SUPPLEMENT ARTICLE
A Review of Evidence-Based Care of
Symptomatic Trichomoniasis and Asymptomatic
Trichomonas vaginalis Infections
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Elissa Meites,1 Charlotte A. Gaydos,2 Marcia M. Hobbs,3 Patricia Kissinger,4 Paul Nyirjesy,5 Jane R. Schwebke,6
W. Evan Secor,7 Jack D. Sobel,8 and Kimberly A. Workowski1,9
1
Division of STD Prevention, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta,
Georgia; 2Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; 3Departments of
Medicine and Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill; 4Department of Epidemiology, Tulane University
School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana; 5Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Drexel University College of Medicine,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; 6Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine; 7Division
of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia; 8Division of Infectious Diseases,
Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan; and 9Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Emory University School of
Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
Trichomonas vaginalis is the most prevalent nonviral sexually transmitted infection, affecting an estimated 3.7
million women and men in the United States. Health disparities are prominent in the epidemiology of this infection, which affects 11% of women aged ≥40 years and a disproportionately high percentage of black women.
Particularly high prevalences have been identified among sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic patients and
incarcerated individuals. This article reviews and updates scientific evidence in key topic areas used for the development of the 2015 STD Treatment Guidelines published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Current evidence is presented regarding conditions associated with Trichomonas vaginalis infection, including
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and pregnancy complications such as preterm birth. Nucleic acid amplification tests and point-of-care tests are newly available diagnostic methods that can be conducted on a variety
of specimens, potentially allowing highly sensitive testing and screening of both women and men at risk for
infection. Usually, trichomoniasis can be cured with single-dose therapy of an appropriate nitroimidazole antibiotic, but women who are also infected with HIV should receive therapy for 7 days. Antimicrobial resistance
is an emerging concern.
Keywords. Trichomonas vaginalis; Trichomonas infections; Trichomonas vaginitis; antitrichomonal agents; sexually transmitted diseases.
Trichomonas vaginalis is a highly prevalent parasitic infection that causes the sexually transmitted disease
(STD) trichomoniasis. Since 2008, when scientific evidence was systematically reviewed for the development
of the 2010 STD Treatment Guidelines [1], additional
data have been published regarding epidemiology,
Correspondence: Elissa Meites, MD, MPH, Division of STD Prevention, National
Center for Viral Hepatitis, HIV/AIDS, STD and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd NE, MS E-02, Atlanta, GA 30333
(emeites@cdc.gov).
Clinical Infectious Diseases® 2015;61(S8):S837–48
Published by Oxford University Press for the Infectious Diseases Society of America
2015. This work is written by (a) US Government employee(s) and is in the public
domain in the US.
DOI: 10.1093/cid/civ738
clinical manifestations, treatment, partner management, antimicrobial resistance, associated conditions
(eg, human immunodeficiency virus [HIV], pregnancy
complications, and others), diagnostic methods, screening, reporting, and prevention of T. vaginalis infections
and trichomoniasis. This article reviews current evidence in each of these key topic areas used for the development of the 2015 STD Treatment Guidelines
published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
METHODS
A PubMed (US National Library of Medicine and the
National Institutes of Health) search was conducted
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RESULTS
Epidemiology and Clinical Manifestations
Trichomonas vaginalis is the most prevalent nonviral sexually
transmitted infection (STI) in the United States, causing an estimated 3.7 million prevalent infections (including 2.3 million
among women and 1.4 million among men), and 1.1 million
incident infections annually (including 680 000 among women and 415 000 among men) [2]. These estimates are based
on nationally representative samples of the civilian noninstitutionalized population in the 2001–2004 National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), which projected
that 3.1% of US women of reproductive age are infected [3].
Trichomonas vaginalis parasites preferentially infect the urethra
in men and women, and vaginal and vulvar sites in women.
Health disparities are prominent in the epidemiology of this
infection, including disparities by age and by race/ethnicity. In a
nationally representative sample of 12 449 adolescents in school
grades 7–12, the prevalence among US adolescents was estimated to be 2.8% among females and 1.7% among males [4]. A
study of US female adolescents aged 12–18 years found that
T. vaginalis incidence was 1.3 per 100 person-months among
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257 HIV-infected adolescents, and 0.6 per 100 person-months
among 142 HIV-uninfected adolescents (P = .002) [5]. Other
studies have found that the prevalence of T. vaginalis infection
can increase with age, peaking at >11% among women aged
≥40 years [3, 6]. In NHANES, the prevalence of infection
among non-Hispanic black women was 13.3%, significantly
higher than the 1.8% prevalence among Mexican-American
women or the 1.3% prevalence among non-Hispanic white
women [3].
Particularly high prevalences have been detected among incarcerated individuals, at 9%–32% among incarcerated women
[6–10] and 2%–9% among incarcerated men [7, 11–13], using a
variety of specimens and diagnostic testing methods. One study
among pregnant incarcerated women found an extremely high
prevalence of 47% [11]. Prevalence of infection also has been
found to be high among STD clinic patients, at 26% of symptomatic women tested [14]. Among women using drugs (including recent heroin, crack or other cocaine, or daily marijuana),
prevalence ranges from 13% to 38% [15–17].
Few studies have evaluated rectal or oral infection. One study
of 497 men and women reporting receptive anal intercourse detected a rectal prevalence of 5.2% (26/497) by nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT) at clinical sites in Pittsburgh [18]. A
study of remnant rectal specimens from 500 men who have
sex with men (MSM) attending a San Francisco STD clinic
found a prevalence of 0.6% (3/500) by NAAT [19]. A cohort
study of 365 HIV-infected MSM in primary care in 4 cities reported zero prevalent and zero incident T. vaginalis infections at
6 months, using in-house polymerase chain reaction (PCR) on
centrifuged urine [20]. No population-based studies have investigated trichomoniasis in oropharyngeal sites, although T. vaginalis has been reported as a cause of purulent sinusitis in at
least 1 critically ill patient [21]. It is unclear whether the rectum
or the oral cavity can be a reservoir for T. vaginalis parasites, or
whether this occasional finding might reflect recent deposition
of organism during receptive anal or oral sex.
Two studies have evaluated the urethral prevalence of T. vaginalis infection among MSM; in both studies, the prevalence detected by an in-house PCR test on urine specimens was
negligible [20, 22].
Treatment
Medications approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of trichomoniasis include metronidazole (since 1963) and tinidazole (since 2004). Standard therapy
consists of either metronidazole or tinidazole in a single 2-g
dose taken orally, or, if necessary, intravenously. The CDC
also recommends an alternative regimen of metronidazole
500 mg orally twice a day for 7 days. Tinidazole has a half-life
of approximately 12.5 hours, compared with a half-life of 7.3 hours
for metronidazole [23]. Furthermore, serum and genitourinary
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of all literature published between 25 September 2008 and 28
January 2013 using the search terms “Trichomonas” (508 articles), “Trichomonas vaginalis” (373 articles), “trichomoniasis”
(472 articles), and “trich” (2 articles). The search was confined
to human studies, without other limitations. In addition, the
National Center for Biotechnology Information sent notifications of all publications with the key words “Trichomonas vaginalis” or “trichomoniasis” subsequent to the dates of the
literature review. Abstracts were reviewed from relevant conferences (eg, STD Prevention Conference; Infectious Diseases Society of America; International Society for Sexually Transmitted
Diseases Research; American Society for Microbiology; Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; Infectious Diseases Society for Obstetrics and Gynecology)
using the dates and search terms above.
Each abstract was reviewed, along with the full text of each
pertinent article, to determine whether it contained data relevant to the 2015 CDC STD Treatment Guidelines. A total of
197 pertinent abstracts/articles were summarized and entered
into tables of evidence. In addition, 9 subject matter experts
were contacted to add their expertise to the guidelines. Tables
of evidence were used to inform the responses to key questions
regarding clinical management of trichomoniasis and T. vaginalis infections. Additional unpublished data of which the experts were aware were added to the tables, with permission of
the researchers. Findings were summarized, including published relative risks (RRs), odds ratios (ORs), hazard ratios
(HRs), and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).
metronidazole hypersensitivity, reactions reported by the clinician included urticaria (48%), pruritus (16%), erythema (9%),
facial edema (9%), gastrointestinal (7%), anaphylaxis (2%),
and other (10%) [38]. Anecdotal experience indicates that urticarial adverse reactions do not always recur if therapy is repeated [39]. Of 15 women who received desensitization to
metronidazole using a published oral or intravenous metronidazole desensitization regimen, all had eradication of their infection; 1 woman who received the oral regimen experienced a
pruritic rash on the final day (resolved with steroids) and 1
woman who received the intravenous regimen experienced
mild urticaria and pruritus 45 minutes following the final 2-g
dose (managed with antihistamines) [38]. It is not known
why some individuals have adverse reactions upon reexposure
while others do not.
Alternative treatment options are limited as no other FDAapproved therapies are available. Combination regimens have
not been systematically evaluated. The most anecdotal experience has been with intravaginal paromomycin in combination
with high-dose tinidazole. Case series and reports have reported
successful treatment with agents including intravaginal paromomycin [35, 40–42], intravaginal boric acid [43, 44], nitazoxanide
[45], and intravaginal metronidazole/miconazole [46]. Toxicities
are not high with any of these regimens, although painful vulvar
ulcers can be an uncommon self-limited side effect of paromomycin. Other attempted treatments that have been reported
with a <50% success rate include intravaginal betadine ( povidone-iodine), clotrimazole, acetic acid, furazolidone, gentian
violet, nonoxynol-9, and potassium permanganate. To date, no
topical microbicide has shown an effect on trichomoniasis [47].
Partner Management
Infection is readily passed between sex partners during penilevaginal sex, although partners may be unaware of their infection; a prospective multicenter study found that 72% of male
sex partners of women with trichomoniasis were also infected
with T. vaginalis, and 77% of these men were asymptomatic
[48]. Treatment of all sexual partners can prevent recurrences
in the index cases, reduce transmission, and prevent new
cases in the community.
Several randomized trials have evaluated patient-delivered
partner treatment (PDPT) for trichomoniasis. One trial evaluated partner notification strategies among 458 infected women
and found that PDPT did not result in more partners taking the
medicine nor lower repeat infection rates than standard notification, but PDPT was less costly and subjects were more likely
to see their partners take the medication (P < .001) [49]. Patient
counseling beyond standard of care in this trial may have dampened the effect. A more recent trial found that of 484 women
tested, most infected women (80%) randomized to PDPT delivered the medicine, with no reported increase in serious adverse
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tract drug levels of tinidazole have been reported to be 1.4–2
times higher than those of metronidazole [24, 25]. In randomized controlled trials, demonstrated efficacy of tinidazole was
equal or superior to that of metronidazole, with parasitologic
cure rates of 86%–100% [26–30]. However, tinidazole is approximately 10 times more expensive, with an approximate retail
price of $44.66 per 2-g dose, compared with $3.47 per 2-g
dose of metronidazole.
Both metronidazole and tinidazole are 5-nitroimidazoles,
which is currently the only class of antimicrobial medications
approved for effective treatment of trichomoniasis and T. vaginalis infections. Other nitroimidazoles, such as secnidazole
and ornidazole, have been used as antiparasitic agents in
other countries but have not been approved for use within
the United States. An additional nitroimidazole called fexinidazole was evaluated favorably for toxicity and is under study
in humans as a potential novel antiparasitic agent [31, 32]. A
small randomized trial involving 60 women with symptomatic
trichomoniasis in Brazil showed that a single 24-mg oral dose
of peppermint herbal medication, Mentha crispa, performed
similarly to a nitroimidazole in achieving a microbiologic
and symptomatic cure according to wet mounts of vaginal
fluid, as 97% of women in the nitroimidazole group were
cured, compared with 90% of women in the Mentha crispa
group (P = .6) [33].
Persistent or recurrent infection due to antimicrobialresistant T. vaginalis or other causes should be distinguished
from the possibility of reinfection from an untreated or insufficiently treated sex partner. The CDC’s Division of STD Prevention and Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria have
accumulated experience with testing and treatment of nitroimidazole-resistant T. vaginalis and can offer susceptibility testing
and management recommendations upon request [34]. This
issue is discussed in more detail below.
Following treatment failure, persistent or recurrent trichomoniasis has been treated successfully with longer courses or additional doses of the same medications used in standard therapy
(eg, tinidazole 1 g twice daily for 2 weeks, plus tinidazole vaginal
tablets 500 mg twice daily for 1 week) [35, 36]. In vitro data support the likelihood of efficacy with tinidazole following metronidazole treatment failure; although tinidazole is not more active
than metronidazole against susceptible organisms, it is predictably more active against isolates demonstrating mild, moderate,
or severe resistance [37]. Since there are currently no definitive
data to guide treatment for partners of individuals with persistent
or recurrent trichomoniasis, where reinfection or nonadherence
are unlikely, it is suggested that partners should undergo evaluation and receive the same regimen as the patient.
Occasional individuals have serious adverse reactions to
5-nitroimidazoles. In a series of 127 T. vaginalis–infected
women whose clinicians all consulted the CDC for suspected
events; furthermore, compared with partner referral and disease
intervention specialist notification groups combined, the PDPT
group had a lower repeat infection rate at 1 month (5.8% vs 15%
and 5.8% vs 12.5%, respectively) [50]. Also, 2 randomized trials
of 463 women diagnosed with trichomoniasis and 977 men diagnosed with urethritis found that self-reported disclosure of T.
vaginalis infection status to partners was more likely to occur
among those randomized to PDPT [51].
Antimicrobial Resistance
HIV Infection
The incidence of T. vaginalis infection is higher among
HIV-infected individuals compared with those who are not
HIV-infected [5]. Up to 52.6% of HIV-infected women have
been found to be coinfected with T. vaginalis [17, 56]. Among
HIV-infected women, T. vaginalis infection is significantly associated with pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) [57], and treatment of T. vaginalis infection is associated with significant
decreases in genital tract viral load and vaginal HIV viral shedding [58, 59]. Among HIV-infected men, data are scant. Both
HIV acquisition and transmission have been studied in relationship to T. vaginalis infection.
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In vitro resistance to metronidazole was observed shortly after
this medication was first used to treat trichomoniasis, yet correlation with clinical outcomes is unclear, and other factors may
play a role. In a study of 175 T. vaginalis isolates from women
with persistent infections whose clinicians consulted the CDC
for susceptibility testing after standard therapy failed at least
twice, 115 (66%) demonstrated some level of metronidazole resistance: 56 (32%) were highly resistant, 24 (14%) isolates were
moderately resistant, and 35 (20%) isolates were minimally resistant. For all isolates resistant to metronidazole, in vitro resistance to tinidazole was similar or lower [34].
Although antimicrobial-resistant T. vaginalis is not systematically assessed or reported at a national level, several studies
have evaluated prevalence of metronidazole- or tinidazole-resistant
T. vaginalis. A study of 178 isolates from STD clinic patients in
Alabama found that 17 (9.6%) demonstrated metronidazole resistance and 1 (1.1%) demonstrated resistance to tinidazole
[52]. Among adolescents, one study of 78 isolates from HIVuninfected sexually active teens visiting an inner-city public primary care clinic found that 4 (5%) demonstrated metronidazole
resistance and none demonstrated tinidazole resistance [53]. A
prospective cohort of specimens from 538 women diagnosed
with trichomoniasis at STD clinics in 6 cities found that 4.3%
exhibited low-level metronidazole resistance in vitro and no isolates demonstrated tinidazole resistance [54]. Nationally, this
prevalence corresponds to an estimated 159 000 people in the
United States who might require treatment with an alternative
to nitroimidazoles [55].
Trichomonas vaginalis infection is epidemiologically associated with HIV acquisition. A prospective study of 3297 African
HIV-serodiscordant couples found that T. vaginalis infection is
an independent risk factor for HIV acquisition; T. vaginalis infection of the female partner was associated with an increased
per-act probability of her acquiring HIV during sex (OR, 2.57
[95% CI, 1.42–4.65]) [60]. Another prospective study of 4948
sexually active women in Zimbabwe and South Africa found
that T. vaginalis–infected women were more likely to test positive for HIV at the following visit (adjusted HR [aHR], 2.05
[95% CI, 1.05–4.02]), and similarly, HIV-infected women
were more likely to test positive for T. vaginalis at the following
visit (aHR, 2.1 [95% CI, 1.35–3.32]) [61]. Multivariate analysis
of data from a nested case-control study conducted among 218
women with incident HIV infection and 419 controls in Uganda and Zimbabwe showed a significant association between receiving a diagnosis of T. vaginalis infection and subsequently
testing positive for HIV infection at the following visit (adjusted
OR [aOR], 2.74 [95% CI, 1.25–6.00]) [62]. In a prospective
study of 1335 female sex workers in Kenya, T. vaginalis infection increased the risk of HIV acquisition in multivariate analysis (aOR, 1.52 [95% CI, 1.04–2.24]) [63]. A mathematical
model based on data from HIV-infected patients in North Carolina predicted that 0.062 HIV transmission events will occur
per 100 HIV-infected women in the absence of T. vaginalis infection, and 0.076 HIV transmission events will occur if T. vaginalis is prevalent in 22% of the HIV-infected women; in the
latter scenario, more than one-fifth (23%) of HIV transmission
events from HIV-infected women are attributable to T. vaginalis
infection [64].
Trichomonas vaginalis infection also has been associated with
a potential for increased transmission of HIV. In a prospective
cohort study of 557 HIV-infected women in South Africa, genital tract viral load decreased significantly 1 month after treatment with 2 g of oral metronidazole [58]. A prospective study of
58 T. vaginalis–infected women in Louisiana matched with 92
T. vaginalis–uninfected controls showed that T. vaginalis–
infected women who were effectively treated for T. vaginalis
infection were less likely to shed HIV vaginally at 3 months
posttreatment compared with baseline (RR, 0.34 [95% CI,
.12–.92]), while there was no change for T. vaginalis–uninfected
women [59]. A study of 1187 HIV-infected men in Malawi
showed that the rate of HIV positivity was not different across
T. vaginalis infection status, but men with T. vaginalis infection
demonstrated increased seminal plasma HIV RNA concentrations (P = .02) [65]. In a cross-sectional study of 336 HIV-infected
men with genital ulcer disease at primary health clinics in South
America, 43 (13%) were infected with T. vaginalis; these men
had higher ulcer viral loads on average than did those without
T. vaginalis infection, but the difference was not significant
(mean difference, 0.62 [95% CI, .07–1.2]) [66].
Pregnancy
Several studies have investigated the implications of maternal T.
vaginalis infection during pregnancy; the most established association is with preterm delivery. A prospective cohort study of
13 816 pregnant women in 5 US cities found that T. vaginalis
infection at midgestation was significantly associated with low
birth weight (aOR, 1.3 [95% CI, 1.1–1.5]), preterm delivery
(aOR, 1.3 [95% CI, 1.1–1.4]), and preterm delivery of a lowbirth-weight infant (aOR, 1.4 [95% CI, 1.1–1.6]) [72]. A large
retrospective study of administrative data from 108 346 pregnant women with Medicaid in South Carolina found that
women diagnosed with trichomoniasis in the first 7 months
of pregnancy were more likely to deliver very preterm (≤33
weeks) infants (HR, 1.22 [95% CI, 1.02–1.46]), and those diagnosed in the first 8 months of pregnancy were more likely to
deliver late preterm (33–36 weeks) infants (HR, 1.59 [95% CI,
1.18–2.14]) [73]. Further study is urgently needed to determine
whether treatment of trichomoniasis during pregnancy can
reduce such complications.
Other analyses of ecological data from pregnant women in
the South Carolina Medicaid population, along with linked administrative data from the South Carolina Department of Education and the Department of Disabilities and Special Needs,
found associations between maternal trichomoniasis during
pregnancy and having a child who was later diagnosed with intellectual disability (HR, 1.28 [95% CI, 1.12–1.46]) or attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder (OR, 1.29 [95% CI, 1.23–1.35]),
although biological mechanisms were unclear [74, 75].
Perinatal transmission of trichomoniasis is believed to be
rare, as few cases of trichomoniasis have been reported in
premature newborns [76, 77]. However, a study of 479 HIVinfected pregnant women in Zimbabwe reported that vaginal
infections including T. vaginalis were significant predictors of
HIV vertical transmission in multivariate analysis (RR, 1.72
[95% CI, 1.03–2.88]) [78].
Metronidazole crosses the placenta and is classified as pregnancy class B by the FDA; although it is positive in the Ames
test in vitro, studies in humans and other animals have shown
no evidence of fetotoxicity at any stage of pregnancy. In pregnant rats, studies of doses up to 5 times the human dose revealed no evidence of impaired fertility or harm to the fetus
due to metronidazole. In pregnant mice, no fetotoxicity was observed when metronidazole was administered orally at 20 mg/
kg/day [79]. A large population-based dataset from the Hungarian Congenital Abnormality Registry assessed use of metronidazole during pregnancy for 17 300 women who had offspring
with congenital abnormalities and 30 663 women whose offspring did not, and found no association between metronidazole use and congenital abnormalities [80]. Also reassuringly,
a retrospective cohort study of 2829 pregnant women delivering
at a major teaching hospital in Syracuse, New York, found no
association between metronidazole use during any trimester
of pregnancy with any adverse outcomes ( preterm birth, low
birth weight, or congenital anomalies) [81]. However, adequate
and well-controlled studies in pregnant women are lacking.
Various cross-sectional and cohort studies have investigated
the effects of metronidazole for pregnant women with trichomoniasis. In the largest study to date, a retrospective study of
Medicaid billing data and birth certificate records from
144 737 pregnant women delivering in South Carolina, metronidazole treatment was found to be protective against preterm
delivery, both among women with another genitourinary infection at some point during pregnancy (HR, 0.69 [95% CI,
.50–.95]) and those without (HR, 0.69 [95% CI, .52–.92])
[82]. A Cochrane review of data from 2 trials involving a combined 842 pregnant women concluded that metronidazole,
given as a single dose, is effective against trichomoniasis (both
trials showed high rates of parasitological cure, around 90%, following treatment), although effect on pregnancy outcome was
not clear [83]. A large randomized trial of 2428 pregnant
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Few studies have evaluated the management of trichomoniasis among HIV-infected women; factors that may interfere with
standard single-dose treatment for trichomoniasis in these
women include high rates of asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis
(BV) coinfections, use of antiretroviral therapy, changes in vaginal
ecology, and impaired immunity [67, 68]. A 2003 cross-sectional
study in South Africa found that among 692 symptomatic
women receiving syndromic treatment including a single 2-g
dose of metronidazole, microbiologic cure rates for T. vaginalis
did not vary significantly by HIV status [69]. More recently,
however, a randomized trial of 270 HIV-infected women receiving care at public HIV clinics in the southern United States randomized participants to receive metronidazole for either a
standard single dose (2 g once) or a week-long regimen (500
mg twice daily for 7 days). Women randomized to the weeklong regimen were significantly more likely to be cured of T.
vaginalis at 6–12 days following medication completion (T. vaginalis prevalence of 8.5% in week-long regimen arm vs 16.8% in
single-dose arm: RR, 0.50 [95% CI, .25–1.00]; P = .045) and at 3
months (11.0% in the week-long regimen arm vs 24.1% in the single-dose arm; RR, 0.46 [95% CI, .21–.98]; P = .03); the lack of single-dose treatment efficacy was found only among women with
asymptomatic BV, and there was no significant difference in partner treatment between the 2 arms [70]. Further analysis of 244 of
these women found that participants reported a high adherence to
PDPT (75.4% provided PDPT to all partners and 61.7% reported
they were sure all of their partners took the medication). Of the 24
repeat infections 6–12 days following treatment, adherence to
medication and no sexual exposure were reported in 21 (87.5%),
indicating that failure of the standard treatment was the most common probable cause of recurrent infection [71].
Other Associated Conditions
Bacterial Vaginosis
Symptomatic trichomoniasis may occur in the context of a disruption of vaginal flora, on a spectrum with fewer lactobacilli
than normal yet more than BV [90, 91]. In a randomized trial
of intravaginal metronidazole gel involving 107 women with
asymptomatic BV presenting to an STD clinic in Alabama,
women in the treatment group had a significantly longer time
to STD development overall (P = .02); however, this difference
was driven by a reduction in chlamydia and there was no significant difference in the incidence of trichomoniasis over 12
months, with 16 new T. vaginalis infections in the treatment
group and 22 new T. vaginalis infections in the observation
group [92]. Among HIV-infected women, 1 study has examined
the effect of BV on the response to T. vaginalis treatment. In a randomized trial of 244 HIV-infected women with T. vaginalis coinfection receiving metronidazole for either a standard single dose
(2 g once) or a week-long regimen (500 mg twice daily for
7 days), the rate of BV was 66.8%, and BV was associated with
early failure of the single-dose treatment for T. vaginalis infection,
although differences did not persist at 3 months [93].
Nongonococcal Urethritis
Trichomonas vaginalis infection in men is often asymptomatic,
but in a study of 355 infected men at a Baltimore STD clinic,
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47% reported discharge and 22% reported dysuria [94].
Among men with symptoms of urethritis, the reported prevalence of T. vaginalis infection ranges from 3% to 17% in US
STD clinics, varying by specimen type and assay sensitivity
[95–98]. Although these observations suggest a need for testing
and treatment among men for this pathogen, especially in STD
clinics, urethritis on Gram stain does not appear to be associated with T. vaginalis infection as diagnosed by PCR [98, 99]. In a
placebo-controlled trial of 411 men in Malawi, adding metronidazole to an antibiotic regimen for empiric treatment of urethritis did not improve symptom resolution [100]. In addition, a
randomized controlled trial of heterosexual men with nongonococcal urethritis (NGU) at STD clinics in 4 cities found that
addition of a single 2-g dose of tinidazole to the treatment regimen for NGU (doxycycline or azithromycin) effectively eradicated T. vaginalis infections but did not result in higher NGU
cure rates [96, 97].
Other Sexually Transmitted Infections
In addition to its association with HIV, T. vaginalis infection
has been linked with various other STIs, although it can be challenging to sort out the influence of confounding factors such as
sexual behavior or changing diagnostic test methods. In a nationally representative sample of women participating in
NHANES, 6 other STIs (chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes simplex
virus type 1 [HSV-1], herpes simplex virus type 2 [HSV-2],
syphilis, and HIV) were all more common among women
with a positive test for T. vaginalis. However, after adjusting
for race/ethnicity, age, and recent sexual partners, only HSV-1
(RR, 1.20 [95% CI, 1.09–1.34]) and HSV-2 (RR, 1.51 [95%
CI, 2.32–3.23]) were significantly associated with T. vaginalis
infection [101].
Endometritis and Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
It has not been clearly established whether T. vaginalis infection
causes endometritis or PID. Among 696 women at an STD
clinic in South Africa, patients with trichomoniasis had a
significantly higher risk of PID than did women without trichomoniasis (P = .03). However, after stratification by HIV status,
the association between T. vaginalis infection and PID was
significant only among HIV-infected women (RR, 1.9;
P = .002) [57]. Furthermore, a study of 736 women with
risk factors for PID in Pittsburgh found that women with
T. vaginalis infection at enrollment were more likely to develop
acute endometritis (19/82 [23%]; P = .001), but not fallopian
tube obstruction [102].
Infertility
Trichomoniasis could plausibly interfere with male and female
fertility, although few studies have been conducted to investigate
this potential connection. Among men, an in vitro study
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women randomized to receive both metronidazole and erythromycin (both 250 mg 3 times a day for 7 days) or placebo found
that women randomized to receive antibiotics were more likely to
have resolution of trichomoniasis compared with women who received placebo, yet no significant differences were detected in
birth weights [84]. A double-blinded placebo-controlled trial involving 2098 HIV-infected and 335 HIV-uninfected pregnant
women in Zambia, Malawi, and Tanzania found no significant
difference in gestational age of the infants of women randomized
to receive antibiotics even after stratification by HIV status [85].
Metronidazole is secreted in breast milk. Although there was
no evidence of adverse effects in infants in several case series,
some clinicians advise deferring breastfeeding for 12–24
hours following maternal treatment with a 2-g dose of metronidazole [86]. Lower doses produce a lower concentration in
breast milk and are considered compatible with breastfeeding
over longer periods [87, 88].
Tinidazole is currently classified as pregnancy category C,
given reproduction studies in animals suggesting some mutagenic potential. There are few data on tinidazole use by pregnant or
breastfeeding women. A study of data from the Hungarian Congenital Abnormality Registry demonstrated no higher rate of
congenital abnormalities among children born to mothers who
had received oral tinidazole during pregnancy (10/22 843 cases
vs 16/38 151 controls; OR, 1.0 [95% CI, .7–1.3]) [89].
showed that T. vaginalis parasites can adhere to, immobilize,
and phagocytose sperm cells [103]. A Turkish study found
that among 80 infertile men, 2.5% had a positive T. vaginalis
test by PCR, but serology was not available [104]. Among
women, a study of 321 women with tubal infertility in Seattle
found that the RR of tubal infertility was significantly higher
among women who self-reported a history of trichomoniasis
(adjusted RR, 1.7 [95% CI, 1.1–2.6]) [105].
Diagnostic Methods
Highly sensitive NAATs are now available for detection of T.
vaginalis. Among women, such assays may detect a prevalence
3- to 5-fold higher than wet mount [110, 111]. Clinical diagnosis may be less sensitive than molecular tests, with a sensitivity
of 84.6% and a specificity of 99.6% compared with molecular
testing [112]. The APTIMA Trichomonas vaginalis assay (Hologic Gen-Probe, San Diego, California) was FDA-cleared in 2011
for detection of T. vaginalis from endocervical or vaginal swabs
or urine from symptomatic or asymptomatic women [113]. This
assay detects T. vaginalis RNA by transcription-mediated amplification with a clinical sensitivity of 95.2%–100% and specificity of 95.3%–100.0% [113–115]. Among women, vaginal
swabs and urine have a high degree of concordance [110]. As
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Prostate Cancer and Prostatitis
Three studies have evaluated the link between trichomoniasis
and prostate cancer. The Health Professionals Follow-up
Study, a case-control study of 691 men with prostate cancer,
showed that 13% of men with prostate cancer and 9% of controls had serologic evidence of T. vaginalis infection (aOR, 1.43
[95% CI, 1.00–2.03]) [106]. The Physician’s Health Study, a
case-control study of 673 men with prostate cancer, linked T.
vaginalis seropositivity with increased risks of both extraprostatic prostate cancer (OR, 2.17 [95% CI, 1.08–4.37]), and cancer that would ultimately progress to bony metastases or
prostate cancer–specific death (OR, 2.69 [95% CI, 1.37–5.28])
[107]. However, among 616 men in the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial, the odds of prostate cancer were not significantly
higher among men with high seropositivity (OR, 0.97 [95%
CI, .70–1.34]), nor significantly lower among men with low seropositivity (OR, 0.83 [95% CI, .63–1.09]). Of note, nearly half
(47%) of the men with prostate cancer in this study were diagnosed by study investigators by end-of-study biopsy, before
these early-stage lesions could produce any symptoms or abnormal screening tests [108].
One randomized trial of 61 men in Croatia with prostatitis
thought to be caused by trichomoniasis reported a higher percentage of both clinical cure (96.7% vs 67.7%; P = .006) and T.
vaginalis eradication (93.3% vs 71.0%; P = .043) among men
who received a treatment course of 1.5 g oral metronidazole
daily for 14 days vs 7 days [109].
analyte-specific reagents, this assay can be used with urethral
swabs or urine from men. Sale, distribution, and use of analyte-specific reagents are covered under the Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 21, Part 809.30 pertaining to in vitro diagnostic products for human use. In men, the sensitivity of penilemeatal swabs may be higher than that of urine (80.4% and
39.3%, respectively, in a study of 634 men) [116]. The Cobas
Amplicor CT/NG PCR assay (Roche, Indianapolis, Indiana) is
a commercially available, FDA-cleared assay for detection of
chlamydia and gonorrhea infections that can be modified for
T. vaginalis detection in vaginal or endocervical swabs or
urine. The assay may perform with sensitivities from 88% to
97% and specificities from 98% to 99%, depending on the specimen and reference standard [117]. The BD Probe Tec TV Qx
Amplified DNA Assay (Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes,
New Jersey) was FDA-cleared in late 2013 for detection of T.
vaginalis from endocervical, vaginal, or urine specimens in
women [118]. Self-obtained vaginal samples may be an option
[119]. Although it may be feasible to perform a T. vaginalis
NAAT on the same specimen used for a chlamydia/gonorrhea
screening test in a young adult, the epidemiology of T. vaginalis
infection is distinct and should not be overlooked in older
adults.
FDA-cleared same-day rapid tests for trichomoniasis in
women that may be performed at the point of care include
the OSOM Trichomonas Rapid Test (Sekisui Diagnostics, Framingham, Massachusetts), an antigen-detection test using immunochromatographic capillary flow dipstick technology that
is Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA)–
waived, and the Affirm VP III (Becton Dickinson, Sparks,
Maryland), a nucleic acid probe-hybridization test that evaluates
for T. vaginalis, Gardnerella vaginalis, and Candida albicans in
vaginal secretions. The results of the OSOM Trichomonas
Rapid Test are available in approximately 10 minutes, with a
sensitivity of 82%–95% and specificity of 97%–100% [114,
120]. Self-testing may be an option; a study of 209 young
women aged 14–22 years found that >99% could correctly perform and interpret her own self-test using the OSOM assay,
with a high correlation with clinician interpretation (96% agreement, κ = 0.87) [121]. The results of the Affirm VP III are available within 45 minutes, with a sensitivity of 63% and specificity
of 99.9%; sensitivity may be higher among women who are
symptomatic [115, 122]. Neither the OSOM nor the Affirm
VP III test is approved for use with specimens from men.
Before molecular methods became available, culture was considered the gold standard method for diagnosing T. vaginalis
infection. Culture has a sensitivity of 75%–96% and a specificity
of up to 100% [114, 123]. In women, vaginal secretions are the
preferred specimen type for culture, as urine culture is less
sensitive. In men, culture requires a urethral swab, urine, and/
or semen.
Screening
Data presented earlier suggest that T. vaginalis infection is (1)
common, (2) frequently asymptomatic, (3) easily communicable to sex partners, and (4) associated with significantly increased risks of HIV acquisition and transmission, pregnancy
complications, PID among HIV-infected women, and other
conditions. Particularly high prevalences have been observed
among incarcerated individuals, HIV-infected individuals, and STD clinic patients. Among asymptomatic women
screened for T. vaginalis infection by wet mount at STD clinics
in 6 areas, the prevalence of infection was 6.5% [14]. Although
treatment with nitroimidazoles has been shown to be relatively
cheap, safe, simple, accessible, and effective at reducing T. vaginalis infections and symptoms of trichomoniasis, evidence is
generally lacking that curing T. vaginalis infections also reduces
the risk of associated conditions. No studies have adequately assessed the cost-effectiveness or the optimal frequency of screening asymptomatic persons for T. vaginalis infection. Decisions
about screening may be informed by local, regional, or national
epidemiology.
Screening and prompt treatment for trichomoniasis are recommended at least annually for all HIV-infected women, based
on the high prevalence of T. vaginalis infection, the increased
risk of PID associated with this infection, and the ability of
treatment to reduce genital tract viral load and vaginal HIV
shedding. This includes HIV-infected women who are pregnant, as T. vaginalis infection is a risk factor for vertical transmission of HIV [78]. For other pregnant women, screening may
be considered at the discretion of the treating clinician, as the
benefit of routine screening for pregnant women has not been
established.
Among previously treated individuals, several studies have
examined the timing of rescreening or test of cure for T. vaginalis infection. A study of 268 adolescent women in Indiana
found that 85% of infections were undetectable by PCR within
2 weeks following treatment [126]. A follow-up study of 42 infected women found that the mean time to first negative PCR
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result was 1.4 ± 0.1 weeks [127]. A study of 1236 reproductive-age women periodically tested for T. vaginalis infection
by culture and treated with standard therapy at STD clinics
found that 119 (10%) were positive at baseline, 16.5% were positive at 3 months, 18.5% were positive at 6 months, 12.5% were
positive at 9 months, and 6.9% were positive at 12 months.
Among the women who were infected at baseline, 16.5% had
another positive T. vaginalis culture during the study, indicating
potential treatment failure vs reinfection from an untreated sex
partner [128]. Further analysis of these data indicated that of the
21 new infections, 13 occurred in women who had been treated
previously for T. vaginalis infections, and 11 of these 13 (85%)
had an intervening negative test result before having another
positive result when no sexual exposure was reported [129].
Probable persistent, undetected T. vaginalis infections have
also been observed among HIV-infected women retested 3
and 6 months after initial evaluation [130].
Reporting and Costs
Neither trichomoniasis nor T. vaginalis infection is a nationally
notifiable condition, and no US states require reporting of these
conditions. Indices of public health importance warranting surveillance may include frequency, severity of illness, disparities,
costs, preventability of serious adverse events, communicability,
and public interest; according to a recent CDC editorial, T. vaginalis infection clearly meets only 3 of these 7 criteria (frequency, disparities, and communicability), with insufficient available
data or arguable conclusions regarding other criteria [131]. Due
to a paucity of public interest, trichomoniasis has been called a
“neglected” STD [55, 132].
Assuming no sequelae of any T. vaginalis infection, and assuming that many asymptomatic cases are never detected, the
estimated direct medical costs per year of treating incident
cases of trichomoniasis in the United States total $24 million
annually [133]. However, a mathematical model estimated
that, annually, 746 new HIV cases occurring among US
women are attributable to T. vaginalis infection; the lifetime
medical costs of these 746 infections are estimated to be $167
million [134].
Prevention
Trichomoniasis is an STD that can be avoided by abstaining
from sex. Among sexually active individuals, the most effective
way to prevent trichomoniasis is by using condoms consistently
and correctly during vaginal-penile sexual encounters [135]. Periodic presumptive treatment for high-risk individuals such as
sex workers can effectively reduce trichomoniasis [136, 137].
Male circumcision might reduce the risk of infection in both
circumcised men (aOR, 0.41; P = .030) [138]and their female sex
partners (adjusted RR, 0.52 [95% CI, .05–.98]) [139]. It remains
to be seen whether treatment and prevention of trichomoniasis
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The most common method for diagnosing trichomoniasis
may be microscopic evaluation of genital secretions (“wet
mount”), due to convenience and relatively low cost. Unfortunately, the sensitivity of wet mount for T. vaginalis diagnosis is
poor (51%–65%) in vaginal specimens [114, 123]. Furthermore,
sensitivity declines as evaluation is delayed, decreasing by up to
20% within 1 hour after collection, although storage in saline
may prolong specimen viability [124]. In male urine, wet
mount is even less sensitive [125]. A molecular test–resolved algorithm, in which patients with an initial negative wet mount
then receive a molecular test, had an overall sensitivity of
87.5%–96.6% and a specificity of 97.7%–100% among 296
female subjects [123].
and T. vaginalis infections can also prevent associated conditions such as HIV infections and complications of pregnancy.
Data are lacking on effective intervention strategies to reduce associated health disparities.
CONCLUSIONS
Notes
Acknowledgments. This article reviews evidence presented at the Sexually Transmitted Disease Treatment Guidelines meeting held in April 2013
at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Disclaimer. The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the CDC.
Supplement sponsorship. This article appears as part of the supplement
“Evidence Papers for the CDC Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment
Guidelines,” sponsored by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Potential conflicts of interest. C. A. G. has been involved in clinical trials during which products from Hologic/GenProbe and BD Diagnostics
were under study, and has received payment for educational lectures and
webinars for Hologic/Gen-Probe, BD, and Sekisui. M. M. H. has received
research support and has been involved in clinical trials for evaluation of
diagnostic products from Hologic/Gen-Probe. P. K. is the principal investigator of a National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases study to examine optimal dosing of metronidazole and
treatment of partners of women with T. vaginalis (R01AI097080). P. N. is
a consultant for Hologic, Cepheid, Symbiomix; is an investigator in clinical
trials for BD and Symbiomix; and has been a consultant and received other
grants from Novadigm, Viamet, and Alfa Wasserman. J. R. S. has received
grants and other financial support from Hologic, LabCorp, BD Diagnostics,
Cepheid, and Elitech, and has been a consultant or received other grants
from Symbiomix, Curatek, Alpha Wasserman, and Starpharma. All other
authors report no potential conflicts.
All authors have submitted the ICMJE Form for Disclosure of Potential
Conflicts of Interest. Conflicts that the editors consider relevant to the content of the manuscript have been disclosed.
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Trichomoniasis and T. vaginalis
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Trichomonas vaginalis infection is highly prevalent, often
asymptomatic, and easily communicable between sex partners.
Infection is associated with significantly increased risks of HIV
acquisition and transmission, pregnancy complications including preterm delivery, PID among HIV-infected women, and
other conditions. Highly sensitive NAATs and point-of-care
tests can be conducted on a variety of specimens and may
expand available diagnostic methods beyond traditional wet
mount and culture. Usually, trichomoniasis can be cured with
single-dose therapy of an appropriate nitroimidazole antibiotic
(eg, metronidazole or tinidazole), but women who are also infected with HIV should receive therapy for 7 days. Antimicrobial resistance is an emerging concern. Screening should be
provided at least annually to all HIV-infected women; decisions
about screening others may be informed by local, regional, or
national epidemiology at the discretion of the clinician. Condoms
may prevent infections, but all sex partners must be treated to
reduce reinfections. Further study is needed to identify effective
intervention strategies to reduce associated racial/ethnic and
age-related health disparities.
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