Archaeol. Oceania 44 (2009) 160–168
Research Reports
Marine reservoir corrections for
Moreton Bay, Australia
SEAN ULM, FIONA PETCHEY
and ANNIE ROSS
Keywords: DR, marine reservoir effects, marine shell,
radiocarbon dating, Moreton Bay
Abstract
We present the first direct assessment of marine reservoir effects in
the Moreton Bay region using radiocarbon dating of known-age,
pre-AD 1950, shell samples from the east coast of Stradbroke
Island and archaeological shell/charcoal pairs from Peel Island in
Moreton Bay. The resulting DR value of 9±19 14C years for the
open ocean conforms to regional values established for northeast
Australia of 12±10 14C years. Negative DR values of –65±61 14C
years and –216±94 14C years for southern Moreton Bay highlight
the potential for larger offsets over the last ~900 years. These may
be linked to changing terrestrial inputs and local circulation
patterns.
Shells and other organisms that have grown in marine
environments exhibit older apparent radiocarbon ages
caused by the uptake of carbon which has already undergone
radioactive decay through long residence times in the deep
ocean. On average, the ocean surface (<200 m) has an
apparent 14C age around 400 years older than the atmosphere
(Gillespie and Polach 1979; Stuiver et al. 1986). However,
studies worldwide have shown that variation in 14C activity
in near-shore marine and estuarine environments depends
greatly on local and regional factors, such as hinterland
geology, tidal flushing and terrestrial water input (e.g. Dye
1994; Southon et al. 2002; Stuiver and Braziunas 1993).
Regional differences in marine reservoir effect are most
commonly determined through radiocarbon dating pre-AD
1950 known-age marine specimens (e.g. shell, coral,
otoliths) (e.g. Bowman and Harvey 1983; Gillespie and
Polach 1979; Southon et al. 2002) or dating shell and
charcoal paired samples from contemporaneous archaeological contexts (e.g. Gillespie and Polach 1979; Ulm 2002).
The marine reservoir effect is conventionally expressed as
DR, which is the difference between the conventional
radiocarbon age of a sample of known-age from a specific
locality and the equivalent age predicted by the global
modelled marine calibration curve (Hughen et al. 2004;
Stuiver et al. 1986).
Moreton Bay is a large, shallow, subtropical, semi-enclosed
triangular embayment formed between the large sand
islands of Stradbroke and Moreton Islands and the mainland
coastline of Australia (Figure 1). The bay extends c.90 km
north-south and c.30 km east-west and contains some 360
islands. Radiocarbon dating of marine samples from
Moreton Bay forms the basis of archaeological and
geomorphological chronologies used to model changes in
Aboriginal occupation (McNiven 2006; Ulm and Hall
1996), sea-level change (Flood 1981, 1984; Lovell 1975),
the development of fringing coral reef systems (Hekel et al.
1979: 17; Ward et al. 1977) and the establishment of
intertidal and subtidal shellfish communities (Flood 1981:
21; Hekel et al. 1979: 9). However, despite a heavy reliance
on radiocarbon marine shell ages to construct archaeological
and geomorphological chronologies, there has been no
systematic evaluation of the local applicability of the
generalised marine reservoir value for ocean surface waters
in the region.
Radiocarbon ages obtained on contemporaneous
terrestrial and marine samples are not directly comparable.
SU: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Unit,
University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld 4072,
s.ulm@uq.edu.au; FP: Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory,
University of Waikato, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand; AR:
School of Social Science, University of Queensland, Brisbane,
Qld 4072 and School of Natural and Rural Systems
Management, University of Queensland, Gatton, Qld 4343.
160
Figure 1. Moreton Bay, showing approximate position
of the shoreline at 6000 BP (after Hekel et al. 1979: 8;
Jones 1992: 31).
Marine and estuarine reservoir differences are a major
issue in the investigation and dating of coastal
archaeological and geomorphological deposits where these
factors can result in calibration errors of up to several
hundred years. For central Queensland a local open ocean
DR of 11±10 14C years has been established; but values for
adjacent estuaries diverge significantly with values of up to
DR= –155±55 14C years documented (see Ulm 2002 for
detailed discussion). In this case, the blanket application of
the regional DR value would produce calibrated ages
approximately 200 years too young. In the absence of local
studies of marine reservoir effects, researchers in the
Moreton Bay region have either reduced marine 14C ages by
a generic Australia-wide 450±35 14C years recommended by
Gillespie and Polach (1979) (e.g. Flood 1984) or adopted
the northeast coast DR value c.12±10 14C years recommended by Ulm (2006) and Reimer and Reimer (2008) (e.g.
McNiven 2006). For well-equilibrated open waters in the
Eastern Australian Current the northeast coast value is likely
to approximate local open ocean values, but studies elsewhere suggest that the waters within embayments like
Moreton Bay itself could reflect local input and
hydrological conditions (e.g. Little 1993).
As a preliminary assessment of the potential impact of
marine carbon variability in the Moreton Bay region, two
marine shells live-collected in 1902 and two shell/charcoal
paired samples from archaeological contexts were
radiocarbon dated to determine local marine and estuarine
reservoir values.
Previous DR research in the Moreton Bay region
Gillespie and Polach (1979: Table 5; see also Gillespie
1977: Table 4) reported two determinations on shells livecollected in 1973 from Macleay Island in southern Moreton
Bay as part of a broader study of the suitability of dating
marine shell (Figure 1, Table 1). Differences in the
radiocarbon activity (expressed as pMC) may be taken as a
general indication of variation in 14C activity of source
waters and therefore also local and regional oceanographic
processes (Hogg et al. 1998). The two determinations show
good agreement and are slightly lower than those reported
for contemporaneous open water coral cores off the central
Queensland coast from Lady Musgrave Island (111.95±0.21
pMC), Heron Island (112.45±0.21 pMC) and Abraham Reef
(111.13±0.21 pMC) (Druffel and Griffin 1995).
These data are difficult to interpret, however, because of
the absence of any regional modelling of post-AD 1950
alteration to the marine carbon reservoirs resulting from
nuclear detonations (Reimer et al. 2004). Nonetheless, they
suggest the possibility of a lag in registering a peak marine
bomb signature in Moreton Bay compared to the wellequilibrated waters of the western Pacific Ocean. The
selection of the whelk Pyrazus ebeninus, a grazing
gastropod, could be problematic because this shellfish may
have ingested carbon from a variety of sources, including
14C depleted peats (cf. Keith et al. 1964). Additionally,
whole shells were dated which, as Gillespie and Polach
(1979: 414) acknowledge, provides an average 14C signature
over the growth period of the shell. M. edulis can live up to
24 years (Powell and Cummins 1985: Table 1), while most
gastropods live <5 years (Frank 1969: 247). This ‘inbuilt
age’ may be critical in the rapidly changing post-bomb
environment.
Site
Lab. No.
Sample
Diet Historical pMC
Age
(F14C%)
(year AD)
SF 1973
105.9±0.8
Macleay SUA-218/1 Mytilidae:
Island
Mytilus edulis
planulatus
Macleay SUA-218/2 Batillariidae: H
Island
Pyrazus
ebeninus
1973
104.6±0.8
Table 1. Post-AD 1950 live-collected shell (Gillespie and
Polach 1979: Table 5). SF = suspension-feeder. H =
herbivore. pMC (Percent Modern Carbon) represents the
proportion of 14C atoms in the sample compared to that
present in AD 1950 (Stuiver and Polach 1977).
Materials and methods
Two known-age, pre-AD 1950 shell samples and two
archaeological shell/charcoal paired samples provide our
data. All shell samples are suspension-feeding bivalves
which are considered the most reliable sample material for
DR studies (Hogg et al. 1998; Forman and Polayak 1997).
Pre-AD 1950 known-age shells
Two valves of the pipi Donax (Plebidonax) deltoides
(Lamarck, 1818) from different individuals were dated
(Table 2). Kesteven (Walker 1983) collected these samples
from the ‘outer beach’ of North Stradbroke Island (Figure 1)
in September 1902 and they were presented to the
Australian Museum by Charles Hedley (Australian Museum
Reg. No. C13037). The collection date is equivalent to a
model marine age of 452±23 14C years. D. deltoides is a
short-lived (<4 years), shallow-burrowing, suspensionfeeding littoral sand dweller on high energy surf beaches
(Beesley et al. 1998: 346-8; King 1976, 1985; Lamprell and
Whitehead 1992; Murray-Jones 1999).
A 5 mm cross-section was removed perpendicular to the
edge of each shell across multiple increments of growth to
avoid intra-shell variations in 14C (Culleton et al. 2006) and
provide an average value for the shell margin (i.e. to
approximate the time of death as closely as possible).
Sample preparation for accelerator mass spectrometry
(AMS) determinations (including CO2 production) was
undertaken by the University of Waikato Radiocarbon
Dating Laboratory. AMS dating was conducted by the
Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory of the New Zealand Institute
of Geological and Nuclear Sciences (IGNS). d18O and d13C
values were measured on gas splits taken during preparation
161
of samples for AMS analysis at the University of Waikato
using a Europa Scientific Penta 20-20 isotope ratio mass
spectrometer. To calculate DR, the historical age of each
shell sample (i.e. year of death) was converted to an
equivalent global marine modelled age using the
MARINE04 calibration dataset (Hughen et al. 2004). DR
values were calculated by deducting the equivalent global
marine model age at the time of death of the shell sample
from the conventional radiocarbon age obtained (Stuiver et
al. 1986). DRs is the one-sigma estimate of uncertainty in
the conventional radiocarbon age of the shell sample.
Archaeological shell/charcoal pairs
Two shell/charcoal paired samples were dated from the
Lazaret Midden located on the north margin of Peel Island
in southern Moreton Bay (Figure 1, Table 3) (Ross 2001;
Ross and Coghill 2000; Ross and Duffy 2000). Excavation
of four 50 x 50 cm squares revealed a dense deposit of shell
and fish bone spanning the last c.1200 years. The pairs are
associated with hearth features, providing secure stratigraphic contexts for the samples. Charcoal samples were
paired with valves of the short-lived (<10 years) Trichomya
hirsutus, a suspension-feeding mussel which lives attached
to substrata in the lower intertidal to upper subtidal zone
(Beesley et al. 1998: 251; Creese et al. 1997: 230).
A key limitation of DR studies employing archaeological
marine/atmospheric samples is the assumption that the
paired samples are contemporaneous. The difficulty of
identifying such samples and the lack of independent age
confirmations has led to scepticism over marine reservoir
values calculated in this way (e.g. Gillespie and Polach
1979; Petchey and Addison 2005: 79). The Lazaret Midden
pairs presented here are from apparently secure stratigraphic
contexts without obvious post-depositional disturbance,
were collected from the same small excavation units and
conform to the age-depth sequence for the site (excluding
the disturbed surface layer, see Prangnell 2002: 35). In the
absence of other information the samples are assumed to
be coeval.
Whole shells were dated by conventional liquid
scintillation counting undertaken by the University of
Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory and Beta Analytic
Inc. DR values for pairs were calculated by converting the
charcoal 14C age to the equivalent global marine model age
using atmospheric ages interpolated from SHCal04
(McCormac et al. 2004) to the same calendar year as
MARINE04 (Hughen et al. 2004) (for procedure see Reimer
et al. (2002) and Ulm (2002)). The intersections of the oneSite
Museum
No.
Lab.
No.
Sample
Stradbroke
Island
Stradbroke
Island
C13037/3
Wk-17806
C13037/4
Wk-17807
Donacidae: SF
D. deltoides
Donacidae: SF
D. deltoides
sigma range of the conventional radiocarbon age of the
atmospheric (charcoal) sample with the MARINE04
calibration curve, interpolated between available data
points, provided maximum and minimum marine model
ages. The midpoint of these values was taken as the model
marine age. The estimated uncertainty in the marine model
age includes both the range of the maximum and minimum
marine model ages and an estimate of the average
uncertainty of the atmospheric calibration data in the onesigma range of the atmospheric age. DR was calculated by
deducting the marine model age of the atmospheric
determination from the conventional radiocarbon age of the
paired marine shell sample. DRs includes the estimated
uncertainty in the marine model age and the marine
radiocarbon age. For an alternative method using samplebased Bayesian inference that allows uncertainty in the
dated events to be incorporated see Petchey et al. (2005) and
Jones et al. (2007).
Results
Results are presented in Tables 2–4 and Figure 2 and
outlined below.
Pre-AD 1950 known-age shells
AMS dating of the two samples of D. deltoides collected in
1902 returned radiocarbon ages of 478±23 BP (Wk-17806)
and 443±23 BP (Wk-17807) which are equivalent to
DR=26±23 14C years and –9±23 14C years respectively
(Table 2). The two ages are indistinguishable with an errorweighted mean of 461±17 14C years, equivalent to DR=9±19
14C years (Table 4).
Archaeological shell/charcoal pairs
The two shell/charcoal pairs from archaeological contexts
returned DR values of –65±61 14C years and –216±94 14C
years which combine to yield an error-weighted mean with
additional variance of –110±94 14C years (Table 4). This
value cannot be distinguished from the local open ocean
value of DR = 9±19 14C years presented above owing to the
large uncertainty estimate. These results suggest that DR
activity in the last 500 years approximated modern values,
but with the possibility of a shift to more negative values in
the last millennium indicated by the –216±94 value around
850 years ago (Figure 2).
The pooling statistics (Table 4) are based on Mangerud et
al. (2006: 3241) where the Chi squared (x2) test is used to
Diet Historical
Age
(year AD)
September
1902
September
1902
d 13C
(‰)
d 18O
(‰)
CRA
(BP)
Equivalent
Marine
Model Age
∆R
(14C yr)
1.1±0.2
0.09±0.06
478±23
452±23
26±23
0.7±0.2
–0.64±0.06
443±23
452±23
–9±23
Table 2. ∆R values from known-age pre-AD 1950 shells from Stradbroke Island. SF = suspension-feeder.
162
∆R
(14C yr)
Site
Square/ Depth Lab. No.
XU
(mm)
Sample
Diet
d 13C
(‰)
d 18O
(‰)
CRA
(BP)
Equivalent
Marine
Model Age
Lazaret Midden
Lazaret Midden
B4/12
B4/12
300
300
Wk-8009
Wk-8013
–
SF
–27.2±0.2
0.7±0.2
–
–1.36±0.06
500±50
840±50
905±35
840±50
–65±61
Lazaret Midden
Lazaret Midden
A/10
A/10
270
270
Beta-98031
Beta-98032
charcoal
Mytilidae:
T. hirsutus
charcoal
Mytilidae:
T. hirsutus
–
SF
–25e±2e
1e±2e
–
–
970±60
1090±60
1306±72
1090±60
–216±94
Table 3. ∆R values from paired shell/charcoal samples from the Lazaret Midden, Peel Island. e=estimated value only.
Description
No.
∆R
Pooled
(14C years)
x2
Test
x 2/(n-1)
∆R with
External
Variance
(14C years)
Stradbroke Island known-age
Lazaret Midden archaeological
Known-age and archaeological
2
2
4
9±16
-110±51
-2±16
T'=1.16; x21:0.05 =3.84
T'=1.82; x21:0.05 =3.84
T'=7.82; x23:0.05 =7.82
1.16
1.82
2.61
9±19
-110±94
-2±103
Table 4. DR pooling statistics.
test the internal variability in a group of ∆R values. If
x2/(n-1) is >1 the group has additional variability beyond
measurement uncertainties, and the additional variance (sext)
and uncertainty are calculated and applied to the ∆R. The
additional variance (sext) is obtained by subtracting the 14C
measurement variance from the total population variance
and obtaining the square root; therefore sext=√(s2pop–s2meas).
Any uncertainty including additional variance is calculated
by √(E2∆Rpooled+s2ext). When x2/(n-1) is ≤1 the weighted mean
is used (see Mangerud et al. 2006: 3241-2 for details).
Discussion
The local open ocean value of ∆R = 9±19 14C years calculated for samples from Stradbroke Island conforms with
expectations derived from calculations of ∆R in open ocean
contexts to the north, confirming the general uniformity of
marine reservoir effects in areas dominated by the Eastern
Australian Current (Figure 2). The two negative ∆R values
from Peel Island within Moreton Bay of –65±61 14C years
and –216±94 14C years, while not significantly different
owing to the large error estimates, indicate enrichment of
the local marine reservoir relative to the modelled surface
ocean (Hughen et al. 2004). A range of factors that could
contribute to these values are discussed below.
Hydrology and circulation patterns
Moreton Bay is dominated by semi-diurnal tides entering
the bay through the northern opening and three smaller
⊳ Figure 2. Moreton Bay ∆R plotted against the knownage of live-collected samples and the median of the
calibrated age-range of terrestrial samples in
archaeological pairs. Vertical error bars represent the
estimated error in ∆R values and horizontal bars represent
the 1s spread in the calibrated age-ranges. The shaded
zone shows the regional ∆R value of 12±10 14C years
recommended for the northeast Australia (Ulm 2006).
Radiocarbon ages on terrestrial samples in archaeological
pairs were calibrated to calendar years using OxCal 4.0
(Bronk Ramsey 1995, 2001) and the SHCal04 dataset
(McCormac et al. 2004). The median calibrated age takes
account of the irregular probability distribution of
calibration results (Telford et al. 2004).
163
passages along the eastern margin at South Passage,
Jumpinpin and Southport Bar (Figure 1). Although tidal
flushing is generally high, with average residence time
estimated at 50 days, there is marked variability in tidal
exchange between the deep northern section and the poorly
flushed shallow southern section which exhibits residence
times in excess of the overall bay average (Gabric et al.
1998). High annual rainfall (1500 mm), a large catchment
(18,000 km2) and occasional cyclone events are responsible
for large periodic freshwater inputs, depressing salinity and
introducing large volumes of dissolved atmospheric CO2
(Gabric et al. 1998; Milford and Church 1977). Dissolved
inorganic carbon may also be introduced from groundwater
discharge, including through swampy peat environments,
along the margins of Stradbroke Island (Hadwen 2006).
We have attempted to differentiate between these sources
using d13C and d18O isotopic information where available.
d18O is a highly sensitive indicator of change in water
temperature and salinity, while the d13C value of marine
shells is thought to predominantly reflect changes in water
source and overall marine productivity (Culleton et al.
2006; Kennett et al. 1997). Marine carbonates have high
d13C values c.0±2‰ (Stuiver and Polach 1977: 358),
whereas freshwater values are typically depleted 5–10‰
compared to mean ocean water (Keith et al. 1964). Marine
shellfish which incorporate a significant proportion of
carbon derived from plant or soil sources should exhibit
d13C values lower than that expected of marine environments. However, the d13C value available for T. hirsutus
(Wk-8013) of 0.7±0.2 per mil is well within the range
expected for marine samples (Stuiver and Polach 1977:
358), suggesting little input from terrestrial carbon sources.
Conversely, the d18O value for Wk-8013 (–1.36 ‰) is more
depleted than the open ocean marine shells from Stradbroke
Island (0.09 and –0.64‰) as would be typical for less saline
waters (Culleton et al. 2006: 390; Dettman et al. 2004;
Keith et al. 1964). Although the data are too limited to draw
any firm conclusions, a similar discrepancy in d13C values
has been noted by Spiker (1980) where photosynthetic
activity enhances isotope exchange with atmospheric CO2
resulting in more positive d13C values than is typical for
estuarine waters (see also Petchey et al. 2008).
The combination of high freshwater inputs, well-aerated
shallow waters and poor tidal flushing extending residence
times might help explain the observed ∆R values. Forman
and Polyak (1997: 888) have argued that increased wind
turbulence may augment transfer of enriched 14CO2 from the
atmosphere reducing the reservoir effect (resulting in
negative ∆R values) by 100 to 200 years (see also Hogg et
al. 1998).
‘Old Wood’ effect
As the charcoal used in the archaeological pairs was not
identified, it is possible that the reported charcoal ages are
too old for the context. An ‘old wood effect’ can arise where
firewood comes from wood lying in the environment
(including driftwood) or where the older central sections of
large trees are burnt (McFadgen 1982; Schiffer 1986).
164
However, in the study area, wood generally decomposes
rapidly in exposed humid environments (see Swift et al.
1979: 317). Thus any ‘old wood effect’ is unlikely to be
greater than one to two decades, so it cannot account for the
apparent difference between ∆R values inside and outside
Moreton Bay.
Change in marine reservoir effects through time
Although only a small number of data points are available,
the ∆R values presented here suggest that ∆R approximated
current values during at least the last 500 years, with the
possibility of lower ∆R values ~800–900 years ago (Figure
2). Several studies have indicated temporal variation in ∆R
for the eastern Australian sea board. The Abraham Reef
coral record off the central Queensland coast shows shifts in
∆R over the last 350 years of up to 80 years (Druffel and
Griffin 1993, 1995, 1999) while the modelling of Franke et
al. (2008) suggests minimum shifts of 300 years over longer
timescales. These long-term effects are potentially
compounded in embayments where changes in residence
times and circulation patterns may change profoundly
through time in response to geomorphological processes. As
an example, marked changes in sedimentation and
circulation patterns are documented in a change in the
dominant coral species at Peel and Mud Islands from the
clean water Acropora species to the mud-resistant Favia
species since 3710±250 BP (Flood 1984: 130; Hekel et al.
1979; Jones et al. 1978: 13) (see Figure 1).
Conclusion
We recommend a ∆R value of 9±19 for open waters in
southeast Queensland, based on dating of known-age shell
samples from Stradbroke Island. Determination of ∆R
values inside Moreton Bay from archaeological
shell/charcoal pairs is complicated by spatial and temporal
variation in circulation and sedimentation patterns and
terrestrial inputs. As a first approximation, ∆R values inside
and outside Moreton Bay can be considered as similar for
the recent past, although there are indications that marine
reservoir conditions were not constant in Moreton Bay in
the past and are strongly related to changing hydrological
conditions. Further studies of paired shell/charcoal samples
from a range of contexts and time periods will clarify
patterns identified here.
Acknowledgements
Ian Loch (Australian Museum) provided the live-collected
specimens for this study. The Australian Institute of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies funded
excavation and radiocarbon dating of the Lazaret Midden.
Paula Reimer (Queen’s University of Belfast) patiently
provided advice and encouragement. We thank the
University of Waikato’s Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory
and International Global Change Institute for hosting Ulm
during the writing of this paper. For advice and support,
thanks to Alan Hogg, Daniel Rosendahl and Marion
Holdaway. For constructive comments on the manuscript
we thank Colin Murray-Wallace and Peter White.
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–––––––––––––––––––––
Jomon sherds from Aomori, Japan,
not Mele, Efate
WILLIAM R. DICKINSON
and MARY ELIZABETH SHUTLER
Keywords: Jomon, Mele Plain, paleoshorelines
Abstract
The presence of Japanese Jomon sherds from Aomori in an artefact
collection from Vanuatu has been attributed alternately to Jomon
voyaging or to adventitious mingling of artefacts of different
proveniences. The paleoshoreline history of Efate indicates that the
site where the Jomon sherds were purportedly collected was
submerged during Jomon time, making introduction of the sherds
into Vanuatu by Jomon voyagers implausible. The anomalous
sherds were probably taken directly from Japan to Paris, and
inadvertently introduced there into the Vanuatu collection.
In a previous paper (Dickinson et al.1999), we showed from
petrographic and microprobe evidence that cord-marked
potsherds reportedly discovered as Vanuatu surface artefacts
WRD: Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, PO
Box 210077, University of Arizona, Tucson AZ 85721, USA;
email: wrdickin@dakotacom.net; MES: College of Letters and
Sciences, National University, 11255 N. Torrey Pines Rd., La
Jolla CA 92037, USA