foods
Article
Food Security beyond Cereals: A Cross-Geographical
Comparative Study on Acorn Bread Heritage in the
Mediterranean and the Middle East
Dauro Mattia Zocchi 1, * , Camilla Bondioli 1 , Seyed Hamzeh Hosseini 2 , Mohamed Djamel Miara 3 ,
Carmelo Maria Musarella 4 , Datis Mohammadi 1 , Ajmal Khan Manduzai 5 , Kovan Dilawer Issa 6 ,
Naji Sulaiman 7 , Chadi Khatib 8 , Hiwa M. Ahmed 9,10 , Tola Abdulsattar Faraj 6,11 ,
Hawraz Ibrahim M. Amin 12,13 , Faiq H. S. Hussain 6 , Abdullah Faiz 1,14 , Antonella Pasqualone 15 ,
Frits Heinrich 16,17 , Michele Filippo Fontefrancesco 1,18 and Andrea Pieroni 1,6
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4
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Citation: Zocchi, D.M.; Bondioli, C.;
Hamzeh Hosseini, S.; Miara, M.D.;
Musarella, C.M.; Mohammadi, D.;
Khan Manduzai, A.; Dilawer Issa, K.;
8
9
10
11
Sulaiman, N.; Khatib, C.; et al. Food
12
Security beyond Cereals: A
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Cross-Geographical Comparative
14
Study on Acorn Bread Heritage in the
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Mediterranean and the Middle East.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898. https://
doi.org/10.3390/foods11233898
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17
Academic Editor: Chibundu
N. Ezekiel
Received: 26 October 2022
Accepted: 30 November 2022
Published: 2 December 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
18
*
University of Gastronomic Sciences, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele 9, 12042 Pollenzo, Italy
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Jiroft, Jiroft P.O. Box 78671-55311, Iran
Agrobiotechnology and Nutrition Laboratory in Semi-Arid and Arid Zones, Department of Nature and Life
Sciences, Ibn-Khaldoun University, BP P 78 Zaâroura, Tiaret 14000, Algeria
Department of Agriculture, Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria, Via dell’Università, 25 (Già Salita
Melissari), 89124 Reggio Calabria, Italy
Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University, Abbottabad Campus, University Road,
Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan
Department of Medical Analysis, Faculty of Applied Science, Tishk International University, Erbil 44001, Iraq
Department of Crop Sciences and Agroforestry, Faculty of Tropical AgriSciences, Czech University of Life
Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague-Suchdol, Czech Republic
Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Damascus University, Damascus P.O. Box 30621, Syria
Sulaimani Polytechnic University, Slemani 46001, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
Department of Horticulture, College of Agricultural Engineering Science, University of Raparin,
Ranya 46012, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
Department of Basic Sciences, College of Medicine, Hawler Medical University, Erbil 44001, Iraq
Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Salahaddin University-Erbil, Erbil 44001, Iraq
Department of Medical Biochemical Analysis, Cihan University-Erbil, Erbil 44001, Iraq
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Herat, Herat 3001, Afghanistan
Department of Soil, Plant and Food Science, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Amendola, 165/A,
70126 Bari, Italy
Research Group Social and Cultural Food Studies (FOST), Department of History, Vrije Universiteit Brussel,
Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
Research Group Industrial Microbiology and Food Biotechnology (IMDO), Department of Bioengineering
Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Stockton Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
Correspondence: d.zocchi@unisg.it
Abstract: This article aims to contribute to the limited literature on traditional gastronomic knowledge concerning acorn-based bread by ethnographically documenting the ingredients, preparation
techniques and consumption practices of baked goods made from acorn seeds and flour that are
still used today or at least still present in living memory. A qualitative comparative case method
was adopted, and ethnographic data were gathered from 67 people in six selected Mediterranean,
Central Asian and Middle Eastern countries. The analysis highlighted distinct trajectories in the
development of acorn-based bread, showing some differences in terms of ingredients, preparation
techniques and baking methods in the two cultural and geographical macro-regions. By exploring
the evolution of the alimentary role of acorn bread in the past century, our findings also support the
hypothesis that the product, at least during the last two centuries, has mostly been used as a famine
food. By acknowledging the cultural importance of acorn fruits and acorn-based products, this study
suggests that the rediscovery of acorn-based products and associated traditional knowledge may
foster the sustainable development of rural and marginal regions in the Mediterranean, Middle East
and Central Asia. This could help to reinforce the resilience of local communities and thus increase
food security. Furthermore, reassessing acorns as a foodstuff may aid in developing innovative
Foods 2022, 11, 3898. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11233898
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/foods
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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products in line with emerging trends in the food sector, which is looking for new non-cereal-based
bakery products and other novel culinary applications.
Keywords: balanophagy; food security; food heritage; food scouting; ethnobotany
1. Introduction
Quercus spp. (family Fagaceae) is an important genus consisting of both evergreen
and deciduous trees that occur in both temperate and tropical climatic zones. From early
prehistory onwards, the fruits of different species belonging to this genus were part of the
traditional livelihoods and foodscapes of communities worldwide [1].
While often perceived as animal feed, with herds of livestock pigs being released
into oak forests to browse for acorns (a widespread practice referred to as pannage [2],
acorns represented an important part of both the gastronomical and medical folklore of
various regions of North America, Europe, North Africa, the Near East and Central Asia,
as indicated by a wealth of ethnoarchaeobotanical and historical evidence [3–26].
Rural populations used to collect and eat acorns from different Quercus species. While
sweet acorns (e.g., Quercus pubescens Willd. subsp. pubescens) were eaten directly [21],
astringent and bitter acorns (i.e., fruits with a high tannin content, such as Quercus rotundifolia Lam.) were processed through heating, leaching [27–29] or complex detoxification
techniques involving the use of clay [30–32]. In addition to the consumption of roasted and
boiled acorns, either in porridge or as an ingredient in a variety of dishes, seeds were often
ground into flour and used in the preparation of different types of bread, especially in the
Mediterranean, Central Asia and the Middle East [8,19,33–35].
Until the first half of the twentieth century, the human consumption of acorns, also
known as balanophagy (see [4]), played an important role in the food security of rural
Mediterranean, Central Asian and Middle Eastern populations, providing an affordable
and nutritionally rich source of carbohydrates, proteins and fat [29,36]. Today, this practice
has declined, and the traditional knowledge related to the use and processing of acorns has
been eroded and, on several occasions, apparently lost [19,37]. In this regard, archaeologists,
historians, ethnographers and ethnobotanists have explored the dietary role of acorns and
the past use of acorn seeds for the preparation of bread, highlighting some of the reasons
behind the marginalisation of acorn and acorn-based products in the present diet. However,
only sporadic attention has been paid thus far to the ethnographic documentation of the
traditional knowledge and practices associated with the production and consumption of
acorn-based foodstuffs, as well as to the modern continuation of these practices and the
associated aspects of food and cultural heritage.
On the basis of these premises, this study records the uses and importance of acornbased bread and baked goods by comparing the traditional practices and associated knowledge linked to the preparation and consumption of these products in selected Mediterranean, Middle Eastern and Central Asian countries. Therefore, the aims of this study are
(1) to ethnographically document ingredients, preparation techniques and consumption
practices pertaining to baked goods made from acorn seeds and acorn flour that are still
used today or at least still present in living memory; (2) to explore the possible evolution of
the alimentary role of these products and associated practices in the past century, identifying the main drivers behind any observed changes; (3) to analyse, from a geographically
comparative perspective, similarities and differences regarding the preparation and consumption of these products, as well as the dynamics underpinning the conservation or
erosion of the traditional gastronomic knowledge associated with these practices.
By acknowledging the importance of acorn fruits in the cultural heritage of local
communities and their potentially crucial application as an alternative solution for the
future of rural economies, this study aims to open a debate on the potential effects that
the revitalisation of acorn-based products and associated foodscapes may have on the
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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sustainable development of rural and marginal regions in the Mediterranean, Central Asia
and the Middle East.
2. Background
2.1. Archaeological and Historical Evidence for the Consumption of Acorn Bread
While the collection and use of acorns are widely archaeobotanically attested, it is
often difficult to confirm their use for human consumption, let alone their use for specific
food items. However, microbotanical acorn remains on rotary querns used for grinding
flour, or the presence of acorn-derived compounds in residues found in vessels or other
cooking contexts may be helpful in this respect [18,26,38–40].
The culinary use of acorns in bread and other preparations has also been documented
in ancient historical sources, whose authors were well aware of the differences between
sweeter and more bitter types. Theophrastus (371–287 BC), in his Historia Plantarum,
recounts that the fruits of the Valonia oak are the sweetest and that oaks growing in
the mountains and wild lands typically have sweeter fruits than those near cultivated
land (see [41], cf. [42]). An important bias in many ancient descriptions is that these
texts were invariably written for and by members of the elite, while the consumption
of acorns was a low-status activity and, therefore, was very much underrepresented.
Misrepresentation is a potential issue as well. While oak trees themselves were held in
high esteem, often serving as sacred or royal trees [43], the eating of acorns was often
associated with being rustic and less civilised. This could have a positive connotation,
with the consumption of acorns being representative of the mythic Golden Age of hunting
and gathering, before the toil of agriculture [8,44], as it is apparent, for instance, in the
description of early humans by Lucretius (5.939) and Ovid (Fasti 4.395-402). Similarly,
in reference to the inhabitants of Arcadia (a region of Greece having the reputation of
being rustic throughout antiquity), the Arcadians are described as ‘stout acorn eaters’
(Herodotus 1.66—cf. Pausanias 8.1.6 and Galen De alimentorum facultatibus II. 38). Acorn
consumption could also be represented as being more barbaric or antiquated, as ancient
ethnographers often highlighted or exaggerated perceived differences with their own
culture. Examples of this can, for instance, be found in the Anabasis, a book by the Greek
mercenary general Xenophon (ca. 430–355 BC) about the Mossynoecians, people living
in a region on the southern shores of the Black Sea in present-day Turkey. He writes that
they stored large quantities of acorns on the upper floors of their houses (likely for drying)
that were boiled and then baked afterwards into a type of bread that was the main part of
their diet. Another example can be found in the Geographica of the Greek geographer Strabo
(c. 64 BC–AD 24), in which he describes the Lusitanians on the Iberian peninsula as those
living in the mountains subsisting on acorn seeds for two-thirds of the year and—after
the acorns are dried and ground—are made into bread that ‘may be stored away for a
long time’ (Strabo 3.3.7). Pliny the Elder (c. AD 23–79), in his Naturalis Historia, reflects on
the importance of acorns as a food source for many peoples ‘even when enjoying peace,’
adding that especially in times of cereal shortages and famine, acorn seeds are dried and
ground into a flour from which bread is made. Pliny also mentions that roasting acorns in
ash makes them sweeter. It is suggested that acorns were important in the early history
of Rome as well, as Pliny refers to ancient Roman laws discussing the permissibility of
collecting acorns from land owned by others (NH 16.6–9), although some have argued that
by Pliny’s time, this would have only applied to famines [45].
Famine and shortage are recurring themes when acorns are mentioned as a food source
for humans in classical sources; for instance, the poet Hesiod (ca. 750–650 BC) wrote that
Zeus staved off famine for the just, and for them ‘on the mountains the oak tree bears acorns
on its surface’ (Works and Days 225–237). Often such instances represent a commodity that
would normally serve as animal fodder being turned into human food [46]. In a book on
the properties of different foodstuffs, the Roman physician Galen (AD 129–199) from the
city of Pergamon in what is now Turkey described how local farmers would normally
collect acorns as pig feed (mast) for winter, but when a bad harvest and famine struck the
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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area was suspected, the farmers slaughtered and ate their pigs and stored the acorns in pits
and storage vessels that were otherwise used for cereals. The acorns would be boiled and
sometimes covered in hot ashes to bake them, while in other cases, they were crushed and
made into porridge or soup to which milk and even honey could be added (De alimentorum
facultatibus II. 38, cf. [47,48]). Although slow to digest (cf. Hippocrates Regimen 55), Galen
notes that acorns were just as nutritious as cereals and much more nutritious than other wild
plants (De alimentorum facultatibus II. 38, cf. Artemidorus Daldianus, Oneirocritica 2.25, [49]).
The image of acorns as a famine food that would only delight mythic ancestors, backwards
rustics and quaint foreigners is not entirely fair. There are, for instance, also references to
the use of acorns in de Re Coquinaria, a corpus of recipes that was likely compiled in the fifth
century AD and fictitiously attributed to the first century AD Roman gourmet, Apician.
Acorn seeds are, for example, used in a recipe for stuffed hare (Apicius 8.8.3). Ancient
attitudes towards the status of acorns as a foodstuff may show similarities to what has
been observed for pulses and ‘inferior’ cereals; it is not that these foodstuffs are seen as
intrinsically bad or low status themselves, but rather it is the reliance on them as staples
that is viewed negatively [50,51].
In the (Mediaeval) Islamic world, acorns were known as food as well, although
literary sources are somewhat scarce. The Persian philosopher and physician al-Razi
(ca. AD 845-925/935), for instance, mentions acorns as a potential ingredient for cheap
mulla bread in his work Manāfi’ al-aghdhiya wa-daf’ mad.arrihā (for a discussion, see [52]).
When describing the region of Bilad as-Sham (Greater Syria), the Palestinian geographer
Al-Muqaddasi (ca. AD 945–1000) mentions that people in the Jabal al-Jawlan region of
Syria consumed acorns which they split, let dry to sweeten and then ground and mixed
with ‘wild’ barley—although it is not mentioned if this flour was used for bread or porridge
(Al-Muqaddasi, p. 188, translation [53])). The Arab-Nestorian Christian physician Ibn
But.lān (AD 1001–1064), in his medical work Taqwı̄m as.-S.ih.h.a, mentions that fresh acorns
were healthy, although women should eat them roasted and with sugar to prevent adverse
effects to menstruation (see [54]). In thirteenth-century Islamic Iberia (al-Andalus), a more
elite and culinary reference to acorn use is found. In the cook book by Ibin Razı̄n al-Tujı̄bı̄
(AD 1227–1293), there is a recipe for fried chicken pieces coated with egg (III. 2.43), in which
fresh acorns (without drying) are used alongside chestnuts and boiled, after having been
shelled and blanched (see translation [55]). In Mediaeval European sources, acorns were
increasingly referenced as pig feed. However, they were also mentioned as penance food,
an item used by those living off the land, and again as famine food. Drying, shelling and
subsequently grinding acorns into a flour that could be mixed with flours made from millet,
buckwheat or chestnuts is widely attested, especially in Italy, where such flours appear
to have been used to make polente and necci (flatbread) [54]. As Maraschi [54] observes,
from the sixteenth century onwards, there appears to be a brief episode in culinary history
during which acorns became fashionable in the cooking of the Italian elite, with boiled
acorns being used in pies, among other dishes.
2.2. Ethnographic Evidence for the Consumption of Acorn Bread
Throughout the Mediterranean basin, acorn flour and bread have been used for
centuries by rural and pastoral communities as a staple food, especially during times of
famine [8,37]. In the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War, acorn bread was an important food
in the diet of the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula, especially in the southern part of the
Spanish dehesa [2], Cantabria [56], Extremadura, Castilla-La Mancha [57] and the Basque
Country [19,58]. Such uses of acorns were also documented for Greece, particularly for the
Argolid and wider Peloponnese [3,59].
The consumption of acorns in the form of bread has been reported in ethnobotanical
and ethnographic studies conducted in the central and southern regions of Italy [60–63].
Until the first half of the twentieth century, the practice of mixing acorn flour with cereal
flour was common in rural areas of Umbria and Tuscany [7], Marche [64], and Basilicata and
Calabria [28]. Moreover, the use of acorns in the preparation of bread has been recorded
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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in Sardinia, especially in the Ogliastra subregion of Nuoro province [30,65–68], where a
particular type of bread (pan’ispeli) made from water, acorn seeds, and ash and clay (rich in
ferrous elements), was consumed until around the beginning of the twentieth century [65].
The use of clay and ash to remove tannic acid from acorns is also documented in North
America, especially in the western region of the continent, where sweetened bitter acorns
were an important staple food among Native American communities [7,30,69,70]. The
Pomo Indians of California made dark bread by preparing dough with ground acorns, red
clay and water and then baking it in underground ovens [30].
In the Mediterranean African countries, especially Algeria and Morocco, flour made
from acorns was used in times of food shortage as a substitute for wheat and other grains
in the production of bread, cake and pastries [34,71,72]. In the Algerian region of Chenoua,
acorn flour, in particular, was used for the preparation of taâm oubeloout (acorn-based
couscous), especially during the French colonial period [73].
In the Middle East, as well, rural pastoral communities in mountainous areas have
utilised acorn seeds for different alimentary purposes, including the production of flour
and baked goods [27]. These practices have been documented in Turkey [33], Iraq [74,75],
Israel [76], Jordan [77] and Iran [35]. Drawing on the analysis of different literary sources,
Potts [35] provided evidence for the use of acorn flour for the preparation of flatbreads and
cakes in southern and western Iran (especially in the provinces of Kurdistan and Luristan),
particularly when other resources were lacking. Due to poverty and the inadequate supply
of cereals, pastoralists used to satisfy the alimentary requirements of their households by
gathering acorns and making bread with pure acorn flour (kazqa) or by mixing it with
wheat flour (kalg). Potts [35] argues that the modern usage of acorns (i.e., in the twentieth
century) reinforces the hypothesis that acorns were a staple food prior to agriculture.
3. Materials and Methods
The research conducted in the present study is based on a qualitative comparative
case method [78] carried out through the food scouting approach, i.e., trans-disciplinary
ethnographic-based research methods aimed at mapping, inventorying and documenting food and gastronomic elements embedded in local and traditional foodscapes [79,80].
Specifically, several eco-gastronomic units of concern (i.e., local food biocultural heritage
resources threatened or endangered [81]) were explored to document the traditional practices and knowledge linked to the collection of acorns (Quercus spp.), the processing of
seeds into flour and the preparation of baked goods, as well as to understand the driver(s)
underpinning their evolution. For these purposes, we have collected data on the use of
acorns for breadmaking through ethnographic research conducted by different research
teams. For each unit, individual access was negotiated with the analysis based on the
specific configuration of the locally available oral and written sources.
3.1. Study Areas
Fieldwork was conducted between 2020 and 2022 in select Mediterranean, Central
Asian and Middle Eastern countries. Research activities were carried out in the following countries to account for variations in local traditions and practices of acorn-based
breadmaking: Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Italy, Afghanistan and Syria (Figure 1).
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Figure 1. Map showing the study area (File credits: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
licence). Key: 1. Algeria; 2. Iran, 3. Iraq; 4. Italy; 5. Afghanistan; 6. Syria.
The key locations of the study were specifically chosen to focus on regions where
there was past evidence of the preparation of acorn-based bread and baked goods. To this
end, we relied on an analysis of scientific and grey literature sources, as well as personal
communications and observations collected by members of the research team involved in
this study.
Despite the geographical, cultural and socioeconomic differences between these countries, they have previously been reported as areas where acorns have been used, mostly in
times of famine and scarcity, for alimentary purposes and, specifically, for the preparation of
bread and baked goods [27,28,35,68]. In these areas, where pastoral and agro-silvopastoral
systems have traditionally been the main source of livelihood for rural populations, acorn
trees (Quercus spp.) have played a vital role as a source of food, medicine, animal fodder
and timber.
3.2. Fieldwork, Data Collection and Analysis
Ethnographic data were gathered through personal observations, informal conversations and semi-structured interviews with 67 people (33 men and 34 women). Informants
were selected via convenience sampling with the constraint that they were elderly community members who, during their lives, were more likely to have prepared, consumed or
at least remembered acorn bread and the associated preparation techniques. Table 1 lists
the exact research locations and the sociodemographic characteristics of the individuals
involved in this study.
By drawing on the personal knowledge and experience of the informants, the fieldwork
was aimed at collecting information on the following topics: acorn species used in the
preparation of bread and baked goods, the utilised processing methods (e.g., the debittering
process of seeds and the production of flour), bread making techniques and methods, as
well as the traditional consumption practices associated with these products. Particular
attention was paid to the perceived changes in the alimentary role and socioeconomic value
of acorn-based products and the main reasons underlying these phenomena.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of the informants.
Interviewer(s)
A.F.
M.M.D
Country
Afghanistan
Algeria
Region(s) or
Province(s)
Village(s)
Number of
Informants
Sex
Age
Kunar, Nuristan,
Nangarhar,
Laghman, Paktia,
Paktika, Ghazni
Different villages
6
M
50, 54, 62, 65, 75,
77
4
M
48, 52, 66, 67
F
96
Ghor
Tar Būlāq, Taywara, Sagar
Chlef
Chlef
Relizane
Relizane
Tiaret
Tiaret
5
F
80
M
F
82
92
M
76
Tissemsilt
Tissemsilt
Kohgiluyeh and
Boyer-Ahmad,
Lorestan, Khuzestan
Yasuj, Si sakht,
Khorramabad, Ab Bid
22
M (7)
F (15)
45–60 (7)
60+ (15)
Kurdistan
Sarvabad, Marivan
9
M (3)
F (6)
45–60 (3)
60+ (6)
Iraq
Kurdistan
Balkha,
Hawraman,
Shanidar,
Bingrd,
Ranya,
5
M
M
F
F
M
66
76
92
88
90
C.B.
Italy
(Sardinia)
Nuoro–Ogliastra
subregion
Baunei,
Talana,
Urzulei,
8
M
M
F
83, 91, 95, 95
88
90,92
C.M.M.
Italy
(Calabria)
Reggio Calabria,
Catanzaro,
Cosenza,
Cardeto,
Chiaravalle Centrale,
Santa Sofia D’Epiro,
6
F
M
M
48, 70, 82, 93
79
81
C.K.
N.S.
Syria
Tartus Governorate
Bahuzi,
Duraykish
2
M
F
94
87
H.I.H.A.
and D.M.
F.H.S.H., T.F.
and K.D.I.
Iran
H.M.A.
To this end, C.B. carried out interviews among the inhabitants of the Ogliastra subregion (Nuoro province) in Sardinia, Italy (n = 8); C.M.M. gathered data in three different
provinces of Calabria, Italy (n = 6), while N.S. and C.K. gathered data in Syria (n = 2) and
M.D.M. in Algeria (n = 5). F.H.S.H., T.F., K.D.I. and H.M. carried out fieldwork in Iraqi
Kurdistan (n = 5), while H.I.H.A. and D.M. conducted fieldwork in the Kurdistan region
and eastern part of Iran (n = 31). A.F. and co-workers gathered data from the eastern part of
Afghanistan (n = 10). Finally, A.K.M. conducted an exploratory survey among the Afghan
diaspora in the Mansehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan (n = 41).
Interviews were conducted by the authors (see paragraph above) in Italian (Sardinia
and Calabria), Arabic (Syria and Algeria), Kurdish (Iraq), Lori and Kurdish (Iran) and Dari
(Afghanistan). Before each interview, informed consent was obtained from each informant,
as recommended by the International Society of Ethnobiology code of ethics [82]. The
project's rationale, aims and expected outcomes were explained in advance.
The interviews and the field notes were translated into English, transcribed and
entered into NVivo version 12.5.0 [83], and then codes, concepts and nodes were generated
during the qualitative data analysis. All the data were organised and subsequently selected
and condensed as tables and compared in order to (1) highlight the different ingredients,
steps and operations linked to the production of acorn-based bread and baked goods;
(2) understand the past and present role of these products in the local food culture and
their associated gastronomic value; and (3) identify the reasons behind the abandonment
or continued use of these products.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Species identifications were made by the authors (ethnobotanists with extensive
knowledge of the local floras) in the field. For those plants for which specimens were not
available, probable identification was obtained by asking the interviewees to describe the
plant and its habitat. For botanical nomenclature, we followed the criteria set by Plants
of the World Online [84]. All local plant names were transcribed from the recorded local
languages using the Latin alphabet.
4. Results
For each of the surveyed areas, field data were organised into tables that outline
the following information: product category, local/vernacular names, acorn species used
in the preparation, ingredients, harvesting and post-harvesting phases and processing
methods/techniques. A summary of the main findings of our study is reported in Table 2.
In the following sections, the most relevant results of the study are outlined with a
focus on the traditional practices linked to the preparation of acorn-based bread and baked
goods in each of the surveyed countries. Moreover, the findings explore the production and
consumption trends for these products to shed light on the possible reasons underpinning
their continued use or abandonment.
The surveyed countries are grouped into two macro-regions (Mediterranean: Algeria,
Italy and Syria; Central Asia and Middle East: Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq) and reported in
alphabetical order.
4.1. Mediterranean Countries
4.1.1. Algeria
Field observations and interviews in four western Algerian provinces (Tiaret, Tissemsilt, Chlef and Relizane) revealed the use of acorn flour for the production of a flatbread,
locally known as khobz el ballout, consisting of a mixture of acorn flour, water, cereal and/or
legume flour and, occasionally, yeast.
For its preparation, acorns from old trees of Quercus ilex subsp. ballota (Desf.) Samp.
(=Quercus rotundifolia Lam.) were harvested at the end of autumn, selected (i.e., they were
put into water, and only the ones that sank to the bottom were used) and boiled to facilitate
the removal of the shell and the thin layer of skin enveloping the seed. Peeled seeds were
boiled a second time and left in the water to remove the bitter taste. When the water turned
brown (due to the expulsion of tannins), it was discarded and replaced with a new pot of
boiling water. This process was repeated until the water remained clear. Leached seeds
were then sun-dried or dehydrated in a traditional oven for at least half a day. They were
eventually ground in cereal mills, usually the same as those used for the production of
wheat flour.
According to informants, the consumption of acorn bread reached its peak during the
colonial period, especially during the Algerian war (1954–1962), when wheat was scarce
due to the increase in the export of national harvests to Europe by the French authorities.
In that period, acorn bread was a staple food among Algerian communities living in
the mountains. The Maquis (resistance fighters) used to prepare and eat this bread as a
replacement for wheat-based bread.
Due to the availability of wheat and the better taste of wheat bread, people have now
abandoned the preparation of acorn bread.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Overview of acorn-based products reported in all case studies by country and region/province.
Country
Algeria
Italy
Region
(Province)/Villages
Tiaret, Tissemsilt,
Chlef, Relizane/
Tiaret, Tissemsilt,
Chlef, Relizane
Sardinia
(Nuoro–Ogliastra
subregion)/Baunei
Product
Category
Bread
Acorn meal
Local
Name(s) a
Khobz el
Ballout
(A)
Lande
(Sa)
Taxon
Quercus
rotundifolia Lam.
Quercus ilex
L. subsp. ilex
Quercus suber
L.
Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp. pubescens
Ingredients
Acorn
Wheat flour
Carob flour
Water
Yeast (optional)
Acorn
Clay
Ash
Water
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Leaching/
Debittering
Cleaning/Shelling:
Fruits were
selected and
boiled, and the
outer coat was
removed.
Boiling:
Seeds were boiled
and left for a day,
and the water was
discarded. The
process was
repeated until the
water remained
transparent.
Drying:
Boiled seeds were
sun-dried or
dehydrated in an
oven for half a day.
Drying:
Fruits were dried
over the fire in a
warm oven.
Cleaning/Shelling:
Fruits were put in
a cloth bag (sa
berthula) and
pounded to
remove the shells
and skin.
Clay preparation:
Clay (torco) was
harvested and
sieved to remove
stones and
impurities.
Boiling:
Peeled seeds, clay
and ash were
mixed with water
and brought to a
boil in a big copper
pot (su caddargiu).
The mixture was
cooked for at least
five hours.
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
Pounding/
Milling:
Seeds were
ground in
traditional mills.
Dough:
Flour was mixed
with water, a
small portion of
wheat or carob
flour and,
occasionally,
yeast.
Cooking:
The dough was
baked in an
oven.
-
Cooked acorns:
Boiled seeds
were removed
from the broth
and ready for
consumption.
Broth:
Once cold, the
broth was put
on a table made
of cork skin and
left to dry.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Italy
Italy
Region
(Province)/Villages
Sardinia
(Nuoro–Ogliastra
subregion)/Baunei
Sardinia
(Nuoro–Ogliastra
subregion)/Baunei
Product
Category
Acorn meal
Acorn meal
Local
Name(s) a
Lande a fitta
(Broth)
(Sa)
Lande a perra
(Boiled seeds)
(Sa)
Tzipulas de
lande
(Broth)
(Sa)
Taxon
Quercus ilex
L. subsp. ilex
Quercus suber
L.
Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp. pubescens
Quercus ilex L.
subsp. ilex
Quercus suber
L.
Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp. pubescens
Ingredients
Acorn
Clay
Ash
Water
Acorn
Clay
Ash
Water
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Leaching/
Debittering
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
Cleaning/Shelling:
The hard coats
were removed by
drying (arridare)
the fruits on
trellises.
Boiling:
Dried seeds were
boiled in a mixture
of water, clay, and
ashes. Ashes were
collected in an area
called sa cinisargia,
where people used
to burn old or dead
plants.
-
Cooked acorns:
Seeds were
boiled until soft
and removed
from the broth.
Adding clay
helps to reduce
the breaking of
fruits during
cooking.
Broth:
The mixture
remaining in the
pot was left to
dry on a table
made of cork
(ortigu).
-
Clay preparation:
Red clay was
harvested in the
pasture and sifted
with a sieve, towel
or handkerchief to
remove the
impurities.
Boiling:
Dried seeds were
boiled in a mixture
of water, clay, and
ashes.
-
-
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
11 of 39
Table 2. Cont.
Country
Italy
Italy
Region
(Province)/Villages
Sardinia
(Nuoro–Ogliastra
subregion)/Baunei
Sardinia
(Nuoro–Ogliastra
subregion)/Baunei
Product
Category
Acorn meal
Acorn meal
Local
Name(s) a
-
-
Taxon
Quercus ilex
L. subsp. ilex
Quercus suber L.
Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp. pubescens
Quercus ilex
L. subsp. ilex
Quercus suber L.
Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp. pubescens
Ingredients
Acorn
Clay
Ash
Water
Acorn
Clay
Ash
Water
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Leaching/
Debittering
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
Drying:
Fruits were dried
on the top of
trellises (graticci)
made of reeds.
Cleaning/Shelling:
Fruits were put in
a sack and
pounded to
remove the shells
and skin.
Boiling:
Peeled seeds were
divided into halves
and cooked in a
mixture of water
and clay. Ash (a
few spoonfuls) was
added to facilitate
the cooking
process.
-
Cooked acorns:
Once cooked,
the seeds were
removed from
the broth with a
perforated
spoon and put
into a colander
to drain.
Broth:
The broth (i.e.,
water and acorn
leftovers) was
left to dry on a
table made of
cork and cut
into slices.
-
Clay preparation:
Men harvested clay
(torco) in the
mountains.
Boiling:
Seeds were boiled
in a mixture of
water and clay.
Sometimes ash was
added.
-
-
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Italy
Region
(Province)/Villages
Sardinia
(Nuoro–Ogliastra
subregion)/Talana
Product
Category
Acorn meal
Local
Name(s) a
Lande a perra
(Boiled
acorns)
(Sa)
Taxon
Quercus ilex
L. subsp. ilex
Quercus suber
L.
Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp. pubescens
Ingredients
Acorn
Clay
Water
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Leaching/
Debittering
Drying:
Acorns were
harvested and
hung near the
fireplace.
Cleaning/Shelling:
The hard coat and
the skin were
removed with the
same techniques
used for
chestnuts.
Clay preparation:
Clay was mixed
with water, left to
rest for a couple of
days and sieved
with a cloth (the
same used for
cheese making).
Boiling:
The sieved mixture
was boiled, and the
seeds were cut into
two halves and
added to the
boiling liquid.
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
-
Cooked acorns:
Once cooked,
they were
removed from
the broth with
a ladle.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Italy
Region
(Province)/Villages
Sardinia
(Nuoro–Ogliastra
subregion)/Urzulei
Product
Category
Acorn meal
Local
Name(s) a
-
Taxon
Quercus ilex
L. subsp. ilex
Quercus suber
L.
Quercus
pubescens
Willd. subsp.
pubescens
Ingredients
Acorn
Clay
Water
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Leaching/
Debittering
Cleaning/Shelling:
Fruits were
roasted and
pounded to
remove the hard
coat and skin.
Clay preparation:
Red clay was
mixed with water
in a pot (apiolu) to
separate the clay
from the earth
(since clay is
lighter than the
earth, it floats on
the surface).
Boiling:
Seeds were added
to cold water and
cooked for up to
eight hours. The
cooking process
was performed
over at least two
days. The liquid
was left to cool
down during the
night and brought
back to a boil the
day after.
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
-
Cooked acorns:
Seeds were
boiled until they
acquired a sweet
taste. They
turned black as
coal, and a light
patina of clay
remained on
the surface.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Italy
Italy
Region
(Province)/Villages
Sardinia
(Nuoro–Ogliastra
subregion)/Urzulei
Calabria (Reggio
Calabria)/Cardeto
Product
Category
Acorn meal
Flour
Local
Name(s) a
Taxon
Su pan’e lande
(Broth)
(Sa)
Quercus ilex
L. subsp. ilex
Quercus suber
L.
Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp. pubescens
Rugulu/Ghjjanda
(Fruit)
(C)
Quercus
virgiliana (Ten.)
Ten. (=Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp.
pubescens)
Ingredients
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Leaching/
Debittering
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
Acorn
Clay
Water
Drying:
Fruits were dried
over a fire to
facilitate the
removal of the
hard coat (sa
camisola).
Cleaning/Shelling:
Dried fruits were
placed in a bag (su
cannissu) and
pounded on
stones. This
process was called
ispellizzare.
Clay preparation:
Clay (torco) was
harvested from the
wall of caves,
dissolved in water
left for a few hours
and filtered.
Boiling:
The mixture was
brought to a boil in
a copper pot, and
the seeds were
added and cooked
for up to eight
hours while
continuously
stirring.
-
-
-
Pounding
/Milling:
Seeds were
ground, and
sometimes
maize, wheat or
oats were
added.
-
-
Cleaning/Shelling:
Fruits were
roasted to remove
the hard coat and
the skin.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Italy
Italy
Italy
Region
(Province)/Villages
Calabria (Reggio
Calabria)/Cardeto
Calabria (Reggio
Calabria)/Cardeto
Calabria (Reggio
Calabria)/Cardeto
Product
Category
Flour
Flour
Flour
Local
Name(s) a
Taxon
Rugulu/Ghjjanda
(Fruit)
(C)
Quercus
virgiliana (Ten.)
Ten. (=Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp.
pubescens)
-
-
Quercus
virgiliana (Ten.)
Ten. (=Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp.
pubescens)
Quercus
virgiliana (Ten.)
Ten. (=Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp.
pubescens)
Ingredients
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Leaching/
Debittering
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
-
-
Drying:
Fruits were
roasted.
-
Pounding
/Milling:
Dried seeds were
ground with
maize in a cereal
mill to obtain
coarse flour.
-
Drying:
Fruits were lightly
roasted or
sun-dried for a
few weeks to
facilitate the
removal of the
hard coat and
skin.
Roasting:
Seeds were roasted
until golden
Pounding/Milling:
Roasted seeds
were ground into
coarse flour.
-
Cleaning/
Shelling:
Ripe fruits were
crushed, and the
hard coat was
removed.
Boiling:
Seeds were boiled
in water. The water
was discarded, and
the operation was
repeated until the
liquid remained
clear. They were
subsequently
sundried.
Pounding/
Milling
-
-
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Italy
Italy
Syria
Region
(Province)/Villages
Calabria (Catanzaro)/Chiaravalle
Centrale
Calabria
(Cosenza)/Santa
Sofia D’epiro
Tartus Governorate/Bahuzi
Product
Category
Bread
Flour
Flatbread
Local
Name(s) a
Taxon
-
Quercus
virgiliana (Ten.)
Ten. (=Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp.
pubescens)
-
Quercus
virgiliana (Ten.)
Ten. (=Quercus
pubescens Willd.
subsp.
pubescens)
-
Sweet acorns
Ingredients
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Leaching/
Debittering
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
-
Dough:
Flour was
mixed with
water, grain or
legumes to
Pounding/Milling:
obtain a liquid
Dried seeds were
dough.
ground and
Cooking:
mixed with
A portion (iunta)
maize, oats and
of dough was
lupin flour.
placed on
cabbage or
chestnut leaves
and baked in the
oven.
-
Drying: Fruits
were dried in the
oven, and the
shell was
removed.
-
Pounding/Milling:
Dried seeds were
ground into
coarse flour.
-
-
Drying:
Fruits were
roasted over a fire
until the shells
started to break.
-
-
-
Acorn flour
Cereal flour
Legume flour
Water
Drying:
Fruits were
germinated inside
a chestnut wood
container (ruváci),
dried in the oven,
and stored in jute
sacks.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Syria
Afghanistan
Region
(Province)/Villages
Tartus Governorate/Duraykish
Kunar, Nuristan,
Nangarhar,
Laghman, Paktia,
Paktika,
Ghazni/Different
villages
Product
Category
Flatbread
Flatbread
Local
Name(s) a
Khebz
Dawam/Khebz
Ballout
(A)
Pragi
(D)
Taxon
Sweet acorns
Quercus dentata
Thunb.
Quercus
semecarpifolia
Sm.
Ingredients
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Acorn flour
Water
Cleaning/Shelling:
Fruits were
roasted on a plate
over a fire until
the shells started
to break. They
were then placed
in a small hemp
bag and crushed
to remove the
seeds.
Boiling:
The seeds were
boiled for several
hours.
Drying:
The boiled seeds
were sun-dried for
2 to 3 days.
Dough:
The flour was
mixed with the
remaining
Pounding/Milling:
baked flour
Dried seeds were
from the last
crushed with a
few days and
threshing rock
kneaded.
and sifted.
Cooking:
The dough was
baked in an
oven.
Drying:
Fruits were
roasted until the
colour of the
shells became
dark brown and
the moisture
evaporated.
Cleaning/Shelling:
Fruits were
crushed with a
stone.
Boiling and drying
(only for Quercus
semecarpifolia):
Seeds were boiled
2–3 times, and the
water was
discarded. Seeds
were sundried.
Pounding and
washing(Quercus
semecarpifolia):
Seeds were
pounded, and a
little water was
added inside the
stone mortar to
wash the pounded
seed
Pounding
(Quercus dentata):
Seeds were made
into flour with a
stone mortar.
(Quercus
semecarpifolia):
the mixture was
dried and milled
into flour.
Acorn flour
Water
Leaching/
Debittering
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
Dough:
Flour and water
were kneaded
for 30–40 min,
and the dough
was flattened
into a thin layer.
Cooking:
The flatbread
was cooked in a
hot pan.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Afghanistan
Iran
Region
(Province)/Villages
Ghor/Tar Būlāq
village, Taywara
and Sagar
districts
Kohgiluyeh and
Boyer-Ahmad,
Lorestan, and
Kuzhestan/Yasuj,
Si sakht,
Khorramabad, Ab
Bid
Product
Category
Flatbread
Flatbread
Local
Name(s) a
Nane-Bloot
(D)
Kalg/Kezke
(L)
Taxon
Quercus dentata
Thunb.
Quercus
semecarpifolia
Sm.
Quercus brantii
Lindl.
Quercus
infectoria
G.Olivier
Quercus libani
G.Olivier
Ingredients
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Acorn flour
Water
Drying:
Fruits were
roasted until the
colour of the
shells became
dark brown and
moisture
evaporated.
Cleaning/Shelling:
Fruits were
crushed with a
stone.
-
Acorn flour
Water
Cleaning/Shelling:
Fruits were placed
in a chamber built
with stone walls
and covered with
wood to dry and
facilitate the
removal of the
shells (jaft). The
fruits were beaten
on a stone slab
with a stick to
remove the skin.
Washing:
Seeds were put
inside a container,
sprinkled with a
few handfuls of
roasted acorn flour
(patina) and placed
in a water stream
(shiver).
Leaching/
Debittering
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
Pounding:
Roasted seeds
were made into
flour.
Dough:
Flour and water
were kneaded to
obtain a
soft-liquid
dough.
Cooking:
The mixture was
cooked in a hot
pan (tawa pan)
with some oil.
Pounding/Milling:
Cooking:
Leached seeds
The flour was
were sun-dried,
kneaded with
ground and
water and baked
turned into flour.
in a pan (saj).
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Iran
Region
(Province)/Villages
Kurdistan/Sarvabad,
Marivan
Product
Category
Flatbread
Local
Name(s) a
Nane
balu
(L)
Taxon
Quercus brantii
Lindl.
Quercus
infectoria
G.Olivier
Quercus libani
G.Olivier
Ingredients
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Leaching/
Debittering
Acorn flour
Water
Cleaning/Shelling:
The skin of the
fruits was
removed by
sun-drying the
fruits and by
stamping on them
with their feet or
by hitting them
with a wooden
stick (gelarco)
while in a bag.
Drying:
The fruits were
placed on a cloth
or tray and dried
under the sun for
at least three days.
They were stirred
several times to
separate the seed
coat (jaft).
Pounding and
washing:
Dried seeds were
ground into coarse
flour with a
manual stone mill
(makina), mixed
with warm water,
placed in a bowl
and covered with a
thick cloth-like
blanket. The flour
was rinsed with a
device called a nane
shan to remove the
bitter compounds.
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
Dough:
The flour was
mixed with
water and
moulded by
hand with a tool
Pounding/Milling:
called a penne.
The coarse meal
Cooking:
was ground with
The dough
a stone mill.
(ganke) was
flattened and
cooked on a
convex metal
griddle called
a saaj.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Iraq
Region
(Province)/Villages
Kurdistan/Ranya
Product
Category
Flatbread
Local
Name(s) a
-
Taxon
Quercus aegilops
Scop. (=Quercus
cerris L.)
Ingredients
Acorn flour
Water
Acorn flour
Wheat or Barley
flour
Water
Salt
Yeast
Sugar
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Cleaning/Shelling:
The hard coat of
the fruit was
removed with a
hammer or stone,
and the seeds
were sun-dried.
Hard coats could
also be removed
by roasting the
fruits at low heat.
Leaching/
Debittering
-
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
-
Dough:
It consisted of a
mixture of 80%
oak flour, 20%
barley or wheat
flour, salt and
yeast. Sugar
could be added
to improve the
taste. The
mixture was
mixed with
water in a small
container,
separated into
small pieces and
flattened.
Cooking:
The flatbread
was cooked in a
tandwr (a tool
made from clay).
Vegetable oil
could be added
to the surface
before cooking.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Iraq
Iraq
Iraq
Region
(Province)/Villages
Kurdistan/Bingrd
Kurdistan/Balkha,
Hawraman
Kurdistan/Shanidar,
Barzan
Product
Category
Flatbread
Flatbread
Flatbread
Local
Name(s) a
Nani
barw
(B)
Nani
baru
(B)
Astuk
(S)
Taxon
Ingredients
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
-
Dough:
Flour was
mixed with
Pounding/Milling:
water, barley
Dried seeds were
flour and salt.
ground with a
The mixture was
dastar (two large
kneaded,
stones that grind
divided into
the seeds by
small pieces and
circulating one
flattened.
over the other) or
Cooking:
using a mortar
The flatbread
and pestle (sndol).
was cooked in a
tandoor made
of clay.
Cleaning/Shelling:
Seeds were boiled
to remove the
hard coat that
enveloped them.
Drying:
Seeds were
sun-dried or
roasted on a fire.
-
Pounding/Milling:
Dough:
Flour was mixed
Seeds were
with water and
ground with a
a small amount
manual grinding
of wheat flour.
machine (dastar).
-
Boiling and drying:
Fruits were
washed, boiled and
dried to remove
the coat and reduce
the bitterness of
the seeds.
Acorn flour
Barley flour
Water
Salt
Cleaning/Shelling:
The hard coat of
the seed was
broken with a
hammer or stone.
Drying:
The seeds were
sun-dried on the
roof of the house
for several days.
Quercus aegilops
Scop.
(=Quercus cerris
L.)
Acorn flour
Wheat flour
Water
Salt
Quercus aegilops
Scop.
(=Quercus cerris
L.)
Acorn flour
Water
Honey or
Ground
mulberry
Salt
Quercus aegilops
Scop.
(=Quercus cerris
L.)
Leaching/
Debittering
Pounding/Milling:
Dried seeds were
ground using two
big flat rocks
(juni).
Dough:
Flour was
mixed with
water, honey or
ground white
mulberry.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Table 2. Cont.
Country
Iraq
Region
(Province)/Villages
Kurdistan/Hawraman
a
Product
Category
Flatbread
Local
Name(s) a
Nani
baru
(B)
Taxon
Quercus aegilops
Scop.
(=Quercus cerris
L.)
Ingredients
Drying and
Cleaning/Shelling
Acorn flour
Water
Salt
Cleaning/Shelling:
Fruits were boiled
to remove the
hard coat and skin.
Drying:
Seeds were
sun-dried.
Leaching/
Debittering
Flour
Preparation
Breadmaking
-
Pounding/Milling:
Dried seeds were
ground with a
manual grinding
machine (dastar).
Dough:
Flour was mixed
with water and
baked.
Recorded folk name(s): A (Arabic), B (Badini dialect, Kurdish), C (Calabrian dialect, Italian), D (Dari), L (Lori), Sa (Sardinian dialect, Italian) and So (Sorani dialect, Kurdish).
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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4.1.2. Italy–Calabria
The exploratory fieldwork in the Catanzaro, Cosenza and Reggio Calabria provinces
confirmed the past use of acorns for edible purposes. However, it highlighted the marginal
role that acorn-based foods had in the local diet. Acorns of Quercus virgiliana (Ten.) Ten.
(=Quercus pubescens Willd. subsp. pubescens) have traditionally been processed into flour
that was primarily intended as feed for livestock (pigs and poultry). However, during
times of famine, acorn flour was mixed with cereal and legume flour and used for the
preparation of substitutes for wheat bread.
Fruits (rugulu as they are called in the local dialect of Cardeto village) were harvested,
selected (i.e., only sealed brown and ripe fruits were used) and dried to prepare acorn flour.
To this end, they were either sun-dried for some weeks, lightly roasted in a pan, slowly
dried in the oven (usually the same oven used for baking bread) or a combination thereof.
A 79-year-old man from Chiaravalle Centrale village described the process that his family
used for drying acorns. First, acorns were sterilised by gathering the fruits into a pile and
heating them inside chestnut wood containers called ruváci. The germinated fruits were
dehydrated in the oven and subsequently stored. Dried acorns were peeled (i.e., the shell
was removed) and ground into flour. The seeds were milled with cereals (e.g., maize and
wheat) or, after milling, the flour was mixed with lupin (Lupinus albus L.), maize or oat
(Avena sativa L.) to improve the nutritional quality and reduce the ‘sour’ taste of the acorns.
While the majority of informants remembered the production of acorn flour in detail,
only the 79-year-old man from the Chiaravalle Centrale village described how to prepare
acorn bread. Because the dough was soft and almost liquid, they used to place it on a
cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) leaf or on approximately eight chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.)
leaves on which an iunta (portion) of dough was distributed before putting it in the oven.
Informants did not mention the cooking equipment or cooking times for the bread, as none
of them had ever prepared it.
Even in the past, the use of acorn flour for baking purposes was very sporadic. As
reported by a 70-year-old woman from the village of Cardeto, acorns were sporadically
used for human consumption (as a substitute for coffee) until the early decades of the
twentieth century, mainly during times of war. Thus, acorn flour was used only when no
other foods were available, mainly by those families who did not grow wheat or other
cereals. Chestnut flour or wheat bran mixed with lupin or grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.)
flour was preferred over acorn flour.
4.1.3. Italy–Sardinia
Fieldwork conducted in the villages Baunei, Talana and Urzulei revealed that informants retain the memory of a long cooking process in which acorn seeds were boiled
along with clay and, in some villages, ash. From this process, two different products were
obtained: lande a perra (boiled acorns) and lande a fitta (the dried broth remaining after the
cooking process).
For this preparation, sweet acorns (most likely of the species Quercus ilex L. subsp. ilex,
Quercus suber L. and Quercus pubescens Willd. subsp. pubescens) were gathered between
October and November on the high plateaux well-exposed to sunlight. Fruits were roasted
directly on the fire, in the oven or alternatively dried on a graticci (trellis) to reduce moisture
and facilitate the removal of the shell and skin. A 95-year-old woman from Baunei called
this process arridare, while in Urzulei, it was known as ispellizzare. Once dried, the fruits
were put in a linen bag (sa berthula or su canissu as it was called in Talana) and beaten on
the floor.
Red clay (torco) was collected and mixed with water until the impurities were removed
from the clay to cook the seeds. The mixture was then sieved and transferred to a copper
pot (apiolu or su cardaggiu), where the seeds were added and cooked for up to eight hours
while continuously stirring. The seeds were put in the boiling mixture or added to the cold
liquid. Some informants also used to add ash (from the wood of oak trees) to speed up the
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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cooking process. Once cooked, the seeds were removed from the broth, placed on a surface
made of cork and left to dry.
Lande a perra (cooked seeds) had a dark colour, firm texture and slightly bitter taste.
According to our informants, clay (along with the drying process) partially removed the
bitter taste of acorn seeds and reduced the breakage of the fruits during the cooking process.
This product was mostly intended for consumption by herders during transhumance and
was eaten with dairy products, such as suru (whey), ricotta and milk. Lande a fitta was
similar to a small dark dry porridge with a slightly sweet and sour taste, as well as a
chocolate-like texture (Figure 2). It was consumed as a pastry by children and also as a
substitute for bread, especially during periods of wheat scarcity.
Figure 2. Lande a fitta: dried broth remaining after the cooking of acorn seeds with clay
(File credits: https://www.balanofagia.org/index.php/it/la-storia/il-pane-sardo, accessed on
20 September 2022).
Lande a perra and lande a fitta had been prepared consistently until the end of World War
II when, due to the shortage of cereals caused by the policies promoted by the fascist regime,
it replaced wheat-based products. Lande was preferred to barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) bread,
as it was considered nutritious and beneficial to digestion and was sold at a higher price
than other wheat bread substitutes. However, all informants agreed that lande was prepared
only when other foods were not available.
Although our informants still had extensive knowledge of the preparation of lande, currently, there are only a few people that still prepare this product and only for demonstration
purposes (Pinna, 2013). The marginalisation of lande in Ogliastra was due to improvements
in the livelihoods of local communities and the diversification of the diet. Specifically, the
abandonment of traditional agro-silvopastoral and shepherding systems, to which acorn
bread heritage was intimately connected, has also negatively affected the preservation of
this product. As one 91-year-old man from Baunei told us: ‘When we had other stuff we put
lande aside, it was out of obligation, it wasn’t out of curiosity, it was what you did when you did not
have other stuff to eat’.
4.1.4. Syria–Tartus Governorate
Field observations and interviews in the western portion of Mediterranean Syria
revealed remnants of traditional knowledge related to the preparation of acorn bread. In
particular, in the town of Duraykish in the Tartus Governorate, scattered information on
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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the preparation of a flatbread, locally known as khebz dawam or khebz ballout, was collected
from an 87-year-old woman. For its preparation, sweet acorns were collected, roasted over
a fire, placed in a hemp bag and crushed to remove the shells. The seeds were then boiled
for several hours and dried in the sun for two to three days. Seeds were ground with a
threshing rock (i.e., a roller-like tool used for milling cereals) and sieved to obtain the flour.
The flour was mixed with water, kneaded and baked alone or with a portion of dough
from the previous breadmaking batch (which could help in activating dough fermentation).
The resulting bread, which was thicker than cereal-based flatbreads, was eaten with dairy
products, such as milk, butter, yoghurt and shanklish, a local cheese made with cow’s or
sheep’s milk.
Khebz dawam was prepared almost exclusively during times of famine. Our informant
claimed that she used to eat this bread in her childhood (i.e., in the mid-1940s). Recalling
the memory of her mother, she also claimed that acorn bread was commonly prepared
in the time of seferberlik (wartime mobilisation during World War I) during the Ottoman
Empire when wheat and barley were appropriated by the Ottoman army. This practice
was abandoned in the 1950s when the availability of wheat and barley started increasing.
Similarly, a 94-year-old man remarked on the importance of acorns in historical times,
claiming that during the era of Ottoman occupation, when hunger was most severe, acornbased products ‘kept people alive during wartime’.
4.2. The Middle East and Central Asia
4.2.1. Afghanistan–Kunar, Nuristan, Nangarhar, Laghman, Paktia, Paktika, Ghazni and
Ghor Provinces
Face-to-face and phone call interviews with 41 members of the Afghan diaspora in
Pakistan (migrants coming from the provinces of Baghlan, Kunar, Kunduz, Laghman, Logar,
Nangarhar and Paktia) provided evidence of the occasional use of acorns for alimentary
purposes and especially of acorns roasted in hot ashes. However, in these areas, informants
did not mention any use of acorn seeds or acorn flour for the production of bread.
Some evidence for acorn flour-based products was recorded, however, among the local
communities who live in the forests of the Eastern parts of Afghanistan (the provinces of
Kunar, Nuristan, Paktia, Paktika and some parts of Ghazni) and in Ghor province. Acorns
of the species Quercus dentata Thunb. and Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. were harvested, roasted
(until the shells became dark brown and the moisture evaporated) and crushed to remove
the shells. Roasted sweet acorn seeds (Quercus dentata) were pounded with a stone mortar
and turned into flour. Bitter acorn seeds (Quercus semecarpifolia) were, instead, boiled for a
few hours and kept in water for 24 h. The water was then discarded, and the seeds were
boiled again to eliminate tannins. This process was repeated up to three times, and finally,
the seeds were dried in the sun. Leached seeds were pounded while adding a little water
to the stone mortar; the liquid was then drained, and the flour was dried and pounded
into powder.
The soft and liquid dough (made mostly with sweet acorns) was made into a thin layer
and cooked in a hot pan. In the Ghor province, fat or oil was spread on the surface of the
dough before cooking. The cooked bread, known as pragi or nan-e-bloot, was flat, smaller
than chapati and had a sweet taste. It was customarily eaten with rice (Oryza sativa L.), meat
and honey and accompanied by water or tea.
As observed during fieldwork, acorn bread played a crucial role in the food security
of rural communities, and it was also consumed during periods of drought between 1996
and 2001. In some eastern rural villages of Afghanistan, pragi is still eaten occasionally as a
medicinal food.
4.2.2. Iran–Kohgiluyeh, Boyer-Ahmad, Lorestan and Kurdistan and Khuzestan Provinces
Field activities and observations carried out in three Iranian provinces revealed the
persistence and conservation of traditional gastronomic knowledge linked to the preparation of acorn bread. In the Kohgiluyeh, Boyer-Ahmad and Lorestan provinces, acorns
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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collected in early autumn were placed in a chamber (similar to a furnace) built with stone
walls and covered with wood to dry and to facilitate the removal of the shells (jaft). The
fruits were then beaten on a stone slab with a stick to remove the skin. Subsequently, the
seeds, placed inside a container, were sprinkled with a few handfuls of roasted acorn flour
(patina)
and‘sweat’
placed in
a water stream
(shiver).
Theytowere
thisfruits
condition
several Leach
days to
(community
elders
used
say kept
thatinthe
hadfor
a ‘fever’).
days to ‘sweat’ (community elders used to say that the fruits had a ‘fever’). Leached seeds
were then sun-dried, ground and made into flour. The flour was kneaded and baked in
a pan called a saj. This flatbread, locally known as kalg or kezke, had a black colour and a
slightly hard consistency (Figure 3). It was traditionally eaten with meat products (broth,
sheep head and kebab), wild vegetables (Pistacia atlantica Desf., Gundelia tournefortii L.) and
dairy products (yoghurt, curd and butter).
Figure 3. Kalg or kezke: acorn flatbread cooked on a convex metal griddle called a saaj (photo: Seyed
Hamzeh Hosseini).
In Iranian Kurdistan, sweet acorns (preferably from the species Quercus brantii Lindl.,
Quercus infectoria G.Olivier and Quercus libani G.Olivier) were used for the preparation of a
bread called nane belu. The skin was removed by sun-drying the fruits and by stamping
on them with the feet or by hitting them with a wooden tool called a gelarco while in a
bag. The peeled seeds were placed on a cloth or tray and dried under the sun for at least
three days to remove the excess moisture. During this time, they were stirred several times
to loosen and separate the seed coat (jaft). The dried seeds were ground into coarse flour
with a manual stone mill called a makina. The flour was mixed with warm water, made
into a paste, placed in a bowl and covered with a thick cloth-like blanket to keep it warm
(Figure 4). The flour was then rinsed with a device called a nane shan to remove the bitter
compounds. The resulting flour was crushed again with a stone mill.
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Figure 4. Acorn flour was mixed with warm water and made into a paste. The flour was then rinsed
to remove the bitter compounds (photo: Seyed Hamzeh Hosseini).
The flour was mixed with water and moulded by hand with a tool called a penne to
prepare the bread (Figure 5). The dough (ganke) was flattened and cooked on both sides on
a convex metal griddle called a saaj [85]. The resulting bread (kalg or kezke) was coarse, dark
brown and almost the size of a palm. It was usually served with dairy products (butter,
yoghurt or buttermilk curd), wild herbs (e.g., Ranunculus kochii Ledeb., Allium giganteum
Regel, Eremurus spectabilis M.Bieb., Portulaca oleracea L.), doshab (juice obtained from the
fruits of Morus nigra L.) and in traditional dishes such as dokheh wa (buttermilk, rice and
vegetables), shorbau (soup made of rice and vegetables), doina (condensed boiled buttermilk
and rice) and trit (crushed bread in buttermilk).
In the surveyed areas, acorn bread was a staple food until about 70–80 years ago,
especially during periods of famine in remote villages and nomadic areas without access to
other substitutes for wheat flour. At present, acorn bread has lost importance in the local
diet. One of the reasons for not using acorn bread is the easy access to wheat flour, although
the long preparation process and high production cost of acorn flour have also played a role.
However, in some remote rural villages in Lorestan, shepherds from the Bakhtiari tribe
still rely on acorns and acorn-based products for their subsistence and medicine (Figure 6);
indeed, Bakhtiari from Khuzestan used to exclusively utilize acorn flour to make bread,
the preparation of which took much effort, and so it is nowadays far more convenient to
buy wheat or barley flour. Two Bakhtiari study participants still retained very detailed
knowledge of acorn bread; one of them was an older woman who described acorn bread
preparation as follows:
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‘In years of hardship, like dry years or very cold years when people were suffering more
than usual, acorn and wheat, especially acorn, had very deep roots in our culture, to feed
the livestock and the men. There are several products made of acorns. I mean our acorns,
have you seen our acorns? . . . At the end of autumn, after the first rain—if it doesn’t rain
they are bitter—but after the first rain hits the trees and the fruits become sweeter, they
will fall on their own. Sometimes we would pick them but usually they would fall on their
own . . . They would bring them home, roast them, take off the shells and store them . . .
in this way they wouldn’t go bad . . . Then we reached the real kernel; the kernel would be
milled into flour, but not a fine flour, with something called dastar, an egg-shaped stone
around 50 kg would be put on a flat stone and the kernel would become small like wheat.
It would still contain bitterness . . . the kernels were then put in big bags of 30 or 40 kilos
and put in a stream or a river for days. Then they were dried again, milled and made into
bread, called kalg.’
Figure 5. Dough made with acorn flour and water (photo: Seyed Hamzeh Hosseini).
Figure 5. Dough made with acorn flour and water (photo: Seyed Hamzeh Hosseini).
4.2.3. Iraq–Kurdistan
–
Exploratory fieldwork in the eastern and southern parts of Iraqi Kurdistan showed
great diversity and variability in the use of acorns for the preparation of baked goods. Flour
made from sweet acorns, presumably Quercus aegilops (=Quercus cerris L.), was used for
the preparation of a flatbread called nani baru in Bingrd and Balkha, and astuk in Shanidar,
Barzan and Hawraman.
Acorns, harvested in autumn and wintertime, were pounded with a hammer or a
stone to remove the hard coat (pericarp) of the fruits. Seeds were placed on the roof of
the house to dry or were dried by roasting them in a pan at low heat. They were then
boiled to eliminate the bitter taste and remove the seed coat. Finally, they were dried
under the sun or on an open fire. Leached and dried seeds were processed into flour using
dastar/juni (i.e., two large stones that grind the seeds by circulating one over the other) or
sndol/daskawan (i.e., mortar and pestle).
‘In years of hardship, like dry years or very cold years when people were suffering more
have you seen our acorns? …At the end of autumn, after the first rain—if it doesn’t rain
—
their own…They would bring them home, roast them, take off the shells and store
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Figure 6. Bakhtiari shepherds in their winter pastures near the city of Masjed-Soleiman, Khuzes
Figure 6. Bakhtiari shepherds in their winter pastures near the city of Masjed-Soleiman, Khuzestan
province, Iran (photo: Datis Mohammadi).
–
Different variations of acorn bread recipes were documented during fieldwork. Overall, our informants, except for a 76-year-old man living in Hawraman, claimed to mix acorn
flour with barley or wheat flour to ease the preparation of the dough (to make it more
elastic), as well as to improve its taste and texture (to reduce the bitterness of the acorn
flour). For the same reason, informants added other ingredients to the dough, such as salt,
yeast, honey or dried mulberries. The dough was prepared by mixing water, acorn flour
and other ingredients. The resulting mixture was divided into dough balls (gunk), flattened
by hand or with a wooden roller and cooked in a tandoor/tandwr oven (i.e., a traditional
oven made of clay) [85]. Animal fat (kara) was spread on the surface of the bread before
cooking. The final product was smaller in size and thicker than traditional flatbread (nan)
and has a slightly bitter taste. In Bingrd, acorn bread was traditionally eaten with dairy
products, such as a drink called dow and/or mastaw (a mixture of yoghurt and water), and
vegetables, such as tomatoes, young onions and parsley.
Our informants recalled the use of acorn flour during World War I, a time when people
could not prepare bread with wheat. Community elders also said that, in the village of
Shanidar, acorn seeds (eaten as a snack) and acorn bread were important foods between
1920 and 1945, especially for poorer community members. Starvation was the main reason
why people ate acorns and used acorn flour. Nowadays, as stated by our informants, it
is very rare for people to make this kind of bread, as wheat flour is much more readily
available and distributed regularly by the government. While acorn bread is no longer
part of the present dietary regimen of Kurdish people, its preparation is still remembered
by a portion of the elders of rural villages, and it is still occasionally made during special
occasions and celebrations.
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5. Discussion
5.1. Acorn Bread in the Mediterranean and the Middle East: A Comparative Analysis
Table 3 summarises the main results of this study, highlighting the main similarities
and differences in the preparation of acorn bread and acorn-basedproducts in the two
cultural and geographical macro-regions of the Mediterranean basin, Central Asia and the
Middle East.
Table 3. Comparison of acorn-based ingredients and preparation processes of acorn-based products
documented in the Mediterranean basin, Central Asia and the Middle East.
Mediterranean a
Central Asia and
Middle East b
Product category
Bread
Flatbread
Other
AL/CA/SY
SA
AF/IRN/IRQ
-
Taxon
Bitter varieties
Sweet varieties
AL
SA/CA/SY
AF
AF/IRN/IRQ
Ingredients
Acorn flour
Acorn flour and cereals/legumes
Acorn, clay and ash
SY
AL/CA
SA
AF/IRN
IRQ
-
Drying and cleaning/shelling
Boiling and drying
Roasting
Sun-drying
AL
SA/CA/SY
SA/CA
IRQ
AF/IRN/IRQ
IRN/IRQ
Leaching techniques
Boiling
Boiling and drying
Roasting
Pounding and washing
SA
AL/CA/SY
CA
-
AF/IRQ
AF/IRN
Breadmaking (cooking)
Boiling
Metal griddle/Pan
Vertical oven
Wooden oven
SA
AL/CA/SY
AF/IRN
IRQ
a
AL (Algeria), CA (Calabria), SA (Sardinia), SY (Syria).
b
AF (Afghanistan), IRN (Iran) and IRQ (Iraq).
In the following sections, a comparative analysis regarding the ingredients and preparation of these products, as well as the dynamics underpinning the conservation or erosion
of the traditional gastronomic knowledge associated with these practices, is presented.
5.1.1. Ingredients, Preparation Techniques and Consumption Practices
Overall, our informants showed a preference for the use of sweet varieties of acorns
for the preparation of acorn bread and acorn-based baked goods. In particular, as observed
in Italy, Syria, Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq, whenever available, study participants preferred
sweet varieties (i.e., those fruits with a lower tannin content) over bitter ones. According
to our informants, the sweet varieties in the Mediterranean were Quercus ilex subsp. ilex.,
Quercus suber, and Quercus pubescens subsp. pubescens, while, in Central Asia and the Middle
East, study participants mentioned Quercus dentata, Quercus brantii, Quercus infectoria,
Quercus libani and Quercus aegilops as the most commonly used species for the preparation
of acorn flour and acorn bread. While the preference for sweet varieties of acorns in
the Mediterranean region had already been reported in historical sources [41] and in
previous studies [28,57,64], our study outlined a similar situation in Central Asia and
the Middle East.
The study showed a great distinction in acorn-based bread in the two macro-regions,
especially in terms of ingredients, production of flour and physical characteristics of the
cooked products. In Mediterranean regions, acorn seeds were traditionally processed into
flour and used for breadmaking in its pure form, as in Syria, or, as in Algeria and southern
Italy, mixed with gluten-containing cereal flour to improve the rheological properties of
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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dough or with legume flours. In Central Asia and the Middle East, acorn flour was used for
the preparation of flatbread, usually by mixing it with cereal flour and sometimes by adding
other ingredients to mitigate the bitter taste and astringency of the acorn seeds. These
undesired sensory characteristics are due to tannins, water-soluble antinutritional factors
able to form chemical complexes principally with proteins (limiting their digestibility) but
also with polysaccharides [86,87]. The binding of salivary proline-rich proteins by tannins
causes their precipitation and results in astringency [88].
In both macro-regions, to reduce tannin concentration, acorn seeds, either whole or
in the form of a coarse meal, were subjected to a leaching process. Depending on the area
and the acorn varieties used, this process (the number of steps and duration of which
seems to be linked to the concentration of bitter compounds in the fruits) involved roasting
(Italy–Calabria), boiling (Algeria, Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria), or soaking the acorns in cold
water (Iran), and subsequently drying the seeds. Although in less detail, similar practices
have been documented in previous studies on the alimentary use of acorns by Younker [27]
and Potts [35] in Iran, as well as by Mason and Nesbit [33] in southeast Turkey. However,
to our knowledge, no detailed documentation on the debittering and leaching processes in
Algeria and Syria has been carried out thus far.
A different leaching technique has been recorded in the Ogliastra region, Sardinia.
As already documented by Usai [65] and Pinna [68], acorn seeds were processed into a
dried porridge with unique techniques and additives, namely the use of iron-rich clay and
ash to reduce the bitterness of the seeds. Similar products and detoxification techniques
were documented in North America among the Pomo Indians of California [30] and other
Native American communities [7,69].
Regarding the cooking process, in the Mediterranean, loaves of bread were usually
baked in a wooden oven. In Central Asia and the Middle East, the dough was flattened and
cooked on a traditional baking griddle (saj), as in Afghanistan and Iran, or in a vertical oven
(tandoor), as in Iraqi Kurdistan. These cooking tools are used for the baking of unleavened
bread, which are a traditional element of the food heritage of rural communities inhabiting
these regions [85]. As observed in Iran, similar acorn-based products (kalg) and associated
processing and consumption practices (i.e., with dairy products such as yoghurt and curd),
which were documented in the second half of the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries
(see the work of Potts [35] on balanophagy in Iran), are still part of the local gastronomy
and diet.
While information and memories regarding the leaching of acorns and their processing
into flour are still rich and detailed, our informants described their preparation phases
(i.e., kneading techniques, quantities of ingredients, fermentation conditions and cooking
times) in scant detail (or not at all). In this regard, fermentation was particularly neglected
and was nearly not reported by informants from the investigated areas; however, it is
possible they did not describe the details of this processing phase because they were not
personally knowledgeable in the preparation of acorn bread. Fermentation is a kind of
‘hidden’ process that may remain less evident and is linked to empirical experience, which
was lacking in many of the informants.
The erosion of the traditional knowledge associated with the preparation of acornbased products was more evident in the Mediterranean countries since, as already observed
elsewhere [28,68], these foods are sporadically used and marginalised in the local diets. At
least until the first half of the twentieth century, acorn-based products were, in both macroregions, an integral element of the food basket of pastoral and agro-pastoral communities
in times of scarcity, especially among poorer people who had difficulty accessing cereals.
Acorns in the form of bread replaced cereal-based bread (wheat bread above all), and acorn
bread was consumed with food products linked to pastoral foodscapes, especially dairy
products, meat-based dishes (e.g., sheep and goat meat and offal) and wild vegetables.
Although the gastronomic use of acorns has almost completely disappeared in Mediterranean countries, our study documented evidence of the modern continuation of this
practice in several of the surveyed countries in the Middle East and Central Asia, especially
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in Iran and Afghanistan. Overall, in terms of processing, consumption and reasons for use,
our research showed clear interregional parallels, while a degree of overall continuity may
be observed with historical and archaeological practices in these areas.
5.1.2. Alimentary Role and Associated Values
Although informants in almost all of the surveyed areas acknowledged the past role
of acorn-based bread as a safety net during periods of starvation, they remarked on its
unpleasant taste, perceived scarce nutritional value and long and difficult preparation, as
well as the association of this product with times of poverty. As recalled by an informant in
the Afghan province of Ghor, this product did not have ‘the best taste’, but when no other
food was available, ‘it tasted as good as wheat or cornbread.’ Another informant in Afghanistan
remembered his grandfather saying that, in times of famine, he needed to grind acorns into
flour, thus showing the poor gastronomic consideration of this product. In Syria, acorn
bread was regarded as ‘not of high nutritional value’ but was also recognised as crucial in
‘keeping people alive during wartime.’ Moreover, in the Iraqi village of Balkha, starvation was
identified as the main reason for the preparation and consumption of acorn bread.
Our findings, therefore, support the hypothesis that acorn bread, at least during
the last two centuries, has mostly been used as a famine food. However, the role and
value attributed to acorns vary according to the geographical conditions and socioeconomic
characteristics of the surveyed regions. In this regard, the perception of the alimentary value
of acorns was higher among communities that based their livelihoods on the exploitation
of pastoral systems in the Middle East and Central Asia [27,89] and Mediterranean agrosilvopastoral systems [1,90], i.e., where cereal cultivation was difficult and, in those areas,
where oak forests predominated over other tree species.
The relevance of acorns and acorn bread (lande) in Ogliastra (Sardinia, Italy) was,
for instance, strongly connected to the role that oak trees have played in the traditional
agro-silvopastoral livelihoods of local herders (e.g., as a source of wood and fodder for pigs
and sheep). This is different from other Italian regions, where chestnut played a prominent
role in the agro-silvopastoral systems and foodscape. The limited presence of chestnut trees
and, more generally, the scarcity of food resources in the Ogliastra area could have had a
central role in the development of the traditional ecological and gastronomic knowledge
linked to the management and use of oak trees and acorns. The importance of oak trees is
also illustrated by the regulations regarding the management of ghiandatico (use of the acorn
forest), that is, still part of the usi civici (civic uses) in different villages of Alta Ogliastra.
Conversely, the predominance of chestnut forests in Calabria (southern Italy), alongside the
chestnut’s greater palatability, the ease of processing its fruits and the greater availability of
cereals might have favoured the use of acorns in the local diet andgastronomy.
A similar trend may be observed in other surveyed areas (most notably in Syria, Iran,
Iraq and Afghanistan). The ecological abundance of oak trees, as well as the crucial cultural
values attributed to them (i.e., the collection of ‘Kurdish manna’ from unripe acorns in June
or the use of acorns in traditional medicine [91]), could have fostered its consumption and
utilisation as emergency food during times of scarcity or, as stated by Rosenberg [12] and
Potts [35], as a staple food in those areas where the cultivation of cereals was extremely
difficult because of poor water availability, geomorphological features of the territory and
other similar factors. Especially in Kurdistan, the key role of acorns in the local culture
may have positively shaped the perceived values and narratives related to this product; we
documented that one study participant in the village of Yasuj referred to the acorn as the
‘holy fruit’.
5.1.3. Main Drivers behind the Continuation/Abandonment of Acorn Bread Preparation
and Consumption
As also recorded elsewhere [27,28,57], this study confirmed that the consumption of
acorn bread was mostly restricted to times of famine and scarcity. Both in the Mediterranean
and the Middle East, an increase in the consumption of acorn-based products was observed
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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during times of war (e.g., during the fascist regime in Italy, the Algerian war, World War I
and World War II in Iran and Iraq, as well as during seferberlik in Syria) as a consequence of
disruptions in the production and distribution of cereals.
Despite vivid remembrance of the preparation of acorn flour and bread, the evidence
gathered during fieldwork showed that, in the last five decades, especially in the Mediterranean basin, these products have been almost entirely abandoned. Our study thus showed
a similarity in the reasons behind the erosion of this practice throughout the two macroregions. In almost all of the areas investigated, the use of acorns and acorn flour has
been progressively decreasing due to an increase in the availability and affordability of
wheat and other grains, improved socioeconomic conditions and lifestyle transformations.
Moreover, acorn bread is no longer produced due to the difficulty of processing acorn seeds
(both because it is a time-consuming activity and due to the loss of knowledge regarding
the processing of acorn seeds), as well as its poor palatability.
The interviewees claimed to have prepared and eaten this bread up through the first
half of the twentieth century. Except for Iran and Afghanistan, where acorn bread was used
as a staple during the 1996–2001 droughts, none of them had prepared acorn bread in the
last 50–60 years apart from demonstrations and occasional celebrations (Afghanistan, Iran
and Sardinia) or medicinal uses, as in Afghanistan and Iranian Kurdistan.
5.2. Beyond Acorn Bread: From Abandonment to Evolution
Interest in acorns as a food has gained considerable momentum in recent years. Researchers have carried out studies on the nutritional and phytochemical profile of acorns
and their related health effects, thus arousing strong interest in exploring new applications in various fields. The high potential of acorns for use in human nutrition has been
confirmed by the proposed use of acorns in conventional and gluten-free biscuits [37,92],
conventional and gluten-free bread [93–97], cakes [98], noodles [99], coffee substitutes [100]
and oil [23,101], not to mention their possible biotechnological use in pharmaceutics and
biomaterials [102–104]. The production of bread, in particular, has been revived by using
acorn flour mixed with other flours and fermenting with specific strains of lactic acid
bacteria (LAB) to decrease the phytic acid content and increase the number of phenolic
compounds (from tannins), which in turn, enhances antioxidant activity [95,96]. Acorns
can also represent the raw material for the production of food ingredients to be used in
nutraceuticals, food supplements and functional foods [105]. In this regard, the extraction
of bioactive compounds such as phytosterols, tocopherols, carotenoids and phenolics [106],
as well as the recovery of proteins [107] and starch [108], have been proposed.
Although their composition varies from species to species, acorns are rich in nutrients,
such as carbohydrates and fats (mainly unsaturated), with moderate amounts of proteins
and high levels of calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, vitamins A and
E [29,36,109,110], all of which contribute to good nutritional status. In addition, the number
of consumers who are reducing their intake of animal-based foods is increasing globally,
resulting in a growing market for plant-based products, and acorn-derived foods fit well
with this trend. Moreover, a recent study has shown the economic feasibility of creating an
acorn supply chain for food production [111].
Traditionally acorns were an emergency or ‘bailout’ crop for when others failed or
were unavailable, yet today, acorns may be able to help us face new challenges. They can,
for instance, play a role in the diversification of food sources and add an additional element
of climatic resilience, helping to ensure food security [112]. The renewed use of acorns
could also contribute to the maintenance of rural and marginal areas exposed to the risk
of degradation deriving from anthropic activities. Therefore, the reintroduction of this
underexploited but highly nutritious crop into the food system by adequately innovating
acorn-derived foods through the implementation of modern food technologies and going
beyond the preparation of acorn bread could meet the demand of modern consumers for
healthier foods and could be a response to future food security concerns at the same time.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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5.3. Acorns as a Potential Resource to Foster Food Security, Rural Development and Innovation
Our study showed that acorn bread appears to be a distinctive element of local food
heritage in many areas in the Mediterranean, Near East and Central Asia, but also one that
is on the verge of extinction. In the face of this situation, the documentation of traditional
gastronomic knowledge related to acorn and acorn-based products could represent a
valuable resource for the future of rural and marginal regions for different and often
interconnected reasons.
First, taking into account the nutritional value of acorn seeds [29,36], the findings of
the present study may represent a valuable source of baseline data for the implementation
of context-based interventions aimed at promoting the alimentary use of acorns and, in
doing so, reinforcing the food security of rural communities in the studied areas. Moreover,
considering the role that acorn-based products had during times of famine and food
shortages, the recovery of knowledge related to the management and uses of Quercus
wood and acorn-based products could positively impact the resilience capacity of local
communities in the future. In this regard, keeping alive and reinforcing the memory of
acorn processing could possibly have great value in the context of climate change and
nutritional intolerances, in which alternatives to cereals are increasingly needed.
Secondly, acorn bread, alongside other culinary uses of acorns such as we observed in
historical sources, may represent a new source of inspiration and an item to be included in
new menus or dishes. Furthermore, acknowledging the emerging trends and the numerous
and varied potential applications of acorns in the food sector [23,37,93–101], the findings of
this study may represent a valuable resource for the development of innovative products,
appreciated by modern consumers unfamiliar with the rural lifestyle and the acorn’s
past role as a famine food, but who are increasingly aware of the richness in macro- and
micronutrients of these fruits.
Thirdly, in the context of intensifying food tourism and growing demand for local
speciality foods and cuisines [113], acorn bread shows potential in terms of local characterisation, adding a new dimension to its use by communities that maintain this food
tradition and heritage. In this respect, in the case of Ogliastra, this process seems to be
more advanced, and the product appears to be an integral part of the narrative of the
area (Bondioli, personal observation). Even more than the product itself, the complex and
labour-intensive process that the transformation of acorns requires can be seen as a source
of inspiration for experiential activities. Thus, as already stated, the valorisation of acorns
and acorn foodscapes could represent a potentially crucial resource for the re-activation of
the local economies of rural and marginal areas [111,114].
6. Conclusions
This study contributes to the scarce literature on traditional gastronomic knowledge
associated with the production of acorn-based bread. By comparing the ethnographic
data from select countries, our analysis highlighted, in particular, distinct trajectories
in the development of acorn-based bread in the Mediterranean basin, Central Asia and
the Middle East. In so doing, it highlighted some differences in terms of ingredients,
processing techniques and baking methods. In Central Asia and the Middle East, acorn
seeds, processed through debittering and leaching techniques, were used in the form of
flour for the production of flatbreads that were cooked on a baking griddle and in a vertical
oven. In the Mediterranean (except for Sardinia), they were roasted, dried and ground
into flour, usually mixed with cereal flour and baked in a dome-shaped oven. Despite
these differences, acorn bread appears to be primarily an emergency food resource used by
pastoral and agro-pastoral communities when facing limited access to cereals. The complex
processing and treatment that acorn seeds require for debittering prior to breadmaking
particularly explains the nature of this product as an emergency bread substitute. Its status
was confirmed by the progressive marginalisation of this product from the everyday diet
as a result of the economic and social transformations that have occurred over the past
few decades.
Foods 2022, 11, 3898
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Our study acknowledges the cultural importance of acorn fruits and acorn-based
products, as well as their potentially crucial applications as an alternative solution for the
future of rural economies. Our results suggest that the recovery of acorn-based products
and associated traditional knowledge may foster the sustainable development of rural and
marginal regions in the Mediterranean, Central Asia and the Middle East. This could help
to reinforce the resilience of local communities and thus increase food security. Furthermore,
reassessing acorns as a foodstuff may aid in developing innovative products in line with
emerging trends in the food sector, which is looking for new non-cereal-based bakery
products and other novel culinary applications.
Despite the fragmentary nature of the ethnographic resources used, this study revealed
the wide geographical area in which acorn-based bread items were made and the different
processing methods used. Future research, potentially based on a more standardised
form of data collection, may add to the description and assessment of the practices and
knowledge underlying the preparation of these products. Furthermore, more attention
could be paid to the variation and diversity in the use of the fruits of different Quercus
species (e.g., perennial versus deciduous trees) for the preparation of acorn-based products.
At the same time, further research should be conducted to enrich our understanding of
acorn consumption as a gastronomic phenomenon and the cultural values attached to it,
as well as to explore ad-hoc strategies to support the promotion of these products. Lastly,
future research may involve the exploration of oak genetic variability to identify sweeter
varieties and easier detoxification techniques, as well as the exploration of fermentation
practices using selected tannin-tolerant starters that could make the use of acorns more
popular, thereby combining old traditions and new scientific knowledge.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.P. (Andrea Pieroni) and D.M.Z.; Methodology, A.P.
(Andrea Pieroni) and D.M.Z.; Investigation, C.B., C.M.M., N.S., C.K., M.D.M., F.H.S.H., T.A.F., K.D.I.,
H.M.A., S.H.H., A.F., A.K.M., K.D.I., H.I.M.A., D.M. and F.H. (Historical and archaeobotanical
background); Writing—original draft, D.M.Z.; Writing—review and editing, A.P. (Andrea Pieroni),
C.M.M., M.F.F., F.H., A.P. (Antonella Pasqualone) and D.M.Z.; Visualization, M.F.F. and D.M.Z.;
Supervision, A.P. (Andrea Pieroni); Project administration, A.P. (Andrea Pieroni) and D.M.Z.; Funding
Acquisition, A.P. (Andrea Pieroni), A.P. (Antonella Pasqualone) and M.F.F. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank all of the informants for their support and
invaluable contributions. All of the authors would also like to thank Annette M. Hansen for her input
on acorn consumption from Arabic historical sources.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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