of the latest manifestations of machinic textuality, as
well as ‘new media’, helps to examine this idea more deeply.
PhD Thesis, 2008
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
This analysis will attempt to show how the machinic and the textual are originary
and how the study of newer machinic media like videogames helps to highlight this
relationship in all forms of text, both new and old. To begin with, however, it will
be useful to establish a background for the analysis by outlining the concepts which
theorists like Aarseth, N. Katherine Hayles, and Derrida use to describe the
machinic nature of texts. This will be followed by a more detailed enquiry, in terms
of a Deleuzoguattarian account of the machinic nature of printed narratives and an
analysis of the textual element in videogames developing the idea of the
technological assemblage in Chapter One. This will aim to establish the videogame
as a literary machine by showing how literature itself is machinic and pointing to
the clear similarities that it therefore has with the computer game. Further, by
comparing the reading strategies of the computer game and the printed text, it is
possible further to illustrate the originary relation between textuality and technicity.
,
*
*
!
*
-
)
-
Conceptions about machines and texts have changed significantly in recent times.
Cybernetics, the interdisciplinary study of complex systems, recognised that
machines do not function as isolated units: the user also forms part of the
machine2complex. In his work on the anti2aircraft gun, Norbert Wiener comments,
‘The actual fire control is a system involving human beings and machines at the
same time. It must be reduced, from an engineering point of view, to a single
structure, which means either a human interpretation of the machine or a
mechanical interpretation of the operator, or both’.2 For cyberneticists like Wiener,
information flow rather than energy is the key entity in the man2machine equation.
The cybernetic understanding of the machine is based on the mechanism of
PhD Thesis, 2008
+
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
feedback, defined by Ross Ashby, pioneer of cybernetics, as the ‘circularity of
action [that] exists between the parts of a dynamic system’.3 Based on information
flow between the man2machine complex, many more systems could qualify as
machines. A good example would be the text. The text can be seen as a machinic
entity facilitating a feedback loop of information flow between itself and its user (or
reader). It is therefore no surprise that this notion influences various accounts of
machinic textuality. Aarseth’s concept of the ‘cybertext’, the pioneering concept of
computer game textuality, is no exception. The term cybertext is itself an open
acknowledgment of the influence of cybernetics and clearly marks a fresh approach
to textuality.
According to Aarseth, ‘Cybertext […] is the wide range (or perspective) of possible
textualities seen as a typology of machines, as various kinds of literary
communication systems where the functional differences among the mechanical
parts play a defining role in determining the aesthetic process’.4
The implicit
cybernetic angle in this account does not privilege either new or special
technological features in texts as capacities to render them machinic, but focuses
on feedback and the flow of information between the user and the text which need
not necessarily be restricted to electronic media. Following this logic, Aarseth,
unlike the advocates of the so2called ‘new media’, rightly recognises that texts from
earlier media also have the capacity to be cybertexts.
Queneau’s
The
or Raymond
, both examples of printed books, would
qualify as cybertexts because they are ‘ergodic’, which, in Aarseth’s definition, are
those texts that require ‘nontrivial effort’ to traverse them.
However, some
problems still remain with Aarseth’s analysis which, although it does away with the
exclusivity claimed for electronic texts, brings in another kind of exclusivity.
PhD Thesis, 2008
.
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
For him, ergodicity is an exclusive property of texts that he considers to be non2
linear or where ‘the words or sequence of words may differ from reading to reading
because of the shape, conventions, or mechanisms of the text’.5 He is quite clear
that his conception of non2linearity is restricted to the shape and structure of the
text and not to the non2linearity of the narrative. The narrative is expelled from
the cybertext and replaced by the ergodic. Aarseth’s logic for this is that ‘unlike
fictions, which simply present something else, cybertexts represent something
beyond themselves’.6 This kind of exclusivity claimed within the cybertext raises
many problems: its refusal to admit to the narrative possibilities forcibly imposes a
watertight categorisation of linearity and non2linearity which the text keeps
refusing. Elsewhere, Aarseth himself acknowledges that ‘a narrative may be
perfectly nonlinear […] and yet be represented in a wholly linear text’7 but he
chooses to retain the formal division nevertheless. The cybertext’s denial of the
narrative raises a slew of problems that lead to the Ludology2Narratology debate
discussed in the introductory chapter. The next chapter will analyse the typology
that Aarseth provides to support his conception of the non2linear narrative and, in
the process, reveal further shortcomings of this position. Meanwhile, it will be
useful to list some other problems raised by the cybertextual model.
Hayles comments that ‘Aarseth’s functionalist approach tends to flatten multiple
causalities into linear causal sequences determined by the work’s functionality’.8
She explains that such an approach tends to be reductive in its omission of social,
cultural and political factors influencing the text; further, quite surprisingly for a
videogame perspective on textuality, this approach highlights the verbal aspect of
the nonlinear text at cost of ignoring the equally important visual, sonic and kinetic
PhD Thesis, 2008
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
aspects of the game2text. Nor does the approach really consider the material
specificity of the text, saying nothing about the sheer physicality and immediacy of
the textual experience of videogames. Hayles further comments that this approach
is inadequate for understanding emergent processes (like the computer game)
characterised by entangled feedback loops cycling back and forth between different
levels. She herself posits a critical approach called Media Specific Analysis as the
key method of ‘forging a robust and nuanced account of how literature is changing
under the impact of information technologies’.9 This approach examines literary
texts in their embodied form and claims that the materiality of these ‘interacts
dynamically with linguistic, rhetorical, and literary practices to create the effects we
call literature’.10 Materiality is defined as an emergent property where the form, the
content, the author and the user contribute actively. Hence it is not possible to
determine the materiality of a text in advance.
In an interview with Lisa Gitelman, Hayles says that she hopes to ‘electrify the
neocortex of literary studies into recognising that the print book is after all an
interface with its own presuppositions, assumptions, and configurations of the
reader’.11 This does not mean that the print book will become obsolete but that a
whole new apparatus for analysing texts will come into literary studies. The text in
question is a special kind, termed ‘technotext’ by Hayles. She defines it as literary
works that ‘unite literature as a verbal art to its material forms’.
In 1999, Jay
David Bolter and Richard Grusin broke with the myth of the newness of new media
in their notion of ‘Remediation’, which argues that each new media re2fashions at
least one older medium. The technotext proposed by Hayles is based on a
modification of Bolter and Grusin’s concept; to describe this Hayles uses another
neologism, ‘intermediation’, which she defines as ‘complex transactions between
bodies and texts as well as between different forms of media’.12 Therefore,
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intermediation, according to her, is not just the refashioning of older media; it is an
entanglement
understanding
of
various
texts
like
media.
Although
videogames
that
it
is
are
of
signal
constructed
importance
through
in
an
amalgamation of media, this concept also points out the need for reading other
forms of texts in relation to the other media that they connect with. A striking
example among printed texts would be William Blake’s poetry: to read the poetry
without the illuminations always provides an incomplete and sometimes very
different picture. The process of intermediation in videogames merits a separate
treatment in the following section.
Hayles’s explanation of machinic textuality develops significantly on the notions of
machinic textuality proposed by ‘new media’ theorists and challenged and modified
by Aarseth. It is important to link this to other theoretical discourses on the
subject, such as the Derridean account of originary technicity in the introductory
chapter. This will involve separate discussions of the concepts of technotext and
intermediation, while of course keeping in mind their interlinked nature against the
backdrop of Derridean conceptions of the technicity of the text.
The term ‘technotext’ tends to raise further questions about whether it is generally
applicable to all texts or is an exclusive category like the cybertext. However,
Hayles’s clarification does not leave any doubts:
When a literary work interrogates the inscription technology that
produces it, it mobilises reflexive loops between its imaginative world
and the material apparatus embodying that creation as a physical
presence. Not all literary works make this move, of course, but even for
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those that do not, my claim is that the physical form of the literary
artifact always affects what the words (and other semiotic components)
mean.13
It is important to note that Hayles describes the text as the ‘literary artefact’, a
phrase indicating its artificiality and its identity as a construct and by implication,
how it exists in an originary relationship with its inscription technology. This
comment also makes it clear that this relationship is exclusive to computerised
media. With the above in view, the Derridean concept of originary technicity will
now be developed further so as to facilitate a more informed understanding of the
machinic nature of texts.
The very etymology of the word ‘text’ is loaded with implications of machinicity
that bear out Hayles’s point: the
gives the root of ‘text’ as the Latin
meaning the ‘tissue of a literary work, that which is woven or a web’.14 The text,
even by judging from its etymology, is seen as an artefact, always linked to a
machine and even as a machine in itself. The woven tissue of literature is easily
connectable to a material object. For centuries, since its invention in the first
century AD in China, this has been paper. This medium, however, is not entirely
circumscribed by physical constraints. In
, Derrida points out that
‘the page nowadays continues [...] even where the body of paper is no longer there
in person, so to speak, thus continuing to haunt the computer screen and all
internet navigations in voyages of all kinds’.15
He gives the example of the
Notebook software on his computer, which exists as the remediated form of the
paper2based notebook.
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For Derrida, the description of electronic media as future manifestations of the
paper2text does not successfully address the question; he claims that paper was
always a ‘virtual multimedia’ and that ‘it is still the chance of a multiple text’.16 As
he comments, ‘by carrying us beyond paper, the adventures of technology grant us
a sort of future anterior; they liberate our reading for a retrospective exploration of
the past resources of paper, for its previously multimedia vectors’.17 The concept of
the ‘future anterior’, an important notion in Derridean philosophy, is useful in
locating electronic media within the corpus of textuality. The ‘future anterior’ or the
‘will have been’ does not belong to or is not grounded in the present: in
, Derrida describes ‘what will have been written — the past of an
anterior future or the future of an anterior past […] which is itself neither anterior
nor ulterior’.18 For him, textuality as such is characterised by this non2belonging to
a specific present and is, therefore, a mirroring or an echoing of the ‘trace of its
own reflection’; the text is both the reflection of its past as well as the anticipation
of its future forms. Using this logic, videogames (as well as all of the so2called New
Media) can be called ‘texts’ which actualise the multimedia vectors that are anterior
to the existence of the physical constraints of paper.
By the logic of the future
anterior, just as videogames reflect properties of earlier texts, paper2based texts
also anticipate the videogame in their multimedia vectors.
That is, however, not to deny the technological specificities (futuristic in
comparison to the physical reproductions of most paper2based texts) of the game
as a separate and unique medium. The following comment by Derrida supports this
view:
While we do have to recognise the ‘multimedia’ resources or possibilities
of paper, we should avoid that most tempting but also, the most serious
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of
mistakes:
reducing
the
technological
From Reading Games to Playing Books
event,
the invention
of
apparatus that are multimedia in the strict sense of the word ― in their
external objectality, in the time and space of their electro2mechanicity,
in their numerical or digital logic ― to being merely a development of
paper, its virtual or implicit possibilities.19
One of the conclusions, therefore, is that print2based texts are as much machinic
texts as electronic media like videogames and there are similarities between the
two because both have the potentiality of producing a multiple text using multiple
media. The other conclusion is that the media2specific analysis that Hayles
advocates is of signal importance in reading the machinic text.
Therefore, the
machinic text is neither the computer2oriented futuristic entity of ‘New Media’
theorists and nor is it an informational abstraction that is totally devoid of formal
constraints. Having established this, how the text exists as an intermediation and
how it constructs its materiality need to be examined.
-
The breaking out of their physical constraints by various media, described above,
also has consequences for the materiality of texts. Materiality is constructed and,
like the text, is ‘woven’ into existence.
materiality.
This leads to an emergent notion of
Hayles redefines materiality as ‘the interaction of its [the text’s]
physical characteristics with its signifying strategies’.20 For her, as for Derrida, this
notion of materiality ‘extends beyond the physical object, for its physical
characteristics are the result of the social, cultural and technological processes that
brought it into being’.21 Aarseth’s concept of the cybertext misses a consideration
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of the text’s emergent materiality. Consequently, it fails to admit to the originary
machinic nature of narrative itself. The above model of materiality and emergence
obviously indicates an ongoing construction of nonlinear textuality within even the
so2called linear literary texts.
In a lecture of 1967, entitled ‘Cybernetics and Ghosts’, novelist Italo Calvino
describes literature as a ‘literature2machine’ where meaning is created not just on
the linguistic level but has ‘slipped in’ from another plane. He describes literature
as ‘a combinatorial game that pursues the possibilities implicit in its own
material’.22 This bringing2together of the machinic and the ludic within the frame of
the literary clearly prefigures the later phenomenon of the computer game, which
was instrumental in reigniting interest in this aspect of textuality over three
decades later. Calvino goes on to make a somewhat enigmatic comment about the
literature2machine:
The literature2machine can perform all the permutations possible on a
given material, but the poetic result will be the particular effect of one of
these permutations on a man endowed with a consciousness and an
unconscious, that is, an empirical and historical man. It will be the shock
that occurs only if the writing2machine is surrounded by the hidden
ghosts of the individual and his society.
23
Considering the time when this was written, Calvino’s conceptions are extremely
prescient. The permutations performed by the literature2machine cannot exist in
isolation. The writing2machine is surrounded by the ‘ghosts’ of the individual and
his society: the many traces and writings, or ‘spectrographies’24 as Derrida calls
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them, which ‘slip in’ from various planes into the narrative. This is all too normal in
the experience of playing a computer game: there are permutations of narrative,
! but these cannot happen in
especially in ‘freeform’ games like
isolation. The computer game narrative is dependent on player feedback as well as
on numerous connections with various other narratives and levels of information.
In
, there are historical links to the Los Angeles riots of 1992, to
several genres of cinema, styles of animation, some critiques of American culture
and to controversies regarding some features of the game. Of course, there are
other factors like the way the game and the player control each other, the level of
skill (which may correlate to the player’s experience with similar games) and the
player’s mood during the gameplay. Calvino’s statement effectively incorporates
the various things that constantly shape computer game narratives and make them
such versatile experiences of storytelling. What Calvino is actually describing here
is, however, the printed literary text: the similarities between the two are
unmistakable. Both these types of texts show in their different media2specific ways
how they qualify as literature2machines. A deeper analysis of the workings of the
literature2machine would now be appropriate.
5
%
Hayles connects her account of emergent materiality of texts to the concept of the
assemblage, which has already been introduced in Chapter One as a key element
in the work of Deleuze and Guattari. Mention of assemblages occurs throughout
Deleuze and Guattari’s
but very importantly for the present
context, the concept is first introduced in a discussion of the book. According to
them, ‘In a book, as in all things, there are lines of articulation or segmentarity,
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strata and territories; but also lines of flight, movements of deterritorialisation and
destratification
[…]
all
this,
lines
and
measurable
speeds,
constitute
an
assemblage’.25 As mentioned in Chapter One, lines of flight mark a change within
the assemblage. Links across various strata and changes evoked by lines of flight
are characteristic of the book2assemblage. Printed texts, being literary machines,
can be ‘plugged’ into other machines (assemblages) at the time of writing (or
reading). They have neither object nor subject and are made of variously formed
matters. As Deleuze and Guattari state, the book’s content is the same as its
material and that as assemblages ‘the book has only itself, in connection with other
assemblages’. They describe the book2assemblage quite clearly in the introduction
to
: ’ ‘A book is an assemblage […] and as such is
unattributable. It is a multiplicity […] the book itself is a little machine; what is the
relation (also measurable) of this literary machine to a war machine, love machine,
revolutionary machine, etc’.26
Deleuze and Guattari go on to connect various novelists (and their stories) to
different machinic systems: Heinrich von Kleist to a war machine, Franz Kafka to
an extraordinary bureaucratic machine, and so on. ‘Literature’, they conclude, ‘is an
assemblage’.27 Such a machinic assemblage is, then, a dynamic body: the book
exists only with respect to how it functions with other objects, how it changes them
and is itself changed by them. It is also important to see how the book2machine is
also described as being organic, illustrating the supplementarity of mechanicity and
organicity, which is also characteristic of the man2machine complex that forms in
the cybernetic feedback loop between machine and user, computer game and
player or text and reader, as noted earlier. However, the literary machine is not
homogenous.
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In Deleuzoguattarian terms, the book assemblage can be seen in terms of root2
books, radicle2systems and rhizomes. The first type is the linear book with a strong
principal unity governing its structure, almost like a tap2root supporting secondary
roots. The second type, or the radicle2fascicular system, is like the tip of the root
structure replaced by a series of secondary roots that give the impression of a
multiple branching.
However, according to Deleuze and Guattari, this does not
represent true multiplicity. The modern world, in its present chaotic state has
become impossible to represent, therefore ‘the multiple must be made’28 and the
root structures should be replaced by the multiple dimensions of the rhizome.
According to them, the book and the world together form such a rhizome:
The same applies to the book and the world: contrary to a deeply rooted
belief, the book is not an image of the world. It forms a rhizome with
world, there is an aparallel evolution of the book and the world; the
book assures the deterritorialisation of the world, but the world effects a
reterritorialisation of the book, which in turn deterritorialises itself in the
world.29
Here, Deleuze and Guattari describe the structure that is most associated with the
multiple text; this description also anticipates a more detailed discussion of the
book assemblage that will establish further connections with the videogame.
The concept of the rhizome, already mentioned in connection with the book
assemblage, now needs to be further clarified with reference to its special
Deleuzoguattarian context. According to John Marks, ‘the rhizome is an “acentred”
system; the map of a mode of thought which is always “in the middle”’.30 Marks
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shows
how
Deleuzoguattarian
thought
From Reading Games to Playing Books
changes
the
binary
subject/object
organisations of systems in Western thought:
Deleuze and Guattari’s contribution to this re2evaluation of the concept
of the system is the figure of the ‘rhizome’. The rhizome is a figure
borrowed from biology, opposed to the principle of foundation and origin
which is embodied in the figure of the tree. The model of the tree is
hierarchical and centralised, whereas the rhizome is proliferating and
serial,
functioning
by
means
of
principles
of
connection
and
heterogeneity. In simple terms, any line can be connected to any other
line. However, these lines do not converge to form an organic whole […]
the rhizome is a multiplicity […] it is always an open2system with
multiple exits and entrances.31
The rhizome2book, therefore, changes the way literature is understood:
it
connects to various assemblages and forms an open and multiple structure that is
constantly proliferating while simultaneously being disrupted by various lines of
flight. Such a structure necessitates a new conception of literature.
Deleuze and Guattari draw a distinction between what they call a minoritarian and
a majoritarian literature. They introduce the concept of ‘minor literature’, which is
‘that which a minority constructs within a major language’.32 Deleuze and Guattari
elaborate on this concept in " #$
%
&
. Here, they discuss
Kafka’s work as being a literary machine which is rhizomatic and which consists of
elements that are in constant transversal communication. They consider Kafka’s
letters, his stories and his novels as different components of a literary machine. As
Marks comments:
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Deleuze and Guattari seek to overturn just about every piece of received
critical knowledge concerning Kafka. [...] His bachelor existence, far
from cutting him off from social life, allows him a fluid, even ‘dangerous’
social nature. Kafka’s ‘solitude’ and that of his narrator/character K,
allows Kafka to construct a literary ‘machine’.33
Kafka’s literary machine is an example of minor literature: as Colebrook states, ‘he
wrote, not as a being with an identity, but as a voice of what is not given’.34
Colebrook’s comment further illustrates the rhizomatic character of Kafka’s
minoritarian literature. The question arises as to how the Deleuzoguattarian
conception of the literary machine as embodied in Kafka’s stories compares with
the idea of the videogame as a literary machine. A more detailed analysis of the
minoritarian characteristics of literary machines is needed to understand this.
Deleuze and Guattari identify three characteristics in minor literature:
the
deterritorialisation of language, the connection of the individual to a political
immediacy, and the collective assemblage of enunciation. In Kafka, James Joyce
and Samuel Beckett, they identify the capacity of the text to work over its material,
very like the capacity of paper, in the Derridean terms outlined earlier, to work
beyond its physical constraints. They read Joyce and Beckett as prime examples of
reterritorialisation and deterritorialisation of language. They comment on ‘the
utilisation of English and of every language in Joyce [and] the utilisation of English
and French in Beckett’ and remark that ‘the former never stops operating by
exhilaration and overdetermination and brings about all sorts of worldwide
reterritorialisations. The other proceeds by dryness and sobriety, a willed poverty,
pushing
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deterritorialisation
to such
an
//
extreme
that
nothing
remains
but
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
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intensities’.35 The process of deterritorialisation and reterritorialisation connects the
literary machine to other assemblages — commercial, economic, bureaucratic or
juridical and, finally, this connection results in a collective enunciation of the
individual.
Deleuze and Guattari observe this in a short story by Kafka: ‘in “The Investigations
of a Dog”, the expressions of the solitary researcher tend toward the assemblage
of a collective enunciation of the canine species even if this collectivity is no longer
or not yet given. There isn’t a subject; there are only collective assemblages of
enunciation’.36 The tripartite processes of minor literature show how Kafka’s works
function as a literary machine, especially when compared to the workings of the
machinic assemblage described above. What follows are two descriptions of the
literary machine: one being that of the paper2based (and ostensibly linear)
narratives such as Kafka’s stories and the other being the narrative in the computer
game. These accounts will then feed into each other and show how an
understanding of their respective status as machinic texts also necessarily
influences the reading of each form in terms of the others.
Deleuze and Guattari describe Kafka’s letters as a ‘rhizome, a network or a spider’s
web’.37 While the letters contain the ‘motor force that […] start the whole machine
working’,38 Kafka’s stories give him a creative line of escape in the form of what
Deleuze and Guattari call ‘becoming2animal’. According to Marks: ‘Literature is […]
a matter of becoming, of instigating a zone of indiscernibility rather than creating
identification or imitation, and literature is capable of putting into practice the
principle that runs through Deleuze’s work: becoming’.39 ‘Becoming’ has very
specific connotations in Deleuzoguattarian thought, as Marks’s comment indicates.
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It must be remembered that becoming is best understood as a continual process: it
is not a direct identification and nor is it any conclusive change. In becoming2
animal, therefore, Kafka’s protagonist does not take on the identity of an animal
yet he shares in characteristics of the animal ─ he, as it were, occupies a zone of
multiplicity where many identities are possible. Here, the continuum of identities
and the assemblages with which it connects illustrate what Deleuzoguattarian
thought describes as a molecular structure, one based on parts and the interaction
of parts in a pure ceaseless becoming. Molecularity sees wholes as open structures
based on multiplicity and existing in a continuum of duration.
According to Deleuze and Guattari, Kafka’s short stories point to the ultimate form
of becoming: the becoming2molecular. Their claim is based on their view that
Kafka’s stories are characterised by multiplicity and the process of becoming. The
becoming2molecular also implies other types of becoming: the multiplicity in the
stories is also characterised as ‘becoming2machine’.
This molecular multiplicity, achieved in the stories, tends to become integrated with
a machinic assemblage. An analysis of ‘In the Penal Colony’, Kafka’s short story
that is directly concerned with a machine and its almost2machinic human operator,
illustrates this well. In the story, the punitive machine of the penal colony seems
almost a part of the officer who controls it and even of the convict who is to be
executed on it. The machine itself is an apparatus of justice — plugged in, as it
were, to the justice2assemblage. The officer’s meticulous and single2minded
description of the workings of the machine, his absorption in the machine and
finally, his own death on the machine show a multiple machine2human relationship
that can be compared to the becoming2machine as described by Deleuze and
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Guattari.
Deleuze and Guattari, in their own analysis of the story, acknowledge the ‘seed of a
novel’40 in it but they also see other possible ‘becomings’ in the many versions of
the story: ‘And Kafka can imagine an animal conclusion to this text that falls back
to the level of a story: in one version of the ‘Colony’, the voyager finally becomes a
dog […] (in another version a snake2woman intervenes)’.41 They also claim that
Kafka has many reasons to abandon a text but from ‘one genre of text to another,
there are interactions, reinvestments, exchanges, and so on. Each failure is a
masterpiece, a branch of the rhizome’.42 Finally, they go on to describe the three
main novels as parts where the machine is incarnated in very complicated social
assemblages. Kafka’s conception of the novel is that of one that never stops
developing its assemblages.
These characteristics are certainly compatible with Deleuzoguattarian notions of the
machinic and also of minor literature. The multiplicity, the intense involvement with
the machinic processes and the many versions of the story are actually associated
more commonly with another more recent form of machinic text: the computer
game.
A comparison between these two forms will reveal how both function as
literary machines and essentially demonstrate in clearer terms the originary
relation between the narrative and the machinic.
6
(
5
%
In the above introduction to the idea of the machinic in literature, various new
perspectives have opened up which now redefine our idea of literature. It is clear
that the computer game narrative, despite its underlying elements of technicity, is
not a unique literary phenomenon. It also has its literary antecedents. In fact,
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Deleuze and Guattari’s concept of the machinic text finds many similarities in
videogame. The following sections will compare the machinic nature of literature
with the computer game narrative and establish similarities between them. The
sections will illustrate how the Deleuzian concepts of becoming and the rhizomatic
help to explain some of the major characteristics of the videogame narrative which
prove to be beyond the analytical capabilities of the apparatus used by more
traditional forms of literary criticism and games criticism. The purpose of the
present section is mainly comparative. Three major elements in both types of texts
will be compared: the existence of the text as assemblages, the multiplicity of the
narrative and the ability of the assemblage(s) and the user(s) to ‘plug into’ each
other.
The computer game narrative, like Deleuze and Guattari’s assemblage, is a
complex of various entities. It is a dynamic body the existence of which is governed
by how it changes other objects and how it itself gets changed by them. Like other
Deleuzian assemblages, the computer game plugs into various other assemblages,
for example the economic2assemblage. Especially in Massively Multiplayer Online
Role Playing Games (MMORPGs), the game links many individuals together through
the Internet and the worlds that the game2developers create soon spawn and re2
spawn into a network. As Edward Castronova comments, these ‘synthetic worlds’
develop their own economic systems, which then spill over into real economic
systems, with virtual characters and game ‘property’ being auctioned on online
markets like e2bay.43 Conversely, the outside world’s economics can affect the
playing of games. In games like '
#'
# , it is possible to actually hire the
services of a superior gamer to play a certain part of the game and thus gain an
advantage within the game system. This concept is called ‘power levelling’ and
there are even companies (such as Guy 4 Game and Eaglegame.com) that do
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business by selling power levelling services.
There are obvious other assemblages where the game plugs in: for example, the
political assemblage. The whole schema of ‘Persuasive Games’ is based on this. The
home page of Persuasivegames.com declares: ‘We design, build, and distribute
electronic games for persuasion, instruction, and activism. Our games influence
players to take action through gameplay. […] While often thought to be just a
leisure activity, games can also become rhetorical tools’.44 The company has
created videogames like (
%
, which is about the politics of nutrition,
, about the 2008 Presidential campaign in the US and
), about the conflict between passengers’ rights and security measures.
These games indicate the wide range of assemblages (political, juridical and
sociological) into which the ludic text keeps plugging2in.
Among other machinic assemblages that the game ‘plugs into’ is the war2machine.
Besides, the numerous real2time strategy games like
$
based shooters like the ever2popular
and the
#
or team2
#
) series,
videogames have entered the realm of ‘serious’ military training in games like the
*
US army’s
Shooter (FPS)
*
+
)
or the Syrian2developed First2person
. Both games claim to present ‘true experiences’.
y claims to provide ‘the most authentic military experience available’
and is used by the US army for simulating real2life engagement experiences,
recruitment propaganda and training. +
claims that its ‘level contents are
inspired by real stories of Palestinian people, that were documented by United
Nation records (197822004)’.45 The developers claim that ‘we had to do our share
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of responsibility in telling the story behind this conflict and targeting youngsters
who depend on video games and movies (which always tell the counter side) to
build their acknowledgement [sic] about the world’.46 Both of these games target
the younger generations to encourage participation in their respective war2efforts.
In the process, they also connect to the political assemblage through their
respective political positions and plug into the rhetorical machine. Besides the
above examples, the computer game also connects to numerous other machinic
assemblages such as cinema, music and competitive sports.
Finally, it is also at the same time a literature2machine, given that there is a story
of some sort that the games tell when they are played. The literature2machine,
itself, exists in further intermediation with various other media2assemblages, as
)
mentioned earlier.
is a classic example of such an assemblage. It
combines elements of film noir (especially in the grim but hyperbolic dialogues),
the graphic novel, sci2fi films like
(it uses the ‘bullet2time’ technology),
numerous cleverly disguised allusions to its own ludicity as well as to other texts
and it even has an ‘official strategy guide’ in print form. In this sense, like Kafka’s
stories,
the
game
is
perhaps
rhizomatic
in
that
it
deterritorialises
and
reterritorialises various lines of movement between the assemblages and it
accommodates lines of flight within the intermediated assemblage (for example,
when the action2sequence leads to the cinematic cut2scene within the game).
The concept of the rhizome is not new to game studies although its current mode
of application needs to be examined further. One major characteristic of computer
game narratives is that they consist of multiple stories with a number of different
endings. While this seems so different from conventional notions of literature, it
PhD Thesis, 2008
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Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
bears a distinct similarity to Deleuzoguattarian conceptions of the rhizomatic book.
Indeed, the concept of the rhizome has been seen by commentators as the key to
an understanding of the labyrinthine character of the game2narratives, which
otherwise tend to create plenty of confusion regarding their true characteristics.
Since the very inception of game studies, this concept has been applied in this
context. Murray, in her description of ‘digital labyrinths’, describes the postmodern
hypertext narrative as a rhizome:
Like a set of index cards that have been scattered on the floor and then
connected with multiple segments of tangled twine, they offer no end
point and no way out. Their aesthetic vision is often identified with
philosopher Gilles Deleuze’s ‘rhizome’, a tuber root system in which any
point may be connected to any other point. Deleuze used the rhizome
root system as a model of connectivity in systems of ides; critics have
applied this notion to allusive text systems that are not linear like a book
but boundaryless and without closure.47
However, though the concept might prove useful in describing the game narrative,
care should be taken not to oversimplify the case. Murray’s definition, while
relevant, tends to be incomplete in certain aspects, as a comparison with the
Deleuzoguattarian formulation will illustrate.
According to Deleuze and Guattari, the rhizome is multiple in that it is multi2
dimensional, or rather it has n21 dimensions because the recognition of
multidimensionality implies a subtraction of the unique from all the dimensions
possible (where the unique is also counted as a dimension). Murray’s model of the
rhizome using index cards tangled with twine in no way approximates to the
PhD Thesis, 2008
0+
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
complexity of the Deleuzoguattarian model. Neither is the Deleuzoguattarian model
about any tuberous root2system: Deleuze and Guattari are categorical that ‘a
rhizome as subterranean stem is absolutely different from roots or radicles’.48 In A
Thousand Plateaus, the concept of a rhizome does not simply mean ‘allusive text
systems that are not linear like a book but boundaryless and without closure’.49 The
radicle2fascicular root2book described above can also answer the same description.
In a rhizome, which unlike the radicle2systems is a true multiplicity, any part can
be connected to any other part and that different regimes of signs are connected to
each other on varying planes of complexity. Therefore, the rhizome, unlike the
hypertext narratives (especially Interactive Fiction) to which Murray compares it,
has no beginning either. The hypertext narrative does not behave like a rhizome
structurally. It can of course, form a rhizome with other narratives and
assemblages through its allusiveness in a process similar to the print narrative.
The computer game narrative, as will be shown in the next chapter, is of course
more often than not structurally quite different from the hypertext narrative. It is
more rhizomatic; although of course, to claim that it is a rhizome would be
stretching the comparison. It must be remembered that the rhizome does not
connect points: it connects lines, which criss2cross each other on various planes.
Allusive text systems may increase the number of possible connections, true, but in
hypertext literature and in videogames the multi2dimensional linkage that is
essential for rhizome2formation is not present. Also, connectivity is limited to the
requirements of the basic plot. There are only so many connections that a
hypertext can provide on a page. The computer game (especially one with good AI)
can provide a great deal more variety though, of course, even that has its limits.
So a connection between the rhizome and the computer game is not as simple as it
may look. A comparison of the two structures as shown in the following illustrations
PhD Thesis, 2008
0.
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
may illustrate the point better. The first illustration is from Chris Crawford’s
#
, where Crawford compares the structures of a linear
story and a game, and the second is an artist’s impression of what a
Deleuzoguattarian rhizome might look like.
Examined
structurally,
adventure games like ,
hypertexts
$ or
and
many
early
videogames
(especially
) ) will correspond to Crawford’s second diagram.
Most single2player computer game narratives are far more complex than Crawford’s
illustration can do justice to; nevertheless, they do not exactly correspond to a
structure like the one shown in the second illustration. At best, they occupy a spot
between the radicle2fascicular root2book structure (like the texts by William
Burroughs) and the rhizomatic.
This might not be the case, however, with multiplayer games and especially MMOs
that are played over the Internet and have worlds that link to a plethora of real and
PhD Thesis, 2008
0
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
virtual worlds on many different levels. Though he argues against any simplistic
identification of the Internet with the rhizome, Marks notes that ‘it is also
undeniable that the concept of the rhizome as a proliferating multiplicity which has
no organizing dimension or centre suggests metaphorical and analogical links with
the Internet as a global system’.50 Structurally, multiplayer games can therefore be
more like the rhizome: however, the structure, in this case, is not a formal
unidimensional structure; rather it is like the Deleuzoguattarian ‘body without
organs’, which does not just involve the game itself but rather, the game as well as
everything else including the milieu, the player’s experience, the system on which
the game is being played and so on. Like the Internet, multiplayer games exhibit,
to
a
large
multiplicity,
extent
the
asignifying
rhizomatic
rupture,
qualities
cartography
like
and
connection,
heterogeneity,
decalcomania.
Like
the
Deleuzoguattarian rhizome2book (like the Kafka texts described in the previous
section) they undergo deterritorialisation and reterritorialisation with the external
world. These concepts will be explained and further analysed in the following
sections.
In general, however, all videogames can be said to possess some rhizomatic
characteristics. For example, as the possible outcomes of the computer game
multiply, its nature also changes considerably and makes the text heterogeneous.
Connection with other assemblages also contributes to the heterogeneity. Consider
the popular simulation game
. The numerous expansion packs and mods
(modifications), released both by the manufacturer and by independent players,
have considerably multiplied the possibilities of the game and in most cases
changed the nature of the game, as well. For example, whereas the original game
did not allow the characters to have pets, the modified version does. Even within
the ordinary single player game, the gameplay multiplies the possibilities of the
PhD Thesis, 2008
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Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
game and certain paths make the game relatively easy while others make it less
so. This element of multiplicity is a key feature of the game narrative. The
possibility of playing the computer game narrative all over again from a particular
point using the saved game feature is difficult to imagine within the literary
structure of the root2book. In the rhizome2book, however, it corresponds to the
principle of asignifying rupture. According to Deleuze and Guattari, ‘A rhizome may
be broken, shattered at a given spot, it will start up again on one of its old lines, or
form new lines’.51 Correspondingly, players have the chance to try out totally new
strategies or to develop on an old one when they start a saved game. This can
happen on various different levels: there is also the possibility of modifying the
earlier situation (in the saved game) using cheat codes. Finally, in some respects
the game is like a map as defined in
: the game2trees (despite
the name) are not always arborescent, especially in complex games that construct
their own world in both spatial and temporal terms. The connections in such game2
trees occur between instances of gameplay and are open on all sides, as will be
shown in on the analysis of the temporal and telic characteristics of the computer
game in Chapter Six. In such a case, they form a map in Deleuzoguattarian terms.
On the extreme formal level, however, the game tree is a dendritic structure with
multiple branches from a radicle — in other words, it is a tracing. Though not
totally definable as a rhizome, the computer game in its rhizomatic nature, shows
clear similarities with the Deleuzoguattarian reading of Kafka’s stories.
Both types of texts are characterised by multiplicity in that they have various
possible endings. Kafka’s story has alternative versions and the computer game, of
course, has the many versions that are played into existence. The existence of both
texts depends on their being in assemblages as illustrated by a comparison
between the intermediated assemblage of a multi2faceted computer game like
PhD Thesis, 2008
00
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
#
systems, like
From Reading Games to Playing Books
and Kafka’s novels which form assemblages with various social
with the juridical system. Like Kafka’s stories, the computer
game, can be seen as a ‘minor literature’: it does not have any final identity and it
always needs to be considered in terms of its potentialities. Furthermore, like
Kafka’s writing in the early twentieth century, the computer game is not recognised
as literature under the traditional norms. In that sense, it is truly ‘minor literature’.
Two characteristics of minor literature, namely multiplicity and political immediacy
(directly in ‘Persuasive Games’ and indirectly in other games like
), have
already been recognisable in the computer game narrative. It is now necessary to
look in more detail at the third. The collective enunciation of the researcher
towards the canine species in Kafka’s ‘The Investigations of a Dog’ or that of the
officer towards the machine in the penal colony in another story, takes place
through the Deleuzoguattarian concept of ‘becoming’, already described in the
context of Deleuze’s reading of Kafka. It remains to be seen as to how videogames
exhibit collective enunciation: one possible way to assess it is as the encounter
between the user and the machinic assemblage.
The computer game is a literary/ludic machine that is literally plugged into an
electronic socket, into an artificial or simulated environment, as well as into an
assemblage of rules. The player, in turn, is plugged in to the machine and a key
factor in the creation of the gameplay and the narrative. There may be an outline
back story in the game but the development and denouement of the story is user2
dependent. Moreover, the game is governed by the flow of information from the
user to itself and vice versa. The user can influence the game and change its
structure, both through gameplay and through generating mods and cheats. The
game, similarly, has a pervasive influence on the player. As Martti Lahti observes,
PhD Thesis, 2008
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Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
Games actually anchor our experience and subjectivity firmly in the body
or in an ambiguous boundary between the body and technology. That is,
video games invite us to retheorise bodily experience through the
corporeal co2ordinates of our subjectivity. 52
Lahti goes on to discuss the computer game’s ‘cyborgian influence’ on the player.
The, game2player complex combines the human and the machinic within the
medium of the computer game. According to him, games force players to learn and
re2learn repetitive bodily movements that help the player (and her avatar) survive
and as it were, ‘melt into the game world’.
As implied in Lahti’s comment, playing the game also involves ‘becoming’ the
avatar and the machine. Torben Grodal points out the intensive physicality of this
kind of involvement:
Video games and some types of virtual reality are the supreme media
for full simulation of our basic first2person ‘story’ experience because
they allow ‘the full experiential flow’ by linking perceptions, cognitions,
and emotions with first2person actions. Motor cortex and muscles focus
the audiovisual attention, and provide the ‘muscular’ reality and
immersion to the perceptions. Even visually crude video games such as
Pac Man (1980) might provide a strong immersion because of their
activation of basic visuo2motor links.53
The experience described here by Grodal shows how both physical and mental
elements are involved in the gameplay process: this makes it similar to the process
of ‘becoming’. Just as Gregor Samsa in Kafka’s
PhD Thesis, 2008
02
literally illustrates
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
process of ‘becoming2animal’ as described by Deleuze and Guattari, the computer
game player’s metamorphosis into the avatar onscreen and into virtually the whole
of the machinic assemblage also illustrates a form of becoming. The collective
enunciation is achieved: with text, technology, mind, body and the senses
expressing themselves within the machinic assemblage. The computer game
narrative is, therefore, a ‘minor literature’.
*
The description of minor literature points to a different conception of the way such
literature is experienced and how the reading process itself is implicitly machinic.
The machinic2text cannot be understood in isolation from the reading process and
therefore, before arriving at any conclusions regarding the machinic2story, the
experience of reading it also needs to be analysed. In the section above, it is
impossible not to notice the implications of the intense physicality of the ways in
which Lahti and Grodal describe player2game(text) interactions. These can
significantly alter the ways in which the experience of reading the technotext is
understood in terms of the physicality of the experience. Indeed, without
recognition of these factors, any discussion of the machinic text remains
incomplete. When Lahti mentions the computer game’s cyborgian influence on the
player, he is in effect showing how the process of ‘reading’ is also a process of
‘plugging into’ the machinic2text assemblage. At the same time, the reader (much
like the Officer in Kafka’s short story) becomes part of the machine.
In Donna Haraway’s words, such a reader could be called a ‘cyborg’. Haraway
defines a cyborg as ‘a cybernetic organism, a hybrid of machine and organism, a
PhD Thesis, 2008
03
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
creature of social reality as well as a creature of fiction’.54 For her, the cyborg has
many politico2scientific implications, which are not germane to the present
discussion, but her definition of it as ‘a matter of fiction as well as lived reality’
reads like an appropriate definition of the computer game — in the sense of the
experience of being able to ‘live in’ the computer game narrative. Considering the
cyborgian process of identity2formation in the computer game, Jos de Mul points
out that ‘we should not forget that videogames are ontological machines in the
sense that they […] not only structure our (concept of the) world, but also (our
concept of) ourselves’.55 Even applied to other forms of texts, given their originary
machinicity, the textual experience is a cyborgian activity implying a machinic
orientation in the reader’s identity.
This process has been described by the relatively new term ‘technicity’ which
encapsulates the importance of technology in the construction of identity. Though
the term may be new, the idea of the interaction with or plugging into the text and
the resultant change in the reader’s identity dates back to the very origin of the
text. In fact, reading as we know it now is itself a technological construct and did
not always represent the way texts were experienced. As Leah Marcus comments,
during the early days of printing technology, the interaction with the printed text
was much more physical and ‘live’ than it is now:
When the exiled Machiavelli finished his farm duties and robed himself
for his scholarly encounters with the ancients, he did not describe the
activity as reading but as conversation with the ancients whose books he
consulted — perhaps some manuscripts but predominantly printed
humanist editions of the classics.56
PhD Thesis, 2008
04
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
Machiavelli’s transformation is a transformation of his identity and it takes place
when he is ‘plugged into’ the works of the ancients or rather, as Brad DeLong
describes it, into ‘those components of their minds that are instantiated in the
hardware2and2software combinations of linen, ink, and symbols of Gutenberg
Information Technology’.57 It can be argued, therefore, that Machiavelli’s interaction
with the printed text is as much an example of a Deleuzoguattarian ‘becoming’ as
that of a computer game player experiencing the story, albeit using quite different
media2specific technological devices.
-
7
--
(
!-
(
Such an argument makes it obvious that processes of technicity exist in an
originary relationship to notions of textuality. As the analysis of the text in the
computer game illustrates, there are many ways in which the game2text functions
like printed literature and vice versa. The above analysis performs a two2way role:
it identifies the originary machinic characteristics of texts and shows how literary
texts, in particular, behave like machines; further, in doing so, it shows how a
machinic entity like a computer game can, therefore, share so many characteristics
of literary texts. As a storytelling machine with some distinctive characteristics that
current literary theory fails to account for, the computer game prompts us to
rethink the ways in which we approach other kinds of texts, which are also
storytelling machines in their own media2specific constructions.
These characteristics are in no way new to the electronic medium: the later
chapters will illustrate how even literary texts in earlier media possess similar
features, which of course, are expressed differently according to their respective
PhD Thesis, 2008
1
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
media2specific constraints. Though the machinic element forms a principal part of
any understanding of the text in the computer game and of texts in general, the
analysis nevertheless misses another very important factor. This factor, the ludic
element, is a key element in videogames and, as this thesis will show, in other
forms of machinic texts. Having established the link between the text and the
machine, the next chapter will focus on how the machinic text is read and, at the
same time, begin to take into account the element of ludicity in relation to the
computer game text.
)
1
!
Friedrich Nietzsche quoted in &
!
#
)
) by Friedrich
Kittler and John Johnston (London: Routledge, 1997), p.13.
2
Norbert Wiener, ‘Men, Machines and the World About’ in
- %
.
ed. by Noah
Wardrip2Fruin and Nick Montfort (Cambridge, Mass.London: MIT Press, 2003), p.67.
3
)/
W. Ross Ashby,
(London: Chapman & Hall, 1957), p.53,
online edition, < http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/books/IntroCyb.pdf> [accessed 17 July 2008].
4
Aarseth,
)/
, p.22.
5
Aarseth,
)/
! p.41.
6
Aarseth, ‘Nonlinearity and Literary Theory’ in
- %
.
, p.777; original
emphasis.
7
Aarseth, ‘Nonlinearity and Literary Theory’, p.762.
8
N. Katherine Hayles,
)
'
/0
&
)
(Chicago, Ill. ; London: University of Chicago Press, 2005), p.37.
9
Hayles, '
, A Mediawork Pamphlet (Cambridge, Mass ; London: MIT, 2002),
p.19.
10
Hayles, '
11
Lisa Gitelman, interview with Katherine Hayles, ‘Materiality Has Always Been in Play’, (date
, p.31.
not mentioned), <www.uiowa.edu/~iareview/tirweb/feature/hayles/interview.htm>
PhD Thesis, 2008
1+
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
[accessed 17 July 2008].
12
Hayles,
13
Hayles, '
14
)
'
, p.7.
, p.25; original emphasis.
#
), Online Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990)
<http://dictionary.oed.com> [accessed 20 July 2008]
15
Derrida,
, trans. by Rachel Bowlby, Cultural Memory in the Present (Stanford,
Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2005), p.46.
16
Derrida,
17
Ibid.
18
Derrida,
(Chicago: University Press, 1981), p.361.
19
Derrida,
, p.47; original emphasis.
20
Hayles,
21
Ibid.
22
! p.47.
)
Italo Calvino,
'
, p.103.
&
) (London: Secker & Warburg, 1987, 1986),
p.22.
23
Ibid.
24
Derrida, and Bernard Stiegler,
#
1
(
1 % , translated by
Jennifer Bajorek (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2002), p.113.
25
Deleuze and Guattari,
26
Ibid.
27
Ibid.
28
Deleuze and Guattari,
, p.7.
29
Deleuze and Guattari,
, p.12.
30
John Marks,
, p.4.
2
3
), Modern European thinkers (London:
Pluto Press, 1998), p.45.
31
Marks, p.45.
32
Deleuze and Guattari, " #$
PhD Thesis, 2008
%
&
(Minneapolis: University of
1.
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Machinic Stories
From Reading Games to Playing Books
Minnesota Press, 1986), p.17.
33
Marks, p.136.
34
Colebrook,
35
Deleuze and Guattari, " #$
%
&
, p.19.
36
Deleuze and Guattari, " #$
%
&
, p.18.
37
Deleuze and Guattari, " #$
%
&
, p.29.
38
Deleuze and Guattari, " #$
%
&
, p.35.
39
Marks, p.125.
40
Deleuze and Guattari, " #$
%
&
, p.39.
41
Ibid.
42
Ibid.
43
44
Castronova,
2 , Routledge Critical Thinkers (New York: Routledge, 2001), p.104.
)
'
4
Persuasive Games Homepage, < http://www.persuasivegames.com/> [accessed 17 July
2008].
45
+
,+
game website, < http://www.underash.net/en_download.htm>
[accessed 17 July 2008].
46
Ibid.
47
Murray, p.132.
48
Deleuze and Guattari,
49
See Murray above.
50
, p.7.
Marks, ‘Information and Resistance: Deleuze, the Virtual and Cybernetics’ in
)'
2
ed. by Ian Buchanan and Adrian Parr (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press, 2006), p.193.
51
Deleuze and Guattari,
52
Martti Lahti, ‘As We Become Machines’ in
, p.10.
3
).
ed. by Mark
J.P.Wolf and Bernard Perron (New York; London: Routledge, 2003), p.158.
53
Torben Grodal, ‘Stories for Eye, Ear and Muscles: Video Games, Media, and Embodied
PhD Thesis, 2008
1
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Two
Experience’ in
54
Machinic Stories
3
).
, p.132.
Donna Harraway, ‘A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology and Socialist Feminism in the
Late Twentieth Century’ in
55
From Reading Games to Playing Books
Jos De Mul, ‘Ludic Identity’ in
- %
5
.
/
, p.516.
$ #
ed. by Joost Raessens
and Jeffrey H.Goldstein (Cambridge, Mass.; London: MIT Press, 2005), p.260.
56
Leah S. Marcus, ‘The Silence of the Archive and the Noise of Cyberspace’ in
.
ed. by Jonathan Sawday and Neil Rhodes (London: Routledge, 2000),
p.23.
57
Brad DeLong, ‘Brad DeLong’s Website’, 04.04.2005, <http://www.j2bradford2
delong.net/movable_type/200523_archives/000637.html> [accessed 18 July 2008].
PhD Thesis, 2008
1/
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
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#
Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
:
!
"
Considering the varied nature of games, the question arises as to how it is
possible to define games. Indeed, according to most definitions of games, rules
form the most important means of defining games. Salen and Zimmerman
define games as ‘a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict,
1
defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome'. Further, as noted in
Chapter Three, Juul claims that rules give all games their technical and
machinic characteristics and they construct a ‘state0machine’ that responds to
player actions. This, then, is an important similarity that non0electronic games
have with their electronic counterparts — by this definition, all types of games
2
are machinic systems.
Likewise, it can be said that videogames (or any form of mechanised games)
are very definitely games. This is because both types have a situation of
artificial
conflict
(in
the
sense
of
a
rule0controlled
competition
in
a
circumscribed environment) and aim for a quantifiable outcome (such as
winning, losing and scoring points). Besides this, videogames have the very
essential but largely unanalysable element of fun, which is characteristic of
3
play in general.
PhD Thesis, 2008
This holds true for a comparison between the
1
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
videogames and football, or between electronic
and the older non0
electronic version. The similarity or dissimilarity between the playing media,
though significant, is not the only factor in defining the ludicity of videogames.
This emerges clearly in the following statement by Juul:
Games are a transmedial phenomenon [… and they] are not tied to a
specific set of material devices, but to the processing of rules. This
fits computers well because the well0defined character of game rules
means that they can be implemented on computers.4
Various rule0bound systems of artificial conflict, ranging from paintballing to
MMORPGs, can be considered to be games. Some rule0bound systems which
might be goal0directed but which do not involve conflict can also be classed as
games; building games like
are good examples. Videogames consist of
both kinds of activity; hence, their ludicity is clearly beyond question.
! $
%&
While it is evident that videogames can be classed as games, it must also be
noted that games themselves form a very broad category and that there is a
lot of disparity between various types (genres) of games. This prompts game
scholars to provide divergent definitions.
One major point of difference
between games lies in the degree to which they are governed by rules. The
second problem, which has become increasingly obvious with the arrival of
videogames, is that some games seem to have narrative qualities and this
PhD Thesis, 2008
1 #
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
overlap between the ludicity and the narrativity of games blurs the boundaries
between games and narratives. For example, a game like
allows for
plenty of freeform emergent action and yet is limited by the game’s
affordances. Also, such emergent actions and freeform structure coupled with
narrative possibilities have far0reaching effects in the world of games. As Will
Wright, the creator of
, observes:
People started playing it [
], and they’d be verbalising the story
as they played it. They were reducing it to a linear story — so we put up
a web page for them to upload these stories, and we ended up with
hundreds of thousands of them. Players became performers.
$
5
(
)
These issues have always been present in game scholarship: videogames
simply bring them to the forefront by embodying a heightened level of these
problems within themselves. For example, according to game designer and
creator Lorne Lanning, computer games are a much more powerful
medium of expression than stories and they can have a huge cultural
influence: the
different
world.6
games, as their name suggests, aim to create a
With
improved
computing
technologies
and
artificial
intelligence, it is now possible to construct complex game systems that are
characterised by emergent action. Very often, therefore, videogames go a few
steps beyond the traditional conception of games. As a form of comparison, it
would be useful to consider some of the traditional definitions of games and
see how they need to be modified when considered in terms of videogames.
The most famous early definitions of play are those of the Dutch historian,
Johan Huizinga in his
PhD Thesis, 2008
and Roger Caillois’s
1 '
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
where Caillois modifies Huizinga’s definition.
Huizinga essentially studies play in general, linking it to western conceptions of
culture, which as he describes it, is
. His definition of play is
summed up below:
Summing up the formal characteristics of play, we might call it a free
activity standing quite consciously outside ‘ordinary’ life as being ‘not
serious’, but at the same time absorbing the player intensely and utterly.
It is an activity connected with no material interest, and no profit can be
gained by it. It proceeds within its own proper boundaries of time and
space according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner. It promotes the
formation of social groupings which tend to surround themselves with
secrecy and to stress their difference from the common world by
7
disguise or other means.
The implications of Huizinga’s definition call for a fuller analysis especially with
regard to their influence on and differences with subsequent studies of games.
!
&
$
+
,
&-
Huizinga’s definition makes some very important points, which have governed
game criticism for quite some time. Similar to Salen and Zimmerman’s
8
definition quoted earlier, for Huizinga, play is a free, rule0bound and absorbing
PhD Thesis, 2008
1 *
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
activity that occurs in a pre0circumscribed space and time, and also lacks any
material interest. Huizinga calls this rule0bound ludic space the ‘magic circle’.
Caillois modifies Huizinga’s conception by saying that games (especially
gambling games) also connect with material interest but then he adds that
nevertheless, play is unproductive in the sense it creates nothing new and
merely redistributes existing resources amongst the players.
One of Caillois’s major ideas is, however, his notion of classifying play as
and
, which in a sense greatly influences current debates on the nature
of play and games. He describes them as:
At one extreme an almost indivisible principle, common to diversion,
turbulence, free improvisation, and carefree gaiety is dominant. It
manifests a kind of uncontrolled fantasy that can be designated as
. At the opposite extreme […] there is a growing tendency to bind
it with arbitrary imperative, and purposely tedious conventions. […] This
latter principle is completely impractical even though it requires an ever
greater amount of effort, patience, skill, or ingenuity. I call this second
component
.
9
This classification raises many questions. Caillois categorically says that ‘games
are not ruled and make0believe. Rather, they are ruled
then implies clear watertight categories of
10
make0believe'.
games and
This
games. In
propounding the rule0bound character of games, many recent scholars of game
studies have accepted the exclusivity of Caillois’ categories. Eskelinen for
example, states that ‘there's also an inherent division into
PhD Thesis, 2008
1 .
and
,
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
11
similar to the distinction between play and game’.
equate
There is thus a tendency to
with play (as a freeform activity that is based on make0believe)
and
with games (rule0bound with distinct goals).
Caillois also divides games into four categories based on the nature of their
play.
He calls these
category)
!
(competitive games, most games fall under this
(games of chance),
" (vertigo games, such as
and
roller0coasters). He further outlines the possible and impossible combinations
between these types, especially those between
!
#
" and mimicry0
.
12
Such a definition of games, however, turns out to be restrictive and tends to
ignore their inherent complexity.
Even Eskelinen acknowledges the possible
overlap between the categories: ‘it should be easy to imagine a scene
dominated by competitive orientation containing embedded elements of
chance, role0play and vertigo, especially if the latter is taken to mean shocking
13
or perceptually challenging action’.
Therefore, with the developments in
computer game technology, the conception of
and
as mutually
exclusive forms is found to be increasingly problematic. This is similar to the
claims that the play0world is separate from the
world or that play is
essentially unproductive.
It is important to note that Huizinga's original definition does not distinguish
between game and play (between
rules’,
14
and
): for him, ‘all play has its
and this applies to both ‘make0believe’ systems and rule0bound ludic
systems like chess.
Further, he claims that play and culture are actually
15
‘interwoven with each other’.
However, some problems still remain in
Huizinga’s formulation. As videogame critic Ian Bogost points out, the hermetic
borders of the ‘magic circle’ that apparently separates the play world from the
PhD Thesis, 2008
11
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
real world do not hold because the game world and the real world spill over
16
into each other.
However, a further examination of Huizinga’s argument
shows that he does not discount the possibility of the ‘spilling over’ that Bogost
describes. According to him:
A play0community generally tends to become permanent even after the
game is over […] it has been shown again and again how difficult it is to
draw the line between, on the one hand, permanent social groupings —
particularly in archaic cultures with their extremely important, solemn
17
indeed sacred customs — and the sphere of play on the other.
The magic circle, therefore, is not so hermetic after all. The players retain and
recognise their relationship within the play0world in the world outside and
there are many cases when the ludic and other all0pervading elements of
human life come together, as Huizinga example of the link between play and
the sacred customs of ancient cultures illustrates so clearly.
Drawing on the main thesis of
, Hector Rodriguez further
strengthens this point by claiming that:
does not, however, express the thesis that playing is in
every respect isolated from serious concerns. The boundary between the
playful and the serious is certainly real and widely applied, but not
sharply defined everywhere, and always subject to revision. In some
cases, the borderline cannot be marked at all. Moreover, ethical
questions about civility and fairness are often intimately connected with
PhD Thesis, 2008
111
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
the act of playing. Huizinga asserts, for instance, that many forms of
serious culture originated from ludic actions. Playfulness lies at the
18
origin of art, religion, politics, philosophy, and the law.
Notwithstanding this, some problems still remain in Huizinga’s formulation.
Both Huizinga and Caillois deem that play is unproductive and the economy it
generates is distributed within the game0system, beyond which it does not
affect the world. Huizinga sees play as gratuitous and although Caillois points
out the economic exchange in gambling, he does so within the game system
$ %
itself. Jacques Ehrmann argues in his essay,
that:
They fail to see that the interior occupied by play can only be defined by
the exterior of the world, and inversely that play viewed as an exterior is
only comprehensible by and with the interior of the world; that together
they participate in the same economy.
19
It is this view of gratuitousness that prompts both of these early scholars to
treat the play0world as a complement or a luxury.
Huizinga sees play as an ‘accompaniment, a complement and even a part of
life in general. [According to him] it adorns life’.
20
Such a view implies that
ultimately, play is a separate activity or sphere of activity that is separate from
the real world though there are possibilities of exchange between the two.
Further, while seeing it as a free activity in terms of freedom, there is also an
implication of the other meaning of ‘free’ (as gratuitous). The last part of the
quote, ‘it adorns life’, makes the play function seem decorative, although it is
PhD Thesis, 2008
112
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
possible that Huizinga means it differently. Nevertheless, it does seem to lead
21
to Caillois’ view that play is a luxury and that ‘the hungry man does not play’.
Such a view is unsubstantiated and gives an incomplete and elitist definition of
play. As Ehrmann comments in his essay,
This last statement designed to forestall any objection, nonetheless
strikes us as highly contestable […] if play has the capacity for
symbolisation and ritualisation is consubstantial with culture, it cannot
fail to be present wherever there is culture. We realise then that play
cannot be defined as a luxury. Whether their stomachs are full or empty,
22
men [sic] play because they are men.
Indeed,
the
issue
of
gratuitousness
(and
the
implied
notion
of
unproductiveness) seems to contradict Huizinga’s own position on the link
23
between play and poetic creativity.
However, it seems that Huizinga takes a very utilitarian view of productivity
and does not deem artistic creativity as being productive. What he has to say
in his chapter ‘Play0Forms in Art’ makes it clearer: ‘Play, we said, lies outside
the reasonableness of practical life; has nothing to do with necessity or utility,
24
duty or truth. All this is equally true of music’.
This seems to be in direct
opposition to modern cultural and artistic views, especially since ludic
references abound in both the humanities and the social sciences. Ferdinand
de Saussure’s reference to the chess analogy to describe
!
and
,
Freud’s fort0da game, Wittgenstein’s language games and Derrida’s concept of
play (&
PhD Thesis, 2008
) are famous examples.
113
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
Videogames illustrate the ludic element in human culture, as pointed out in the
above examples, even more explicitly. Electronic ludic systems like
can be used to simulate real0world activities, MMORPGs can form communities
that reflect and affect real0life scenarios and some recent games are now being
used to comment on political situations or ideologies.
26
influences
25
Therefore, play not only
but also intrinsically informs our understanding of reality and
culture. A striking example of this blurring of play and reality is the ARG
'
(Alternate Reality Game) called
game for the film
( (
)
!
which started as a promotional
and as a web of clues throughout
datasphere is a classic case of an overlap of real0life experience and game0
experience ( According to a News.com report on ARGs,
These games are intensely complicated series of puzzles involving coded
Web sites, real0world clues like the newspaper advertisements, phone
calls in the middle of the night from game characters and more. That
blend of real0world activities and a dramatic storyline has proven
27
irresistible to many.
Another example where play and reality meet is the recent Serious Gaming
movement, which clearly combines the two elements of play and reality in
what
would
have
seemed
a
paradoxical
combination
for
the
early
commentators. The example of the persuasive games cited in the previous
chapter also fall within this league. The Serious Games manifesto has clear0cut
goals, which reform our ideas our ideas about ludicity, the non0ludic world and
value. It clearly states its aims, thus:
PhD Thesis, 2008
114
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
The Serious Games Initiative is focused on uses for games in exploring
management and leadership challenges facing the public sector. Part of
its overall charter is to help forge productive links between the electronic
game industry and projects involving the use of games in education,
28
training, health, and public policy.
Even earlier scholarship takes into account the difficulty of separating play and
reality: Ehrmann makes it very clear that the interaction between play and
reality is far more complex and interesting than either Huizinga or Caillois have
acknowledged.
Ehrmann’s use of the word ‘consubstantial’ is important, here: according to the
*, the word primarily means ‘of one and the same substance or essence;
29
the same in substance'.
The etymology and the secondary meaning are
theological and are defined as follows: ‘of the three Persons in the Godhead;
esp. of the Son as being ‘one in substance’ with the Father [and] also said of
30
Christ's humanity in relation to man'.
Ehrmann’s description, therefore, by
31
extending the analogy of the ludic and the sacred,
comes very close to an
accurate description of the complex relationship between play and reality (and
culture) by describing them as being consubstantial instead of complementary.
This idea will form the basis of the more complex framework within which play,
especially with respect to videogames, will now be considered.
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$
From Reading Games to Playing Books
2
Brian Sutton0Smith, writing in 1997, describes games as being characterised
by ambiguity. In a comparative outline of the various notions of ludicity,
Sutton0Smith refers to the work of Derrida as being the ‘most radical account
32
of the role of the ludic turn in modern thought’.
He begins by discussing
Derrida’s concept with respect to the play of signifiers in a text. Sutton0Smith
sees this as a text being at play and notes that in the broad sense of play, ‘the
mind, speech and writing are always at play’.33 Such an idea has already been
encountered briefly in the analysis of (w)reading in the previous chapter.
This Derridean conception provides a convincing framework within which to
observe how the so0called watertight separation of the two aspects of ludicity
gives way under the process of &
the term which describes the Derridean
process of play. The Derridean definition of &
needs to be clarified, first:
Play is the disruption of presence. The presence of an element is always
a signifying and substitutive reference inscribed in a system of
differences and the movement of a chain. Play is always play of absence
and presence, but if it is to be thought radically, play must be conceived
of before the alternative of presence and absence. Being must be
conceived as presence or absence on the basis of the possibility of play
and not the other way around.34
Such a model of play is described only by understanding that there is
'something missing from it: a center which arrests and grounds the play of
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substitutions […] this movement of play, permitted by the lack or absence of a
35
center or origin, is the movement of supplementarity'.
The entire analysis
that precedes this fits such a description very well.
The binaries of rule0bound and make0believe games,
and
and the
playful versus the real have all been found wanting. Such clear and total
separations are constantly exceeded and subverted by the nature of play itself.
It seems that play can only be understood by using its own structural terms.
Derrida illustrates how other binary relationships, such as nature and culture
or reading and writing, need to be seen as being defined by play. Therefore,
this model is easily applicable to the so0called binarisms identified in the
understanding of play itself: play is itself always
#
.
The two key elements in this model, as also noted elsewhere, are that there is
an ‘interplay’ of presence and absence (or the ‘in0between’ ludic space which is
the origin of presence and absence) and that this movement is characterised
by the lack or absence of a centre or origin. Care must be taken, however, in
not oversimplifying the concept of play as one that simply dissolves or
obliterates the distinction between two binaries, for example, nature and
culture. Nor should it be assumed that the centre is done away with or
destroyed. These issues need a more detailed explanation before the analysis
can be applied directly to the binarisms involved in current conceptions of the
ludic.
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When responding to Claude Levi0Strauss's attempt, in the $
+
,
, to separate nature from culture, Derrida maintains that despite the
attempts to seek for centred structures, ‘in this Structuralist moment, the
concepts of chance and discontinuity are indispensable’.36 On the other hand,
he observes that ‘this standpoint does not prevent Levi0Strauss from
recognising […] the continuous toil of factual transformation’.37 Considering
these two contrary aspects of the Structuralist position, Derrida sees the
process in which both are decentred as being fundamentally different from
being a loss of the centre.
Instead of a positing a loss of the centre, or even, as readers like Sutton0Smith
assume, ‘a process in which no centre has a fixed meaning’,38 Derrida replaces
the idea of the centre which lends structure with what he calls the ‘noncentre’.
This thinking forms the basis for deconstruction, which as Nicholas Royle
observes, ‘engages a thinking of the force of the non0centre’.39
In such
Derridean terms, it is evident that binaries such as play and reality or rule0
bound play and make0believe maintain their identities and yet at the same
time,
they
overlap
and
do
not
remain
irreducible
entities.
irreducibility, itself, exists within the Derridean process of
))-
The
very
— a
continual process of difference and deferral of meanings in which the centre is
pushed back repeatedly, leading to a thinking of a relationship based on
noncentres. Such a noncentred structure is based on the play (&
. of presence
and absence between the entities involved and it naturally follows that these
exist in a supplementary relationship, as already explained in the introduction.
The similarity of this model with the ludic structure described above is only too
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obvious. Game, play and ‘reality’ or the ‘serious’ exist in a supplementarity
that does not privilege the centred structure of any of these entities.
Play,
does not lose its rule0bound structure and become totally random; similarly,
neither is it totally rigid. In this context, it is necessary to reiterate the link
between writing and play, as established in the previous chapter. There, &
was responsible for the disruption of the boundaries between reading and
40
writing and also having these exist as a ‘single gesture but doubled’ . The
above has provided the basis for the understanding of (w)reading and its
proximity to the act of playing. The latter will have further implications in the
discussion of the relation between the ludic and narrative, in the following
chapter.
From the above analyses, however, what emerges clearly is how
intrinsically play (&
) informs our understanding of the processes of play itself.
In his recent study of videogames, Alexander Galloway takes up the same
analysis. Galloway also observes the supplementarity that clearly operates in
the realm of the ludic. He makes similar claims as above:
Using the logic of supplementarity, play reconstitutes the field, not to
create a new wholeness but to enforce a sort of permanent state of
nonwholeness, or ‘nontotalisation’. Play is a sort of permanent agitation
of
the
field,
a
generative
motion
filling in the
structure
itself,
41
compensating for it, but also supplementing and sustaining it.
Galloway maintains that Derrida does not say what play
, so much as what it
does. This is as true of play as an originary activity influencing non0ludic
structures as it is for the ludic structures on which models like the ‘magic
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circle’ are based. Play itself is
#
From Reading Games to Playing Books
with the categories that theorists have
tried to classify it under, such as
and
, which undergo the same
process as other binaries such as reading and writing( Galloway comments that
‘play brings out for Derrida a certain sense of generative agitation or
ambiguity, a way of joyfully moving forward without being restricted by the
42
retrograde structures of loss or absence’.
to has
already
characteristic
of
The ambiguity that Galloway points
been identified by theorists like Sutton0Smith and is
a
noncentred
process.
The
latter part
of
Galloway’s
observation, however, needs to be questioned as it seems to be deviating from
the Derridean account referred to above. The shifting conceptions of absence
and presence are in0play; therefore, the idea of joyfully moving forward
without being restricted by ‘retrograde structures of loss or absence’43 is
misleading. Nevertheless, it is significant that videogames research is finally
moving towards an account of game and play, which is informed by
supplementarity, even though the shift is gradual and more work needs to be
done in understanding the relationship.
The earlier chapters have already illustrated how Derridean conceptions of
supplementarity work in the constructions of ludicity, technicity and narrativity
within videogames and also originarily in the earlier ludic forms. Play is thus
not a complement of culture as claimed by earlier scholars: it exists in a
supplementary relationship to elements of culture. In this respect, Ehrmann’s
rather loaded description of play and culture being ‘consubstantial’ and the
analogy of the ludic process to the Christian concept of consubstantiality,
mentioned earlier, can now be further developed, under the Derridean scheme.
However, play and culture exist together, not as ‘substances’ but as elements
whose existence is dependent on interplay. Like game and culture, the so0
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called binary terms, game and play (and
From Reading Games to Playing Books
and
), coexist within a
noncentric44 framework — extending the analogy with (w)reading, it is possible
to describe this phenomenon by adding a new dimension to the meaning of a
term commonly used to describe the playing experience, especially in
videogames. The term concerned, which has been variously defined by
theorists, is ‘gameplay’. The following section will aim to illustrate how this
concept, when redefined in terms of a Derridean analysis, contributes
significantly to the understanding of the ludic process not just in videogames
but in general.
Before moving on towards a detailed analysis of gameplay, it is important
briefly to pursue another earlier commentary that is similar to Ehrmann’s, as
an introduction to the processes described as gameplay. Following the
Derridean model (which, it can be argued, is also implicit in some of Huizinga’s
ideas), it can be seen that at the same moment, play can exist both as play
and as a different element of culture (like art and law). Gregory Bateson’s idea
of play as metacommunication, referred to by earlier game studies scholars
(Sutton0Smith in 1997 and Salen and Zimmerman in 2004), fits well with the
above analysis.
Bateson describes play as metacommunication in his essay, ‘A Theory of Play
and Fantasy’. He cites the instance of two monkeys playing or as he describes
it, ‘engaged in an interactive sequence of which the unit actions or signals
were similar but not the same as those of combat’.45 Bateson claims that this
series of signals carry the message that ‘this is play’ and states that this is an
instance of metacommunication. He goes on to say that ‘play is a phenomenon
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in which the actions of “play” are related to, or denote, other actions of “not
play”’.46 This is again reminiscent of the Derridean noncentric model described
above though in Bateson, despite the co0presence of play and non0play, they
are still separate entities. Later on in the essay, however, there is more of a
shift towards supplementarity: especially in Bateson’s claim that every action
‘in which the proposal to change the rules is implicit, is itself part of the
ongoing game’.47 The changing of rules does not, therefore, belong to the
external realm of ‘non0play’; rather, it is originarily involved in the play process
itself.
Bateson’s model lends itself to further development within the framework of
supplementarity.
Within this conceptual framework, play acts in the space
between presence and absence, or the signals of the metacommunication and
the absence of that which these signals denote. The signals, it should be
noted, are untrue in a certain sense but not totally; therefore, there is no total
dissolution of the boundaries between the make0believe and the real but there
is a clear indication that the two entities exist
#
within a framework of
non0centredness. Both the play and the non0play elements, therefore do not
exist as complete irreducible entities. Instead, each is constantly added to by
the other which acts as a ‘supplement’.
Metacommunication, therefore, involves a supplementary relationship between
play and ‘non play’. Salen and Zimmerman provide a good illustration:
In Spin the Bottle, the ability of the player to recognise that a kiss within
the frame of the game at once represents but also does not mean the
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same
thing
as
a
metacommunication.
kiss
in
the
real
From Reading Games to Playing Books
world
is
an
instance
of
48
In this case, the same thing exists simultaneously in the ‘real’ (or rather ‘non
play’) world as well as in the play world. This can be inferred as a complex
situation where again the ‘non play’ and ‘play’ are in play.49
3
Although
many
theories,
,
such
&
as
4
Bateson’s,
already
$
indicate
the
supplementarity that works within the ludic process, with the advent of
videogames, discussions of this complicated relationship have come more to
the forefront precisely because of the variety of ludic possibilities that can be
experienced at once within this medium. It is because of their versatility and
multifacetedness that videogames resist any easy definitions of them as
irreducible entities and instead further open up the path to extending analyses,
such as those initiated by Derridean and Batesonian concepts, of the
supplementarity that characterises the ludic process. This will in turn help in
continuing the analysis of the originary supplementarity of the machinic and
the ludic, started in the earlier section, as well as in studying the relationship
between the narrative and the ludic. However, this requires a thorough
reappraisal of the ludic process. An analysis of the concept of gameplay,
already mentioned above in the context of supplementarity, will therefore be in
place here.
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In current gaming parlance, gameplay has become a popular neologism, visible
on almost all gaming websites. While a lot of attempts at defining it have been
made, none quite succeed in getting the essence of it. There exists a whole
range of definitions but no cogent analysis of the various elements they
consider. At first glance, the very term seems an affront to supporters of the
Game versus Play distinction, since it wears both these hats at the same time
and quite comfortably at that. Unlike Caillois’s claim,
and
elements
coexist comfortably in gameplay. Celia Pearce’s simple yet succinct definition
comes close to describing the gaming process in videogames (gameplay): ‘a
game is a structured framework for spontaneous play’.
50
So gameplay
combines spontaneous play existing in supplementarity with the structured
framework of game rules. However, there is a wide range of opinions about the
nature of gameplay itself and that make its analysis quite complicated.
Surprisingly, despite there being many comparative analyses of the definition
of games, there is a distinct lack of scholarly comparison of the various
definitions of gameplay. Such an exercise, however, is extremely important
since it is necessary to examine the various aspects of the concept inasmuch
as these will develop into larger discussions of some major issues in game
studies.
The diversity of the definitions exposes the problematic nature of the concept;
yet, the issues they address are indeed linked to the previous discussion on
the nature of play. The following analysis aims to illustrate how the concept is
applicable not just to videogames but is indicative of the nature of play, itself.
The definition of gameplay has for long been a bone of contention for designers
)
and scholars. The ‘Glossary’ of
* %
lists
gameplay as a ‘vague word denoting what players do in a game’.51 Andrew
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Rollings and Ernest Adams state that it is extremely difficult to define. These
are just extreme points in the wide0spectrum of definitions discussed in the
following analysis.
In this wide range of opinions, there is consensus that
gameplay comprises of more than one element. That, however, is where the
consensus ends. What it does, however, is give rise to a range of questions
about gameplay and its various elements.
There are several questions to be examined here. What are the elements that
gameplay comprises of? How does the interaction of game and play elements
fit within the concept of gameplay? Where can gameplay be located within the
sphere of ludic activities and more specifically within videogames? What is the
nature of interaction of the player with the game0system? Finally, how does it
inform (or
#form) our conceptions of play? These questions do not just help
in probing the supplementarity between the elements of gameplay; they also
illustrate that the process is a multiplicity composed of various key aspects.
Perhaps, the best way of answering these questions will be a hands0on analysis
of an example of gameplay from a popular computer game in terms of critical
commentary on the relevant aspects. For the present analysis, a versatile
computer game will be the most suitable candidate. Activision’s $
0
52
/
a cult title in the RTS genre with an overall rating of 9.1 (out of 10) on
Gamespot.com, is an obvious choice. The action in $
is described as
follows:
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[There] are essentially two distinctly different types of gameplay […]
There's the overarching turn0based campaign in which you conquer
cities and provinces, make improvements, and move armies around the
map as you expand your empire, and then there are the real0time
battles in which you use tactics and maneuvers to crush your enemy in
combat.53
The game’s versatility, the major reason for choosing this game as an
example, cannot be questioned considering the various different modes (and
genres) of playing within a single title, the varied range of actions possible and
the multiplicity of the aspects covered in the gameplay. In $
, gameplay,
with the exceptional score of 9 out of 10, is a key contributory factor in
determining the overall rating for the game.
Gamespot.com’s criteria for rating gameplay are significant, here, and they
open up a range of questions:
By gameplay, we mean everything from the responsiveness and design
of a game's controls to how challenging, intense, or exciting the game
is. Basically, this represents how well a game plays and how enjoyable it
is to play. Games very rarely earn a 10 in this category, due to how
elusive games with perfect or near0perfect gameplay actually are. We
54
weigh the gameplay score heavily when deriving the overall rating.
It is important to note how this definition clearly mentions as gameplay as the
55
most important criterion for the overall rating.
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The reason for this, however,
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is not as clearly stated. Of course, of how enjoyable a game is and ‘how well it
plays’ are perhaps good reasons enough for such importance but in
themselves, they combine many other elements that call for a more nuanced
analysis to provide a clearer understanding of the gameplay experience. The
following section will analyse such aspects of gameplay as pointed to in the
questions asked above.
Rules and play are, of course, two major elements defining gameplay. To
analyse these, it will be useful to contrast Salen and Zimmerman’s definition of
gameplay with that provided by Bo Walther Kampmann. Salen and Zimmerman
define gameplay as ‘the formalised, focused interaction that occurs when
56
players follow the rules of a game to play it'.
It is important to note that they
define games as a ‘subset of play’ and play as an ‘element of the game’. Salen
and Zimmerman’s formulation of games as a subset of play
57
and of play as an
element of games also implies the sense of supplementarity discussed above,
although the notion of subset needs further clarification. In mathematical
terms, ‘A set S1 is a subset of another set S2 if every element in S1 is in S2. S2
may have exactly the same elements as S1’.
58
So in mathematical terms, play
and game would form and occupy the same set, according to Salen and
Zimmerman’s formulation that the game as a subset of play while play itself is
59
an element of the game. Hence, the portmanteau word
‘gameplay’ seems to
come closest to describing the relationship.
According to Kampmann, however, rules and play are complementary rather
than supplementary. His definition continues to insist on the distinction
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between play and game:
One must hold on to the initial distinction [between play and game]
(otherwise one is swallowed by the other of play), and one needs
constantly to accept the organisation, the rule pattern, of the game.
When one disregards this complementary balance a flow is interrupted.
[…] A gameplay works precisely to assure this flow by serving as a
potential
matrix
for
the
temporal
realisation
of
particular
game
60
sequences.
Kampmann’s conclusions are important in that they identify within gameplay
the potential matrix for the actualisation of game events, which forms a key
element in the analysis of game endings and temporality in Chapter Six.
However, in the present context one cannot help noticing how they tend to
shift the analysis of the ludic process to the ‘initial distinction’ or the game0play
binarism, though according to him this is mediated by a complementarity.
Complementarity, however, introduces further problems. Set theory, as used in
unpicking the game0play relationship in Salen and Zimmerman comes in useful
for considering Kampmann’s concept: in set0theory, a complement is 1seen as
the difference of a set and the universe, or the universal set'.61 Such a
relationship is still essentially exclusive (especially since play is seen as the
'other') and it is difficult to see how a ‘flow’ can be maintained between play
and game, under such conditions. As already discussed at length, the relation
between the play and game elements is not complementary in such a sense.
The word ‘complement’, however, has many context0specific applications and
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Kampmann does not clarify his intended meaning. The
synonyms
such
as
final/finishing touch’.
‘companion,
62
addition,
* provides various
supplement, accessory
[and]
The ambiguity of the term is obvious. In terms of
relating play and game, the problem with maintaining an externality between
the two entities has already been understood. From the above synonyms it is
difficult to come to a clear conception of what is meant by complement: in one
sense, it even means ‘supplement’ while Kampmann’s definition definitely
moves towards a different meaning. Generally stated, the term therefore does
not help at all in understanding the relation between the game and the play
elements in gameplay. Hence, the more plausible solution is to describe the
relationship as supplementary so as to avoid the distinction of categories that
might be implicit in the sense of complementarity.
Having examined the organisation of game and play elements in the concept of
gameplay, it is now possible to explore how gameplay accommodates the
player and the game0system and to attempt a comprehension of the location
of gameplay and the elements it is comprised of. As all the commentators
agree, gameplay is about the interaction of the game and player. Juul
comments that gameplay is not about the rules, the game0tree (branching
choices) or the game fiction but about the ‘way in which it is played’.63 Yet even
the ‘way in which it is played’ consists of the rules, choices and the game
fiction in a supplementary relationship in Derridean terms. The importance of
rules within any comprehension of gameplay has already been addressed in
the previous sections. The element of game0fiction is, arguably, more
important than Juul thinks and a deeper analysis of this will follow in the next
chapter. The present discussion will, however, try to adumbrate the role of
game0fiction within gameplay through an analysis of the role of the context in
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videogames, especially in case of $
From Reading Games to Playing Books
. After analysing the context, another
key element that is formative both in terms of the game0fiction (and
concomitantly, the element of play) will also merit a brief introduction. This is
the element of choice present in the gameplay and,
Juul, it will have far0
reaching consequences in the understanding of videogames in the following
section.
For the present, it will be sufficient to begin with the analysis of context:
especially in terms of Geoff King and Tanya Krzywinska’s description of a
context0dependent gameplay. They maintain that ‘if gameplay is often to the
fore, it might be argued that this is only possible as a result of the existence of
the contexts — in broad and more specific, crude or subtle — within which it
64
makes any sense’.
The context in $
is all0pervading:
You play as one of three powerful Roman families — the Julii, the Bruti,
or the Scipii — attempting to increase the size and glory of Rome and
shore up your faction's power and influence. As all three factions are
Roman, there's literally no difference between them in terms of units
and building types, though they do have different responsibilities. The
Julii must deal with the Gauls and Germania to the north in a difficult,
landlocked campaign. The Bruti are required to deal with the remnants
of the Greek city0states and expand the empire to the southeast. And
the Scipii are tasked with subduing Carthage, Rome's great nemesis to
the southwest.
65
Further, the in0game artificial intelligence provides help through AI agents
Victoria (who advises the player on civic and political matters in the turn0based
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part) and a Roman centurion (who is the advisor on martial strategy in the
real0time battles). Such advice and the medium of presentation try to be very
true to historical circumstances. The units and their actions have been well
researched. In fact, designers like Meier are well0known for the detailed
research that they undertake before conceptualising a game.
In $
, the pre0game screen that always loads with a silhouetted animation
of Roman warriors in battle together with a quotation on war from an eminent
historical personage lends a sense of drama to the game. Similarly, in the pre0
battle cutscene (which incidentally reflects the correct units participating in the
battle) the Roman general’s exhortation (which varies in tone depending on the
status of his army) and his armies reaction (cheering, taunting or silent
depending on the mood of the battle) are very convincing and attempt the
authentic simulation of historical battles. Admittedly, the game plays upon the
sense of make0believe but as the earlier discussion reflects, this is how
is
created between the ruled and the make0believe elements. The context itself
exists in
with the rules and the technical affordances and in itself it
combines the art, the in0game music with the narrative and these exist in an
interplay with the outside world (that is, $
0
forums discussing
Roman history, in0game strategies, personal instances of gameplay and even
planning $
0
parties).
66
However, the context, as said before, is
hardly relevant unless the choices made within the game0system keep
affecting it.
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Fig: The loading screen of $
Gameplaying Games
/
0
From Reading Games to Playing Books
2 already a historical context is being created by
the image, the icon (note the date, 288 BC) and the quote from Virgil (‘Bella horida bella’ or
‘Wars, horrid wars’)
Sid Meier, the designer of the ever0popular + % 3
series addresses this
issue by describing gameplay as ‘a series of interesting choices’.67 Although too
sketchy in itself, Meier’s definition addresses a key point. For Meier, choices
exist in series and are ‘interesting’. Game choices form various complex
structures, some of which are described as game0trees in combinatorial game
theory. Despite the arborescent connotation of the word, a game0tree does not
necessarily have to be an arborescent structure and even if so, then this is
usually for representational convenience because it tends to favour monoplanar
structures. Rather, in the context of the previous analyses, the series of
choices is rhizomatic and multiple as the analysis in the following chapters will
illustrate in further detail. Meier’s other point about the choices being
‘interesting’ is more difficult to define. Perhaps what he means is ‘interesting’
in the sense of ‘preferred’ because it must be remembered that players
sometimes do make choices which they themselves know of as less interesting
than certain others that they might have made.
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In the $
Gameplaying Games
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example, a tremendous amount of strategic planning and resource
management is required in the game. The game takes almost two days to
complete and the complexity of the game tree can be easily imagined. Choice is a
major factor in the gameplay of this game and the game0tree depends extensively
on the incorporation of choice. Warren Spector in his ‘post0mortem’ of the cult
game *
" comments, ‘*
" asks players to determine how they will solve
game problems and forces them to deal with the consequences of their choices’.68
It must, however, be remembered that choice in gameplay does not imply a totally
free and human0centred activity as the following account of the process of interplay
will reveal.
3
,
$
4
!
69
This above discussion of the elements that inform gameplay
makes it possible
to move on to another major problem outlined earlier: the location of
gameplay. Rollings and Adams recognise that gameplay ‘is a result of a large
70
number of contributing elements’
and they locate gameplay on the basis of
the presence and absence of this elements, for which they use the terms
‘indication’ and ‘contraindication’. As the discussion on the elements of
gameplay has already demonstrated, these exist in interplay with each other
and this makes it difficult therefore to locate gameplay. It can be argued that
what is happening here is the location of a phenomenon within the interplay of
presence and absence (thus linking it with
as described by Derrida in
much the same terms). Gameplay then is the multiple space from which
individual game sequences are realised, as has already been noted in the
response to Kampmann’s definition. The development of these gameplay
PhD Thesis, 2008
133
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
instances is a process that depends on the mutual effect of the player and
game0system on each other. The idea of the interplay between the various
aspects of playing videogames has been the governing motif of the analysis of
the ludic process so far. As the concept of gameplay forms the key platform for
observing all the various types of interplay, it is perhaps more than necessary
to illustrate how the aspect of interplay between the player and the system is
intrinsic to the very definition of the concept itself.
The interaction between the game0system and the player is perhaps a suitable
point of departure, considering that this aspect of gameplay links the earlier
analyses of the game0system as a machinic assemblage and the way in which
players ‘plug into’ such assemblages. The definition of gameplay in the
Gamespot criteria brings out two separate facets of gameplay: gameplay is
%
! from the
%
)
words, the rules and the machinic affordances) to what the
!
(in other
"
)
! the game is like. These aspects are in no way to be seen as separate
and irreducible – whatever happens in a particular mode of play affects the
events in the other modes. In $
, the soldiers recruited in the turn0based
overarching campaign can fight in the real0time battles and their fortunes are
reflected within the relevant section of the main campaign map. Instead of
engaging in real0time battles, it is also possible to fight battles on the map
itself, using the game AI. There are rules, true — there is the overall goal of
capturing a certain number of regions to gain supremacy over the Roman
world but there are also mini0missions assigned from time to time by the
senate and finally, there are the technical affordances of the game system (for
71
example, a Roman general cannot decide to attack, say, India)
PhD Thesis, 2008
134
— but there is
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
also scope for plenty of freeform activity and choices. The goal0bound and
restricted structure does not apply here. This is not to say that it is the same
for all games — as stated earlier, the degree to which rules control games can
vary. In $
, it is possible to play by accepting or rejecting missions,
managing resources and generally choosing how the empire will progress (or
collapse, depending on the player’s decisions). As far as the game outcome is
concerned, although there is the long0term imperialistic outcome of world
domination, there are constant victories and defeats and even less well defined
outcomes such as withdrawals, rebellions and even plague. It is definitely
possible to
within the game system.
In this context, it is important to refer to the concept of play 4&
encountered earlier. Play (&
.
as
) occurs constantly between the overarching
narrative of Rome and the micro0level decisions. It shows how rules and
freeform play constantly interact and construct what we call play. Even within
the level of affordances, there is a non0centred structure: the turn0based and
the real0time modes exist in constant interplay. There is no physical central
location or power in the game: capital cities can be changed and rulers
replaced. The Roman senate (represented as SPQR on the map) is an
unplayable faction that sometimes assigns missions but it is not the controlling
power. Neither is the player the absolute master of the game: the game plays
the player as much the player plays the game. Troy Dunniway’s and Richard
Rouse’s definitions aptly describe this bi0ludic interaction. Defining gameplay in
his ‘Game Development Glossary’, Dunniway states that ‘The gameplay defines
how the player is able to interact with the game0world and how the game0
72
world will react to the player’
while Rouse concurs with this in his own
definition: ‘A game’s gameplay is the degree and nature of the interactivity
PhD Thesis, 2008
13
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
that the game includes, that is, how the player is able to interact with the
game0world and how that game0world reacts to the choices the player
73
makes’.
Intelligent AI can affect the player’s decisions by reacting to his choice
patterns. The system of affordances in the game will in turn exert its own
influence. A rather humorous instance of this is quoted by King and Krzywinska
in their description of a gameplay instance in
:
As Miguel Sicart suggests, the game has little tolerance for ‘misfit’
characters that refuse to play by the rules. His attempt to create a Sim
version of the deceased rock star Kurt Cobain — comprised of a
deliberately unbalanced guitar0playing character complete with a Cobain
skin downloaded from the internet, a dissolute lifestyle, a superficial
marriage and no social life — was resisted by the game, which took
control of the character against the player’s will, making him want to
74
have friends, a job and to be nice to his wife.
While this may be an extreme case of machinic control, it is obvious that the
control is never total either for the player or the game. Using mods and other
technical affordances, it would surely have been possible for Sicart to modify
the game0instance so that the control shifted more towards himself.
Nevertheless, the process of interaction with the machine is complex and
therefore difficult to define. Mirjam Eladhari in her definition of gameplay
describes this kind of interaction with the game as a ‘gameplay gestalt’. The
PhD Thesis, 2008
136
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
concept of the gameplay gestalt can be useful in studying the interactive
process of gameplay. It links clearly with concepts of involvement and
becoming and provides a general introductory comment on the way choice0
patterns might function in gameplay. The concept was first discussed by Craig
Lindley in his essay ‘Game Taxonomies: A High Level Framework of Network
and Design'. Lindley defines the gameplay gestalt as ‘a particular way of
thinking about the game state, together with a pattern of perceptual, cognitive
and motor operations […] in a sense, a gameplay gestalt may function like a
chant or a mantra, creating a form of dissolution of consciousness into the
75
moment’.
He believes that it is possible to play a game even without learning
all the rules. Playing a game, for him, essentially involves a gameplay gestalt,
understood as a pattern of interaction with the system. According to Lindley,
Playing the game is then a matter of performing the gestalt. It is what
the player does, within the system and as allowed by the rules of the
game. […] A gameplay gestalt can have many forms for a particular
game, capturing different playing styles, tactics and approaches to
progressing through the game and (perhaps) eventually winning. In
general, it is a particular way of thinking about the game state from the
perspective of a player, together with a pattern of repetitive perceptual,
cognitive, and motor operations. […] A particular gameplay gestalt could
be unique to a person, a game, or even a playing occasion. More
generally though, recurrent gameplay gestalts can be identified across
76
games, game genres, and players.
However, Lindley’s concept contains a few problematic aspects that need to be
redressed so as to make it more applicable to analysing gameplay.
PhD Thesis, 2008
137
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
It
might
be
thought
that
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
Lindley
a
is
describing
unidirectional
and
(human)player0based experience. However, although he maintains that the
gameplay gestalt is a particular way of thinking about the game state from the
perspective of the player, his further comments make it obvious that the
gameplay occurs through the interplay between the player and the system, as
noted earlier.
Therefore, although the experience is thought of from the
player’s perspective, the concept recognises that this is not the sole element
involved. The game state occupies as important a part in determining the
experience of gameplay as do the cognitive reactions of the player. Despite its
usefulness in pointing towards the multiplicity of facets to gameplay, there is a
problem with Lindley’s conception, as evinced in his argument that ‘gameplay
gestalt creates an opposing experiential force from that of the apprehension of
77
unfolding events as constituting a strong form of narrative’.
This assertion effectively seems to disrupt an understanding of the narrative
element that has been shown as intrinsic to the ludic process. The problem,
however, is not as serious as it seems on first sight. The incompatibility that
Lindley claims as existing between the narrative process and the gameplay
gestalt is based on his assumption that the ‘narrative structure of videogames
is typically constructed according to the conflict0driven model of dramatic
78
narrative’.
demands
Further, he sees an opposition arising between the cognitive
of
gameplay
gestalts
and
the
‘irrelevance
of
their
detailed
performance to narrative progression’,79 which is further exacerbated due to
their repetitive structure. It is clear from the above that not only has Lindley
not considered the originary supplementarity between the ludic and narrative,
as discussed throughout this thesis, but also that he is working with a very
limited conception of narrative itself. The previous analysis in Chapter Two,
PhD Thesis, 2008
138
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
comparing videogames with minor literature, has already illustrated how
narratives can exist in repetitive structures. The process of interaction with the
narrative has also been shown as being more cognitively involved and closer to
the mantra0like experience of gameplay gestalts than the progression
structures of dramatic narratives. The following chapters will provide a further
detailed illustration of how the experience described by the term ‘gameplay
gestalt’ is intrinsically connected to narrativity.
When slightly modified according to the observations above, the concept of the
gameplay gestalt can still be an important tool in analysing the experience of
gameplay. As mentioned before, it addresses the issue of involvement in the
game while at the same time it also reflects the idea of multipicity by
illustrating a pattern involving a range of elements in a state of interaction. The
last two sentences actually point to a rhizomatic multiplicity characterised by
singular instances, which can be recurrent and operate across multiple planes
in which it is possible to understand games. This makes the concept of
gameplay gestalt even more useful in understanding the interplay that defines
the ludic process. It is obvious that though pinning down the experience of
gameplay to a particular cognitive position is not possible, yet perhaps by
exploring the relationship of
, multiplicity and finally, the gameplay gestalt,
it will be possible to facilitate a closer engagement with the concept and to
come closer to an understanding of its location.
The final point about the location of gameplay is a brief one. Often, in recent
critiques, there is a practice of creating generic divisions for videogames based
on gameplay. It should be noted that this does not mean that gameplay is
PhD Thesis, 2008
139
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
always genre dependent. It is possible, as Lindley believes, that there may be
recurrent gameplay gestalts across genres and some that may be favoured by
a certain genre. Otherwise, it will be impossible to comprehend the gameplay
" (even
of what Warren Spector calls ‘genre0busting’ games such as *
$
as discussed above, qualifies for this). Spector describes *
" as
‘part immersive simulation, part role0playing game, part first0person shooter,
80
part adventure game'.
These games and many others are convincing
examples that show that gameplay is not located within generic restrictions.
Instead, the location of gameplay can be better understood by studying it as a
multiplicity and by analysing its process of involvement, as will be done in the
following chapters.
5
,
&
6
In analysing the extremely complicated nature of gameplay in videogames it is
possible to gain a fuller conception of play itself. As demonstrated in the
discussion, conceptions about play have undergone radical changes since early
commentators like Huizinga and Caillois first put forth their views. The rigid
borders that were assumed to have marked off play from the ‘outside world’
have been shown to be extremely flexible and at times, non0existent. The
complexity of gameplay in videogames, its continued resistance to being
comprehended within conventional ideas of ludicity and its refusal to behave
like conventional games have sparked considerable critical debate and alerted
scholars to the need of rethinking conceptions of play. Taking into account the
complexity of gameplay, this analysis has not attempted to define it – instead,
it considers the process, the location and the elements that constitute it. In
PhD Thesis, 2008
14
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
doing
Gameplaying Games
so,
it
reveals
striking
supplementarity and play (&
parallels
with
From Reading Games to Playing Books
Derridean
conceptions
of
); it has also begun indicating the significance of
understanding play in terms of Deleuzoguattarian ideas of multiplicity, the
importance of which will be revealed more fully in the following chapters.
In the process, it has also become possible to comprehend the problems in
earlier definitions of play and to understand that it is not simply an isolated
rule0bound phenomenon but one which, in transcending boundaries and
spilling over into other areas of culture, is actually a very complex entity. Play
does not just complement or serve as the origin of cultural institutions as
earlier thinkers like Huizinga observed; it informs their very core. As seen
earlier, gameplay informs various contexts and is in turn informed by them. It
will be necessary further to illustrate this relationship in the next chapter by
focusing on a major element in the gameplay context: the story. This will
naturally reflect on the understanding of play and narrative in general and will
illustrate how these inform the very basis of each other.
!
1
Salen and Zimmerman, $
)
, p.96.
2
See previous chapter for a more detailed commentary.
3
As Dutch historian and game0theorist, Johan Huizinga, observes, ‘in this intensity, this
absorption, this power of maddening, lies the very essence, the primordial quality of play […]
this last named element, the )
of playing, resists all analysis’: Johan Huizinga.
, (London: Maurice Temple Smith, 1970), p.2. Commentators on videogames, like
Ralph Koster, write at length on the idea of fun in videogames. See Koster’s book
)
PhD Thesis, 2008
*
)
! for a detailed illustration.
141
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
4
Juul,
5
Will Wright, Keynote Address, SXSW, 13 March 2007, on
)$
From Reading Games to Playing Books
, p.7.
<http://www.wonderlandblog.com/wonderland/2007/03/sxsw_will_wrigh.html> [accessed
13 May 2007]; original emphasis.
6
Lorne Lanning’s address at GameCity 2006, Nottingham, United Kingdom,
<http://gamecity.org/index.php/events/detail/lorne_lanning/> [accessed 23 November
2006].
7
8
Huizinga, p.32.
Which derives from Huizinga’s pioneering effort, though it must be noted that Salen and
Zimmerman do not subscribe to the idea of total immersion, as will be discussed in detail in
Chapter Eight.
9
Roger Caillois,
, trans. by Meyer Barash, (Chicago: University of illinois
Press, 2001), p.13.
10
Caillois, p.9.
11
Eskelinen, ‘The Gaming Situation’ in
vol 1. issue 1 (July 2001),
<http://www.gamestudies.org/0101/eskelinen/> [accessed 15 May 2007].
12
According to Caillois, ‘Rules and vertigo are decidedly incompatible. Simulation and chance
are no more susceptible to mixing’ (Caillois, p.73).
13
Ibid.
14
Huizinga, p.11.
15
Huizinga, p.5.
16
Ian Bogost, 5
/
6
!
+
(Cambridge, Mass.;
London: The MIT Press, 2006), pp.13405.
17
Huizinga, p.31.
18
Hector Rodriguez, ‘The Playful and the Serious: An approximation to Huizinga's
’,
, vol. 6 issue 1, December 2006,
<http://gamestudies.org/0601/articles/rodriges> [accessed 15 May 2007].
19
Jacques Ehrmann, ‘Homo Ludens Revisited,’ 7
41 (1968), 31057
<http://www.jstor.org/stable/2929664> [accessed 5 August 2008]; Ehrmann uses the word
‘economy’ in the ‘dual sense of expenditure and exchange’.
PhD Thesis, 2008
142
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
20
Huizinga, p.9.
21
Caillois, quoted in Ehrmann.
22
Ehrmann.
23
From Reading Games to Playing Books
Huizinga’s conception of poetic creativity is not very clear. He seems content to identify the
poet with the child and the savage in what seems a kind of pristine pre0culture state and
involved in sacred play. As he comments, ‘In this sphere of sacred play the child and the
poet are at home with the savage’ (Huizinga, p.26). Interestingly, however, he goes on to
identify a progressively ludic sensibility in modern man: ‘His aesthetic sensibility has brought
the modern man closer to this sphere than the “enlightened″ man of the eighteenth
century’.
24
Huizinga, p.158.
25
In summer 2006, an Iranian political group called the Union of Islamic Student Societies
revealed that it was planning on entering the video0game business. Reported in Fox News,
September 2006 <http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,213027,00.htm> [accessed 15
May 2007].
26
In Huizinga’s sense of being a source and being ‘formerly serious’ activities (see Ehrmann).
27
‘Blurring the line between games and life’, a CNet News.com report, 28 February 2005,
<http://news.com.com/Blurring+the+line+between+games+and+life/210001024_30
5590956.html> [accessed 15 May 2007].
28
The Serious Gaming Manifesto <http://www.seriousgames.org/index2.html> [accessed 15
May 2007].
29
* Online Edition<http://dictionary.oed.com> [accessed 20 July 2008]
30
* <http://dictionary.oed.com> [accessed 20 July 2008]
31
At least that is how it seems from his use of a word loaded with deep theological import.
32
Brian Sutton0Smith,
!
)
,(Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard University
Press, 1997), p.144.
33
Ibid.
34
Derrida, 0
!
* ))
, trans. by Alan Bass (London: Routledge, 2001), p.369.
35
Derrida, 0
!
* ))
, p.365.
36
Derrida, 0
!
* ))
p.368.
PhD Thesis, 2008
143
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
37
Ibid.
38
Sutton0Smith, p.145.
39
Nicholas Royle, 8
9
*
/$
! +
,
From Reading Games to Playing Books
, (London: Routledge, 2003),
p.16.
40
Derrida, *
41
Alexander R.Galloway,
, p.69.
!/
!
+
, (Minneapolis, Minn.; London:
University of Minnesota Press), p.26.
42
Galloway, p.28.
43
Ibid.
44
‘Noncentric’ is an adaptation from Derrida’s concept of the ‘noncentre’ – it points at the
similarity to and the difference from the ‘concentric’. It aims to mark the fact that gameplay
is a 'single gesture but doubled’.
45
)
Gregory Bateson, ‘A Theory of Play and Fantasy’ in
$
, 2nd ed,
ed. by Henry Bial, (Abingdon; New York: Routledge, 2007), p.122.
46
Bateson, p.123.
47
Bateson, p.130.
48
Salen and Zimmerman, p.371.
49
As in the ARGs described earlier.
50
Celia Pearce, ‘Story as Play Space: Narrative in Games’ in
ed. by Lucien King,
(Laurence King Publishing Ltd: London 2002), p.113.
51
)
Austin Grossman,
2003), p.317.
52
Called $
53
Jason Ocampo, Review of $
* %
(San Francisco, CA: CMP Books,
in subsequent references.
/
0
Gamespot.com
:http://uk.gamespot.com/pc/strategy/rometotalwar/review.html> [accessed 20 July 2008].
54
Gamespot rating system, <http://uk.gamespot.com/misc/reviewguidelines0old.html>
[accessed 3 May 2008].
55
Gamespot.com review of $
56
Salen and Zimmerman, p.164.
PhD Thesis, 2008
/
0
(
144
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
57
Note that Eladhari also uses a similar description but bases it on game rules.
58
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) website,
<http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/subset.html> [accessed 15 May 2007].
59
Gameplay is perhaps more a combination word than a portmanteau – but it does function
like a blend word as in Lewis Carroll’s description, ‘it’s like a portmanteau – there are two
meanings packed into one word’.
60
Bo Walther Kampmann, ‘Playing And Gaming: Reflections And Classifications’,
, vol. 3 issue 1, May 2003, <http://www.gamestudies.org/0301/walther/> [accessed
03/07/08].
61
NSIT website.
62
*(
63
Juul, p.83.
64
Geoff King and Tanya Krzywinska,
$
%
, (London; New York:
I.B Tauris, 2006) p.75.
65
66
$
Gamespot review.
The HeavenGames’ Rome: Total War forum and its sections on Roman History, gameplay and
chatrooms carry the game beyond itself. The forum can be accessed at
http://rtw.heavengames.com/cgi0bin/forums/Ultimate.cgi [accessed 15 May 2007].
67
Warren Spector quoted in Rollings, Andrew and Adams, Ernest,
*
! (Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007), p.200.
<http://www.designersnotebook.com/Rollings_and_Adams0Gameplay.pdf> [accessed 15
May 2007].
68
Spector, ‘Postmortem: Ion Storm’s *
"’, Gamasutra.com,
<http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20001206/spector_01.htm> [accessed 15 May
2007].
69
It can be argued that as different games have different gameplays, the elements that inform
them vary in type and degree. Hence, it is better to say ‘some’ rather than ‘all’. Of course,
we can assume that rules, game0choices, player0computer interaction and the game context
all remain in place. However, each of these can have subdivisions and there may be
substantial variance among these.
70
Rollings and Adams.
PhD Thesis, 2008
14
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
Chapter Four
71
Gameplaying Games
From Reading Games to Playing Books
Unless some player decides to use a mod (as discussed earlier) to modify the system.
Generally, however, the game’s affordances try to maintain a maximum of historical
authenticity.
72
Troy Dunniway, ‘Glossary of Game Development Terms’,
<http://www.dunniwaydesign.com/glossary.htm#_G> [accessed 3 May 2008].
73
Richard Rouse,
74
King and Krzywinska, p.154.
75
Craig Lindley, ‘Game Taxonomies: A High Level Framework for Game Analysis and Design’,
*
! /
;
(Plano, Texas: Wordware, 2001), p.xviii.
Gamasutra, Oct 2003, <http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20031003/lindley_01.shtml>
[accessed 15 May 2007].
76
Ibid.
77
Lindley, ‘Conditioning, Learning and Creation in Games: Narrative, The Gameplay Gestalt
and Generative Simulation’, Zero Game Studio,
<http://intranet.tii.se/components/results/files/NILE.pdf> [accessed 15 May 2008].
78
Ibid.
79
Ibid.
80
Spector, ‘P
PhD Thesis, 2008
146
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
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(Berkeley: Adobe Press,
0
"
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0
(Chesham: Acumen, 2005).
4
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"
(Cambridge, Mass.; London: Harvard
&
Tarkovsky, Andreyi Arsenyevich,
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987).
&
& (New
,
Taylor, Laurie, ‘When Seams Fall Apart: Video Game Space and the Player’, % &
3, no. 2 (December 2003) http://www.gamestudies.org/0302/taylor (accessed
20 July 2008).
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2008).
Todorov, Tzvetan,
. trans. Richard Howard (Oxford: Blackwell, 1977).
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)
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1
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"
% & (Cambridge, Mass.; London: MIT Press, 2004).
///,
, *
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"
&
(Cambridge,
% &
Wardrip/Fruin, Noah and Nick Montfort,
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!
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!-
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
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,
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'
% &
#
,
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)
,
1
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>8*
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)
.
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,
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&
,
,
.
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%
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&
, dir. by Mike Figgis (Optimum Home Entertainment, 2003).
-
PhD Thesis, 2008
dir. by Brian G. Hutton (MGM, 1968).
$"-
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
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) *+
From Reading Games to Playing Books
,-.#
Anderson, Tim et al., +
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1
EA Games (Maxis),
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,
Ensemble Studios,
&
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&
)
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*
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!! %
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&- &
. (2003)
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Gearbox Software and Valve Software, # *
%
1
()
. (Los Angeles: Sierra, 1999).
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1
There is no standard convention (such as the MHRA or MLA) for citing videogames and although the
International Game Journalists Association and Games Press has recently published a videogame
styleguide (www.gamestyleguide.com), quite disappointingly this does not address referencing
conventions. As my thesis argues, any ludography should reflect the textual nature of videogames and
their links to earlier narrative media but at the same time, as in the cases of films and multimedia
texts, the media/specific issues should be reflected. The bibliographies in Jesper Juul’s # *,
and
Gameology.com (http://www.gameology.org/bibliography) have, therefore been selected as models
because they describe videogames using a combination of similar parameters to those used for earlier
narrative media. To indicate the media/specific issues any game that is not played on PC Windows/
based platforms has its platform stated in square brackets.
PhD Thesis, 2008
$#-
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
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. (Oregon;California: Brøderbund, 1989).
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&
%
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!
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PhD Thesis, 2008
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.E-
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"
, (USA: Procedural Arts, 2005)
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///, 1
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$ -
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
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///, %
*
. (Edinburgh: Rockstar, 2005).
&
Sony Online Entertainment, '
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"
Terminal Reality, )
&&
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J [PDP/1] (n.p., 1961).
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,
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. (USA: Atari, 1980).
5
. (Montreal: Ubisoft, 2008).
5
///,
& . (Montreal: Ubisoft, 2003).
///,
. (Montreal: Ubisoft, 2005).
"
///,
-
///,
&
5
///,
&
5
-
. (Montreal: Ubisoft, 2004).
. (Montreal: Ubisoft, 2005).
. (Montreal: Ubisoft).
Ubisoft Paris, K!!!. (Paris: Ubisoft, 2003).
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&
5
. (USA: The US Army , 2002).
&
Valve Software,
///, #
///, #
.
+
. (Paris: Vivendi SA, 2004).
.. (Redwood City, CA: Electronic Arts, 2008).
8
8. (Paris: Vivendi SA, 2004).
*
Westwood Studios, )
,
% & . (Las Vegas, Nevada: Westwood Studios, 1999).
Winters, P., )
. (2003) http://www.miniclip.com/games/battleships/en/
(accessed 20 July 2008).
Wright, Will,
///,
PhD Thesis, 2008
. (Redwood City, CA: Electronic Arts, 2008).
& . (Redwood City, CA: Electronic Arts, 2000).
$ -
Souvik Mukherjee, Nottingham Trent University
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